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over 400 league appearances for the club , scored over 100 league goals or hold a club record .
Note : all details from Byrne & Jay ( 2003 ) unless otherwise stated .
= = Club staff = =
The current manager of Bristol Rovers is Darrell Clarke . He joined Rovers in June 2013 as Assistant Manager and then took control of the first team nine months later on 29 March 2014 ( with 8 games of the season remaining ) when the previous manager John Ward changed roles to become ' Director of Football ' at the club .
= = = Managerial history = = =
As of March 2014 , 32 men have been appointed as a manager of Bristol Rovers Football Club , excluding caretaker managers . Bobby Gould , Gerry Francis and John Ward are the only men to have been given the job on a permanent basis twice , although Garry Thompson had a separate spell as caretaker manager before later being appointed permanently , and Phil Bater was caretaker manager on two separate occasions .
= = Youth Academy = =
The Bristol Rovers Academy currently operates at The City Academy Bristol and Sir Bernard Lovell School with matches being played at The Hallen Centre and Golden Hill . Current first @-@ team squad members Ryan Broom , Ollie Clarke , Ellis Harrison , Tyler Lyttle , Tom Lockyer , Jay Malpas and Kieran Preston all graduated from the Academy to earn a professional contract . Chris Lines also graduated from the academy before moving on to Sheffield Wednesday . Lines has recently returned to Rovers . Perhaps the most successful former member of the academy is Scott Sinclair , who was signed by Chelsea in 2005 for an initial fee of £ 200 @,@ 000 , with further payments to the club possible , depending on performance . He currently plays for Premier League club Aston Villa . Other recent Academy players to have appeared in the Premier League or Football League include Tyrone Mings , Eliot Richards , Sean Rigg and Alefe Santos .
= = Women 's team = =
The club had a successful women 's team , formed in 1998 as Bristol Rovers W.F.C. following a merger with Cable @-@ Tel L.F.C .. This merger came about as Bristol Rovers only had girls teams up to the under 16 age group level , so when girls reached the age of 16 they were forced to leave the club . The merger with Cable @-@ Tel meant that Bristol Rovers had a senior squad . The club 's name was changed to Bristol Academy W.F.C. in 2005 to reflect the increased investment from the Bristol Academy of Sport . Though sometimes still referred to by their former nickname , the Gas Girls , Bristol Academy W.F.C. are no longer affiliated to Bristol Rovers .
= = Honours = =
Bristol Rovers Football Club has won the following honours :
Southern Football League Division One : 1
1904 – 05
Football League Third Division South : 1
1952 – 53
Football League Third Division : 1
1989 – 90
Football League Two play @-@ offs : 1
2007
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 1
2015
Football League Trophy , Runners @-@ up : 2
1989 – 90 , 2006 – 07
Football League Third Division South Cup : 1
1934 – 35
Watney Cup : 1
1972
Gloucestershire Cup : 32
1888 – 89 , 1902 – 03 , 1904 – 05 , 1913 – 14 , 1924 – 25 , 1927 – 28 , 1934 – 35 , 1935 – 36 , 1937 – 38 , 1947 – 48 , 1948 – 49 , 1950 – 51 , 1953 – 54 , 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 , 1958 – 59 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1981 – 82 , 1982 – 83 , 1983 – 84 , 1984 – 85 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
= = Records = =
= = = Scorelines = = =
Biggest League Win : 7 – 0 ( v Brighton & Hove Albion , Division Three ( South ) , 29 November 1952 )
7 – 0 ( v Swansea City , Division Two , 2 October 1954 )
7 – 0 ( v Shrewsbury Town , Division Three , 21 March 1964 )
7 – 0 ( v Alfreton Town , Conference Premier , 25 April 2015 )
Biggest Cup Win :
Competition proper : 6 – 0 ( v Merthyr Tydfil , FA Cup Round 1 , 14 November 1987 )
Qualifying : 15 – 1 ( v Weymouth , FA Cup Third Qualifying Round , 17 November 1900 )
Biggest League Defeat : 0 – 12 ( v Luton Town , Division Three South , 13 April 1936 )
= = = Players = = =
Most League Appearances : 546 – Stuart Taylor , 1966 – 1980
Most Goals for club : 242 – Geoff Bradford , 1949 – 1964
Most Goals in a season : 33 – Geoff Bradford , 1952 – 53
Highest Transfer Fee Paid : £ 375 @,@ 000 – Andy Tillson from Queens Park Rangers , November 1992
Highest Transfer Fee Received : £ 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 – Barry Hayles to Fulham , November 1998
= = = Other = = =
Record Home Attendance : 38 @,@ 472 ( v Preston North End , FA Cup , 30 January 1960
= Natural History ( Pliny ) =
The Natural History ( Latin : Naturalis Historia ) is an early encyclopedia in Latin by Pliny the Elder , who died in 79 AD .
It is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day and purports to cover all ancient knowledge . The work 's subject area is thus not limited to what is today understood by natural history ; Pliny himself defines his scope as " the natural world , or life " .
The work is divided into 37 books , organised into ten volumes . These cover topics including astronomy , mathematics , geography , ethnography , anthropology , human physiology , zoology , botany , agriculture , horticulture , pharmacology , mining , mineralogy , sculpture , painting , and precious stones .
The Natural History became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter , its referencing of original authors , and its index . The work is dedicated to the emperor Titus , son of Pliny 's close friend , the emperor Vespasian , in the first year of Titus 's reign . It is the only work by Pliny to have survived and the last that he published . He began it in 77 , and had not made a final revision at the time of his death during the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius .
= = Overview = =
Pliny 's Natural History was written alongside other substantial works ( which have since been lost ) . Pliny ( 23 – 79 ) combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor Vespasian . Much of his writing was done at night ; daytime hours were spent working for the emperor , as he explains in the dedicatory preface addressed to Vespasian 's elder son , the future emperor Titus , with whom he had served in the army . As for the nocturnal hours spent writing , these were seen , not as a loss of sleep , but as an addition to life : for , as he states in the preface , Vita vigilia est , " to be alive is to be watchful " , in a military metaphor of a sentry keeping watch in the night . Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work , in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother :
Hail to thee , Nature , thou parent of all things ! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me , who , alone of all the citizens of Rome , have , in thy every department , thus made known thy praise .
The Natural History is encyclopaedic in scope , but its format is unlike a modern encyclopaedia . A modern reader will not find dedicated articles on the natural history of the chameleon , the medical uses of cabbage , or the effects of goat 's blood on diamond . The work does however have structure : Pliny uses Aristotle 's division of nature ( animal , vegetable , mineral ) to recreate the natural world in literary form . Rather than presenting compartmentalised , stand @-@ alone entries arranged alphabetically , Pliny 's ordered natural landscape is a coherent whole , offering the reader a guided tour : " a brief excursion under our direction among the whole of the works of nature ... " The work is unified but varied : " My subject is the world of nature ... or in other words , life , " he tells Titus .
Nature for Pliny was divine , a pantheistic concept inspired by the Stoic philosophy which underlies much of his thought . But the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race : " nature , that is life " is human life in a natural landscape . After an initial survey of cosmology and geography , Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race , " for whose sake great Nature appears to have created all other things " . This teleological view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the Natural History . The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves , but also with a view to their role in human life . Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants , with a focus on their medicinal value ; the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in architecture , sculpture , painting and jewellery . If Pliny 's premise seems remote from modern ecological theories , the result is a compendium of an entire culture .
Pliny 's work frequently reflects Rome 's imperial expansion which brought new and exciting things to the capital : exotic eastern spices , strange animals to be put on display or herded into the arena , even the alleged phoenix sent to the emperor Claudius in AD 47 – although , as Pliny admits , this was generally acknowledged to be a fake . Pliny repeated Aristotle 's maxim that Africa was always producing something new . Nature 's variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite : " When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible . " This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world . These monstrous races – the Cynocephali or Dog @-@ Heads , the Sciapodae , whose single foot could act as a sunshade , the mouthless Astomi , who lived on scents – were not strictly new . They had been mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC , but Pliny made them better known .
" As full of variety as nature itself " , stated Pliny 's nephew , Pliny the Younger , and this verdict largely explains the appeal of the Natural History since Pliny 's death in the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 . Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – " shaped like an umbrella pine " , according to his nephew – rising from the mountain .
The Natural History was one of the first ancient European texts to be printed , in Venice in 1469 . Philemon Holland 's English translation of 1605 has influenced literature ever since .
= = Table of contents = =
The Natural History consists of 37 books . Pliny devised his own table of contents . The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics .
= = Production = =
= = = Purpose = = =
Pliny 's purpose in writing the Natural History was to cover all learning and art so far as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from nature . He says that
My subject is a barren one – the world of nature , or in other words life ; and that subject in its least elevated department , and employing either rustic terms or foreign , nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology . Moreover , the path is not a beaten highway of authorship , nor one in which the mind is eager to range : there is not one of us who has made the same venture , nor yet one Roman who has tackled single @-@ handed all departments of the subject .
= = = Working method = = =
His nephew , Pliny the Younger , described the method that Pliny used to write the Natural History :
Does it surprise you that a busy man found time to finish so many volumes , many of which deal with such minute details ? ... He used to begin to study at night on the Festival of Vulcan , not for luck but from his love of study , long before dawn ; in winter he would commence at the seventh hour ... He could sleep at call , and it would come upon him and leave him in the middle of his work . Before daybreak he would go to Vespasian – for he too was a night @-@ worker – and then set about his official duties . On his return home he would again give to study any time that he had free . Often in summer after taking a meal , which with him , as in the old days , was always a simple and light one , he would lie in the sun if he had any time to spare , and a book would be read aloud , from which he would take notes and extracts .
Pliny the Younger told the following anecdote illustrating his uncle 's enthusiasm for study :
After dinner a book would be read aloud , and he would take notes in a cursory way . I remember that one of his friends , when the reader pronounced a word wrongly , checked him and made him read it again , and my uncle said to him , " Did you not catch the meaning ? " When his friend said " yes , " he remarked , " Why then did you make him turn back ? We have lost more than ten lines through your interruption . " So jealous was he of every moment lost .
= = = Style = = =
Pliny 's writing style emulates that of Seneca . It aims less at clarity and vividness than at epigrammatic point . It contains many antitheses , questions , exclamations , tropes , metaphors , and other mannerisms of the Silver Age . His sentence structure is often loose and straggling . There is heavy use of the ablative absolute , and ablative phrases are often appended in a kind of vague " apposition " to express the author 's own opinion of an immediately previous statement , e.g. ,
dixit ( Apelles ) ... uno se praestare , quod manum de tabula sciret tollere , memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam .
This might be translated " In one thing Apelles stood out , namely , knowing when he had put enough work into a painting . A salutary warning : too much effort can be counterproductive . " The whole of the second sentence represents the ablative phrase starting with " memorabili praecepto " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = First publication = = =
Pliny wrote the first ten books in AD 77 , and was engaged on revising the rest during the two remaining years of his life . The work was probably published with little revision by the author 's nephew Pliny the Younger , who , when telling the story of a tame dolphin and describing the floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake thirty years later , has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in his uncle 's work . He describes the Naturalis Historia as a Naturae historia and characterises it as a " work that is learned and full of matter , and as varied as nature herself . "
The absence of the author 's final revision may explain many errors , including why the text is as John Healy writes " disjointed , discontinuous and not in a logical order " ; and as early as 1350 , Petrarch complained about the corrupt state of the text , referring to copying errors made between the ninth and eleventh centuries .
= = = Manuscripts = = =
About the middle of the 3rd century , an abstract of the geographical portions of Pliny 's work was produced by Solinus . Early in the 8th century , Bede , who admired Pliny 's work , had access to a partial manuscript which he used in his " De Rerum Natura " , especially the sections on meteorology and gems . However , Bede updated and corrected Pliny on the tides .
There are about 200 extant manuscripts , but the best of the more ancient manuscripts , that at Bamberg State Library , contains only books XXXII – XXXVII . In 1141 Robert of Cricklade wrote the Defloratio Historiae Naturalis Plinii Secundi consisting of nine books of selections taken from an ancient manuscript .
= = = Printed copies = = =
The work was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed , at Venice in 1469 by Johann and Wendelin of Speyer , but J.F. Healy described the translation as " distinctly imperfect " . A copy printed in 1472 by Nicolas Jenson of Venice is held in the library at Wells Cathedral .
= = = Translations = = =
Philemon Holland made an influential translation of much of the work into English in 1601 . John Bostock and H. T. Riley made a complete translation in 1855 .
= = Topics = =
The Natural History is generally divided into the organic plants and animals and the inorganic matter , although there are frequent digressions in each section . The encyclopedia also notes the uses made of all of these by the Romans . Its description of metals and minerals is valued for its detail in the history of science , being the most extensive compilation still available from the ancient world .
Book I serves as Pliny 's preface , explaining his approach and providing a table of contents .
= = = Astronomy = = =
The first topic covered is Astronomy , in Book II . Pliny starts with the known universe , roundly criticising attempts at cosmology as madness , including the view that there are countless other worlds than the Earth . He doubts the four ( Aristotelian ) elements , fire , earth , air and water , but records the seven " planets " including the sun and moon . The earth is a sphere , suspended in the middle of space . He considers it a weakness to try to find the shape and form of God , or to suppose that such a being would care about human affairs . He mentions eclipses , but considers Hipparchus 's almanac grandiose for seeming to know how Nature works . He cites Posidonius 's estimate that the moon is 230 @,@ 000 miles away . He describes comets , noting that only Aristotle has recorded seeing more than one at once .
Book II continues with natural meteorological events lower in the sky , including the winds , weather , whirlwinds , lightning , and rainbows . He returns to astronomical facts such as the effect of longitude on time of sunrise and sunset , the variation of the sun 's elevation with latitude ( affecting timetelling by sundials ) , and the variation of day length with latitude .
= = = Geography = = =
In Books III to VI , Pliny moves to the Earth itself . In Book III he covers the geography of Spain and Italy ; Book IV covers Europe including Britain ; Book V looks at Africa and Asia , while Book VI looks eastwards to the Black Sea , India and the Far East .
= = = Anthropology = = =
Book VII discusses the human race , covering anthropology and ethnography , aspects of human physiology and assorted matters such as the greatness of Julius Caesar , outstanding people such as Hippocrates and Asclepiades , happiness and fortune .
= = = Zoology = = =
Zoology is discussed in Books VIII to XI . The encyclopedia mentions different sources of purple dye , particularly the murex snail , the highly prized source of Tyrian purple . It describes the elephant and hippopotamus in detail , as well as the value and origin of the pearl and the invention of fish farming and oyster farming . The keeping of aquariums was a popular pastime of the rich , and Pliny provides anecdotes of the problems of owners becoming too closely attached to their fish .
Pliny correctly identifies the origin of amber as the fossilised resin of pine trees . Evidence cited includes the fact that some samples exhibit encapsulated insects , a feature readily explained by the presence of a viscous resin . Pliny refers to the way in which it exerts a charge when rubbed , a property well known to Theophrastus . He devotes considerable space to bees , which he admires for their industry , organisation , and honey , discussing the significance of the queen bee and the use of smoke by beekeepers at the hive to collect honeycomb . He praises the song of the nightingale .
= = = Botany = = =
Botany is handled in Books XII to XVIII , with Theophrastus as one of Pliny 's sources . The manufacture of papyrus and the various grades of papyrus available to Romans are described . Different types of trees and the properties of their wood are explained in Books XII to XIII . The vine , viticulture and varieties of grape are discussed in Book XIV , while Book XV covers the olive tree in detail , followed by other trees including the apple and pear , fig , cherry , myrtle and laurel , among others .
Pliny gives special attention to spices , such as pepper , ginger , and cane sugar . He mentions different varieties of pepper , whose values are comparable with that of gold and silver , while sugar is noted only for its medicinal value .
He is critical of perfumes : " Perfumes are the most pointless of luxuries , for pearls and jewels are at least passed on to one 's heirs , and clothes last for a time , but perfumes lose their fragrance and perish as soon as they are used . " He gives a summary of their ingredients , such as attar of roses , which he says is the most widely used base . Other substances added include myrrh , cinnamon , and balsam gum .
= = = Drugs , medicine and magic = = =
A major section of the Natural History , Books XX to XXIX , discusses matters related to medicine , especially plants that yield useful drugs . Pliny lists over 900 drugs , compared to 600 in Dioscorides 's De Materia Medica , 550 in Theophrastus , and 650 in Galen . The poppy and opium are mentioned ; Pliny notes that opium induces sleep and can be fatal . Diseases and their treatment are covered in book XXVI .
Pliny addresses magic in Book XXX . He is critical of the Magi , attacking astrology , and suggesting that magic originated in medicine , creeping in by pretending to offer health . He names Zoroaster of Ancient Persia as the source of magical ideas . He states that Pythagoras , Empedocles , Democritus and Plato all travelled abroad to learn magic , remarking that it was surprising anyone accepted the doctrines they brought back , and that medicine ( of Hippocrates ) and magic ( of Democritus ) should have flourished simultaneously at the time of the Peloponnesian War .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The methods used to cultivate crops are described in Book XVIII . He praises Cato the Elder and his work De Agri Cultura , which he uses as a primary source . Pliny 's work includes discussion of all known cultivated crops and vegetables , as well as herbs and remedies derived from them . He describes machines used in cultivation and processing the crops . For example , he describes a simple mechanical reaper that cut the ears of wheat and barley without the straw and was pushed by oxen ( Book XVIII , chapter 72 ) . It is depicted on a bas @-@ relief found at Trier from the later Roman period . He also describes how grain is ground using a pestle , a hand @-@ mill , or a mill driven by water wheels , as found in Roman water mills across the Empire .
= = = Metallurgy = = =
Pliny extensively discusses metals starting with gold and silver ( Book XXXIII ) , and then the base metals copper , mercury , lead , tin and iron , as well as their many alloys such as electrum , bronze , pewter , and steel ( Book XXXIV ) .
He is critical of greed for gold , such as the absurdity of using the metal for coins in the early Republic . He gives examples of the way rulers proclaimed their prowess by exhibiting gold looted from their campaigns , such as that by Claudius after conquering Britain , and tells the stories of Midas and Croesus . He discusses why gold is unique in its malleability and ductility , far greater than any other metal . The examples given are its ability to be beaten into fine foil with just one ounce , producing 750 leaves four inches square . Fine gold wire can be woven into cloth , although imperial clothes usually combined it with natural fibres like wool . He once saw Agrippina the Younger , wife of Claudius , at a public show on the Fucine Lake involving a naval battle , wearing a military cloak made of gold . He rejects Herodotus 's claims of Indian gold obtained by ants or dug up by griffins in Scythia .
Silver , he writes , does not occur in native form and has to be mined , usually occurring with lead ores . Spain produced the most silver in his time , many of the mines having been started by Hannibal . One of the largest had galleries running up to two miles into the mountain , while men worked day and night draining the mine in shifts . Pliny is probably referring to the reverse overshot water @-@ wheels operated by treadmill and found in Roman mines . Britain , he says , is very rich in lead , which is found on the surface at many places , and thus very easy to extract ; production was so high that a law was passed attempting to restrict mining .
Fraud and forgery are described in detail ; in particular coin counterfeiting by mixing copper with silver , or even admixture with iron . Tests had been developed for counterfeit coins and proved very popular with the victims , mostly ordinary people . He deals with the liquid metal mercury , also found in silver mines . He records that it is toxic , and amalgamates with gold , so is used for refining and extracting that metal . He says mercury is used for gilding copper , while antimony is found in silver mines and is used as an eyebrow cosmetic .
The main ore of mercury is cinnabar , long used as a pigment by painters . He says that the colour is similar to scolecium , probably the kermes insect . The dust is very toxic , so workers handling the material wear face masks of bladder skin . Copper and bronze are , says Pliny , most famous for their use in statues including colossi , gigantic statues as tall as towers , the most famous being the Colossus of Rhodes . He personally saw the massive statue of Nero in Rome , which was removed after the emperor 's death . The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero 's death during Vespasian 's reign , to make it a statue of Sol . Hadrian moved it , with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants , to a position next to the Flavian Amphitheatre ( now called the Colosseum ) .
Pliny gives a special place to iron , distinguishing the hardness of steel from what is now called wrought iron , a softer grade . He is scathing about the use of iron in warfare .
= = = Mineralogy = = =
In the last two books of the work ( Books XXXVI and XXXVII ) , Pliny describes many different minerals and gemstones , building on works by Theophrastus and other authors . The topic concentrates on the most valuable gemstones , and he criticises the obsession with luxury products such as engraved gems and hardstone carvings . He provides a thorough discussion of the properties of fluorspar , noting that it is carved into vases and other decorative objects . The account of magnetism includes the myth of Magnes the shepherd .
Pliny moves into crystallography and mineralogy , describing the octahedral shape of the diamond and recording that diamond dust is used by gem engravers to cut and polish other gems , owing to its great hardness . He states that rock crystal is valuable for its transparency and hardness , and can be carved into vessels and implements . He relates the story of a woman who owned a ladle made of the mineral , paying the sum of 150 @,@ 000 sesterces for the item . Nero deliberately broke two crystal cups when he realised that he was about to be deposed , so denying their use to anyone else .
Pliny returns to the problem of fraud and the detection of false gems using several tests , including the scratch test , where counterfeit gems can be marked by a steel file , and genuine ones not . Perhaps it refers to glass imitations of jewellery gemstones . He refers to using one hard mineral to scratch another , presaging the Mohs hardness scale . Diamond sits at the top of the series because , Pliny says , it will scratch all other minerals .
= = = Art history = = =
Pliny 's chapters on Roman and Greek art are especially valuable because his work is virtually the only classical source of information on the subject .
In the history of art , the original Greek authorities are Duris of Samos , Xenocrates of Sicyon , and Antigonus of Carystus . The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris ( XXXIV : 61 ) ; the notices of the successive developments of art and the list of workers in bronze and painters to Xenocrates ; and a large amount of miscellaneous information to Antigonus . Both Xenocrates and Antigonus are named in connection with Parrhasius ( XXXV : 68 ) , while Antigonus is named in the indexes of XXXIII – XXXIV as a writer on the art of embossing metal , or working it in ornamental relief or intaglio .
Greek epigrams contribute their share in Pliny 's descriptions of pictures and statues . One of the minor authorities for books XXXIV – XXXV is Heliodorus of Athens , the author of a work on the monuments of Athens . In the indices to XXXIII – XXXVI , an important place is assigned to Pasiteles of Naples , the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of art ( XXXVI : 40 ) , probably incorporating the substance of the earlier Greek treatises ; but Pliny 's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by Kalkmann , who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of Apollodorus of Athens , as well as a current catalogue of artists . Pliny 's knowledge of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro , whom he often quotes ( e.g. XXXIV : 56 , XXXV : 173 , 156 , XXXVI : 17 , 39 , 41 ) .
For a number of items relating to works of art near the coast of Asia Minor and in the adjacent islands , Pliny was indebted to the general , statesman , orator and historian Gaius Licinius Mucianus , who died before 77 . Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian in the Temple of Peace and in his other galleries ( XXXIV : 84 ) , but much of his information about the position of such works in Rome is from books , not personal observation . The main merit of his account of ancient art , the only classical work of its kind , is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost textbooks of Xenocrates and on the biographies of Duris and Antigonus .
In several passages , he gives proof of independent observation ( XXXIV : 38 , 46 , 63 , XXXV : 17 , 20 , 116 seq . ) . He prefers the marble Laocoön and his Sons in the palace of Titus ( widely believed to be the statue that is now in the Vatican ) to all the pictures and bronzes in the world ( XXXVI : 37 ) . The statue is attributed by Pliny to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes : Agesander , Athenodoros ( possibly son of Agesander ) and Polydorus .
In the temple near the Flaminian Circus , Pliny admires the Ares and the Aphrodite of Scopas , " which would suffice to give renown to any other spot " . He adds :
At Rome indeed the works of art are legion ; besides , one effaces another from the memory and , however beautiful they may be , we are distracted by the overpowering claims of duty and business ; for to admire art we need leisure and profound stillness ( XXXVI : 26 – 72 ) .
= = = Mining = = =
Pliny provides lucid descriptions of Roman mining . He describes gold mining in detail , with large @-@ scale use of water to scour alluvial gold deposits . The description probably refers to mining in Northern Spain , especially at the large Las Médulas site . Pliny describes methods of underground mining , including the use of fire @-@ setting to attack the gold @-@ bearing rock and so extract the ore . In another part of his work , Pliny describes the use of undermining to gain access to the veins . Pliny was scathing about the search for precious metals and gemstones : " Gangadia or quartzite is considered the hardest of all things – except for the greed for gold , which is even more stubborn . "
Book XXXIV covers the base metals , their uses and their extraction . Copper mining is mentioned , using a variety of ores including copper pyrites and marcasite , some of the mining being underground , some on the surface . Iron mining is covered , followed by lead and tin .
= = Reception = =
The anonymous fourth @-@ century compilation Medicina Plinii contains more than 1 @,@ 100 pharmacological recipes , the vast majority of them from the Historia naturalis ; perhaps because Pliny 's name was attached to it , it enjoyed huge popularity in the Middle Ages .
Isidore of Seville 's Etymologiae ( The Etymologies , c . 600 – 625 ) quotes from Pliny 45 times in Book XII alone ; Books XII , XIII and XIV are all based largely on the Natural History .
Niccolò Leoniceno 's 1509 De Erroribus Plinii ( " On Pliny 's Errors " ) attacked Pliny for lacking a proper scientific method , unlike Theophrastus or Dioscorides , and for lacking knowledge of philosophy or medicine .
Sir Thomas Browne expressed scepticism about Pliny 's dependability in his 1646 Pseudodoxia Epidemica :
Now what is very strange , there is scarce a popular error passant in our days , which is not either directly expressed , or diductively contained in this Work ; which being in the hands of most men , hath proved a powerful occasion of their propagation . Wherein notwithstanding the credulity of the Reader is more condemnable then the curiosity of the Author : for commonly he nameth the Authors from whom he received those accounts , and writes but as he reads , as in his Preface to Vespasian he acknowledgeth .
Grundy Steiner of Northwestern University , in a 1955 judgement considered by Thomas R. Laehn to represent the collective opinion of Pliny 's critics , wrote of Pliny that " He was not an original , creative thinker , nor a pioneer of research to be compared either with Aristotle and Theophrastus or with any of the great moderns . He was , rather , the compiler of a secondary sourcebook . "
The Italian author Italo Calvino , in his 1991 book Why Read the Classics ? , wrote that while people often consult Pliny 's Natural History for facts and curiosities , he is an author who " deserves an extended read , for the measured movement of his prose , which is enlivened by his admiration for everything that exists and his respect for the infinite diversity of all phenomena " . Calvino notes that while Pliny is eclectic , he was not uncritical , though his evaluations of sources are inconsistent and unpredictable . Further , Calvino compares Pliny to Immanuel Kant , in that God is prevented by logic from conflicting with reason , even though ( in Calvino 's view ) Pliny makes a pantheistic identification of God as being immanent in nature . As for destiny , Calvino writes that
it is impossible to force that variable which is destiny into the natural history of man : this is the sense of the pages that Pliny devotes to the vicissitudes of fortune , to the unpredictability of the length of any life , to the pointlessness of astrology , to disease and death . "
The art historian Jacob Isager writes in the introduction to his analysis of Pliny 's chapters on art in the Natural History that his intention is " to show how Pliny in his encyclopedic work – which is the result of adaptations from many earlier writers and according to Pliny himself was intended as a reference work – nevertheless throughout expresses a basic attitude to Man and his relationship with Nature ; how he understands Man 's role as an inventor ( ' scientist and artist ' ) ; and finally his attitude to the use and abuse of Nature 's and Man 's creations , to progress and decay . " More specifically , Isager writes that " the guiding principle in Pliny 's treatment of Greek and Roman art is the function of art in society " , while Pliny " uses his art history to express opinions about the ideology of the state " .
Paula Findlen , writing in the Cambridge History of Science , asserts that " Natural history was an ancient form of scientific knowledge , most closely associated with the writings of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ... His loquacious and witty Historia naturalis offered an expansive definition of this subject . [ It ] broadly described all entities found in nature , or derived from nature , that could be seen in the Roman world and read about in its books : art , artifacts , and peoples as well as animals , plants , and minerals were included in his project . " Findlen contrasts Pliny 's approach with that of his intellectual predecessors Aristotle and Theophrastus , who sought general causes of natural phenomena , while Pliny was more interested in cataloguing natural wonders , and his contemporary Dioscorides explored nature for its uses in Roman medicine in his great work De Materia Medica .
In the view of Mary Beagon , writing in The Classical Tradition in 2010 , " the Historia naturalis has regained its status to a greater extent than at any time since the advent of Humanism . Work by those with scientific as well as philological expertise has resulted in improvements both to Pliny 's text and to his reputation as a scientist . The essential coherence of his enterprise has also been rediscovered , and his ambitious portrayal , in all its manifestations , of ' nature , that is , life ' .. is recognized as a unique cultural record of its time . "
= = = Text = = =
Latin
Complete Latin text at LacusCurtius
Complete Latin text with translation tools at Perseus Digital Library
version printed in Venice by Johannes de Spira before 18 September 1469 . Copy owned by the Earls of Pembroke , now held by Corning Museum of Glass .
English
First English translation , by Philemon Holland , 1601
Second English translation , by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley , 1855 ; complete , with index
The Natural History public domain audiobook at LibriVox
10 volume Harvard / Heinemann edition of 1949 – 1954 , translated by H. Rackham , W.H.S. Jones and D.E. Eichholz
= = = Secondary material = = =
Article on Pliny by Jona Lendering , with detailed table of contents of the Natural History
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica : Pliny the Elder
= HMS Foxhound ( H69 ) =
HMS Foxhound was one of nine F @-@ class destroyers built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . Although she was assigned to the Home Fleet , the ship was detached as part of the Mediterranean Fleet to enforce the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . Several weeks after the start of the Second World War in September 1939 , Foxhound helped to sink a German submarine and participated in the Second Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 . The ship was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . Foxhound escorted the aircraft carriers of Force H as they flew off aircraft for Malta and covered convoys resupplying and reinforcing the island until late 1941 . During this time the ship helped to sink another German submarine .
In December , she was briefly transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet where she escorted several convoys to Malta from the Eastern Mediterranean . Foxhound was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in early 1942 and was then assigned to convoy escort duties off South Africa and then in West Africa until mid @-@ 1943 when she was converted into an escort destroyer . When the conversion was completed in early 1944 , the ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed HMCS Qu 'Appelle . She was assigned escort duties in the Western Approaches for several months before the ship was transferred to the English Channel to protect convoys during the Normandy landings . Qu 'Appelle engaged German surface ships several times before she was sent to Iceland for more convoy escort work in October . The ship received a lengthy refit in Canada at the end of the year that was not completed until mid @-@ 1945 . Qu 'Appelle then ferried Canadian troops back to Canada for several months before she became a training ship . She was placed in reserve in mid @-@ 1946 and was sold for scrap at the end of 1947 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Foxhound barely exceeded her designed speed during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the Second World War began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
By October 1940 , Foxhound had her rear torpedo tube mount replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . While the ship was under repair in late 1941 , her existing director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge was replaced by a new director with a Type 285 gunnery radar mounted on its roof . These fed target data to the new Fuze @-@ Keeping Clock , an analogue fire @-@ control system that calculated the gunnery information for the guns . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder at the top of her foremast . Her short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge , a pair on the enlarged searchlight platform and , probably , another pair were added on the quarterdeck .
When she was converted into an escort destroyer in late 1943 , ' B ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and stowage was increased for a total of 70 depth charges which meant that ' Y ' gun and the 12 @-@ pounder AA gun had to be removed to compensate for the weight . A Type 271 target @-@ indication radar replaced the director . It is likely that the Vickers guns were replaced by the Oerlikons from the quarterdeck at this time .
= = Construction and career = =
Foxhound , the seventh ship of that name in the Royal Navy , was laid down by John Brown & Company at their Clydebank shipyard on 15 August 1933 . She was launched on 12 October 1934 and completed on 21 June 1935 . The ship cost 247 @,@ 234 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Foxhound was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , but often detached to the Mediterranean Fleet to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Between November 1936 and 13 February 1937 , the ship was based in Gibraltar except for a brief refit at Sheerness Dockyard in January . She patrolled the Spanish ports on the Bay of Biscay in May – June and August – October before returning home for a refit at Chatham Dockyard from 27 October to 30 December . Foxhound then returned to the Mediterranean to patrol the area between Gibraltar and Oran , French Algeria from January to March 1938 . On 22 September , the ship collided with the submarine Seahorse , damaging one of her propellers . She was repaired at Sheerness from 10 November to 12 December . Foxhound remained in home waters for the rest of 1938 – 39 . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II .
In September 1939 , Foxhound was assigned to the Home Fleet and based at Scapa Flow . In the first month of hostilities she was part of an anti @-@ submarine hunting group centred on the aircraft carrier Ark Royal . On 14 September , the carrier was unsuccessfully attacked by the German submarine U @-@ 39 . Foxhound , in company with her sisters Faulknor and Firedrake , counter @-@ attacked and sank U @-@ 39 north @-@ west of Ireland . In February 1940 , she was one of the escorts for Convoy TC 3 carrying troops from Canada to the UK . Later that month the ship rescued the survivors of the torpedoed freighter SS Orania on 11 February .
During the Second Battle of Narvik , Foxhound and the destroyers Icarus and Hero streamed their TSDS minesweeping gear in advance of the battleship Warspite and her escort as they steamed up the Vestfjord to engage the remaining German destroyers on 13 April . The ship and four other British destroyers pursued the remaining German ships into the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where the lack of ammunition had forced the German ships to retreat . During the battle , Foxhound rescued two officers and nine ratings from the destroyer Z12 Erich Giese . During May , she escorted troop convoys to Iceland as they occupied the island . In early June , the ship was escorting the battlecruiser Repulse and two cruisers as they searched for illusory German commerce raiders off Iceland ; they were recalled to Norwegian waters on 9 June after the Germans launched Operation Juno , an attack on the Allied convoys evacuating Norway , but the Germans had already returned to base by the time the ships arrived . Later , Foxhound escorted Ark Royal and the battlecruiser Hood , together with her sisters Faulknor and Fearless and the destroyer Escapade , from Scapa Flow to Gibraltar where they would form Force H.
= = = Force H , 1940 – 41 = = =
On the morning of 3 July , she ferried Captain Cedric Holland , the emissary of Admiral James Somerville , commander of Force H , to meet with Admiral Marcel @-@ Bruno Gensoul , commander of the Vichy French forces at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , Algeria . Holland was to deliver an ultimatum regarding the disposition of the French ships there to ensure that they could not fall into the hands of the Germans . Gensoul initially refused to meet with such a low @-@ ranking envoy , but later relented and negotiations were underway that afternoon to disarm the French ships in place when the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , ordered the talks terminated to forestall the impending arrival of French reinforcements . The British opened fire a half @-@ hour later , including Foxhound . A month later the ship escorted Force H during Operation Hurry , a mission to fly off fighter aircraft for Malta and conduct an airstrike on Cagliari on 2 August . Shortly afterwards , she escorted Hood back home and began a refit at Sheerness that lasted until October .
Foxhound then returned to Gibraltar and escorted the aircraft carriers Argus and Ark Royal during Operations Coat and White in November . In between sorties into the Mediterranean , the ship escorted convoys between Gibraltar and West Africa . In early January 1941 , she was involved in Operation Excess . On 31 January , Force H , including Foxhound , departed Gibraltar to carry out Operation Picket , an unsuccessful night torpedo attack by eight of Ark Royal 's Fairey Swordfish on the Tirso Dam in Sardinia . The British ships returned to Gibraltar on 4 February and began preparing for Operation Grog , a naval bombardment of Genoa , that was successfully carried out five days later . On 7 April , Foxhound was escorting Convoy WS 7 off the coast of Sierra Leone , West Africa , when she rescued three seamen . They
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to develop the game also expanded significantly . While developing the game 's world , the team broke it down into 10 to 11 hexes and zones . They are classified into three different types : low resolution zones , shadow zones , and mission zones , and they overlap each other so that they can keep all zones loaded at the same time . Sunset City had three different iterations . In the early stages , it was called Greenlight City , based on Burbank , California . This version of the city featured interior structures that could be explored by players , and existed when the game 's core concept revolved around " scavenge , craft , defend " . This city was replaced with " Razor City " when skateboarding , which later became oil slicks and trampolines , was introduced to the game . Razor City was " Neo @-@ Tokyo " -styled , but was later replaced by Sunset City which was more organized . While designing the game 's artificial intelligence , the team thought that the game 's enemies must force players to use the traversal system while simultaneously engaging in combat with them . Because of the game 's vertical design , the enemies were designed to adopt the game 's vertical map @-@ design . The team also developed a “ nav position tracker ” , which programmed these enemies to detect the location of players and find an ambush point .
The game is powered by an internal engine developed previously by Insomniac Games for its game Fuse . The engine of the game was reworked and optimized for the Xbox One . The game runs on 900p at 30 frame rate per second . The game originally ran at a higher definition of 1080p , but it was decided to fix it at 900p so that more actions and enemies can appear on @-@ screen .
= = = Audio = = =
Development of the game 's music was led by Boris Salchow , who had composed scores for Insomniac 's previous games Ratchet & Clank : A Crack In Time , Resistance 2 and Resistance 3 . He collaborated with composers from Microsoft Studios , and Pyramind music studio . The design team wanted the composers to implement eight different styles of music for eight different sections featured in the game . However , this idea was dropped as being confusing and overly @-@ chaotic . The team wanted to achieve a " high energy vibe " for this title and the resulting soundtrack features a lot of punk rock and electronic dance music . Fourteen different bands and artists were hired to perform the music often avoiding using musical instruments and writing lyrics for the game instead . The game 's soundtrack was also inspired by works from FIDLAR , DZ Deathrays and Ty Segall .
Composers tried to match beats @-@ per @-@ minute to the gameplay and traversal system . The game features a dynamic music system , in which in @-@ game actions are reflected by the music . When there is more on @-@ screen action , or when players perform kills , the music becomes more frantic and exciting to help players further immerse themselves in the game .
= = = Release = = =
Sunset Overdrive was among one of the first Xbox One exclusives revealed at Microsoft 's press conference at E3 2013 . The first gameplay details were revealed by gaming magazine Edge in May 2014 . A gameplay demo and a release date announcement happened at E3 2014 . Insomniac had worked solely for the PlayStation family for about twenty years , and the announcement of Sunset Overdrive being an Xbox exclusive led to speculation that the relationship between Sony and Insomniac had ended . Insomniac denied such rumors , saying the company would still be working with other publishers to produce titles and that petitions would not change Sunset Overdrive 's status as an Xbox exclusive . It was released on October 28 , 2014 .
In addition to the game 's standard edition , players can purchase the game 's Season Pass , which adds new in @-@ game items , locations , quests , and bosses . There is also a Day One Edition , which includes three different downloadable content items : " Nothin ' but the Hits " gun , the Hardcore Hammer , and a Fizzie costume . Players who pre @-@ ordered the game from Xbox Live Marketplace also got two additional weapons : the Accordes de la Muerte and the Hangover . A white Xbox One bundle was also released for the game . To promote the game , Insomniac organized a series of shows called the Sunset TV . They provided new information to players regarding the game prior to its release . Microsoft also launched a website called Sunset Overdrive : Walter 's Workshop , which is a browser game that allows players to use some of the weapons featured in the game with footage captured in real @-@ life .
A three @-@ hour free trial of the game was available for players to download for a limited time . Once it was launched the game was supported with downloadable content ( DLC ) . Insomniac released multiple packs which add new weapons to the game . A story @-@ based DLC , titled The Mystery of the Mooil Rig , was released on December 23 , 2014 . Another story DLC , Dawn of the Rise of the Fallen Machine , was released on April 1 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sunset Overdrive received positive reviews . It received aggregated scores of 83 % from GameRankings based on 63 reviews and 81 / 100 from Metacritic based on 89 reviews .
The game 's tone was praised by reviewers . Daniel Bischoff from Game Revolution praised the game 's comedic elements describing them as " contemporary " . He added that the game is one of the rare few that made him laugh while playing . Sam Prell from Joystiq appreciated the humor , and thought that its quality was boosted by the performance of the voice @-@ actors . His opinion was echoed by Peter Brown from GameSpot , who found the voice acting in the game entertaining and believable . However , Prell considered some humorous moments " hit @-@ or @-@ miss " . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer described the game as a " full circle " , in which Insomniac has incorporated all the elements from their previous game into this one . As a result , he thought that while the story emphasized comedy , it successfully reflected some pressing issues existing in society . Mollie L Patterson from Electronic Gaming Monthly appreciated the game 's humor , but noted that it would not be able to satisfy every type of player . Arthur Gies from Polygon described the story as " gleefully stupid " , and commended the self @-@ aware narrative . Chris Carter from Destructoid praised the jokes featured in the game . However , he disliked the story , which he thought failed to offer motivation for players to complete the game .
Sunset Overdrive 's gameplay was also commended by many reviewers . Prell compared the game favorably to Jet Grind Radio , Saints Row The Third , Infamous , and Ratchet & Clank . He singled out the traversal system , which he thought was fluid and well @-@ executed . He added that the fast travel system was not useful in this game , since players can find a lot of fun by simply traveling between different locations in the game 's world . He thought that all of the game 's systems intertwined with each other , and ultimately made the game a complete and worthwhile experience . Reiner echoed similar thoughts , and considered getting around Sunset City fun for players . He added that the traversal system increased the game 's replay value . However , he was disappointed by the game 's occasionally repetitive mission design . Sliva and Brown shared similar thoughts , with the latter saying that the game featured too many fetch quests . Patterson disliked the game 's traversal ; he found that the system was frustrating at times . However , he thought that this problem lessened as players unlocked new moves and skills . Gies felt overwhelmed by the traversal options . He added that Insomniac had successfully created a system that was accessible for ordinary players , while creating challenges for those who want to master the system . However , he noted the camera system may not able to track the movement of the character accurately . He further commended the game 's world design , and described it as one of the most " navigationally sophisticated " worlds he had ever experienced in a game . Bischoff considered the shooting mechanic " loose " , but thought that the problem was overshadowed by the game 's forgiving aiming and steady difficulty curve . Lucas Sullivan also criticized the mechanic , calling it " inconsistent " .
The customization options received acclaim . Bischoff praised the arsenal of weapons featured in the game , which he thought was deep , interesting , and creative , benefited by the Amps system , which added additional complexity to them . Prell described it as the " king " of the game . He praised the game 's ability to allow players to customize their characters , and considered the weapons featured " varied " , and thought they enhanced the game with personality . Reiner thought that all of the weapons featured in the game were fun to use , and that the amps system made experimenting with different weapons rewarding . Patterson also commended the game 's weapons though he was initially skeptical about them . Gies thought that the customization options allowed players to play the game as they preferred , and described the character creator as " flexible " . Marty Sliva from IGN praised the Amp upgrade system , which he felt encouraged players to try out unusual ways to experiment with it .
The game 's art style was applauded . Bischoff praised the colorful graphics and the different graphical effects featured in the game . He further praised the game 's presentation , which he thought would lead " the Xbox One console ’ s personality this generation . " Reiner compared the colorful graphics of the game to Sesame Street , and thought the bright colors " [ electrified ] the screen " . Reiner also praised the " Next @-@ Gen Respawn " system , and the protagonist 's animation . Sliva praised the design of the city , as he thought it featured a unique artistic style , and aided the traversal system . He added that the game 's visuals " pop " , and compared them to the " Easter Bunny on an acid trip " . Carter praised the variety existed within the game 's world , which he considered has prevented the game 's world from being repetitive , and made landmarks easily recognizable . Brown thought that the game did not look realistic , but felt this did not stop the game from being one of the best @-@ looking games available for the console . Sullivan also praised the use of colors , which he found was organic and vibrant . However , Steven Burns from VideoGamer.com was critical of the game 's world , finding it empty .
The game 's multiplayer received mixed reviews . Prell thought that the mission @-@ design was varied , and the voting system kept the mode from being repetitive . He also praised the interconnected structure between the single @-@ player and multiplayer , noting that the items that could be carried over from multiplayer to campaign made the mode feel rewarding for players . Reiner thought that the action featured in this mode is satisfying , but thought that the system lacked enough depth and complexity to engage players . Patterson echoed similar thoughts , and felt that the ability of players to switch between the campaign and the Chaos Squad mode made the multiplayer mode a rewarding experience . Brown criticized the mode , saying that its difficulty was not properly scaled .
The game was the second best @-@ selling game in the UK on its release , and was outsold by FIFA 15 . In its second week of release , it was the eighth best @-@ selling game .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Tropical Storm Delfina =
Severe Tropical Storm Delfina was a damaging tropical cyclone that affected southeastern Africa in January 2003 . The fourth named storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Delfina formed off the northwest coast of Madagascar on December 30 , 2002 . It quickly intensified while moving westward , becoming a strong tropical storm before hitting northeastern Mozambique on December 31 . Delfina weakened while moving inland , and it was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by January 1 , 2003 . However , its remnants moved across the country and into Malawi , later looping around and crossing back over Mozambique ; the remnants of Delfina were last observed on January 9 .
In both Mozambique and Malawi , Delfina dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding . In the former country , over 18 @,@ 000 houses were severely damaged or destroyed , leaving thousands homeless . The storm damaged roads and bridges , which disrupted relief efforts in the aftermath , and floods destroyed widespread areas of crops in the midst of an ongoing food shortage . Lingering flooding caused an outbreak of cholera and malaria in Mozambique , and 47 people were killed by Delfina . In Malawi , flooding was not widespread , although the storm destroyed about 3 @,@ 600 houses and killed eight people . Only two months after the storm struck , however , Cyclone Japhet left damage and deaths in many of the same areas that Delfina affected .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 1100 UTC on December 30 , 2002 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) noted in its Significant Tropical Weather Outlook that an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel off the northwest coast of Madagascar . The system had a weak circulation , located in an area of minimal wind shear . At 1200 UTC that day , Météo @-@ France classified the system as the sixth zone of disturbed weather of the season . It quickly developed , organizing into Tropical Disturbance 6 at 1800 UTC on December 30 . At around the same time , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 08S . The convection became better organized , developing outflow and rainbands . With a ridge to the south , the storm tracked in a generally westward direction toward Mozambique . At 0600 UTC on December 31 , MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Depression 6 , and six hours later the agency upgraded it to Tropical Storm Delfina .
While approaching the Mozambique coastline , Delfina quickly intensified , developing en eye feature and reaching maximum 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . At 1800 UTC on December 31 , MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . At about 2130 UTC , Delfina made landfall near Angoche in eastern Mozambique . It rapidly weakened while moving inland , and MFR discontinued advisories early on January 1 , 2003 . Delfina entered Malawi on January 2 , where dry air affected the storm . The remnants turned to the northeast , drifting into Mozambique and later turning to the south . On January 6 , it crossed over its track and emerged into the Mozambique Channel . When the remnants reached the Mozambique Channel , they were reclassified as Tropical Disturbance 07 , which moved southward over waters . It re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on January 8 before weakening the next day , becoming extratropical . The remnants persisted for several days , dissipating on January 14 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Upon striking Mozambique , Delfina produced strong winds and heavy rains , particularly in the northern portion of the country . A station in Nampula reported 281 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) in a 48 ‑ hour period . Delfina washed out roads and bridges in Nampula and Zambezia provinces , which isolated towns and disrupted the transportation network . A train derailed due to effects from the storm , which cut rail travel between northern Mozambique and neighboring Malawi . The cyclone destroyed or severely damaged over 18 @,@ 000 houses , which directly affected about 133 @,@ 000 people , mostly in Nampula where 22 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Floods along the Ligonha River forced 1 @,@ 800 people to leave their homes . In Nampula and Zambezia , Delfina damaged four health facilities and 376 schools . The storm caused a power outage in Nampula for several days , and in Monapo , there were water shortages after the storm . The cyclone destroyed over 2 @,@ 000 ha ( 4 @,@ 900 acres ) of beans and cassava crops and knocked down thousands of cashew trees , in areas already affected by food shortages due to drought conditions . Overall , Delfina resulted in $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) , and caused 47 deaths in the country , at least 19 due to flooding .
After Delfina moved through Mozambique , the local Red Cross chapter provided shelter , water , and relief items to the affected residents . Residual flooding in northern Mozambique , compounded with lack of drinking water , caused a cholera outbreak that affected at least 400 people . By January 27 , 12 people had died from the disease . Flooding also caused a malaria outbreak that killed 45 people in the country . Government officials deployed food to the affected areas by airplane and by road , after workers repaired damaged bridges . Residents in Mozambique gradually recovered from storm damage in the weeks after it struck . Only two months after the storm struck , however , Cyclone Japhet left damage and deaths in many of the same areas .
In neighboring Malawi , the storm 's remnants caused flooding in seven provinces , although it was not widespread . Delfina damaged roads , and destroyed one rail bridge in Balaka District . The storm destroyed about 3 @,@ 600 houses ; which forced about 30 @,@ 000 people to leave their homes . The floods affected 57 @,@ 000 properties , damaging 23 @,@ 500 ha ( 58 @,@ 000 acres ) in the midst of a food shortage . Delfina killed eight people in Malawi , prompting President Bakili Muluzi to declare the country as a disaster area on January 11 . After the storm , the Red Cross provided blankets and food for the affected residents . The damaged rail line that initially prevented relief supplies from entering the country was repaired in early February .
= Sweetheart of the Rodeo =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo is the sixth album by American rock band The Byrds and was released on August 30 , 1968 on Columbia Records ( see 1968 in music ) . Recorded with the addition of country rock pioneer Gram Parsons , it was influential as the first major country rock album by an established act and represented a stylistic move away from the psychedelic rock of the band 's previous LP , The Notorious Byrd Brothers . The Byrds had occasionally experimented with country music on their four previous albums , but Sweetheart of the Rodeo represented their fullest immersion into the genre thus far . The album was also responsible for bringing Gram Parsons , who had joined The Byrds prior to the recording of the album , to the attention of a mainstream rock audience for the first time . Thus , the album can be seen as an important chapter in Parsons ' personal and musical crusade to make country music fashionable for a young audience .
The album was initially conceived as a musical history of 20th century American popular music , encompassing examples of country music , jazz and rhythm and blues , among other genres . However , steered by the passion of the little @-@ known Parsons , who had only joined The Byrds in February 1968 , this proposed concept was abandoned early on and the album instead became purely a country record . The recording of the album was divided between sessions in Nashville and Los Angeles , with contributions from several notable session musicians , including Lloyd Green , John Hartford , JayDee Maness and Clarence White . Tension developed between Parsons and the rest of the band , guitarist Roger McGuinn especially , with some of Parsons ' vocals being re @-@ recorded , partly due to legal complications , and by the time the album was released in August , Parsons had left the band . The Byrds ' move away from rock and pop towards country music elicited a great deal of resistance and hostility from the ultra @-@ conservative Nashville country music establishment who viewed The Byrds as a group of long @-@ haired hippies attempting to subvert country music .
Upon its release , the album reached # 77 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , but failed to reach the charts in the United Kingdom . Two attendant singles were released during 1968 , " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , which achieved modest success , and " I Am a Pilgrim " , which failed to chart . The album received mostly positive reviews in the music press , but the band 's shift away from psychedelic music alienated much of its pop audience . Despite being the most commercially unsuccessful Byrds ' album to date upon its initial release , Sweetheart of the Rodeo is today considered to be a seminal and highly influential country rock album .
= = Background ( January – March 1968 ) = =
The initial concept by Roger McGuinn for the album that would become Sweetheart of the Rodeo was to expand upon the genre @-@ spanning approach of The Byrds ' previous LP , The Notorious Byrd Brothers , by recording a double album overview of the history of American popular music . The planned album would begin with bluegrass and Appalachian music , then move through country and western , jazz , rhythm and blues , and rock music , before culminating with futuristic proto @-@ electronica , featuring the Moog modular synthesizer .
But with a U.S. college tour to promote The Notorious Byrd Brothers looming , a more immediate concern was the recruitment of new band members . David Crosby and Michael Clarke had departed the band in late 1967 , leaving Roger McGuinn as de facto leader of The Byrds , along with Chris Hillman , the only other remaining member of the band . To address this problem , McGuinn hired Hillman 's cousin , Kevin Kelley ( formerly a member of the Rising Sons ) , as the band 's new drummer , and it was this three @-@ piece line @-@ up , with McGuinn on guitar and Hillman on bass , that embarked on the early 1968 college tour . It soon became apparent , however , that The Byrds were having difficulty in performing their studio material live as a trio , and so it was decided that a fourth member was required . McGuinn , with an eye still on his envisaged American music concept album , felt that a pianist with a jazz background would be ideal for the group .
A candidate was found by Larry Spector , the band 's business manager , in the shape of 21 @-@ year @-@ old Gram Parsons . Parsons , a marginal figure in the L.A. music scene , had been acquainted with Hillman since 1967 and he auditioned for the band as a piano player in February 1968 . His faux @-@ jazz piano playing and genial personality at audition was enough to impress both McGuinn and Hillman ; so Parsons was recruited as the fourth member of the band , although he quickly switched to playing guitar instead of piano . Although Parsons and Kelley were considered full members of The Byrds , they both received a salary from McGuinn and Hillman , and did not sign with Columbia Records when The Byrds ' recording contract was renewed on February 29 , 1968 .
Unbeknownst to McGuinn or Hillman , Parsons had his own musical agenda in which he planned to marry his love of traditional country music ( which he saw as being the purest form of American music ) with youth culture 's passion for rock . He had already successfully attempted this fusion as a member of the little @-@ known International Submarine Band , on the album Safe at Home , but Parsons ' new status as a Byrd offered him an international stage from which to launch his bid to reclaim country music for his generation .
Following his recruitment , Parsons began to lure Hillman away from McGuinn 's proposed concept album idea and towards a blend of what Parsons would later term " Cosmic American Music " . In essence , this was a hybrid of various roots music forms , primarily oriented towards honky tonk country music but also encompassing American folk , soul , rhythm and blues , rock ’ n ’ roll and contemporary rock . Hillman , who had come from a musical background firmly rooted in bluegrass , had himself successfully persuaded The Byrds to incorporate country influences into their music in the past , beginning with the song " Satisfied Mind " on their 1965 album , Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! Many of Hillman 's songs on the Younger Than Yesterday and The Notorious Byrd Brothers albums also had a pronounced country feel to them , with several featuring Clarence White ( a renowned bluegrass guitar player and session musician ) on lead guitar , rather than McGuinn . During time spent singing old country songs with Parsons , Hillman became convinced that Parsons ' concept of a country @-@ oriented version of The Byrds could work .
Parsons ' passion for his country rock vision was so contagious that he even convinced McGuinn to abandon his plans for The Byrds ' next album and follow Parsons ' lead in recording a country rock album . Parsons also persuaded McGuinn and Hillman to record the album in the country music capital of Nashville , Tennessee , as Bob Dylan had done for his Blonde On Blonde and John Wesley Harding albums . Although McGuinn had some reservations about the band 's new direction , he decided that such a move could expand the already declining audience of the group . After long @-@ time Byrds ' producer Gary Usher , who had little interest in producing McGuinn 's proposed concept album , indicated a preference for the country concept , McGuinn finally acquiesced . On March 9 , 1968 , the band decamped to Columbia 's recording facility in Nashville , with Clarence White in tow , to begin recording sessions for Sweetheart of the Rodeo .
= = Recording ( March – May 1968 ) = =
Between March 9 and March 15 , 1968 , the band , accompanied by several prominent session musicians , recorded multiple takes of eight songs at Columbia Records ' recording studios in the Music Row area of Nashville . Recording sessions for the album continued from April 4 through May 27 , 1968 at Columbia Studios in Hollywood , with a further seven songs recorded during these sessions and finishing touches applied to many of the tracks recorded in Nashville .
The songs that The Byrds recorded for the album included " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " and " Nothing Was Delivered " , two country @-@ influenced Dylan covers from his then @-@ unreleased Basement Tapes sessions . Despite the change in musical style that the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album represented for The Byrds , the inclusion of two Dylan covers provided a link with their previous folk @-@ rock incarnation , when Dylan 's material had been a mainstay of their repertoire . The Byrds also recorded a trio of classic country songs for the album : the traditional " I Am a Pilgrim " , which had been popularized by Merle Travis in the late @-@ 1940s ; the Cindy Walker @-@ penned " Blue Canadian Rockies " , which had been sung by Gene Autry in the 1952 film of the same name ; and " The Christian Life " , written by the Louvin Brothers , which was the antithesis of a traditional rock song with its gentle lyrics extolling the simple pleasures of Christianity as a lifestyle .
The band supplemented these older country standards and Dylan covers with a couple of contemporary country songs : Merle Haggard 's maudlin convict 's lament , " Life in Prison " ; and Luke McDaniel 's " You 're Still On My Mind " , a sorrowful tale of a heartbroken drunkard failing to find solace at the bottom of a bottle . Additionally , The Byrds gave William Bell 's Stax hit , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , a country flavored make @-@ over , highlighted by the band 's trademark crystal clear harmonies and contributions from JayDee Maness and Earl P. Ball , on pedal steel guitar and honky @-@ tonk piano respectively . With its fusion of country and soul , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " was a perfect example of what Parsons would later define , with his self @-@ coined phrase , as " Cosmic American Music " .
Lacking any country songs of his own , McGuinn delved into his pre @-@ Byrds folk song repertoire instead , contributing Woody Guthrie 's " Pretty Boy Floyd " , a romanticized portrayal of the real @-@ life folk hero and outlaw . The March 12 , 1968 recording session that produced " Pretty Boy Floyd " saw McGuinn attempting to play the song 's banjo accompaniment , but feeling dissatisfied with his efforts he finally ceded the part to session player John Hartford . The Byrds also recorded a Kelley original , " All I Have Are Memories " , Tim Hardin 's " You Got a Reputation " , and the traditional song , " Pretty Polly " , but none of these songs were selected for the final Sweetheart of the Rodeo album .
Parsons also brought three of his songs to the recording sessions : " Lazy Days " , " One Hundred Years from Now " and " Hickory Wind " , the latter of which had been written by Parsons and former International Submarine Band member , Bob Buchanan , during an early 1968 train ride from Florida to Los Angeles . " One Hundred Years from Now " has a quicker tempo than most of the material on Sweetheart of the Rodeo and functions as a speculation on current human vanities and how they might be viewed by successive generations . The Chuck Berry influenced " Lazy Days " was not included in the final album , but was re @-@ recorded by Parsons and Hillman 's later band , The Flying Burrito Brothers , for their 1970 album , Burrito Deluxe .
= = Nashville reaction and touring = =
Upon completion of the Music Row recording sessions , the band ended their stay in Nashville with an appearance at the Grand Ole Opry at Ryman Auditorium ( introduced by future " outlaw " country star Tompall Glaser ) , on March 15 , 1968 . The band was greeted with derision by the conservative audience because they were the first group of hippie " longhairs " to play at the venerable country music establishment . In fact , The Byrds had all had their hair cut shorter than they normally wore it , specifically for their appearance at the Grand Ole Opry , but this did nothing to appease their detractors in the audience . The Byrds opened with a rendition of Merle Haggard 's " Sing Me Back Home " , which was met with derisive heckling , booing , and mocking calls of " tweet , tweet " from the hostile Opry audience . Any hope of salvaging the performance was immediately destroyed when Parsons , rather than singing a song announced by Glaser , launched into a rendition of " Hickory Wind " dedicated to his grandmother . The deviation from protocol stunned Opry regulars such as Roy Acuff and embarrassed Glaser , ensuring that The Byrds would never be invited back to play on the show .
Nearly as disastrous was the group 's appearance on the WSM program of legendary Nashville DJ , Ralph Emery , who mocked his guests throughout the interview and initially refused to play an acetate of " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " . Eventually playing the record , he dismissed it over the air and in the presence of the band as being mediocre . Clearly upset by their treatment , Parsons and McGuinn would make Emery the subject of their song , " Drug Store Truck Drivin ' Man " , which was written by the pair in London in May 1968 . The song appeared on The Byrds ' next album , Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde , although this recording did not feature Parsons because he had left the band by this time .
After returning from Nashville , the band played a handful of concerts throughout the Los Angeles area with the addition of pedal steel guitarist JayDee Maness , who had played on several tracks on the album . Throughout April 1968 , McGuinn came under considerable pressure from Parsons to recruit Maness as a full member of The Byrds , so that the band 's new country material would sound authentic in concert , but McGuinn resisted , although Maness has stated in interview that he declined the invitation anyway . Having failed to recruit Maness as a permanent member of the band , Parsons next recommended another pedal steel guitar player , Sneaky Pete Kleinow , but once again , McGuinn held firm . Parsons ' attempts to recruit new members and dictate the band 's musical direction caused a power struggle within the band , with McGuinn finding his position as band leader challenged by Parsons , who was also pushing for a higher salary . At one point Parsons even demanded that the album be billed as Gram Parsons and The Byrds , a demand that was ignored by McGuinn and Hillman .
In May 1968 the band embarked on a short European tour and while in England for concerts at the Middle Earth Club and Blaises , The Byrds met with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards who both expressed concern over The Byrds ' intention to tour South Africa during the summer . McGuinn remained undaunted regarding these concerns over the country 's apartheid policies , however , having already received the blessing of South African singer Miriam Makeba , and convinced the rest of The Byrds that a trip to South Africa would be an interesting experience . This meeting between The Byrds and the two Rolling Stones would play an important part in Parsons departure from the band two months later .
= = Post @-@ production = =
Upon the group 's return to California , post @-@ production work on the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album was disrupted when Parsons ' appearance on the album was contested by Lee Hazlewood , who contended that the singer was still under contract to his LHI record label . While the legal problems were being resolved , McGuinn replaced three of Parsons ' lead vocals with his own singing , a move that still infuriated Parsons as late as 1973 , when he told Cameron Crowe in an interview that McGuinn " erased it and did the vocals himself and fucked it up . " However , Parsons was still featured singing lead vocals on the songs " Hickory Wind " , " You 're Still on My Mind " , and " Life in Prison " . There has been speculation that McGuinn 's decision to re @-@ record Parsons ' lead vocals himself was not entirely motivated by the threat of legal action , but by a desire to decrease Parsons ' presence on the album . According to producer Gary Usher :
The three songs that had their lead vocals replaced by McGuinn were " The Christian Life " , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , and " One Hundred Years from Now " , with the last featuring McGuinn and Hillman sharing vocals on the final album version . However , Parsons ' lead vocals weren 't completely eradicated from these songs and can still be faintly heard , despite having either McGuinn or Hillman 's voice overdubbed on them . The master recordings of these three songs , with their original Parsons ' vocals restored to full prominence , were finally issued as part of The Byrds box set in 1990 . These same master recordings , featuring Parsons ' lead vocals , were also included as bonus tracks on disc one of the 2003 Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo .
With the legal problems surrounding Parsons ' appearance on the album resolved , The Byrds returned to England for an appearance at the Royal Albert Hall on July 7 , 1968 . Following the concert , Parsons announced that he would not be accompanying the band on their imminent tour of South Africa in protest over the country 's policies of apartheid ( a policy that did not cease until 1994 ) . Both McGuinn and Hillman doubted the sincerity of Parsons ' protest , believing instead that Parsons had used the apartheid issue as a convenient excuse to leave the band and stay in England to hang out with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards . Consequently , by the time Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released in August 1968 , Parsons had been an ex @-@ member of The Byrds for almost eight weeks . Following the South African tour , McGuinn and Hillman replaced Parsons with longtime Byrd @-@ in @-@ waiting Clarence White , and Kevin Kelley was dismissed from the band soon after . In total , the McGuinn , Hillman , Parsons , and Kelley line @-@ up of The Byrds had lasted a mere five months .
= = Release and reception = =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released on August 30 , 1968 , in the United States ( catalogue item CS 6970 ) and September 27 , 1968 , in the UK ( catalogue item 63353 ) . Columbia Records launched an accompanying print advertising campaign proclaiming " This Country 's for the Byrds " and featuring the tag line " Their message is all country ... their sound is all Byrds . " The album is notable for being the first Byrds LP to be issued exclusively in stereo in the United States , although the album was released in mono and stereo variations in the United Kingdom . The album reached # 77 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , during a chart stay of ten weeks , but failed to chart in the United Kingdom . The lead single from the album was a cover of Bob Dylan 's " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , which was released on April 2 , 1968 , climbing to # 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 45 in the UK charts . A second single from the album , " I Am a Pilgrim " , was released on September 2 , 1968 , but failed to chart .
Despite receiving generally favourable reviews from the critics , the country rock style of Sweetheart of the Rodeo was such a radical departure from the band 's previous sound that large sections of the group 's counter @-@ culture following were alienated by its contents , resulting in the lowest sales of any Byrds album up to that point . Barry Gifford , in the August 1968 edition of Rolling Stone magazine , said of the album : " The new Byrds do not sound like Buck Owens & his Buckaroos . They aren 't that good . The material they 've chosen to record , or rather , the way they perform the material , is simple , relaxed and folky . It 's not pretentious , it 's pretty . The musician @-@ ship is excellent . " Gifford added that " The Byrds have made an interesting album . It 's really very uninvolved and not a difficult record to listen to . It ought to make the " Easy @-@ Listening " charts . " Bringing it all back home " has never been an easy thing to do . "
Rolling Stone also praised the album in its September 1968 issue , with Jon Landau writing " The Byrds , in doing country as country , show just how powerful and relevant unadorned country music is to the music of today . " Landau added " they leave just enough rock in the drums to let you know that they can still play rock & roll . " Noted rock critic , Robert Christgau , described Sweetheart of the Rodeo in a 1969 article for The New York Times as " a bittersweet tribute to country music . " However , contemporary reviews of the album were not universally positive , with an anonymous Melody Maker review from late 1968 deriding the album as " Not typical Byrds music , which is rather a pity . " Similarly , Robert Shelton , writing in The New York Times in November 1968 , commented that " The latest Byrds album adheres to most of the ' rules of the game ' about country sound , and yet , sad to say , to this old fan of The Byrds , the album is a distinguished bore . "
In more recent years , AllMusic critic Mark Deming noted in his review of the album that " no major band had gone so deep into the sound and feeling of classic country ( without parody or condescension ) as the Byrds did on Sweetheart ; at a time when most rock fans viewed country as a musical " L 'il Abner " routine , the Byrds dared to declare that C & W could be hip , cool , and heartfelt . " Alexander Lloyd Linhardt , reviewing the album for Pitchfork Media , described it as " a blindingly rusty gait through parched weariness and dusted reverie . It 's not the natural sound of Death Valley or Utah , but rather , a false portrait by people who wished it was , which makes it even more melancholy and charismatic . " Journalist Matthew Weiner commented in his review for Stylus that " Thirty @-@ five years after it startled Byrds fans everywhere with its Podunk proclivities , Sweetheart remains a particularly fascinating example of two musical ships passing in the night , documenting both Parsons ’ transformation into a visionary country @-@ rock auteur and a pop band ’ s remarkable sense of artistic risk . "
The Byrds ' biographer , Johnny Rogan , noted that the album " stood alone as a work almost completely divorced from the prevailing rock culture . Its themes , mood and instrumentation looked back to another era at a time when the rest of America was still recovering from the recent assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy . " Ultimately , The Byrds ' experimentation with the country genre on Sweetheart of the Rodeo was slightly ahead of its time , to the detriment of the band 's commercial fortunes , as the international success of country rock flavoured bands like The Eagles , America and Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show during the 1970s demonstrated .
= = Legacy = =
Released at a time when The Byrds ' surprising immersion in the world of country music coincided with their declining commercial appeal , Sweetheart of the Rodeo was certainly an uncommercial proposition at the time of its release . However , the album has proved to be a landmark , serving not only as a blueprint for Parsons ' and Hillman 's The Flying Burrito Brothers , but also for the entire nascent 1970s Los Angeles country rock movement . The album was also influential on the outlaw country and new traditionalist movements , as well as the so @-@ called alternative country genre of the 1990s and 2000s . Among fans of The Byrds , however , opinion is often sharply divided regarding the merits of the album , with some seeing it as a natural continuation of the group 's innovations , and others mourning the loss of the band 's trademark Rickenbacker guitar jangle and psychedelic experimentation . Nonetheless , Sweetheart of the Rodeo is widely considered to be The Byrds ' last truly influential album .
Although it was not the first country rock album , Sweetheart of the Rodeo was the first album widely labeled as country rock to be released by an internationally successful rock act , pre @-@ dating the release of Bob Dylan 's Nashville Skyline by over six months . The first bona fide country rock album is often cited as being Safe at Home by Parsons ' previous group , The International Submarine Band . However , the genre 's antecedents can be traced back to the Rockabilly music of the 1950s , The Beatles ' covers of Carl Perkins and Buck Owens ' material on Beatles For Sale and Help ! , as well as the stripped down arrangements of Dylan 's John Wesley Harding album and The Byrds ' own forays into country music on their pre @-@ Sweetheart albums . The Band 's debut album , Music from Big Pink , released in July 1968 , was also influential on the genre but it was Sweetheart of the Rodeo that saw an established rock band playing pure country music for the first time .
In 2003 , the album was ranked # 117 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and Stylus Magazine named it their 175th favorite album of all time in the same year .
Sweetheart of the Rodeo went on to inspire the name of the 1980s country duo , Sweethearts of the Rodeo , who paid tribute to The Byrds ' album with the sleeve of their 1990 album , Buffalo Zone .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Singles = = =
" You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " b / w " Artificial Energy " ( Columbia 44499 ) April 2 , 1968 ( US # 75 , UK # 45 )
" I Am a Pilgrim " b / w " Pretty Boy Floyd " ( Columbia 44643 ) September 2 , 1968
= = Personnel = =
Sources as follows :
= = Release history = =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo was remastered at 20 @-@ bit resolution as part of the Columbia / Legacy Byrds series and reissued in an expanded form on March 25 , 1997 . The eight bonus tracks featured on this reissue include the outtakes " You Got a Reputation " , " Lazy Days " , and " Pretty Polly " , as well as four previously unreleased rehearsal takes and an instrumental backing track for " All I Have Are Memories " . A hidden track on the CD features a 1968 Columbia Records radio advertisement for the album .
On September 2 , 2003 , a 2 CD Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released by Columbia / Legacy . This version of the album features additional outtakes , rehearsal versions , and the master takes of the songs that had their Parsons ' lead vocals replaced , presented here with their Parsons ' vocals intact . Most of the alternate versions and rehearsal takes on disc two of the Legacy Edition feature Parsons singing songs that were later released with vocals by McGuinn on the original album . Also included on the Legacy Edition is an outtake from the album sessions called " All I Have Are Memories " , written and sung by drummer Kevin Kelley . In addition , the Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo includes six tracks performed by the International Submarine Band ( Parsons ' previous group ) .
In 2007 , Sundazed Records released a 7 " single featuring previously unreleased alternate versions of " Lazy Days " and " You Got a Reputation " ( titled " Reputation " on this release ) that date from The Byrds ' March 1968 recording sessions in Nashville . These two alternate versions have not been issued on CD .
= = = 1997 reissue bonus tracks = = =
The final song on the 1997 reissue ( " All I Have Are Memories " ) ends at 2 : 48 ; at 3 : 48 begins the hidden track " Radio Spot : Sweetheart of the Radio Album "
= = = 2003 Legacy Edition bonus tracks = = =
The 2003 CD reissue contains alternative versions of songs with Parsons singing lead , along with recordings by Parsons ' pre @-@ Byrds group , The International Submarine Band ( tracks 1 @-@ 6 on disc two ) .
= Parental Advisory =
The Parental Advisory label ( abbreviated PAL ) is a warning label first introduced by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1985 and later adopted by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in 2011 . It is placed on audio recordings in recognition of excessive profanities or inappropriate references , with the intention of alerting parents of potentially unsuitable material for younger children . The label was first affixed on physical compact discs and cassette tapes , and it has been included on digital listings offered by online music stores to accommodate the growing popularity of the latter platform .
Recordings with the Parental Advisory label are often released alongside censored versions that reduce or eliminate the questionable material . Several retailers will distribute all varieties of the product , occasionally with an increased price for censored versions , while some sellers offer the amended pressings as their main options and choose not to distribute the explicit counterparts . However , the label has been questioned for its perceived ineffectiveness in limiting the amount of inappropriate material that young audiences are exposed to .
= = Background = =
Shortly after their formation in April 1985 , the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) assembled a list of fifteen songs with deemed unsuitable content . Particular criticism was placed on " Darling Nikki " by Prince , after the daughter of PMRC co @-@ founder Mary " Tipper " Gore recognized its references to masturbation . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) responded by introducing an early version of their content warning label , although the PMRC was displeased and proposed that a music rating system structured like the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system be enacted . The RIAA alternatively suggested using a warning label reading " Parental Guidance : Explicit Lyrics " , and after continued conflict between the organizations , the matter was discussed on September 19 during a hearing with the United States Senate Committee on Commerce , Science , and Transportation . Notable musicians , Frank Zappa , Dee Snyder , and John Denver each testified at this hearing with strong opposition to PMRC ’ s warning label system , and censorship in general . Approximately two months after the hearing , the organizations agreed on a settlement in which audio recordings were to either be affixed with a warning label reading " Explicit Lyrics : Parental Advisory " or have its lyrics attached on the backside of its packaging .
In 1990 , a black @-@ and @-@ white warning label reading " Parental Advisory : Explicit Lyrics " was introduced as a standard for affected records to follow , and was to be placed on the bottom right @-@ hand section of a given product . By May 1992 , approximately 225 records had been marked with the warning . In response to later hearings in the following years , it was reworded as " Parental Advisory : Explicit Content " in 1996 . The system went unchanged until 2002 , when record labels affiliated with Bertelsmann Music Group began including specific areas of concern including " strong language " , " violent content " , or " sexual content " on compact discs alongside the generic Parental Advisory label . The Parental Advisory label was first used on music streaming services and online music stores in 2011 . That year , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) revised its own music censorship policies to incorporate more prominent usage of the warning label .
= = Application = =
The " Parental Advisory Label Program " in the United States and the " Parental Advisory Scheme " in the United Kingdom lack agreed @-@ upon standards for using the warning label , although they provide guidelines for its recommended inclusion . Although a voluntary practice that is ultimately left to the discretion of record labels , the RIAA suggests that material with " strong language or depictions of violence , sex , or substance abuse to such an extent as to merit parental notification " be affixed with the Parental Advisory label . The BPI additionally requests that " racist , homophobic , misogynistic or other discriminatory language or behavior " be taken under consideration when determining the appropriateness of a record .
Audio recordings that include Parental Advisory labels in their original formats are generally released in censored versions that reduces or completely eliminates the questionable material , They are recognized as " clean " editions by the RIAA , and are left unlabeled in their revised formats . American retailers including Best Buy and f.y.e. distribute explicit and censored records ; Target has sold both varieties of a given record , although has occasionally offered only the explicit version depending on the product . Walmart and their affiliated properties are well known for only carrying censored versions of records ; in one instance , the retailer refused to distribute 21st Century Breakdown ( 2009 ) by Green Day because they were not given the " clean " copies that they requested . Online music stores , including the iTunes Store , generally have the Parental Advisory logo embedded into digital files .
= = Impact = =
Since its introduction , the effectiveness of the Parental Advisory label has frequently been called into question . Jon Wiederhorn from MTV News suggested that artists benefited from the label and noted that younger customers interested in explicit content could more easily find it with a label attached . On behalf of Westword , Andy Thomas implied that the label was purposeless on the grounds that a young customer " would get a copy of the album sooner or later from a friend or another lethargic record store clerk " like the cashier that sold him a labeled pressing of La Sexorcisto : Devil Music , Vol . 1 ( 1992 ) by White Zombie in his childhood . He noted that its intended reaction in parents was varied ; his lax mother was indifferent towards the warning , while the mother of his stricter companion did not allow her child to listen to the record .
Danny Goldberg from Gold Village Entertainment opined that the Parental Advisory label offered minimal value other than " being a way for certain retailers like Wal @-@ Mart to brand themselves as ' family friendly ' " ; he felt that children were successful in getting content they desired " even before the Internet " , and believed that the label had little impact on sales figures . In contrast , the RIAA maintains that " it 's not a PAL Notice that kids look for , it 's the music " . They stated that research they had gathered revealed that " kids put limited weight on lyrics in deciding which music they like , caring more about rhythm and melody " and implied that the label is not a deciding factor for a given purchase . Tom Cole from NPR commented that the Parental Advisory label has become " a fact of music @-@ buying life " , which made it difficult for current consumers to understand the widespread controversy that came about from its introduction .
= = Edited counterparts = =
It is fairly common for an album which received the Parental Advisory seal to be sold alongside an " edited " version which removes objectionable content , usually to the same level as a radio edit . However , the RIAA Uniform Guidelines say " An Edited Version need not remove all potentially objectionable content from the sound recording . " These albums are packaged nearly @-@ identically to their explicit counterparts , usually with the only indicator being the lack of Parental Advisory seal . ( A notable exception is Box Car Racer , in which a black box reading " EDITED VERSION " is placed where the Parental Advisory seal would be ) .
Most of the time , the edited version will only edit the content which is absolutely necessary , in order to be as identical to the explicit counterpart as possible . However , some edited albums , such as Halfway Between the Gutter and the Stars ( " Star 69 " ) and Curtain Call : The Hits ( first 2 tracks ) will have tracks removed completely , while others , such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( " Happy Holidays You Bastards " renamed " Happy Holidays " ) and The Slim Shady LP ( 4 tracks were renamed ) will remove objectionable content from song titles . The edited version of Life After Death is notable for having so many tracks omitted that it was able to be condensed to one disc in spite of being a double album .
The edited version of an album will normally edit to the level in which the content would be considered appropriate for radio airplay . Strong language is almost always edited out ( however the edited version of The Marshall Mathers LP left in nearly all profanities other than " fuck " , with the exception of the album 's singles in which the existing radio edits were used ) , in addition to racial slurs ( most albums will remove " nigga / nigger " ) . Specific drug references are also usually edited out , primarily slang terms for illegal drugs . Generally , however , some edited albums are not consistent with editing violent and sexual lyrics , as often , these lyrics are left in unedited . An example is " Tomb of the Boom " on the edited version of Speakerboxxx / The Love Below , which leaves in detailed lyrics about street violence ( including sound effects of gunfire and police sirens ) and sexual innuendos , both of which would normally be edited out , but on the other hand , all obscenities are muted .
= Rare Replay =
Rare Replay is a 2015 compilation of 30 video games from the 30 @-@ year history of developers Rare and its predecessor , Ultimate Play the Game . The emulated games span multiple genres and consoles — from the ZX Spectrum to the Xbox 360 — and retain the features and errors of their original releases with minimal edits . The compilation adds cheats to make the older games easier and a Snapshots mode of specific challenges culled from parts of the games . Player progress is rewarded with behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage and interviews about Rare 's major and unreleased games .
The compilation was one of several ideas Rare considered to celebrate their 30th anniversary . Inspired by fans , upcoming Xbox One backwards compatibility features , and the idea to connect Rare 's past and future , the company sorted through 120 games to choose titles that best represented its oeuvre . They prioritized games with characters and environments original to the company . Rare incorporated six hardware emulators in the package , and worked with its parent company , Microsoft , to use its unannounced Xbox 360 emulation . Rare Replay released worldwide as an Xbox One exclusive on August 4 , 2015 .
Rare Replay 's reviews were generally favorable . Critics appreciated the package 's design and craft and called the release a new pinnacle for compilation releases . They commended its " rewind " and Snapshot features , but criticized technical issues in the Xbox 360 emulation and game installation . Rare '
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battle , was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson , although he was privately dissatisfied with his rewards . His captains were also highly praised and would go on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelsonic Band of Brothers . The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness , with perhaps the best @-@ known representation being Felicia Hemans ' 1826 poem Casabianca .
= = Background = =
Following Napoleon Bonaparte 's victories over the Austrian Empire in northern Italy – which helped secure victory for the French in the War of the First Coalition in 1797 – Great Britain remained the only major European power still at war with the French Republic . The French Directory investigated a number of strategic options to counter British opposition , including projected invasions of Ireland and Britain and the expansion of the French Navy to challenge the Royal Navy at sea . Despite significant efforts , British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term , and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean . However , the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean , following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796 . This allowed Bonaparte to propose an invasion of Egypt as an alternative to confronting Britain directly , believing that the British would be too distracted by an imminent Irish uprising to intervene in the Mediterranean .
Bonaparte believed that by establishing a permanent presence in Egypt ( nominally part of the neutral Ottoman Empire ) the French would obtain a staging point for future operations against British India , possibly in conjunction with the Tipu Sultan of Seringapatam , that might successfully drive the British out of the war . The campaign would sever the chain of communication that connected Britain with India , an essential part of the British Empire whose trade generated the wealth Britain required to prosecute the war successfully . The French Directory agreed with Bonaparte 's plans , although a major factor in their decision was a desire to see the politically ambitious Bonaparte and the fiercely loyal veterans of his Italian campaigns travel as far from France as possible . During the spring of 1798 , Bonaparte assembled more than 35 @,@ 000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and developed a powerful fleet at Toulon . He also formed the Commission des Sciences et des Arts , a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt . Napoleon kept the destination of the expedition top secret — most of the army 's officers did not know of its target , and Bonaparte did not publicly reveal his goal until the first stage of the expedition was complete .
= = = Mediterranean campaign = = =
Bonaparte 's armada sailed from Toulon on 19 May 1798 , making rapid progress through the Ligurian Sea and collecting more ships at Genoa , before sailing southwards along the Sardinian coast and passing Sicily on 7 June . On 9 June , the fleet arrived off Malta , then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem , ruled by Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim . Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta . When the Knights refused , the French general responded by ordering a large scale invasion of the Maltese Islands , overrunning the defenders after 24 hours of skirmishing . The Knights formally surrendered on 12 June and , in exchange for substantial financial compensation , handed the islands and all of their resources over to Bonaparte , including the extensive property of the Roman Catholic Church on Malta . Within a week , Bonaparte had resupplied his ships , and on 19 June , his fleet departed for Alexandria in the direction of Crete , leaving 4 @,@ 000 men at Valletta under General Claude @-@ Henri Vaubois to ensure French control of the islands .
While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta , the Royal Navy re @-@ entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year . Alarmed by reports of French preparations on the Mediterranean coast , Lord Spencer at the Admiralty sent a message to Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St. Vincent , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet based in the Tagus River , to despatch a squadron to investigate . This squadron , consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates , was entrusted to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson .
Nelson was a highly experienced officer who had been blinded in one eye during fighting in Corsica in 1794 and subsequently commended for his capture of two Spanish ships of the line at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in February 1797 . In July 1797 , he lost an arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and had been forced to return to Britain to recuperate . Returning to the fleet at the Tagus in late April 1798 , he was ordered to collect the squadron stationed at Gibraltar and sail for the Ligurian Sea . On 21 May , as Nelson 's squadron approached Toulon , it was struck by a fierce gale and Nelson 's flagship , HMS Vanguard , lost its topmasts and was almost wrecked on the Corsican coast . The remainder of the squadron was scattered . The ships of the line sheltered at San Pietro Island off Sardinia ; the frigates were blown to the west and failed to return .
On 7 June , following hasty repairs to his flagship , a fleet consisting of ten ships of the line and a fourth @-@ rate joined Nelson off Toulon . The fleet , under the command of Captain Thomas Troubridge , had been sent by Earl St. Vincent to reinforce Nelson , with orders that he was to pursue and intercept the Toulon convoy . Although he now had enough ships to challenge the French fleet , Nelson suffered two great disadvantages : He had no intelligence regarding the destination of the French , and no frigates to scout ahead of his force . Striking southwards in the hope of collecting information about French movements , Nelson 's ships stopped at Elba and Naples , where the British ambassador , Sir William Hamilton , reported that the French fleet had passed Sicily headed in the direction of Malta . Despite pleas from Nelson and Hamilton , King Ferdinand of Naples refused to lend his frigates to the British fleet , fearing French reprisals . On 22 June , a brig sailing from Ragusa brought Nelson the news that the French had sailed eastwards from Malta on 16 June . After conferring with his captains , the admiral decided that the French target must be Egypt and set off in pursuit . Incorrectly believing the French to be five days ahead rather than two , Nelson insisted on a direct route to Alexandria without deviation .
On the evening of 22 June , Nelson 's fleet passed the French in the darkness , overtaking the slow invasion convoy without realising how close they were to their target . Making rapid time on a direct route , Nelson reached Alexandria on 28 June and discovered that the French were not there . After a meeting with the suspicious Ottoman commander , Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim , Nelson ordered the British fleet northwards , reaching the coast of Anatolia on 4 July and turning westwards back towards Sicily . Nelson had missed the French by less than a day — the scouts of the French fleet arrived off Alexandria in the evening of 29 June .
Concerned by his near encounter with Nelson , Bonaparte ordered an immediate invasion , his troops coming ashore in a poorly managed amphibious operation in which at least 20 drowned . Marching along the coast , the French army stormed Alexandria and captured the city , after which Bonaparte led the main force of his army inland . He instructed his naval commander , Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers , to anchor in Alexandria harbour , but naval surveyors reported that the channel into the harbour was too shallow and narrow for the larger ships of the French fleet . As a result , the French selected an alternative anchorage at Aboukir Bay , 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria .
Nelson 's fleet reached Syracuse in Sicily on 19 July and took on essential supplies . There the admiral wrote letters describing the events of the previous months : " It is an old saying , ' the Devil 's children have the Devil 's luck . ' I cannot find , or at this moment learn , beyond vague conjecture where the French fleet are gone to . All my ill fortune , hitherto , has proceeded from want of frigates . " By 24 July , his fleet was resupplied and , having determined that the French must be somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean , Nelson sailed again in the direction of the Morea . On 28 July , at Coron , Nelson finally obtained intelligence describing the French attack on Egypt and turned south across the Mediterranean . His scouts , HMS Alexander and HMS Swiftsure , sighted the French transport fleet at Alexandria on the afternoon of 1 August .
= = = Aboukir Bay = = =
When Alexandria harbour had proved inadequate for his fleet , Brueys had gathered his captains and discussed their options . Bonaparte had ordered the fleet to anchor in Aboukir Bay , a shallow and exposed anchorage , but had supplemented the orders with the suggestion that , if Aboukir Bay was too dangerous , Brueys could sail north to Corfu , leaving only the transports and a handful of lighter warships at Alexandria . Brueys refused , in the belief that his squadron could provide essential support to the French army on shore , and called his captains aboard his 120 @-@ gun flagship Orient to discuss their response should Nelson discover the fleet in its anchorage . Despite vocal opposition from Contre @-@ amiral Armand Blanquet , who insisted that the fleet would be best able to respond in open water , the rest of the captains agreed that anchoring in a line of battle inside the bay presented the strongest tactic for confronting Nelson . It is possible that Bonaparte envisaged Aboukir Bay as a temporary anchorage : on 27 July , he expressed the expectation that Brueys had already transferred his ships to Alexandria , and three days later , he issued orders for the fleet to make for Corfu in preparation for naval operations against the Ottoman territories in the Balkans , although Bedouin partisans intercepted and killed the courier carrying the instructions .
Aboukir Bay is a coastal indentation 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ) across , stretching from the village of Abu Qir in the west to the town of Rosetta to the east , where one of the mouths of the River Nile empties into the Mediterranean . In 1798 , the bay was protected at its western end by extensive rocky shoals which ran 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) into the bay from a promontory guarded by Aboukir Castle . A small fort situated on an island among the rocks protected the shoals . The fort was garrisoned by French soldiers and armed with at least four cannon and two heavy mortars . Brueys had augmented the fort with his bomb vessels and gunboats , anchored among the rocks to the west of the island in a position to give support to the head of the French line . Further shoals ran unevenly to the south of the island and extended across the bay in a rough semicircle approximately 1 @,@ 650 yards ( 1 @,@ 510 m ) from the shore . These shoals were too shallow to permit the passage of larger warships , and so Brueys ordered his thirteen ships of the line to form up in a line of battle following the northeastern edge of the shoals to the south of the island , a position that allowed the ships to disembark supplies from their port sides while covering the landings with their starboard batteries . Orders were issued for each ship to attach strong cables to the bow and stern of their neighbours , which would effectively turn the line into a long battery forming a theoretically impregnable barrier . Brueys positioned a second , inner line of four frigates approximately 350 yards ( 320 m ) west of the main line , roughly halfway between the line and the shoal . The van of the French line was led by Guerrier , positioned 2 @,@ 400 yards ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) southeast of Aboukir Island and about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) from the edge of the shoals that surrounded the island . The line stretched southeast , with the centre bowed seawards away from the shoal . The French ships were spaced at intervals of 160 yards ( 150 m ) and the whole line was 2 @,@ 850 yards ( 2 @,@ 610 m ) long , with the flagship Orient at the centre and two large 80 @-@ gun ships anchored on either side . The rear division of the line was under the command of Counter @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve in Guillaume Tell .
In deploying his ships in this way , Brueys hoped that the British would be forced by the shoals to attack his strong centre and rear , allowing his van to use the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack the British once they were engaged . However , he had made a serious misjudgement : he had left enough room between Guerrier and the shoals for an enemy ship to cut across the head of the French line and proceed between the shoals and the French ships , allowing the unsupported vanguard to be caught in a crossfire by two divisions of enemy ships . Compounding this error , the French only prepared their ships for battle on their starboard ( seaward ) sides , from which they expected the attack would have to come ; their landward port sides were unprepared . The port side gun ports were closed , and the decks on that side were uncleared , with various stored items blocking access to the guns . Brueys ' dispositions had a second significant flaw : The 160 @-@ yard gaps between ships were large enough for a British ship to push through and break the French line . Furthermore , not all of the French captains had followed Brueys ' orders to attach cables to their neighbours ' bow and stern , which would have prevented such a manoeuvre . The problem was exacerbated by orders to only anchor at the bow , which allowed the ships to swing with the wind and widened the gaps . It also created areas within the French line not covered by the broadside of any ship . British vessels could anchor in those spaces and engage the French without reply . In addition , the deployment of Brueys ' fleet prevented the rear from effectively supporting the van due to the prevailing winds .
A more pressing problem for Brueys was a lack of food and water for the fleet : Bonaparte had unloaded almost all of the provisions carried aboard and no supplies were reaching the ships from the shore . To remedy this , Brueys sent foraging parties of 25 men from each ship along the coast to requisition food , dig wells , and collect water . Constant attacks by Bedouin partisans , however , required escorts of heavily armed guards for each party . Hence , up to a third of the fleet 's sailors were away from their ships at any one time . Brueys wrote a letter describing the situation to Minister of Marine Étienne Eustache Bruix , reporting that " Our crews are weak , both in number and quality . Our rigging , in general , out of repair , and I am sure it requires no little courage to undertake the management of a fleet furnished with such tools . "
= = Order of battle = =
= = Battle = =
= = = Nelson 's arrival = = =
Although initially disappointed that the main French fleet was not at Alexandria , Nelson knew from the presence of the transports that they must be nearby . At 14 : 00 on 1 August , lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French anchored in Aboukir Bay , its signal lieutenant just beating the lieutenant on HMS Goliath with the signal , but inaccurately describing 16 French ships of the line instead of 13 . At the same time , French lookouts on Heureux , the ninth ship in the French line , sighted the British fleet approximately nine nautical miles off the mouth of Aboukir Bay . The French initially reported just 11 British ships – Swiftsure and Alexander were still returning from their scouting operations at Alexandria , and so were 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the west of the main fleet , out of sight . Troubridge 's ship , HMS Culloden , was also some distance from the main body , towing a captured merchant ship . At the sight of the French , Troubridge abandoned the vessel and made strenuous efforts to rejoin Nelson . Due to the need for so many sailors to work onshore , Brueys had not deployed any of his lighter warships as scouts , which left him unable to react swiftly to the sudden appearance of the British .
As his ships readied for action , Brueys ordered his captains to gather for a conference on Orient and hastily recalled his shore parties , although most had still not returned by the start of the battle . To replace them , large numbers of men were taken out of the frigates and distributed among the ships of the line . Brueys also hoped to lure the British fleet onto the shoals at Aboukir Island , sending the brigs Alerte and Railleur to act as decoys in the shallow waters . By 16 : 00 , Alexander and Swiftsure were also in sight , although some distance from the main British fleet . Brueys gave orders to abandon the plan to remain at anchor and instead for his line to set sail . Blanquet protested the order on the grounds that there were not enough men aboard the French ships to both sail the ships and man the guns . Nelson gave orders for his leading ships to slow down , to allow the British fleet to approach in a more organised formation . This convinced Brueys that rather than risk an evening battle in confined waters , the British were planning to wait for the following day . He rescinded his earlier order to sail . Brueys may have been hoping that the delay would allow him to slip past the British during the night and thus follow Bonaparte 's orders not to engage the British fleet directly if he could avoid it .
Nelson ordered the fleet to slow down at 16 : 00 to allow his ships to rig " springs " on their anchor cables , a system of attaching the bow anchor that increased stability and allowed his ships to swing their broadsides to face an enemy while stationary . It also increased manoeuvrability and therefore reduced the risk of coming under raking fire . Nelson 's plan , shaped through discussion with his senior captains during the return voyage to Alexandria , was to advance on the French and pass down the seaward side of the van and centre of the French line , so that each French ship would face two British ships and the massive Orient would be fighting against three . The direction of the wind meant that the French rear division would be unable to join the battle easily and would be cut off from the front portions of the line . To ensure that in the smoke and confusion of a night battle his ships would not accidentally open fire on one another , Nelson ordered that each ship prepare four horizontal lights at the head of their mizzen mast and hoist an illuminated White Ensign , which was different enough from the French tricolour that it would not be mistaken in poor visibility , reducing the risk that British ships might fire on one another in the darkness . As his ship was readied for battle , Nelson held a final dinner with Vanguard 's officers , announcing as he rose : " Before this time tomorrow I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey , " in reference to the rewards of victory or the traditional burial place of British military heroes .
Shortly after the French order to set sail was abandoned , the British fleet began rapidly approaching once more . Brueys , now expecting to come under attack that night , ordered each of his ships to place springs on their anchor cables and prepare for action . He sent the Alerte ahead , which passed close to the leading British ships and then steered sharply to the west over the shoal , in the hope that the ships of the line might follow and become grounded . None of Nelson 's captains fell for the ruse and the British fleet continued undeterred . At 17 : 30 , Nelson hailed one of his two leading ships , HMS Zealous under Captain Samuel Hood , which had been racing Goliath to be the first to fire on the French . The admiral ordered Hood to establish the safest course into the harbour . The British had no charts of the depth or shape of the bay , except a rough sketch map Swiftsure had obtained from a merchant captain , an inaccurate British atlas on Zealous , and a 35 @-@ year @-@ old French map aboard Goliath . Hood replied that he would take careful soundings as he advanced to test the depth of the water , and that , " If you will allow the honour of leading you into battle , I will keep the lead going . " Shortly afterwards , Nelson paused to speak with the brig HMS Mutine , whose commander , Lieutenant Thomas Hardy , had seized some maritime pilots from a small Alexandrine vessel . As Vanguard came to a stop , the following ships slowed . This caused a gap to open up between Zealous and Goliath and the rest of the fleet . To counter this effect , Nelson ordered HMS Theseus under Captain Ralph Miller to pass his flagship and join Zealous and Goliath in the vanguard . By 18 : 00 , the British fleet was again under full sail , Vanguard sixth in the line of ten ships as Culloden trailed behind to the north and Alexander and Swiftsure hastened to catch up to the west . Following the rapid change from a loose formation to a rigid line of battle both fleets raised their colours ; each British ship added additional Union Flags in its rigging in case its main flag was shot away . At 18 : 20 , as Goliath and Zealous rapidly bore down on them , the leading French ships Guerrier and Conquérant opened fire .
Ten minutes after the French opened fire Goliath , ignoring fire from the fort to starboard and from Guerrier to port , most of which was too high to trouble the ship , crossed the head of the French line . Captain Thomas Foley had noticed as he approached that there was an unexpected gap between Guerrier and the shallow water of the shoal . On his own initiative , Foley decided to exploit this tactical error and changed his angle of approach to sail through the gap . As the bow of Guerrier came within range , Goliath opened fire , inflicting severe damage with a double @-@ shotted raking broadside as the British ship turned to port and passed down the unprepared port side of Guerrier . Foley 's Royal Marines and a company of Austrian grenadiers joined the attack , firing their muskets . Foley had intended to anchor alongside the French ship and engage it closely , but his anchor took too long to descend and his ship passed Guerrier entirely . Goliath eventually stopped close to the bow of Conquérant , opening fire on the new opponent and using the unengaged starboard guns to exchange occasional shots with the frigate Sérieuse and bomb vessel Hercule , which were anchored inshore of the battle line .
Foley 's attack was followed by Hood in Zealous , who also crossed the French line and successfully anchored next to Guerrier in the space Foley had intended , engaging the lead ship 's bow from close range . Within five minutes Guerrier 's foremast had fallen , to cheers from the crews of the approaching British ships . The speed of the British advance took the French captains by surprise ; they were still aboard Orient in conference with the admiral when the firing started . Hastily launching their boats , they returned to their vessels . Captain Jean @-@ François @-@ Timothée Trullet of Guerrier shouted orders from his barge for his men to return fire on Zealous .
The third British ship into action was HMS Orion under Captain Sir James Saumarez , which rounded the engagement at the head of the battle line and passed between the French main line and the frigates that lay closer inshore . As he did so , the frigate Sérieuse opened fire on Orion , wounding two men . The convention in naval warfare of the time was that ships of the line did not attack frigates when there were ships of equal size to engage , but in firing first French Captain Claude @-@ Jean Martin had negated the rule . Saumarez waited until the frigate was at close range before replying . Orion needed just one broadside to reduce the frigate to a wreck , and Martin 's disabled ship drifted away over the shoal . During the delay this detour caused , two other British ships joined the battle : Theseus , which had been disguised as a first @-@ rate ship , followed Foley 's track across Guerrier 's bow . Miller steered his ship through the middle of the melee between the anchored British and French ships until he encountered the third French ship , Spartiate . Anchoring to port , Miller 's ship opened fire at close range . HMS Audacious under Captain Davidge Gould crossed the French line between Guerrier and Conquérant , anchoring between the ships and raking them both . Orion then rejoined the action further south than intended , firing on the fifth French ship , Peuple Souverain , and Admiral Blanquet 's flagship , Franklin .
The next three British ships , Vanguard in the lead followed by HMS Minotaur and HMS Defence , remained in line of battle formation and anchored on the starboard side of the French line at 18 : 40 . Nelson focused his flagship 's fire on Spartiate , while Captain Thomas Louis in Minotaur attacked the unengaged Aquilon and Captain John Peyton in Defence joined the attack on Peuple Souverain . With the French vanguard now heavily outnumbered , the following British ships , HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic , passed by the melee and advanced on the so far unengaged French centre . Both ships were soon fighting enemies much more powerful than they and began to take severe damage . Captain Henry Darby on Bellerophon missed his intended anchor near Franklin and instead found his ship underneath the main battery of the French flagship . Captain George Blagdon Westcott on Majestic also missed his station and almost collided with Heureux , coming under heavy fire from Tonnant . Unable to stop in time , Westcott 's jib boom became entangled with Tonnant 's shroud .
The French suffered too , Admiral Brueys on Orient was severely wounded in the face and hand by flying debris during the opening exchange of fire with Bellerophon . The final ship of the British line , Culloden under Troubridge , sailed too close to Aboukir Island in the growing darkness and became stuck fast on the shoal . Despite strenuous efforts from the Culloden 's boats , the brig Mutine and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Leander under Captain Thomas Thompson , the ship of the line could not be moved , and the waves drove Culloden further onto the shoal , inflicting severe damage to the ship 's hull .
= = = Surrender of the French van = = =
At 19 : 00 the identifying lights in the mizzenmasts of the British fleet were lit . By this time , Guerrier had been completely dismasted and heavily battered . Zealous by contrast was barely touched : Hood had situated Zealous outside the arc of most of the French ship 's broadsides , and in any case Guerrier was not prepared for an engagement on both sides simultaneously , with its port guns blocked by stores . Although their ship was a wreck , the crew of Guerrier refused to surrender , continuing to fire the few functional guns whenever possible despite heavy answering fire from Zealous . In addition to his cannon fire , Hood called up his marines and ordered them to fire volleys of musket shot at the deck of the French ship , driving the crew out of sight but still failing to secure the surrender from Captain Trullet . It was not until 21 : 00 , when Hood sent a small boat to Guerrier with a boarding party , that the French ship finally surrendered . Conquérant was defeated more rapidly , after heavy broadsides from passing British ships and the close attentions of Audacious and Goliath brought down all three masts before 19 : 00 . With his ship immobile and badly damaged , the mortally wounded Captain Etienne Dalbarade struck his colours and a boarding party seized control . Unlike Zealous , these British ships suffered relatively severe damage in the engagement . Goliath lost most of its rigging , suffered damage to all three masts and suffered more than 60 casualties . With his opponents defeated , Captain Gould on Audacious used the spring on his cable to transfer fire to Spartiate , the next French ship in line . To the west of the battle the battered Sérieuse sank over the shoal . Its masts protruded from the water as survivors scrambled into boats and rowed for the shore .
The transfer of Audacious 's broadside to Spartiate meant that Captain Maurice @-@ Julien Emeriau now faced three opponents . Within minutes all three of his ship 's masts had fallen , but the battle around Spartiate continued until 21 : 00 , when the badly wounded Emeriau ordered his colours struck . Although Spartiate was outnumbered , it had been supported by the next in line , Aquilon , which , uniquely of the French van squadron , was fighting only one opponent , Minotaur . Captain Antoine René Thévenard used the spring on his anchor cable to angle his broadside into a raking position across the bow of Nelson 's flagship , which consequently suffered more than 100 casualties , including the admiral . At approximately 20 : 30 , an iron splinter fired in a langrage shot from Spartiate struck Nelson over his blinded right eye . The wound caused a flap of skin to fall across his face , rendering him temporarily completely blind . Nelson collapsed into the arms of Captain Edward Berry and was carried below . Certain that his wound was fatal , he cried out " I am killed , remember me to my wife " , and called for his chaplain , Stephen Comyn . The wound was immediately inspected by Vanguard 's surgeon Michael Jefferson , who informed the admiral that it was a simple flesh wound and stitched the skin together . Nelson subsequently ignored Jefferson 's instructions to remain inactive , returning to the quarterdeck shortly before the explosion on Orient to oversee the closing stages of the battle . Although Thévenard 's manoeuvre was successful , it placed his own bow under Minotaur 's guns and by 21 : 25 the French ship was dismasted and battered , Captain Thévenard killed and his junior officers forced to surrender . With his opponent defeated , Captain Thomas Louis then took Minotaur south to join the attack on Franklin .
Defence and Orion attacked the fifth French ship , Peuple Souverain , from either side and the ship rapidly lost the fore and main masts . Aboard the Orion , a wooden block was smashed off one of the ship 's masts , killing two men before wounding Captain Saumarez in the thigh . On Peuple Souverain , Captain Pierre @-@ Paul Raccord was badly wounded and ordered his ship 's anchor cable cut in an effort to escape the bombardment . Peuple Souverain drifted south towards the flagship Orient , which mistakenly opened fire on the darkened vessel . Orion and Defence were unable to immediately pursue . Defence had lost its fore topmast and an improvised fireship that drifted through the battle narrowly missed Orion . The origin of this vessel , an abandoned and burning ship 's boat laden with highly flammable material , is uncertain , but it may have been launched from Guerrier as the battle began . Peuple Souverain anchored not far from Orient , but took no further part in the fighting . The wrecked ship surrendered during the night . Franklin remained in combat , but Blanquet had suffered a severe head wound and Captain Gillet had been carried below unconscious with severe wounds . Shortly afterwards , a fire broke out on the quarterdeck after an arms locker exploded , which was eventually extinguished with difficulty by the crew .
To the south , HMS Bellerophon was in serious trouble as the huge broadside of Orient pounded the ship . At 19 : 50 the mizzenmast and main mast both collapsed and fires broke out simultaneously at several points . Although the blazes were extinguished , the ship had suffered more than 200 casualties . Captain Darby recognised that his position was untenable and ordered the anchor cables cut at 20 : 20 . The battered ship drifted away from the battle under continued fire from Tonnant as the foremast collapsed as well . Orient had also suffered significant damage and Admiral Brueys had been struck in the midriff by a cannonball that almost cut him in half . He died fifteen minutes later , remaining on deck and refusing to be carried below . Orient 's captain , Luc @-@ Julien @-@ Joseph Casabianca , was also wounded , struck in the face by flying debris and knocked unconscious , while his twelve @-@ year @-@ old son had a leg torn off by a cannonball as he stood beside his father . The most southerly British ship , Majestic , had become briefly entangled with the 80 @-@ gun Tonnant , and in the resulting battle , suffered heavy casualties . Captain George Blagdon Westcott was among the dead , killed by French musket fire . Lieutenant Robert Cuthbert assumed command and successfully disentangled his ship , allowing the badly damaged Majestic to drift further southwards so that by 20 : 30 it was stationed between Tonnant and the next in line , Heureux , engaging both . To support the centre , Captain Thompson of Leander abandoned the futile efforts to drag the stranded Culloden off the shoal and sailed down the embattled French line , entering the gap created by the drifting Peuple Souverain and opening a fierce raking fire on Franklin and Orient .
While the battle raged in the bay , the two straggling British ships made strenuous efforts to join the engagement , focusing on the flashes of gunfire in the darkness . Warned away from the Aboukir shoals by the grounded Culloden , Captain Benjamin Hallowell in Swiftsure passed the melee at the head of the line and aimed his ship at the French centre . Shortly after 20 : 00 , a dismasted hulk was spotted drifting in front of Swiftsure and Hallowell initially ordered his men to fire before rescinding the order , concerned for the identity of the strange vessel . Hailing the battered ship , Hallowell received the reply " Bellerophon , going out of action disabled . " Relieved that he had not accidentally attacked one of his own ships in the darkness , Hallowell pulled up between Orient and Franklin and opened fire on them both . Alexander , the final unengaged British ship , which had followed Swiftsure , pulled up close to Tonnant , which had begun to drift away from the embattled French flagship . Captain Alexander Ball then joined the attack on Orient .
= = = Destruction of Orient = = =
At 21 : 00 , the British observed a fire on the lower decks of the Orient ( the French flagship ) . Identifying the danger this posed to the Orient , Captain Hallowell directed his gun crews to fire their cannon directly into the blaze . Sustained British cannon fire spread the flames throughout the ship 's stern and prevented all efforts to extinguish it . Within minutes the flames had ascended the rigging and set the vast sails alight . The nearest British ships , Swiftsure , Alexander , and Orion , all stopped firing , closed their gunports , and began edging away from the blazing ship in anticipation of the detonation of the enormous ammunition supplies stored on board . In addition , they took crew away from the guns to form fire parties and soak the sails and decks in seawater to help contain any resulting blazes . Likewise the French ships Tonnant , Heureux and Mercure all cut their anchor cables and drifted southwards away from the blazing ship . At 22 : 00 the fire reached the magazines and the Orient was almost completely destroyed by a massive explosion . The concussion of the blast alone was sufficient to rip open the seams of the nearest ships , and flaming wreckage landed in a huge circle , much of it flying directly over the surrounding ships into the sea beyond . Falling wreckage started fires on Swiftsure , Alexander , and Franklin , although in each case teams of sailors with water buckets succeeded in extinguishing the flames , despite a secondary explosion on Franklin .
It has never been firmly established how the fire on Orient broke out , but one common account is that jars of oil and paint had been left on the poop deck , rather than properly stowed away after paintwork on the ship 's hull had been completed shortly before the battle . Burning wadding from one of the British ships is believed to have floated onto the poop deck and ignited the paint . The fire rapidly spread through the admiral 's cabin and into a ready magazine that stored carcass ammunition , which was designed to burn more fiercely in water than in air . Conversely , Fleet Captain Honoré Ganteaume later reported the cause as an explosion on the quarterdeck , preceded by a series of minor fires on the main deck among the ship 's boats . Whatever its origin , the fire spread rapidly through the ship 's rigging , unchecked by the fire pumps aboard , which had been smashed by British shot . A second blaze then began at the bow , trapping hundreds of sailors in the ship 's waist . Subsequent archaeological investigation found debris scattered over 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of seabed and evidence that the ship was wracked by two huge explosions one after the other . Hundreds of men dived into the sea to escape the flames , but fewer than 100 survived the blast . British boats picked up approximately 70 survivors , including the wounded staff officer Léonard @-@ Bernard Motard . A few others , including Ganteaume , managed to reach the shore on rafts . The remainder of the crew , numbering more than 1 @,@ 000 men , were killed , including Captain Casabianca and his son , Giocante .
For ten minutes after the explosion there was no firing ; sailors from both sides were either too shocked by the blast or desperately extinguishing fires aboard their own ships to continue the fight . During the lull , Nelson gave orders that boats be sent to pull survivors from the water around the remains of Orient . At 22 : 10 , Franklin restarted the engagement by firing on Swiftsure . Isolated and battered , Blanquet 's ship was soon dismasted and the admiral , suffering a severe head wound , was forced to surrender by the combined firepower of Swiftsure and Defence . More than half of Franklin 's crew had been killed or wounded .
By 24 : 00 only Tonnant remained engaged , as Commodore Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars continued his fight with Majestic and fired on Swiftsure when the British ship moved within range . By 03 : 00 , after more than three hours of close quarter combat , Majestic had lost its main and mizzen masts while Tonnant was a dismasted hulk . Although Captain Du Petit Thouars had lost both legs and an arm he remained in command , insisting on having the tricolour nailed to the mast to prevent it from being struck and giving orders from his position propped up on deck in a bucket of wheat . Under his guidance , the battered Tonnant gradually drifted southwards away from the action to join the southern division under Villeneuve , who failed to bring these ships into effective action . Throughout the engagement the French rear had kept up an arbitrary fire on the battling ships ahead . The only noticeable effect was the smashing of Timoléon 's rudder by misdirected fire from the neighbouring Généreux .
= = = Morning = = =
As the sun rose at 04 : 00 on 2 August , firing broke out once again between the French southern division of Guillaume Tell , Tonnant , Généreux and Timoléon and the battered Alexander and Majestic . Although briefly outmatched , the British ships were soon joined by Goliath and Theseus . As Captain Miller manoeuvred his ship into position , Theseus briefly came under fire from the frigate Artémise . Miller turned his ship towards Artémise , but Captain Pierre @-@ Jean Standelet struck his flag and ordered his men to abandon the frigate . Miller sent a boat under Lieutenant William Hoste to take possession of the empty vessel , but Standelet had set fire to his ship as he left and Artémise blew up shortly afterwards . The surviving French ships of the line , covering their retreat with gunfire , gradually pulled to the east away from the shore at 06 : 00 . Zealous pursued , and was able to prevent the frigate Justice from boarding Bellerophon , which was anchored at the southern point of the bay undergoing hasty repairs .
Two other French ships still flew the tricolour , but neither was in a position to either retreat or fight . When Heureux and Mercure had cut their anchor cables to escape the exploding Orient , their crews had panicked and neither captain ( both of whom were wounded ) had managed to regain control of his ship . As a result , both vessels had drifted onto the shoal . Alexander , Goliath , Theseus and Leander attacked the stranded and defenceless ships , and both surrendered within minutes . The distractions provided by Heureux , Mercure and Justice allowed Villeneuve to bring most of the surviving French ships to the mouth of the bay at 11 : 00 . On the dismasted Tonnant , Commodore Du Petit Thouars was now dead from his wounds and thrown overboard at his own request . As the ship was unable to make the required speed it was driven ashore by its crew . Timoléon was too far south to escape with Villeneuve and , in attempting to join the survivors , had also grounded on the shoal . The force of the impact dislodged the ship 's foremast . The remaining French vessels : the ships of the line Guillaume Tell and Généreux and the frigates Justice and Diane , formed up and stood out to sea , pursued by Zealous . Despite strenuous efforts , Captain Hood 's isolated ship came under heavy fire and was unable to cut off the trailing Justice as the French survivors escaped seawards . Zealous was struck by a number of French shot and lost one man killed .
For the remainder of 2 August Nelson 's ships made improvised repairs and boarded and consolidated their prizes . Culloden especially required assistance . Troubridge , having finally dragged his ship off the shoal at 02 : 00 , found that he had lost his rudder and was taking on more than 120 long tons ( 122 t ) of water an hour . Emergency repairs to the hull and fashioning a replacement rudder from a spare topmast took most of the next two days . On the morning of 3 August , Nelson sent Theseus and Leander to force the surrender of the grounded Tonnant and Timoléon . The Tonnant , its decks crowded with 1 @,@ 600 survivors from other French vessels , surrendered as the British ships approached while Timoléon was set on fire by its remaining crew who then escaped to the shore in small boats . Timoléon exploded shortly after midday , the eleventh and final French ship of the line destroyed or captured during the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
" [ I ] went on deck to view the state of the fleets , and an awful sight it was . The whole bay was covered with dead bodies , mangled , wounded and scorched , not a bit of clothes on them except their trousers . "
British casualties in the battle were recorded with some accuracy in the immediate aftermath as 218 killed and approximately 677 wounded , although the number of wounded who subsequently died is not known . The ships that suffered most were Bellerophon with 201 casualties and Majestic with 193 . Other than C
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from the Egyptian Navy , as well as a descendant of the only identified burial , Commander James Russell .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Author Julian Stockwin features this battle in detail in his novel " Tenacious " ISBN 0340832207
= St. Boniface General Hospital ( Winnipeg ) =
St. Boniface General Hospital ( also called St. Boniface Hospital or St. B ) is Manitoba 's second @-@ largest hospital , located in the St. Boniface neighbourhood of Winnipeg . It was founded by the Sisters of Charity ( Grey Nuns ) of Montreal in 1871 , and was the first hospital in Western Canada . The hospital was incorporated in 1960 , and as of 2003 has 554 beds and 78 bassinets .
St. Boniface Hospital is a tertiary health care facility , employing nearly 700 doctors and around 1 @,@ 500 nurses . The hospital buildings cover about 120 @,@ 774 m2 ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The St. Boniface Hospital & Research Foundation is the primary fundraising organization for the hospital . The general admissions program cares for 4 @,@ 000 patients per year in @-@ hospital , and about 40 @,@ 000 as outpatients . Over 5 @,@ 000 births per year occur at the hospital . St. Boniface is a regional centre for cardiac care , and is one of two specialized laboratory testing facilities . It also provides diagnostic imaging and hemodialysis for the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority .
Besides patient care , St. Boniface Hospital also carries out medical research and offers practicum positions for university students through its affiliation with the University of Manitoba . The hospital 's primary research mandate is in cardiovascular studies , imaging ( especially MRI ) , neurodegenerative disorders , and nutraceuticals . The hospital also participates in clinical trials of research discoveries .
= = Location = =
St. Boniface General Hospital is located between the Red and Assiniboine Rivers in the St. Boniface neighbourhood of Winnipeg , which is home to a large proportion of Manitoba 's Francophone population . It lies across the river from downtown and The Forks . The hospital has a parking structure and three parking lots . It also has an ambulance bay .
= = History = =
St. Boniface Hospital was established by the Grey Nuns in 1871 , the first hospital west of Quebec . At that time , it was a small facility with four beds . An operating room was added in 1894 . The Grey Nuns opened a school of nursing in 1897 and used the hospital to teach patient care . By the early 1900s , the hospital was treating approximately 2 @,@ 500 patients per year . An isolation hospital and nurse 's residence was added in 1900 . Due to overcrowding , a new addition was built in 1905 , effectively doubling the patient capacity of the hospital . It was awarded provisional approval by the American College of Surgeons ( ACS ) in 1944 , later becoming the office of the Manitoba Chapter of the ACS . As of 2003 , the hospital has 554 beds and 78 bassinets .
The hospital order was incorporated in 1960 under the name St. Boniface General Hospital , giving it the right to invest and borrow money , own property , and collect fees for services . St. Boniface Hospital , along with the Royal Victoria Hospital , Montreal , opened the first hospice programs in Canada in 1975 . The Hospital Research Centre opened in 1987 , becoming the first Canadian free @-@ standing medical research facility . During the 1997 Red River Flood , the hospital had to be evacuated , and has since created a disaster plan to cope any future evacuations or closures .
The Institute for stained glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at St Boniface Hospital .
= = Funding = =
Basic medical care is a benefit provided to all Canadians through Canada 's publicly funded health system . However , significant additional funding is required for medical research , improvements in patient services , and the clinical programs found at St. Boniface Hospital . The hospital ended the 2008 fiscal year with a C $ 900 @,@ 000 deficit . The St. Boniface Hospital & Research Foundation , founded in 1971 , is the primary fundraising organization for St. Boniface Hospital and the Research Centre . By the end of 2006 , the Foundation had raised over C $ 100 million for patient care and research .
= = Research = =
The St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre is the hospital 's main research facility . It comprises three separate units : the G. Campbell MacLean Building , the Dr. Andrei Sakharov MRI Centre , and the I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute , which are operated with research grants , industry contracts , fundraising , and funding from the University of Manitoba . The centre opened in 1987 . Its primary research mandate addresses three main areas : cardiovascular sciences , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) and spectroscopy , and degenerative disorders associated with aging . In addition , the Centre undertakes research in anesthesia , epidemiology , family medicine , infectious diseases , nephrology , nursing , nutraceuticals , pharmaceuticals , sleep disorders , and surgery .
= = = Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences = = =
St. Boniface Hospital 's Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences researches heart disease at the cellular and molecular levels . It also hosts the Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology , the journal Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry , the International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences , and its journal Experimental & Clinical Cardiology . The Institute was created as the Division of Cardiovascular Sciences in 1987 by Dr. Naranjan Dhalla . Its researchers have been published in such academic journals as the New England Journal of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research .
= = = Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders = = =
The Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders ( DND ) was established in 1999 . The DND is a neurodegenerative research team working to identify causes and treatments for disorders like Alzheimer ’ s , strokes , traumatic brain injury , and central nervous system degeneration , to study the effect of diabetes on neurodegeneration , and to conduct sleep studies . As of 2011 , the principal investigators collectively have over 150 journal publications .
= = = Canadian Centre for Agri @-@ Food Research in Health and Medicine = = =
The Canadian Centre for Agri @-@ food Research in Health and Medicine ( CCARM ) investigates nutraceuticals and health food in partnership with Agriculture and Agri @-@ food Canada . CCARM ’ s mandate is to research natural health products and give the results to the scientific community and the general public . The results of their research have been published in numerous academic journals , including the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition and the Journal of Biological Chemistry .
= = = MRI centre = = =
The Dr. Andrei Sakharov Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( MRI ) Facility , the first of its kind in Manitoba , has three MRI scanners . The facility allows radiologists to diagnose abnormalities of the brain , spinal cord , internal organs and joints . St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre is a recognized leader in the MRI field and has one of the largest MRI research facilities in Canada . An MRI was first installed at St. Boniface in 1990 ; this MRI was eventually replaced by a more modern version , which is primarily used for clinical purposes . The other two MRIs are research @-@ oriented : they are an interventional scanner and a head @-@ only functional unit . The clinical scanner enables the Centre to do echo @-@ planar imaging , producing images at video rates ; the interventional MRI gives physicians access to the patient during imaging , which supports research into robotics @-@ guided laser surgery . Research carried out at the centre has been published in the Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging .
= = = Clinical research = = =
The I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute facilitates clinical trials of the discoveries made at the Research Centre . The Institute is the third research facility in Canada to conduct tests on new drugs and medical devices . The I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute was opened in 2004 .
= = Education = =
St. Boniface Hospital is affiliated with the University of Manitoba 's education and research branches , providing internship and practicum positions for students . The hospital works with multiple University of Manitoba faculties , including medicine , nursing , pharmacy , social work , respiratory therapy , physiotherapy and occupational therapy , as well as with Red River College and Collège universitaire de Saint @-@ Boniface . St. Boniface Hospital also hosts the Winnipeg Critical Care Nursing Education Program .
= = Services = =
St. Boniface is one of Manitoba 's two tertiary care centres . Patients are usually referred to the hospital by their doctors or clinics for specialized care , but may also be admitted through the emergency department . The Medicine Program is the adult general admissions program . This program admits around 4 @,@ 000 patients per year , and treats around 40 @,@ 000 through outpatient clinics . Services include : internal medicine , endocrinology , rheumatology , respiratory medicine , gastroenterology , hematology , oncology , pathology and neurology . The outreach program also includes at @-@ home intravenous therapy and nutrition . The hospital has 14 operating rooms ; there is also a surgical intensive care unit available for recovery . The surgical department treats over 14 @,@ 000 patients per year . St. Boniface 's emergency department provides acute care for an average of over 100 patients per day . The emergency room has recently been renovated , and the department is currently working to reduce patient wait times .
The Family Medicine Program is designed to encourage disease prevention and health maintenance . It also includes a palliative care unit , the first nationally accredited palliative residency program in Canada . The Rehabilitation Program provides inpatient and outpatient physiotherapy . The Mental Health program provides psychological and counselling services to adult and adolescent patients . It also maintains an inpatient program , and provides stress counselling to hospital staff .
= = = Cardiac Sciences Program = = =
The Cardiac Sciences Program ( including the departments of Cardiac Surgery , Cardiology , Cardiac Anesthesiology and Critical Care ) is an integrated heart health unit designed to treat cardiac problems . The Bergen Cardiac Care Centre provides access to tertiary cardiology care and hosts cardiac operations and diagnostics , the only hospital in Manitoba to offer certain specialized services . It includes three cardiac angiography rooms , one pacemaker and cardiac defibrillator room , one room for procedures in electrophysiology , 17 recovery beds , cardiology clinics , echocardiography rooms , and office space .
= = = Diagnostic imaging = = =
St. Boniface is one of eight hospitals in Winnipeg providing diagnostic imaging services , and is part of the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority 's diagnostic imaging program . It provides : angiography , bone density imaging , CT scans , MRIs , mammography , nuclear medicine tests , ultrasounds and X @-@ rays . St. Boniface was the home of Manitoba 's first MRI scanner , and is one of the largest diagnostic MRI facilities in Western Canada .
= = = Laboratories = = =
The laboratories at the St. Boniface Hospital operate under the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority 's Laboratory Medicine Program ; St. Boniface is one of the two main referral sites in the WRHA for specialty tests . They run tests in biochemistry , hematology , immunology , microbiology , cytology and pathology for patients and doctors in Manitoba . They also provide some specialized testing facilities for educational institutions .
= = = Manitoba Renal Program = = =
St. Boniface Hospital provides acute and chronic hemodialysis as part of the Manitoba Renal Program . It also has a renal health clinic to assess patients with kidney problems .
= = = Woman & Child Program = = =
The Woman & Child Program cares for 11 @,@ 500 patients annually , providing gynecological and obstetrical services , outpatient pediatric care and women 's services . Over 5 @,@ 000 births per year occur at St. Boniface Hospital . The Labour and Delivery department includes services for high @-@ risk deliveries . The family care unit includes fifteen beds for obstetrical patients . The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit ( NICU ) cares for 600 premature or ill infants per year ; 10 % of the births at St. Boniface involve ill or premature babies .
= = Assessment = =
St. Boniface reports 80 % patient satisfaction with its services , according to internal inpatient surveys . Mortality rates for inpatients stand at around 2 @.@ 4 % . Unlike the United Kingdom and the United States , Canada does not publish national ratings of individual hospitals .
According to internal reviews , the hospital reduced average wait times for acute care surgical patients from 10 hours to 3 between October 2008 and February 2009 . As of 2009 , the hospital is trying to reduce wait times for emergency room patients . Wait times for scheduled diagnostic services range from 4 weeks for bone density tests to 20 weeks for a myocardial perfusion study . The median wait time for cardiac surgery is 26 days .
= Huw Edwards ( conductor ) =
Huw Edwards is a Welsh conductor currently serving as music director of Olympia , Washington 's Olympia Symphony Orchestra and orchestra conductor at the University of Puget Sound . Edwards ' conducting career began at age seventeen when he became music director of the Maidstone Opera Company in England . He later attended the University of Surrey , where he conducted the college orchestra along with an ensemble that he formed himself . At age twenty @-@ three , he won a conducting competition which sent him to Southern Methodist University in Dallas , Texas . He then held a lecturer position at Northwestern University in Chicago , where he was also a doctoral candidate . Edwards was conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic from 1995 to 2002 followed by the Seattle Youth Symphony from 2002 to 2005 . He served as music director of the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra from 2000 to 2012 and has been with the Olympia Symphony Orchestra since 2002 . In May 2012 Edwards accepted a position as orchestra conductor at the University of Puget Sound .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in South Wales , Edwards moved with his parents to England and sang in choirs as a child . He witnessed his first opera ( Giuseppe Verdi 's Un ballo in maschera ) at eleven years old when his parents took him to the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden . Seven years later , he was conducting Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta H.M.S. Pinafore on that same podium . Edwards played violin and trumpet through grammar school and high school but abandoned performance for conducting .
Edwards has been conducting since age seventeen when he became music director of the Maidstone Opera Company in England , a position he held for six years . Edwards attended the University of Surrey , where he conducted the college orchestra along with an ensemble that he formed himself . He won a conducting competition in 1988 which sent him to Southern Methodist University in Dallas , Texas at twenty @-@ three years old . There he experienced " culture shock " , being " accustomed to the rolling hills of England and the cosmopolitan buzz of London " . He held a lecturer position at Northwestern University in Chicago , where he was also a doctoral candidate . Four years later he moved to the Pacific Northwest . Throughout his lifetime , Edwards has received instruction from Anshel Brusilow ( Dallas ) , chorus leader Simon Johnson ( London ) , Eduardo Mata , Barry Wordsworth , and Victor Yampolsky ( Northwestern University ) .
= = Career = =
Prior to joining the Portland Youth Philharmonic , Edwards had written extensively about music . He contributed to Stagebill in Chicago , Dallas , London and Washington , D.C. and wrote program notes for Daniel Barenboim , Yo @-@ Yo Ma and the Guarnari Quartet . He had also conducted opera and orchestras throughout Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , Japan , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Edwards has performed with the Annas Bay Opera , Dallas Symphony Orchestra , Eugene Symphony , Memphis Symphony Orchestra , Oregon Symphony , Rose City Chamber Orchestra , Vancouver Symphony Orchestra , Wisconsin Chamber Orchestra , and Yakima Symphony . He has been invited to speak at the American Symphony Orchestra League convention in Boston and assisted with the organisation 's " Meet for the Millennium " project .
= = = Portland Youth Philharmonic = = =
Edwards became conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic ( PYP ) in 1995 , following Jacob Avshalomov 's forty @-@ year tenure to become the orchestra 's third conductor . He was selected unanimously by a twelve @-@ person committee from a field of more than one hundred candidates , and was officially handed the baton by Avshalomov at the season opening Riverside Classics concert on 30 August . After Avshalomov conducted the first half of the concert , Edwards completed PYP 's set with performances of works by Ludwig van Beethoven , Johannes Brahms , Franz Schubert , and Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . The program for the first subscription series concert , which received positive reception , included : Giuseppe Verdi 's Nabucco Overture , Ralph Vaughan Williams 's Serenade to Music , and Paul Hindemith 's Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes of Carl Maria von Weber . In addition to the four season subscription concerts performed at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall , the 1995 – 1996 season included performances at the Newport Performing Arts Center in Newport and The Resort at the Mountain near Mount Hood , as well as in Eugene , Salem , and Newberg . In 1996 the first interactive Children 's Concert was broadcast live via satellite across Oregon . The collaboration between PYP and Multnomah Community TV continued beyond 1996 ; in 1998 concerts were streamed as far away as Tucson , Arizona , and a 1999 recording became a finalist in the national Hometown Video Festival .
Released on 27 March 1998 , Fountain of Youth became the orchestra 's sixth commercial recording on Compact Disc ( previous recordings were vinyl or cassette ) . The compilation album included works recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall during seasons seventy @-@ three and seventy @-@ four . In January 1999 , Portland Parent published an article by Edwards titled " The Role of Classical Music in the Lives of Young People " , which discussed the benefits of classical music to child learning development . The 1998 – 1999 season included performances in Salem , Newberg , Welches , St. Helens , and Milwaukie and Longview , Washington in addition to the regular subscription series . On 10 February 1999 the orchestra opened a Portland Trail Blazers game at the Rose Garden performing The Star @-@ Spangled Banner .
During Edwards ' seven years with the orchestra , he and other PYP representatives established a peer mentor program which partnered orchestra musicians with low @-@ income students with little access to music education , and earned the ensemble its second ASCAP award for " Adventurous Programming and Commitment to Contemporary Music " . He made five recordings and led the orchestra on two tours : in April 1998 the Philharmonic represented the United States at the Banff International Festival of Youth Orchestras in Canada , and the orchestra toured Australia and New Zealand in 2000 . The tour included performances in Auckland , Brisbane , Canberra , Armidale , Newcastle , Sydney , and Melbourne . Edwards also recorded Gabriel Fauré 's Requiem at St. Mary 's Cathedral as a collaboration with Cantores in Ecclesia . Edwards left PYP in 2002 and was succeeded by Mei @-@ Ann Chen . Guest conductors during PYP 's 2007 – 2008 season included Ken Selden , director of orchestral studies at Portland State University , former Seattle Symphony conductor Alastair Willis , along with former PYP conductors Edwards and Chen .
= = = Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestra = = =
He became music director of the Seattle Youth Symphony at the start of its sixtieth season ( 2002 – 2003 ) , putting him in charge of 1 @,@ 000 young musicians participating in the symphony and its four preparatory orchestras as well as the organisation 's outreach programs and the Marrowstone Music Festival program . Edwards increased the Seattle orchestra 's repertoire by performing works by British composers of the 20th century and by premiering works by American composers such as John Mackey . One Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer contributor wrote that Edwards made a " fine choice " for the ensemble , noting that he " nurture [ d ] , coache [ d ] and encourage [ d ] his musicians " . Furthermore , she claimed that his program notes were a " model of clarity and fascinating detail " . Edwards remained music director of the Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestra until 2005 . He has stated the following about working with young musicians :
[ With young musicians ] You have to teach and explain more . You have to fire their imagination . With professionals , you look for clarity and consistency . With students , you have to motivate and explain , using different approaches . Their attention span can come and go . It is unpredictable . From first rehearsal to performance , they will come a long way . I am very big on team work , and I tell them they are part of a team and individual egos are less important .
= = = Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra , Olympia Symphony Orchestra = = =
Edwards began serving as music director of the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra in 2000 . His year @-@ long audition process for the music director position with the Olympia Symphony Orchestra began during the 2002 – 2003 season . The season also marked his fifth with the Marrowstone Summer Music program , where he remained until 2005 . In 2010 , Edwards was one of four finalists for the conductor position with the Yakima Symphony Orchestra .
In April 2012 Edwards announced his resignation at the end of his twelfth season with the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra , citing exhaustion from the commutes between Olympia and Portland as the reason . He has been named Conductor Emeritus and Principal Guest Conductor and returned for the 2012 – 2013 season finale concert .
During the final performance of the Olympia Symphony Orchestra 's 2014 – 15 season it was announced that Edwards had signed a ten @-@ year contract extension as its conductor .
= = = University of Puget Sound = = =
In May 2012 , Edwards accepted the orchestra conductor position at the University of Puget Sound , a private liberal arts college located in Tacoma , Washington .
= = Interests = =
Dedicated to music education , Edwards enjoys conducting Beethoven for youth orchestras . He has admitted that he did not envision a career conducting youth orchestras but also that he " did not rule them out " . His favourite composition is Parsifal by Richard Wagner ; other favourites include unaccompanied choral music , cello suites by Bach , quartets by Beethoven and jazz , including Nat King Cole . Apart from music , Edwards likes the Chicago Bears , CrossFit , golf , kayaking , Masterpiece Theater , poetry , and Rhône wine along with the winemaking process . Edwards is an avid sports fan and fitness advocate ; he is a former rugby player , enjoys running and playing squash , and believes there are similarities between how music and sports affect the community . He was sometimes referred to as " coach " by musicians of the Portland Youth Philharmonic . Edwards has shared that he would want to work at a vineyard or winery , or be a sports radio host or travel correspondent for a publication if he were not a conductor .
= The Forge ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" The Forge " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on November 19 , 2004 on UPN . Directed by Michael Grossman , the script was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , and formed the first part of a three @-@ episode arc which continued in " Awakening " and concluded in " Kir 'Shara " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the crew investigates the bombing of the Earth embassy on Vulcan . The evidence lead them to suspect a group called the Syrrannites , and Captain Archer and Commander T 'Pol seek to cross an unforgiving Vulcan desert , known as " The Forge " , in order to find them . Meanwhile on the ship , the crew discover that the evidence was planted by elements linked to Vulcan High Command .
The episode picks up on several references from Star Trek : The Original Series and The Animated Series . Scenes were filmed in Simi Valley , California to represent the Vulcan Forge itself , which was augmented with additional CGI to represent the firestorm and a Vulcan animal called the sehlat . The ratings for " The Forge " saw a decrease from the previous two episodes .
= = Plot = =
Enterprise is ordered to Vulcan after 31 humans die in the bombing of the United Earth Embassy , including Vice @-@ Admiral Forrest , who is killed saving the life of Ambassador Soval . Captain Archer meets with the head of the Vulcan High Command , Administrator V 'Las , who concedes that the Syrrannites , a Vulcan faction , might have been responsible . This is possible since although they claim peaceful tenets , they follow a " corrupted " form of the teachings of the Vulcan philosopher and father of Vulcan logic , Surak . Further , initial video and DNA evidence lead to a Vulcan named T 'Pau , a known Syrrannite .
Koss arrives on board Enterprise to speak to his wife , T 'Pol . He gives her an IDIC pendant from her mother , who he explains is also a Syrrannite . The pendant projects a map showing a path across a desert on Vulcan called “ the Forge , ” which Archer believes will lead them to both T 'Pau and T 'Pol 's mother . T 'Pol and Archer leave the ship and begin to make the crossing , following the map . They soon encounter another traveller , calling himself Arev , who assists but remains distrustful of them . A sand @-@ fire storm kills Arev , but before he dies , he forcefully performs a mind @-@ meld with Archer to transfer his katra . After burying him , a focussed Archer leads T 'Pol directly to the concealed T 'Karath Sanctuary , where they are quickly captured .
Back on Enterprise , Doctor Phlox discovers that the DNA was planted . He and Commander Tucker then examine security scans near a checkpoint in the Embassy and single out a hooded man holding a suspicious package . Furthermore they notice that the guard at the checkpoint seems to already know who the bomber is . Unfortunately , the guard is in a coma from the blast , and Archer and T 'Pol are incommunicado . Even though it violates standard Vulcan ethics , Phlox and Tucker consider a mind @-@ meld , and Soval decides to perform it himself . To his surprise , he discovers that the suspect is Stel , a Vulcan investigator attached to V 'Las . Soval then resolves to inform the High Command .
= = Production = =
Production on the episode began on September 14 , 2004 and ran through to September 22 . The standing sets were used for the first three days of filming . Further sets were created to represent the Vulcan Embassy and portions of the Forge . The final two days were filmed on site in Simi Valley in southern California , which doubled as the main areas of the Forge . The property used in the valley was owned by mining company P.W. Gillibrand , which was nearby property owned by Vulcan Materials Company . Optical effects were added to represent the firestorm and the sehlat . The CGI sehlat was based on one which previously appeared in Star Trek : The Animated Series episode " Yesteryear " . Visual effects producer Dan Curry said that the team " looked at the animated series and it just looked nice and pleasant , so I did a couple of sketches to do a reinterpretation of it to make it look scary , but not be too radical a departure from the original " . Eden FX modelled the CGI under supervision by staff visual effects supervisor Art Codron . Additional care was taken to create the fur so that close @-@ ups could be used if required . The only physical portion of the sehlat to be created was a single paw . " Yesteryear " was set in the Vulcan city Shi 'Khar , which reappears in " The Forge " , and it is also the first mention of the area on Vulcan called the Forge . A further reference was made to " Vulcan 's Forge " in the Deep Space Nine episode " Change of Heart " .
" The Forge " and the following two episodes make reference to a time of savagery in Vulcan history known as the " Time of Awakening " . This had been previously mentioned in The Original Series episodes " Balance of Terror " , " All Our Yesterdays " and " The Savage Curtain " as well as The Next Generation episode " Gambit " . The story mentioned the Vulcan T 'Pau , who had previously appeared in The Original Series episode " Amok Time " presiding over the fight between Kirk and Spock , with the elder T 'Pau portrayed by Celia Lovsky . Michael Reilly Burke returns as Koss , having previously appeared in the role in the season four episode " Home " . Robert Foxworth appears as Administrator V 'Las , having previously appeared as Admiral Leyton in the Deep Space Nine episodes " Homefront " and " Paradise Lost " .
Husband and wife duo Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens had previously written a number of Star Trek related novels and books , including a series of collaborations with William Shatner and the novel Federation . They had also written several non @-@ fiction books on the behind the scenes productions of the Star Trek series such as Star Trek : Phase II - The Lost Series and Star Trek : The Next Generation - The Continuing Mission . " The Forge " was their first script together for a Star Trek series , but they had previously written scripts for other shows including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Lost World and Once a Thief . They joined the Enterprise writing team shortly before working on the story for this episode which formed the first part of a planned " Vulcan arc " . The arc was created to address the differences between Vulcans seen in the early seasons of Enterprise and those seen in Star Trek series set in later periods . Executive producer Manny Coto said that during the storyline " we will begin to see Vulcans approaching what they were in the later eras " . In Enterprise , Vulcans were more emotional and deceptive than they had been seen in earlier aired series . The storyline was one of several in the fourth season of Enterprise which Coto sought to connect the series to The Original Series . " The Forge " was director Michael Grossman 's second episode of Enterprise , having previously directed the third season episode " Hatchery " . He went on to direct the episode " Affliction " later in season four .
= = Reception and home media = =
" The Forge " received a 1 @.@ 9 / 3 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . This resulted in UPN placing last out of the major networks with NBC leading during the timeslot with a 6 @.@ 3 / 11 % rating for Dateline . Joan of Arcadia on CBS was close to NBC 's numbers with a rating of 6 @.@ 2 / 11 % . " The Forge " saw a decrease from the 2 @.@ 1 / 4 % share received by the previous two episodes " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " .
Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation approved of the episode with some reservations . She said that it " beautifully melds together threads from every Star Trek series in a way that 's deeply satisfying to this lifelong Trekker " , However , she was disappointed at the lack of anything for Hoshi Sato or Travis Mayweather to do , and the obviousness of the use of some green screens in some scenes . Jamahl Epsicokhan of the website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as a " jam @-@ packed story that cares about the history of Star Trek " . He gave it a score of 3 @.@ 5 / 4 , saying that it was " an intriguing outing . It 's like a cross between Enterprise , The Original Series , and Deep Space Nine , all at once . " When later summarising the fourth season , he described " The Forge " as " easily Enterprise 's best episode of the season " .
The first home media release of " The Forge " was in the season three DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Everything Has Changed =
" Everything Has Changed " is a song written and performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift and English singer @-@ songwriter Ed Sheeran , taken from Swift 's fourth studio album Red ( 2012 ) . Produced by Butch Walker , the track was released as the sixth single from the album on July 16 , 2013 . " Everything Has Changed " is a guitar ballad combining folk and pop genres about " wanting to get to know a new lover better " .
The single gained mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its composition . " Everything Has Changed " peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top ten charts of countries including Belgium , Ireland and the United Kingdom . A music video for " Everything Has Changed " was released of Swift 's VEVO channel on June 6 , 2013 . Swift performed " Everything Has Changed " with Sheeran on Britain 's Got Talent on June 8 , 2013 . Swift also performed the track on her Red Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
It was reported that English singer @-@ songwriter Ed Sheeran would appear as a guest artist on American recording artist Taylor Swift 's then @-@ upcoming album Red . On October 18 , 2012 , " Everything Has Changed " by Swift featuring Sheeran was leaked online . The song was written by Swift and Sheeran in Swift 's backyard . " Everything Has Changed " is a guitar ballad , blending folk @-@ pop genres . Written in the key of G @-@ flat major , it has a moderate tempo of 84 beats per minute . The duo 's vocal range spans from G ♭ 3 to D ♭ 5 . Lyrically , the track talks about " wanting to get to know a new lover better " . Swift further explained the song 's theme , " Everything looks different to you because of this one person , because one new person came into your life . It ’ s really cool " .
= = Reception = =
" Everything Has Changed " received generally lukewarm reviews from music critics . A writer from Billboard gave the song a mixed review , criticizing its composition yet complimenting Sheeran 's appearance . Robert Cospey of Digital Spy gave the song a three stars out of five rating , praising the song 's musical style as " cutesy " but felt that " their exchanges leave us with a warm and fuzzy feeling that is all too rare these days " . Sian Rowe , a writer from NME provided " Everything Has Changed " a negative review , writing that the track is " disappointing in every way " .
In the United States , " Everything Has Changed " peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; it eventually charted at number eight on the Adult Pop Songs , number 11 on the Adult Contemporary and number 14 on the Mainstream Top 40 . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the single peaked at number 28 . " Everything Has Changed " was more commercially successful in several European territories , peaking at number five in Ireland , number seven in Sheeran 's native United Kingdom , and number eight in Belgium ( Flanders region ) . It was certified gold by the Recorded Music NZ , and Recording Industry Association of America , and double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association .
= = Music video = =
A music video for " Everything Has Changed " was released on Swift 's VEVO channel on YouTube on June 6 , 2013 . It was directed by Philip Andelman and filmed in Los Angeles and San Antonio . The video begins with two children who initially appear to be Swift and Sheeran when they were much younger , meeting each other on a bus to elementary school . Young Taylor is played by Ava Ames . Throughout the video , the two children have their " youthful play " including painting their faces with crayons , pretending to be a princess and knight , and dancing with each other in the empty school gym . At the end , Swift and Sheeran appear and we realize that they are actually two different parents , arriving at the school to pick up their kids and take each of the children back to their respective homes . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard labelled the video as " impossibly adorable " , while Ray Rahman from Entertainment Weekly compared the video 's synopsis to Forrest Gump , but " much more gentle than that " . To date , it has 186 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
On June 8 , 2013 , Swift and Sheeran performed " Everything Has Changed " together on season finale of the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent . Swift also sang the song on her Red Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Everything Has Changed ( Remix ) [ feat . Ed Sheeran ] " – 4 : 06
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= 1909 Velasco hurricane =
The 1909 Velasco hurricane was an intense tropical cyclone that devastated areas of the Texas coast in July of the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season . The fourth tropical storm , second hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , it formed from an area of disturbed weather east of the Leeward Islands on July 13 , 1909 . Remaining weak for much of its early existence , the system began to intensify after nearing Jamaica . Curving towards the northwest , it reached hurricane strength on July 18 near the western tip of Cuba . Intensification stalled as it moved westwards across the Gulf of Mexico , but resumed as the hurricane approached the Texas coast . The storm intensified to a major hurricane on July 21 and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) prior to making landfall near Velasco , Texas . Once over land , the system began to quickly weaken , and dissipated near the Rio Grande on July 22 .
The hurricane caused 41 deaths and $ 2 million in damages , all of which were in Texas . Strong waves caused several offshore shipping incidents , and storm surge inundated areas of the Texas coast , though damage in Galveston was mostly mitigated by the Galveston Seawall . In Velasco , only eight buildings remained intact after the hurricane . Strong winds forced train closures and destroyed and downed various infrastructure . Heavy rains further inland peaked at 8 @.@ 5 in ( 220 mm ) in Hallettsville .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression was first noted at 1200 UTC on July 13 , northeast of Grenada in the Windward Islands , with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , though whether it had a closed circulation at the time remains unclear . Nonetheless , the system remained a weak tropical depression for much of its early existence as it moved to the west @-@ northwest through the eastern Caribbean Sea . Weather reports throughout the Caribbean during this time were sparse and according to José Partagás , a former meteorologist at the National Hurricane Center , the system still may have not formed a closed circulation . This meant that the low was not classifiable , though the lack of data also meant that there was no evidence to support this claim and the system was kept as a tropical depression in HURDAT , the Atlantic Hurricane Database . However , once the depression was located south of Jamaica , it began to slowly strengthen and curve more towards the northwest , reaching tropical storm intensity by 0000 UTC on July 17 . At the time , the system was expected to make landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported strong breezes associated with low barometric pressure . Despite predictions , the system curved from its initial west @-@ northwest movement and more towards the northwest , towards the central Gulf of Mexico . The tropical storm continued to intensify , attaining hurricane strength as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale at 1800 UTC on July 18 after skirting past the Guanahacabibes Peninsula .
Once in the Gulf of Mexico , intensification substantially lessened as the storm maintained its Category 1 intensity throughout July 19 and July 20 . The hurricane curved in the gulf back to a more westerly direction , while moving at about 10 mph ( 15 km / h ) . A minimum pressure reading of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) was reported offshore south of Louisiana by the ship S.S. Paraguay at 1800 UTC on July 20 . Strengthening resumed on July 21 as the hurricane tracked almost parallel to the Louisiana coastline towards Texas . Later that day , the storm attained its peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 3 major hurricane , with sustained winds of 115 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 959 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) . The hurricane made landfall at this intensity almost directly over Velasco , Texas , with maximum wind speeds stretching 22 mi ( 35 km ) from the hurricane 's center . Over the following 24 hours , the system rapidly weakened over land and lost tropical charcatersitics near the Rio Grande during the afternoon of July 22 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the hurricane approached Texas , the Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings for potentially affected areas beginning on July 18 . Ships and ports were also continuously notified on the oncoming storm , which helped to keep offshore shipping accidents to a minimum . Inland , as a precautionary measure , rail operations along the coast were halted for a duration of the storm 's passage .
At its landfall in Velasco , the hurricane caused a wide swath of damage along the Texas coast and areas further inland . Despite previously issued warnings , rough seas produced by the hurricane still caused several ship accidents . Strong waves forced several ships near Galveston to either become grounded or sunk . The derrick barge Miller and other craft were grounded along Galveston 's West Bay . A large dredge was swept into the Galveston Causeway , snapping telegraph cables that ran along the length of the causeway . The Miriam was sunken by a submerged log , while the schooner Ed Gibbs was broken into pieces near La Porte . The steamboat El Siglo ( The Century ) remained stranded offshore for twelve hours in winds estimated at 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Off of Mobile , Alabama , the high waves prevented ships from entering the Port of Mobile . Closer to the coast , the hurricane produced a storm surge of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in Galveston and Velasco . However , due to the Galveston Seawall , much of the potential storm surge @-@ related damage in Galveston was mitigated , though the seawall forced spray to rise 60 ft ( 18 m ) in the air . Areas outside the seawall on the Galveston beach , including two fishing piers and pavilions were destroyed . On Galveston 's Tarpon Pier , ten members of a fishing party perished after the pier collapsed , though six were rescued by the yacht Mayflower . In western areas of Galveston , where there was no seawall , inland areas were inundated under 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . However , Galveston 's primary streets were submerged to a lesser extent , under 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . In Velasco , the tide was reported to have been 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher than during the 1900 Galveston hurricane , which inundated the city under 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water . Areas of Sabine Pass were also inundated by the high waves , and the Southern Pacific Railroad was submerged in water .
In Velasco , where the hurricane made landfall , only eight buildings remained intact after the storm 's passage . Quintana , Columbus , and Columbia were also heavily affected , with all houses experiencing some form of severe damage . In Austin , homes were unroofed , and the storm was considered as the worst hurricane to affect Austin at the time . Heavy rains caused large amounts of driftwood to float down the Colorado River . In Austin , the driftwood struck the newly constructed Congress Avenue Bridge , carrying away 200 ft ( 61 m ) of trestle and resulting in $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages . Other cities also reported severely damaged homes and businesses . Galveston suffered minor damage , with reports of chimney damage and broken windows . Three sections of the Galveston Causeway were blown down by the strong winds . As a result , tug boats were forced to carry people and cargo to and from Galveston along West Bay . The Western Union Telegraph Company reportedly lost all direct communication with Galveston for a temporary period of time . Other telegraph companies in Dallas and Chicago also lost communications with the city . Property damage in Galveston was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 . Strong winds and gusts from the storm were reported as far inland as Eagle Pass . The winds uprooted trees and extensively damaged various crops , as well as downed power lines . In the Galveston Jetty , Rosenburg , and Brazoria , strong winds blew trains off of their tracks . Train stations and train depots along the coast also experienced considerable damage , with some depots being completely leveled . Maize fields which had been previously burned by wildfires caused by an ongoing drought in Kingsville were swept down , while cotton crops withstood the hurricane well . Oil dericks near Markham were blown down , and water wells were stripped of their machinery . In Alvin , barns and windmills were destroyed . Richmond also reported destroyed barns , as well as downed chimneys . Six prisoners escaped from the city 's local jail after windows were blown in . Rice mills were downed in Eagle Pass .
Damage was comparatively light in Louisiana . Heavy rains and storm surge inundated marshes , resulting in hundreds of reported cattle drownings . Cotton crops from Grand Chenier , Louisiana to Sabine Pass was destroyed by the rains and wind . Two deaths in Louisiana were reported in Cameron Parish , Louisiana .
Further inland , the hurricane produced heavy rainfall in many areas , peaking at 8 @.@ 5 in ( 220 mm ) in Hallettsville , Texas , with rainfall totals of at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) common in along the hurricane 's track . Boerne , Fredericksbrug , and Columbia all set monthly records for 24 ‑ hour rainfall totals on July 21 and 22 , with all three cities reporting totals of 5 in ( 130 mm ) or greater . While the heavy rains caused damage in areas , it provided beneficial drought relief in other regions .
= The Last Theorem =
The Last Theorem is a 2008 science fiction novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl . It was first published in the United Kingdom by HarperVoyager in July 2008 , and in the United States by Del Rey Books in August 2008 . The book is about a young Sri Lankan mathematician who finds a short proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem , while an alien invasion of Earth is in progress .
The novel began as Clarke 's , but when ill health and a psychological ( or possibly neurological ) form of writer 's block prevented him from making progress , he handed over his notes and the incomplete manuscript to Pohl , who , in close consultation with Clarke , completed the novel . Clarke reviewed the final manuscript in early March 2008 , just days before he died .
In general The Last Theorem was not well received by critics . Entertainment Weekly in their review of the novel said that " uneven pacing and tone mar an intriguing cautionary tale . " The Los Angeles Times wondered how stable the manuscript was when it was published , adding that it does nothing to " burnish the legacy of either of its authors . " The San Francisco Chronicle , however , described the novel as a " fitting valedictory for Clarke , [ ... ] and a reminder of Pohl 's great relevance to a genre he has championed for more than 70 years . "
= = Background = =
Science fiction Grand Masters , Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl collaborated for the first time on The Last Theorem . The novel initially was Clarke 's , and he began working on it in early 2004 . But in 2006 , at the age of 88 , ill health brought on by complications from post @-@ polio syndrome , and writer 's block , impeded his progress , and he asked Pohl for help . Pohl explained : " Arthur said to me that he woke up one morning and didn 't know how to write any of the books he had contracted . The stories had just gone out of his head . " Clarke gave Pohl a 40 – 50 page manuscript plus roughly 50 pages of notes , and over the next two years , Pohl wrote the book . Pohl said that " Everything in the novel is something he either suggested or wrote or I discussed with him . " Some of Clarke 's notes were so obscure that even Clarke himself could not understand them . Pohl , only two years younger than Clarke , had health problems of his own : he could no longer type and wrote the book out in longhand , leaving it up to his wife to translate his " indecipherable scribbles " . Clarke reviewed and approved the final manuscript of The Last Theorem in early March 2008 , just days before he died . Pohl died five years later in September 2013 .
Some of the concepts that appear in The Last Theorem originally appeared in Clarke 's earlier works . The space elevator that is built in Sri Lanka originally featured in The Fountains of Paradise ( 1979 ) where it was also built in Sri Lanka ( then Ceylon ) . Because the elevator will work only on or near the equator , Clarke " moved " Ceylon south to the equator in The Fountains of Paradise , and the equator north to Sri Lanka in The Last Theorem . The solar powered space yacht race was first featured in a short story of Clarke 's , " The Wind from the Sun " ( 1964 ) , and the concept of a " mysterious Elder Race " deciding our fate , in this case the Grand Galactics , has appeared in several of Clarke 's previous novels , including Childhood 's End ( 1953 ) and the Space Odyssey Series ( 1968 – 1997 ) . Some of Pohl 's earlier themes also appear here , including his human @-@ machine hybrid which featured in Man Plus ( 1976 ) .
Clarke wrote over 30 science fiction novels and over 100 works of short fiction , winning both the Hugo and Nebula Awards several times . He moved to Sri Lanka ( then Ceylon ) in 1956 and remained there for the rest of his life . One of his greatest wishes was for peace in Sri Lanka . The Last Theorem is set in his adopted country , and Pohl said that tensions between the Sinhalese Sri Lankan government and the Tamil liberation army ( the Tamil Tigers ) were " major inspirations for the novel " .
Pohl 's writing career spans 70 years , and includes over 50 science fiction novels and numerous short stories . He also won both the Hugo and Nebula Awards several times . One of Pohl 's fascinations has been mathematics , in particular number theory . He would often spend his spare time " playing " with prime numbers , and even tried to write a formula for generating primes . But he did invent several mathematical parlour tricks , some of which are featured in The Last Theorem .
= = Plot summary = =
The Last Theorem is set in Sri Lanka in the early- to mid @-@ 21st century and follows the life of a mathematician , Ranjit Subramanian . While studying at Colombo University , he becomes obsessed with Fermat 's Last Theorem , a conjecture made by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 , for which he claimed to have conceived a proof that he never wrote down . The proof eluded mathematicians across the world for over 350 years , until in 1995 British mathematician Andrew Wiles published a 100 @-@ page proof of the theorem . But not everyone was " satisfied " with Wiles 's proof because it used twentieth century mathematical techniques not available in Fermat 's time .
In the novel 's back @-@ story , extraterrestrial sapients , the " Grand Galactics " , are alarmed when they detect the photon shock waves from nuclear bomb detonations on Earth . The Grand Galactics monitor and control the destinies of a number of high @-@ performance sapient races and order one of these races , the " Nine Limbeds " , to send " cease and desist " messages to Earth . When these messages have no effect , the Grand Galactics order another race , the " One Point Fives " , to launch an armada to Earth to exterminate the undesirable species .
Back on Earth , regional conflicts escalate and the United Nations struggles to contain them . In Sri Lanka , Ranjit unwittingly boards a cruise ship that is hijacked by pirates . When unknown security forces free the ship , Ranjit is arrested on suspicion of terrorism . For six months he is interrogated and tortured , but he cannot supply the information his captors want so he is locked up and " forgotten " for a further 18 months . During this period of incarceration , Ranjit dwells on Fermat 's Last Theorem and , after several months , solves it with a three @-@ page proof . Later Ranjit is rescued by a friend from University , Gamini Bandara , who will not reveal whom he is working for or where Ranjit was held captive .
Ranjit submits his proof for publication and achieves worldwide fame . He marries Myra de Soyza , an artificial intelligence specialist , and embarks on a speaking tour of the world . In the United States , he is briefly recruited by the CIA to work on cryptography . Gamini later reveals that he is working for Pax per Fidem ( Peace through Transparency ) , an undercover United Nations organization established to bring about world peace . To achieve this end , Pax per Fidem has developed " Silent Thunder " , a non @-@ lethal EMP nuclear superweapon that renders all electrical equipment in its path inoperable . Silent Thunder is deployed in North Korea and later in South America , and regional conflicts subside . Gamini invites Ranjit to join Pax per Fidem , but the authoritarian nature of Pax per Fidem and its " new world order " worry Ranjit and Myra , and Ranjit turns down the offer . He does , however , accept a position on the advisory board of an international consortium building a space elevator in Sri Lanka , chosen because of its position on the equator .
As the One Point Five fleet enters the Solar System , the Nine Limbeds orbit and observe Earth in cigar @-@ shaped craft , sparking numerous UFO sightings . A Grand Galactic member , who happens to be passing by , stops to observe the effects of Silent Thunder and returns to the Grand Galactic collective , who immediately suspend the One Point Fives 's destruct orders pending further investigation .
The space elevator is completed and , for the first time , people and materials can be lifted into Earth orbit without the need of rockets . Natasha , Ranjit and Myra 's daughter , competes in the first solar powered space yacht race from Earth- to Moon @-@ orbit . But soon after the start of the race , Natasha 's yacht malfunctions and she is abducted by the Nine Limbeds , who use a projection of her to interrogate prominent people on Earth , including Ranjit and Gamini , about Silent Thunder . Satisfied that Earth has " reformed " , Natasha is returned and the Nine Limbeds broadcast a message to Earth in which they announce that the Grand Galactics have decided not to sterilize Earth , and that the One Point Fives , with their Machine Stored navigators , cannot return home and will land and occupy unused areas of Earth .
The One Point Fives land in the desolate Qattara Depression in the Libyan Desert , which they find quite habitable compared to their ruined homeworld . The Americans send B52 bombers to attack the One Point Fives ' base , but the aliens electronically disable the aircraft , causing them to crash short of their target . When the US President demands reparations , the One Point Fives provide gold distilled from seawater by way of compensation . With the Grand Galactics absent , the aliens make decisions for themselves : the One Point Fives provide Earth with new forms of power and the Machine Stored reveal mind uploading technology . When Myra dies in a scuba diving accident , her mind is uploaded into cyberspace , with Ranjit joining her later .
After 13 @,@ 000 years the Grand Galactics finally return to Earth and are astounded to see how fast the planet has developed . They had always interfered with the evolution of sentient species they had discovered , believing they could not be trusted to evolve on their own . Impressed with Earth 's progress , the Grand Galactic relieve themselves of the burden of watching over intelligent life and hand the task over to Earth .
= = Characters = =
= = = Sri Lankans = = =
These characters come from three of Sri Lanka 's ethnic groups : the Sinhalese , the Tamils and the Portuguese Burghers .
Ranjit Subramanian ( Tamil ) – a mathematical prodigy and son of a Hindu priest ; he achieves worldwide fame after proving Fermat 's Last Theorem without recourse to methods not available to Fermat in his day
Myra Subramanian ( née de Soyza ) ( Burgher ) – an artificial intelligence and prosthetic specialist and wife of Ranjit
Natasha de Soyza Subramanian – solar wind yacht race contestant and daughter of Ranjit and Myra
Gamini Bandara ( Sinhalese ) – a United Nations undercover operative and freshman friend of Ranjit 's at Colombo University
= = = Aliens = = =
Grand Galactics – a sentient entity with the ability to subdivide itself into fragments , each capable of appearing " instantaneously " anywhere in the galaxy ; monitors other life and follows the principle of " Protect the harmless . Quarantine the dangerous . Destroy the malevolent – after storing a backup in a secure location "
Grand Galactic
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582 , Day 's health began to deteriorate quickly . Though weakening , he raced to complete another edition of Actes and Monuments in 1583 , printing it on at least four presses . It was unusual for books of this size and ambition to go beyond one or two printings . Holinshed 's Chronicles , the only book of the time to rival the Book of Martyrs in scope and reputation , never went into a third edition .
Day died in 1584 at Walden in Essex . He married twice and fathered thirteen children in each marriage . Day 's printer 's device showed a sleeper awakening , with the motto " Arise for it is Day , " both a play on his name and an allusion to the new era of religious reform , in which he was a significant figure .
= U.S. Route 1 in New Jersey =
U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) is a United States highway which parallels the East Coast of the United States , running from Key West , Florida in the south to Fort Kent , Maine at the Canadian border in the north . Of the entire length of the route , 66 @.@ 06 miles ( 106 @.@ 31 km ) of it runs through New Jersey . It enters the state from Pennsylvania on the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in the state capital of Trenton , running through the city on the Trenton Freeway . From here , US 1 continues northeast as a surface divided highway through suburban areas continuing into Middlesex County and passing through New Brunswick and Edison . US 1 merges with US 9 in Woodbridge , and the two routes continue through northern New Jersey as US 1 / 9 to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee . At this point , the road continues into New York City along with I @-@ 95 .
The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and New Brunswick was chartered as the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 and struggled throughout its 100 @-@ year existence . In 1913 , the Lincoln Highway across the United States was created and connected Trenton to Newark within New Jersey . The Lincoln Highway was legislated as Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick in 1917 and as part of Route 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth , later extended to Jersey City . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 1 was designated to follow the Lincoln Highway between Trenton and Newark and the current alignment of US 1 / 9 Truck to Jersey City , where it continued to the Holland Tunnel . In 1927 , the Lincoln Highway portion of US 1 became Route 27 . The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and Newark was legislated as Route 26 , Route S26 and Route 25 , while the current route north from Jersey City to the George Washington Bridge became Route 1 and Route 6 . In subsequent years , US 1 was moved onto its current routing between Trenton and the George Washington Bridge . The state highways running concurrent with US 1 were removed in 1953 , around the same time the route was moved to the Trenton Freeway within Trenton and the old alignment became US 1 Alternate , part of which is now US 1 Business . By 1969 , the Trenton Freeway was extended north to Whitehead Road in Lawrence Township , and that segment became Route 174 . When the Trenton Freeway was completed north to US 1 , the US 1 designation was shifted to the freeway , replacing Route 174 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
U.S. Route 1 crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge , which is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission . Once in Trenton , US 1 becomes the Trenton Freeway and is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation . US 1 meets Route 29 at a partial diamond interchange just north of the river . As the road heads through the downtown area with Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor running next to the route on the east side , it has a southbound exit and entrance with Warren Street that provides access to the New Jersey State House . It then comes to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 129 as well as the western terminus of Route 33 near the Trenton Transit Center .
At this point , the Trenton Freeway turns onto a depressed alignment and comes to an interchange with Perry Street . The route turns northeast directly over the Delaware and Raritan Canal , which still flows underneath , and has an exit for Olden Avenue . The freeway has a northbound ramp for Mulberry Street before there is a northbound exit and southbound entrance from the median that provides access to US 1 Business and US 206 . Past this interchange , US 1 continues into Lawrence Township , where the surroundings become more wooded as the freeway has an exit for Whitehead Road . Along this stretch , the freeway closely parallels the canal , which emerges from under the freeway just north of Mulberry Street . The Trenton Freeway ends at the point US 1 Business merges back into US 1 .
Here , US 1 becomes a four @-@ lane divided surface road with jughandles called the Herbert Highway that is lined with suburban businesses . Continuing northeast , the first intersection along this road is with the eastern terminus of CR 546 ( Franklin Corner Road ) . After this intersection , the road crosses the Delaware & Raritan Canal again prior to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 295 . Past this point , US 1 widens to six lanes as it has an interchange providing access to the Quaker Bridge Mall to the east of the route . A short distance later , there is a cloverleaf interchange with CR 533 ( Quakerbridge Road ) . Upon crossing CR 533 , the road enters West Windsor Township . After an interchange with Meadow Road , US 1 continues past corporate parks prior to an interchange with Alexander Road . Following this interchange , the road comes to CR 571 ( also signed as CR 526 ) at the modified Penns Neck Circle , which US 1 runs straight through . Past this intersection , the road passes near farmland .
Studies are being conducted to implement the Central New Jersey Route 1 BRT , a bus rapid transit system utilizing the highway that would radiate from Princeton Junction .
= = = Middlesex County = = =
Upon crossing the Millstone River , US 1 enters Plainsboro Township , where it passes more business parks and comes to an interchange with Scudders Mill Road . Past Scudders Mill Road , the road runs to the west of the James Forrestal Campus of Princeton University before passing to the east of Forrestal Village . An interchange with College Road a short distance later provides access to both places . The route continues into South Brunswick Township , where it narrows to four lanes and runs through a mix of rural areas and development . US 1 briefly widens back to six lanes as it reaches an intersection with CR 522 . Past CR 522 , the surroundings of the four @-@ lane road become more forested , with a few commercial establishments . The road briefly forms the border between South Brunswick Township to the northwest and North Brunswick Township to the southeast before fully entering North Brunswick Township .
Here , the route widens to six lanes again and comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of Route 91 ( Jersey Avenue ) , where US 1 makes a turn to the east @-@ northeast . Immediately after this interchange , the route passes over Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor and comes to an exit for the south end of Route 26 ( Livingston Avenue ) . The road reaches the northern terminus of US 130 and the southern terminus of Route 171 ( Georges Road ) at an interchange . A short distance later , US 1 has access to Milltown Road through an interchange . The road passes by Rutgers University college farm before turning northeast and coming to a cloverleaf interchange with Ryders Lane . After this interchange , US 1 crosses into New Brunswick , where it has an interchange with Route 18 / CR 527 .
Upon crossing the Raritan River on the Donald and Morris Goodkind Bridges , US 1 enters Edison and continues north into developed suburban areas before turning northeast and meeting CR 514 ( Woodbridge Avenue ) at an interchange . A short distance later , the route crosses CR 529 ( Plainfield Avenue ) at an at @-@ grade intersection . Lined with businesses , the road continues to two close interchanges with CR 531 ( Main Street ) and I @-@ 287 . Past here , US 1 comes to an interchange with CR 501 ( Amboy Avenue ) . In this area , US 1 passes to the east of the Menlo Park Mall , with an interchange providing access . The route continues northeast into Woodbridge Township , where it comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway . Following this interchange , US 1 comes to the Woodbridge Center shopping mall on the east side of the road . US 1 crosses Green Street ( CR 604 ) prior to merging with US 9 .
= = = US 1 / 9 concurrency = = =
US 1 and US 9 become concurrent upon merging in Woodbridge Township and continue through developed areas , interchanging with Route 35 . Upon entering Union County , US 1 / 9 pass through Rahway and Linden , interchanging with I @-@ 278 in Linden . The road continues into urban Elizabeth , crossing Route 439 before turning into a freeway prior to meeting Route 81 near Newark Liberty International Airport . US 1 / 9 continue along the west end of the airport into Newark , Essex County , reaching the Newark Airport Interchange with I @-@ 78 , US 22 , and Route 21 .
From this interchange , the road continues northeast through industrial areas to an interchange with US 1 / 9 Truck that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) . US 1 / 9 continue onto the Pulaski Skyway , which carries the route over the Passaic River into Hudson County , crossing over Kearny and the Hackensack River before coming into Jersey City . Trucks are banned from the Pulaski Skyway and must use US 1 / 9 Truck to bypass it .
The Pulaski Skyway ends at the Tonnele Circle with US 1 / 9 Truck and Route 139 , and US 1 / 9 continue north along at @-@ grade Tonnelle Avenue toward North Bergen , where the road intersects Route 3 and Route 495 . Crossing into Bergen County , Broad Avenue carries US 1 / 9 through Fairview and Ridgefield before heading into Palisades Park . Here , the two routes join US 46 , and the combined road heads north into Fort Lee . US 1 / 9 / 46 come to an interchange with I @-@ 95 , US 9W , and Route 4 , where it joins I @-@ 95 to head east to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River . At this point , US 46 ends and I @-@ 95 and US 1 / 9 continue into Manhattan , New York City on the Trans @-@ Manhattan Expressway .
= = History = =
What is now US 1 between Trenton and New Brunswick was originally chartered as the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 . Throughout its history , the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike faced stiff competition from canals such as the Delaware & Raritan Canal and railroads such as the Camden and Amboy Railroad . In the later part of the 19th century , the turnpike company folded and the Pennsylvania Railroad took over ownership of the turnpike . When the charter for the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike expired in 1903 , it became a public road . When the first numbered highways were legislated in New Jersey in 1916 , the present day US 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth was to become a part of Route 1 , a route that was to connect Trenton and Elizabeth . Between Trenton and New Brunswick , this route was to follow present @-@ day Route 33 and US 130 . In 1922 , an extension of Route 1 was legislated to continue north from Elizabeth to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City .
When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , the routing of US 1 in New Jersey was to follow the Lincoln Highway from the Lower Trenton Bridge in Trenton to Newark , which was Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick and Route 1 north of there . From Newark , the route followed present @-@ day US 1 / 9 Truck east toward Jersey City , where it was to head to the Holland Tunnel . The Lincoln Highway the first transcontinental highway in the United States created in 1913 to link New York City to San Francisco . Route 13 had been legislated along the Trenton to New Brunswick portion in 1917 .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the alignment of US 1 between Trenton and Newark became Route 27 , while the proposed Route 1 Extension became part of Route 25 . In addition , Route 26 was designated along the former Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike , while the current US 1 between Route 26 and US 130 became Route S26 . North of current US 130 , present @-@ day US 1 to Newark also became a part of Route 25 . The current US 1 / 9 between the Tonnele Circle and the George Washington Bridge meanwhile became parts of Route 1 and Route 6 . The Route 1 Extension , now designated Route 25 , was complete in 1928 with the exception of the Pulaski Skyway . This road was considered the first superhighway in the United States . After the Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 , US 1 along with US 9 was rerouted to use it . By the 1930s , US 1 was routed to use Route 26 , Route S26 , and Route 25 between Trenton and Newark instead of Route 27 . US 1 and US 9 were routed to use the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River instead of the Holland Tunnel by the 1940s , following Route 1 and US 46 / Route 6 between the Tonnele Circle and the George Washington Bridge .
The Trenton Freeway , a freeway through the city of Trenton , was first planned in 1950 to provide a bypass of Trenton and a connection to the new Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge . This freeway opened in December 1952 and became part of both US 1 and Route 26 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering that followed a month later , all the state highways running concurrent with US 1 were removed . In addition , US 1 / 9 Truck was designated as a bypass of the Pulaski Skyway ( replacing Route 25T ) and US 1 / 9 Business ( now Route 139 ) was designated on the former Route 25 between the Tonnele Circle and the Holland Tunnel . Also , after the US 1 designation was moved to the Trenton Freeway , the former route through Trenton would become US 1 Alternate .
During the development of the Interstate Highway System , New Jersey and Pennsylvania considered having I @-@ 95 cross over the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge , and continue north on the existing US 1 . The project was opposed due to inadequate highway standards ( lack of shoulder ramps , and only two lanes in each direction ) . During this time , both states sought alternate routes for the proposed I @-@ 95 . In 1960 , New Jersey and Pennsylvania decided to designate the Scudder Falls Bridge as I @-@ 95 . By 1969 , an extension of the Trenton Freeway from the current left @-@ hand exit to US 1 Business / US 206 to Whitehead Road was completed and received the Route 174 designation .
In 1967 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation recommended an extension of the Trenton Freeway from Whitehead Road to the traffic light at Bakers Basin Road and Franklin Corner Road . Once the extension was completed by the 1980s , the route number was then changed from Route 174 to US 1 . The former alignment of US 1 along surface streets in Trenton was renumbered to US 1 Business , while the US 1 Alternate was dropped .
There had been plans to create a west – east spur of the New Jersey Turnpike called Route 92 . It was to begin just north of the intersection of Ridge Road and U.S. Route 1 in South Brunswick and terminate at the mainline of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) at Exit 8A in Monroe Township . This proposal was cancelled on December 1 , 2006 , after the New Jersey Turnpike Authority decided to use funds to widen the mainline turnpike instead .
By the 1990s , many traffic lights along the segment of US 1 in West Windsor and Plainsboro were removed and replaced with exit ramps and overpasses . As a result , the traffic lights at Scudders Mill Road , Plainsboro Road , Alexander Road , and Meadow Road were eliminated . This was followed by building ramps to replace the traffic light at US 130 and US 1 located North Brunswick Township , completed in 2003 . An environmental impact study has been conducted by Rutgers University ’ s Transportation Policy Institute and Center for Negotiation and Conflict Resolution to improve US 1 through the Penns Neck area . This project would eliminate the Penns Neck Circle where US 1 meets Washington Road ( CR 571 ) and move US 1 onto a new freeway alignment in the area . In addition , CR 571 is planned to be realigned to intersect US 1 further to the north . In 2009 , the segment of US 1 between I @-@ 287 in Edison and the Garden State Parkway in Woodbridge was rebuilt to include new ramps at several intersections and removed access to a couple of roads in a $ 53 @.@ 9 million project that was intended to alleviate traffic and make this section safer .
In 2013 , the road was one of three that tied for the # 1 ranking on the Tri @-@ State Transportation Campaign 's list of the top ten most dangerous roads for pedestrians in New Jersey , New York and Connecticut . The route , along with U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 in Atlantic County and U.S. Route 130 ( Burlington Pike ) in Burlington County , were so ranked due to the nine pedestrian deaths that occurred on each of those roads from 2009 to 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
There are two remaining bannered spurs of US 1 in the state of New Jersey :
U.S. Route 1 Business in Trenton
U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck in Jersey City
The following state highway was also formerly designated as a bannered spur of US 1 :
Route 139 in Jersey City was formerly U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Business .
= Romerike Tunnel =
The Romerike Tunnel ( Norwegian : Romeriksporten ) is a 14 @.@ 580 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 060 mi ) railway tunnel in Norway between Oslo and Lillestrøm . It is the longest railway tunnel in Norway and forms the first section of the Gardermoen Line . It is double track and electrified , permitting speeds of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) .
Construction started in 1994 , with plans to open with the rest of the Gardermoen Line and Oslo Airport , Gardermoen on 8 October 1998 . Due to serious leakage from Lutvann and several other lakes , it did not open until 22 August 1999 . The leaks increased the cost of the tunnel from NOK 0 @.@ 5 billion to NOK 1 @.@ 8 billion . The main contractor was Scandinavian Rock Group . The tunnel was originally owned by NSB Gardermobanen but is now owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The tunnel allows long @-@ distance , regional and Flytoget Airport Express Trains to bypass the old Hoved Line , reducing journey times between Oslo and Lillestrøm from 29 to 12 minutes .
= = Background = =
The tunnel was constructed as part of the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line which runs from Oslo to Eidsvoll via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The tunnel makes up most of the 18 @-@ kilometre ( 11 mi ) section between Oslo Central Station and Lillestrøm Station and was built to bypass the meandering Trunk Line which dates from 1854 . Despite the older line being double track , capacity had reached its limit due to a combination of some trains making many stops and others none until Lillestrøm . The Romerike Tunnel would also be straighter and allow higher through speeds , decreasing travel time from 29 to 12 minutes . The decision to build the Gardermoen Line and Romerike Tunnel was taken by the Norwegian Parliament on 8 October 1992 , with the opening planned for six years later on 8 October 1998 .
An alternative airport site to Gardermoen was proposed at Hurum , south @-@ west of Oslo . Had Hurum been chosen , the Gardermoen Line would not have been necessary for the airport express train , but the planning documents recommended that construction still proceed to ease traffic congestion north of Oslo . The tunnel is used by all trains on the Gardermoen Line , including the Flytoget airport express , and the regional and express trains which continue via the Dovre Line . Local trains on the Hoved Line and Kongsvinger Line to the north also use the tunnel . Use of the Hoved Line is limited to freight trains and commuter trains which make stops along the route .
= = Construction = =
Construction started in August 1994 , after a tender had been won by Scandinavian Rock Group ( SRG ) , a collaboration between Målselv Anlegg , Nor Entreprenør and Peab . The original contract price was NOK 541 million . An average of 388 man @-@ years were expended during construction , and the work involved the removal of 1 @.@ 62 million tonnes of rock . There were three excavation points ( headings ) , located at Bryn , Starveien on the Oslo – Lørenskog border , and at Stalsberg , outside Lillestrøm .
The tunnel is 14 @.@ 580 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 060 mi ) long with a 105 m2 ( 1 @,@ 130 sq ft ) cross @-@ section , making it the longest tunnel in Norway when it opened , and the second longest since the opening of the Lærdal road tunnel . It allows speeds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) , with a slope of 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 % slanting upwards towards Lillestrøm . This provides a natural updraft in the direction of Lillestrøm , but a horizontal ventilation system was needed to work in the opposite direction . This is supplemented with vertical ventilation shafts at Bryn and Starveien . The tunnel is between 6 metres ( 20 ft ) and 120 metres ( 390 ft ) below ground , being at its deepest in the vicinity of Bryn . Trains using the tunnel must be capable of a minimum speed of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) . The tunnel has overhead wires with 15 kV AC railway electrification ( 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz ) .
= = = Leakages = = =
The tunnel needed to pass under Østmarka , a recreational area east of Oslo . The geology of this area is unstable , and was not ideal for tunnel boring . Pressure for its completion to coincide with the opening of the new airport resulted in tunnel excavation proceeding at maximum speed , without adequate measures to exclude water , which resulted in leaks . Houses above the route of the tunnel in Hellerud were damaged and the water levels of many lakes in Østmarka were reduced , including lakes Lutvann and Nordre Puttjern .
After the damage was discovered on 3 February 1997 , legal actions were initiated by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate requiring remedial measures to halt the leakage . At its worst , the rate of leakage into the tunnel was 3 @,@ 000 litres ( 660 imp gal ; 790 US gal ) of water per minute . The Rhoca @-@ Gil proprietary sealant process was used to stop the leaks . On investigation , Rhoca @-@ Gil was revealed to contain a toxic substance called acrylamide , which caused health problems for the tunnel workers . The removal of Rhoca @-@ Gil and its replacement with concrete resulted in additional delays . In addition , an extensive permanent pumping system was installed to restore and maintain lake levels in Østmarka .
Curing the leaks and cleaning up the contamination delayed the tunnel 's completion by a year , and it was finally opened on 22 August 1999 . The entire process was further complicated by conflicts between NSB Gardermobanen and the Scandinavian Rock Group . Retrospective surveys showed a lack of control and reporting procedures during the incidents , which should have been addressed in 1995 , but were never taken seriously . Compensation was paid for approximately 60 houses which were damaged as a result of tunnel construction . An evaluation by the Ministry of Transport and Communications showed that NOK 500 million was spent fixing the leaks , but the report claimed that this was to a large extent a waste of money , resulting from inefficient engineering procedures . The same report criticized the planning and organization of the construction of the entire railway . In total the extraordinary additional costs for the tunnel totaled NOK 1 @.@ 3 billion .
= = = Delay = = =
When the new airport opened on 8 October 1998 the Flytoget airport express trains started operating immediately , as did the Gardermoen Line from Lillestrøm to the airport and onwards to Eidsvoll . Because the tunnel was not finished , trains were required to use the old Trunk Line from Oslo Central Station to Lillestrøm . After this diversion the express trains switched to the completed section of the new Gardermoen Line between Lillestrøm and Oslo Airport . Regular operations using the Romerike Tunnel started on 22 August 1999 .
= Slow ( Kylie Minogue song ) =
" Slow " is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her ninth studio album Body Language ( 2003 ) . It was released as the lead single from the album by Parlophone on 3 November 2003 . The song was written by Minogue , Dan Carey , Emilíana Torrini , and produced by Carey , Torrini , and Sunnyroads . " Slow " is a synthpop song in which Minogue invites a man to " slow down " and dance with her .
Upon its release , " Slow " was acclaimed by music critics , many of whom praised Minogue 's sensual and seductive vocals . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony , the song received a nomination in the category of " Best Dance Recording " . Commercially , the song was a success and peaked at number one on the charts of countries like Australia , Denmark , Spain and the United Kingdom . The song also reached number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs in the United States . In Australia , the song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units .
An accompanying music video for the song was shot in Barcelona , Spain , and features Minogue singing the song while sunbathing next to the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool . For additional promotion , Minogue performed the song on a number of television shows . Since its release , the song has been performed by Minogue on all of her concert tours till date , with the exception of the Anti Tour . In 2012 , Minogue named " Slow " as her favourite song from her music career .
= = Background and composition = =
" Slow " was written by Kylie Minogue , Dan Carey , and Emilíana Torrini , and produced by Carey , Torrini , and Sunnyroads . In 2009 , Torrini explained how she was approached for writing the song , saying " It was like I had just accidentally walked into the line of fire with , " Hey ! You There ! It was all quite surreal . I still think Kylie 's people were trying to call Jamelia , and they just got the wrong number . It 'd be much more funny if that is how it actually happened " . Musically , the song is an eighties @-@ inspired synthpop track . It utilises a very simple and " minimalist " style of production and was described as an " electro @-@ pop / disco fusion with percolating crackle @-@ and @-@ pop beats and sugary vocal overdubs " by Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine . Additionally , it contains elements of electroclash and club music . Through the lyrics of the song , Minogue urges a man , whom she meets at a club , to " slow down " and dance with her . According to Minogue , the lyrics of the song are about " how time and space have a different meaning when you meet someone " . She further said that she " loved the way the song had this push @-@ pull effect ; the musical and lyrical combination gives you a sense of that " .
In late 2012 , " Slow " was re @-@ recorded by Minogue for inclusion in her orchestral compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions . On the album , Minogue reworked 16 of her past songs with an orchestra , which , according to Nick Levine from BBC Music , " re @-@ imagine them without the disco glitz and vocal effects " . " Slow " is approached with a more jazz and trip hop influenced take , with Minogue again delivering sultry and seductive vocals .
= = Release and artwork = =
" Slow " was released as the lead single from Minogue 's ninth studio album Body Language , by Parlophone , on 3 November 2003 . The cover art of the single , as well as other promotion shoots related to the album , show Minogue striking a pose in a black and white striped crop top , which reveals her midriff , and low @-@ cut pants . Her appearance is similar to that of French actress and singer Brigitte Bardot , who was regarded as the " first foreign @-@ language star ever to attain a level of international success comparable to America 's most popular homegrown talents " and one of the best known sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s , frequently cited as the " archetypal sex kitten " and " sex goddess " . Minogue described the promotion shoots as " the perfect mix of coquette , kitten and rock ' n ' roll " , and revealed that " We shot it on location in the South of France , so it was [ easy to ] channel the spirit of [ Brigitte ] Bardot . She 's a great iconic reference , particularly that period where she was working with Serge Gainsbourg " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Slow " was critically acclaimed by music critics . Ethan Brown from New York praised the production of the song and commented " Everything at the top of the pops should sound as good as Kylie Minogue 's " Slow " " . He further felt that most of the songs on Body Language " mimic its sound , [ though ] none of the other songs on Body Language come close to the achievement of " Slow " and concluded that " " Slow " should be a template for pop singers who fancy themselves aesthetes " . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters commented that the song was " one of the strongest singles " of Minogue ’ s career , praising her minimalistic approach on the song and its simple arrangement . The Spin magazine review of the song complimented Minogue 's vocals , saying that they will " bring all the boys to the yard " . Eric Seguy from Stylus Magazine favoured Minogue 's demanding vocals , saying that the listener " is open to Kylie ’ s demands , and willing to resort to any means necessary to impress her " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt that the song is one the " few of the tracks on Body Language approach ( ing ) the club @-@ thumping zeal of Fever " . Chris True from AllMusic picked the song as an album highlight of Body Language .
The Abbey Road Sessions ' version of the song also generated a favourable response . Tim Sendra from AllMusic enjoyed the " sultry trip @-@ hop take " on the song and picked it as a highlight on the album . Nick Levine from BBC Music felt that " Slow " received the " most startling makeover " on the album , and described it as a " slinky jazz shuffle , complete with vampish vocal performance " . Annie Zaleski from The A.V. Club appreciated the song 's graceful nature , calling it a " slinky come @-@ on " . Philip Matusavage from MusicOMH appreciated the song 's jazz influences , noting that it " suggests that Kylie and jazz could make for great things " . Jeff Katz from Idolator singled out the song as the " Most Surprising Reworking " on the album . Jude Rogers from The Quietus , however , felt that the song does not " respond well to this ( orchestral ) treatment " .
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine included " Slow " on his list of " Top 10 Singles & Videos of 2004 " at number five , calling it " one of the hottest tracks of the year . " At the 2004 Ivor Novello Awards ceremony , " Slow " received a nomination in the categories " Best Contemporary Song " and " International Hit Of The Year " , but lost the awards to Amy Winehouse 's song " Stronger Than Me " and Dido 's song " White Flag " , respectively . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony held in the year 2005 , " Slow " was nominated for " Best Dance Recording " , but lost to Britney Spears 's song " Toxic " . In order to celebrate Valentine 's Day on 14 February 2012 , UK copyright collection society and performance rights organisation PRS for Music compiled a list of the top ten " sexy songs " and placed " Slow " on the top of the list . In 2012 , Minogue picked " Slow " as her all @-@ time favourite song from her 25 years in music .
= = Commercial performance = =
In Minogue 's native country Australia , " Slow " entered and peaked at number one on the Australian Singles Chart , spending a total of 11 weeks on the chart . In this territory , the song was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units . In Austria , the song entered the Austrian Singles Chart at number 24 and peaked at number 20 , spending a total of 13 weeks on the chart . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , the song entered the Ultratop chart at number 15 and peaked at number nine , spending a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In Canada , the song peaked at number six on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Denmark , the song entered and peaked at number one on the Danish Singles Chart , spending a total of nine weeks on the chart . In France , the song entered and peaked at number 45 on the French Singles Chart , spending a total of 18 weeks on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart . In Italy , the song entered the Italian Singles Chart at number nine and peaked at number six , spending a total of eight weeks on the chart . In New Zealand , the song entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 10 and peaked at number nine , spending a total of six weeks on the chart . " Slow " also debuted at number one in Spain .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Minogue 's seventh number one single in the region . It earned her a record for being the female artist for spending the longest duration as a UK chart topper . As of today , it is her last single to reach number one in the country . The single remained in the top ten for two weeks and in the top hundred for fourteen weeks . In the United States , " Slow " peaked at numbers 91 and one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and Hot Dance Club Songs chart , respectively . It is Minogue 's last entry on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , to date .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Slow " was directed by Baillie Walsh and choreographed by Michael Rooney . The video was shot in Barcelona , Spain , and begins with a scene of a man diving into the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool and coming out of its edge , where a number of very lightly beachwear @-@ clad people are sunbathing . Minogue stands out in a series of different zoom central shots lying on a sky @-@ blue towel wearing a dark blue bodyhugging Balenciaga dress . The next scenes of the video capture her singing the song through different camera angles , particularly during the chorus when the camera angle shifts to a " bird 's eye " view and show Minogue amid beach models performing synchronised choreography to the dance beats . Used for promoting the song , the video premiered earlier than the song 's release date , on 21 October 2003 . Minogue talked about the video , saying :
" The video is set in Barcelona at the Olympic Diving site . I lie down for the whole video , which I thought was a very cunning plan . But then I ended up having to sing directly into the camera when the sun was right next it , so tears were streaming down my face ! Videos always have a painful moment . It 's either too hot or it 's too cold or there 's always something . That 's part of the fun , I guess "
A reviewer from District MTV commented that the video showed that " synchronised sun bathing is more fun than it sounds " . Ben Taylor from Swide Magazine included the video in his list of Minogue ’ s " Best Music Video Moments " .
= = Live performances = =
Minogue performed " Slow " on 6 November 2003 , at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Slow " has also been featured on all of Minogue 's concert tour setlists , with the exception of the Anti Tour . In 2003 , she performed the song on the one @-@ night only concert Money Can 't Buy , which was used to promote Body Language and was held at major entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo in London . In 2005 , she performed the song on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 . In 2008 , she performed the song on the KylieX2008 tour , which was launched to promote her tenth studio album X. The show was split in five acts and " Slow " was featured on the fourth act entitled " Xposed " . In 2009 , she performed the song on the For You , For Me tour , which was her first concert tour in North America . In 2011 , she performed a jazz @-@ oriented version of the song on the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , which was launched to promote her eleventh studio album Aphrodite . In 2012 , Minogue promoted The Abbey Road Sessions by performing on the BBC Proms in the Park at Hyde Park , London . During the event , she sang the orchestral version of " Slow " . In 2014 and 2015 , Minogue performed the song during her Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour respectly . The performances employed a laser lighting display and featured a " Matrix @-@ style " break @-@ dance routine .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Slow " .
CD single
" Slow " - 3 : 15
" Soul on Fire " - 3 : 32
Maxi single
" Slow " - 3 : 15
" Sweet Music " - 3 : 32
" Slow " ( Medicine 8 Remix ) - 6 : 57
" Slow " ( Video ) - 3 : 55
12 @-@ inch maxi single
" Slow " ( Extended Mix ) - 6 : 25
" Slow " ( Radio Slave Remix ) - 6 : 34
" Slow " ( Medicine 8 Remix ) - 6 : 57
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= State Shinto =
State Shintō ( 国家神道 , Kokka Shintō ) describes Imperial Japan 's ideological use of the native folk traditions of Shinto . The state strongly encouraged Shinto practices to emphasize the Emperor as a divine being . This was exercised through control of finances and training regimes for priests .
The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era , as government officials defined freedom of religion within the Meiji Constitution . Scholars believed that Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperor 's divine origins , not religious belief , and that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state . For the state , Shinto was seen as a non @-@ religious moral tradition and patriotic practice .
Early Meiji @-@ era attempts to unite Shinto and state failed , but this non @-@ religious concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy . Shrines were defined as patriotic , not religious , institutions , which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead . The state also integrated local shrines into political functions , occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment . With fewer shrines financed by the state , nearly 80 @,@ 000 closed or merged with neighbors . Many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives , regardless of funding . By 1940 , Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally " religious " Shinto ceremonies .
Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto . US military leaders introduced the term " State Shinto " to differentiate the state 's ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive . That decree established Shinto as a religion , and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state . Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions .
= = Origins of the term = =
Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices , court manners , and spirit @-@ worship which dates back to at least 600 AD . These beliefs were first unified as " Shinto " during the Meiji era ( 1868 @-@ 1912 ) , though the Chronicles of Japan ( 日本書紀 , Nihon Shoki ) referenced the term in the eighth century . Shinto has no set of doctrines or founder , but draws from a set of creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki .
The 1945 " Shinto Directive " of the United States General Headquarters introduced the " State Shinto " distinction as it began governing Japan after the second world war . The Shinto Directive , ( officially the " Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship , Support , Perpetuation , Control and Dissemination of State Shinto " ) defined State Shinto as " that branch of Shinto ( Kokka Shinto or Jinja Shinto ) which , by official acts of the Japanese government , has been differentiated from the religion of Sect Shinto ( Shuha Shinto or Kyoha Shinto ) and has been classified a non @-@ religious national cult . "
The " State Shinto " term was thus used to categorize , and abolish , Imperial Japanese practices that relied on Shinto to support nationalistic ideology . By refusing to ban Shinto practices outright , Japan 's post @-@ war constitution was thus able to preserve full Freedom of Religion .
= = Definitions = =
The definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term " Shinto , " which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology . Though some scholars , such as Woodard and Holtom , and the Shinto Directive itself , use the terms " Shrine Shinto " and " State Shinto " interchangeably , most contemporary scholars use the term " Shrine Shinto " to refer to the majority of Shinto shrines which were outside of State Shinto influence , leaving " State Shinto " to refer to shrines and practices deliberately intended to reflect state ideology .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Most generally , State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868 . It is often described as any state @-@ supported , Shinto @-@ inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration , unity , and loyalty . State Shinto is also understood to refer to the state rituals and ideology of Emperor @-@ worship , which was not a traditional emphasis of Shinto — of the 124 Japanese emperors , only 20 have dedicated shrines .
" State Shinto " was not an official designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period . Instead , it was developed at the end of the war to describe the mixture of state support for non @-@ religious shrine activities and immersive ideological support for the Kokutai policy in education , including the training of all shrine priests . This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the direct control of the state . The extent to which Emperor worship was supported by the population is unclear , though scholars such as Ashizu Uzuhiko , Sakamoto Koremaru , and Nitta Hitoshi argue that the government 's funding and control of Shrines was never adequate enough to justify a claim to the existence of a State Shinto . The extent of popular support for the actions categorized as " State Shinto " is the subject of debate .
Some contemporary Shinto authorities reject the concept of State Shinto , and seek to restore elements of the practice , such as naming time periods after the Emperor . This view often sees " State Shinto " purely as an invention of the United States ' " Shinto Directive . "
= = Shinto as political ideology = =
" Religious " practice , in its Western sense , was unknown in Japan prior to the Meiji restoration . " Religion " was understood to encompass a series of beliefs about faith and the afterlife , but also closely associated with Western power . The Meiji restoration had re @-@ established the Emperor , a " religious " figure , as the head of the Japanese state .
Religious freedom was initially a response to demands of Western governments . Japan had allowed Christian missionaries under pressure from Western governments , but viewed Christianity as a foreign threat . The state was challenged to establish a suprareligious interpretation of Shinto that incorporated , and promoted , the Emperor 's divine lineage . By establishing Shinto as a unique form of " suprareligious " cultural practice , it would be exempted from Meiji laws protecting freedom of religion .
The " State Shinto " ideology presented Shinto as something beyond religion , " a unity of government and teaching ... not a religion . " Rather than a religious practice , Shinto was understood as a form of education , which " consists of the traditions of the imperial house , beginning in the age of gods and continuing through history . "
Scholars , such as Sakamoto Koremaru , argue that the " State Shinto " system existed only between 1900 and 1945 , corresponding to the state 's creation of the Bureau of Shrines . That bureau distinguished Shinto from religions managed by the Bureau of Shrines and Temples , which became the Bureau of Religions . Separated through this state bureaucracy , Shinto was distinguished from Buddhist temples and Christian churches , which were formulated as religious . This marked the start of the state 's official designation of Shinto shrines as " suprareligious " or " non @-@ religious " .
State Shinto was thus not recognized as a " state religion " during the Meiji era . Instead , State Shinto is considered an appropriation of traditional Shinto through state financial support for ideologically aligned shrines .
= = Implementation of Shinto ideology = =
The Empire of Japan endeavored , through education initiatives and specific financial support for new shrines , to frame Shinto practice as a patriotic moral tradition . From the early Meiji era , the divine origin of the Emperor was the official position of the state , and taught in classrooms not as myth , but as historical fact . Shinto priests were hired to teach in public schools , and cultivated this teaching , alongside reverence for the Emperor and compulsory class trips to shrines . State Shinto practitioners also emphasized the ritual aspect as a traditional civic practice that did not explicitly call on faith to participate .
By balancing a " suprareligious " understanding of Shinto as the source of divinity for both Japan and the Emperor , the state was able to compel participation in rituals from Japanese subjects while claiming to respect their freedom of religion . The state was thus able to enshrine its place in civic society in ways religions could not . This included teaching its ideological strand of Shinto in public schools , including ceremonial recitations to the Emperor and rites involving the Emperor 's portrait .
In 1926 , the government organized the Shūkyō Seido Chōsakai ( 宗教制度調査会 ? , Religious System Investigative Committee ) and then the Jinja Seido Chōsakai ( 神社制度調査会 ? , Shrine System Investigative Committee ) , which further established the suprareligious " Shintogaku " ideology .
To protect this non @-@ religious distinction , practices which did not align with state functions were increasingly prohibited . This included preaching at shrines and conducting funerals . The use of the symbolic torii gate was restricted to government @-@ supported shrines . As religious rituals without state functions were restricted , practitioners were driven underground and frequently arrested . Alternative Shinto movements , such as Omotokyo , were hampered by the imprisonment of its priests in 1921 . The status of separation of so @-@ called " State Shinto " shrines changed in 1931 ; from that point , shrines were pressured to focus on the divinity of the Emperor Hirohito or shrine priests could face persecution .
Some intellectuals at the time , such as Yanagita Kunio , were critics of Imperial Japan 's argument at the time that Shinto was not religious . In 1936 , the Catholic Church 's Propaganda Fide agreed with the state definition , and announced that visits to shrines had " only a purely civil value " .
= = State control of shrines = =
Though the government 's ideological interest in Shinto is well @-@ known , there is debate over how much control the government had over local shrines , and for how long . Shrine finances were not purely state @-@ supported . Shinto priests , even when state @-@ supported , had tended to avoid preaching on ideological matters until the establishment of the Wartime Shrine board in 1940 .
In 1906 , the government issued a policy to limit its financial support to one shrine per village . This state supported shrines that followed its specific guidelines for funding , and encouraged unfunded shrines to become partners with the larger shrines . As a result of this initiative to consolidate Shinto beliefs into state @-@ approved practices , Japan 's 200 @,@ 000 shrines had been reduced to 120 @,@ 000 by 1914 , consolidating control to shrines favorable to the state interpretation of Shinto .
In 1910 , graduates of state @-@ run Shinto schools , such as Kokugakuin University and Kougakkan University , were implicitly allowed to become public school teachers . A greater number of better @-@ trained priests with educations at state @-@ supported schools , combined with a rising patriotic fervor , is believed by some to have seeded an environment in which grassroots Emperor worship was possible , even without financial support for local shrines .
In 1913 , official rules for Shrine priests — Kankokuheisha ika jinja shinshoku hömu kisoku ( 官国幣社以下神社神 職奉務規則 ) — specifically called upon " a duty to observe festivals conforming to the rituals of the state . " Some shrines did adopt State Shinto practice independent of financial support from the government . Several Shrine Associations advocated for support of " State Shinto " directives independently , including the Shrine Administration Organization , the Shrine Priest Collaboration Organization , and the Shrine Priest Training Organization .
In 1940 , the state created the wartime shrine board , which expanded control over state shrines and expanded the state 's role . Up to that point , individual priests had been limited in their political roles , delegated to certain rituals and shrine upkeep , and rarely encouraged Emperor worship , or other aspects of state ideology , independently . No shrine priest , or member of the Wartime Shrine board , had previously sought public office , which some scholars , such as Sakamoto , suggest is evidence of the state 's use of Shinto to its own ends , rather than the Shinto priest 's attempt to achieve political power .
= = Ideological origins = =
Scholar Katsurajima Nobuhiro suggests the " suprareligious " frame on State Shinto practices drew upon the state 's previous failures to consolidate religious Shinto for state purposes .
Kokugaku ( " National Learning " ) was an early attempt to develop ideological interpretations of Shinto , many of which would later form the basis of " State Shinto " ideology . Kokugaku was an Edo @-@ period educational philosophy which sought a " pure " form of Japanese Shinto , stripped of foreign influences — particularly Buddhism .
In the Meiji era , scholar Hirata Atsutane advocated for a return to " National Learning " as a way to eliminate the influence of Buddhism and distill a nativist form of Shinto . From 1870 to 1884 , Atsutane , along with priests and scholars , lead a " Great Promulgation Campaign " advocating a fusion of nationalism and Shinto through worship of the Emperor . There had been no previous tradition of absolute obedience to the Emperor in Shinto . This initiative failed to attract public support , and intellectuals dismissed the idea . Author Fukuzawa Yukichi dismissed the campaign at the time as an " insignificant movement . "
Despite its failure , Atsutane 's nativist interpretation of Shinto would encourage a later scholar , Okuni Takamasa . Takamasa advocated control and standardization of Shinto practice through a governmental " Department of Divinity . " These activists urged leaders to consolidate diverse , localized Shinto practices into a standardized national practice , which they argued would unify Japan in support of the Emperor .
The state responded by establishing the Department of Divinity ( " jingikan " ) in 1869 . This government bureaucracy encouraged the segregation of Kami spirits from Buddhist ones , and emphasized the divine lineage of the Emperor from the Sun Goddess , Amaterasu . This action sought to reverse what had been a blending of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japan . That department was unsuccessful , and demoted to a Ministry . In 1872 , policy for Shrines and other religions was taken over by the Ministry of Education . The Ministry intended to standardize rituals across shrines , and saw some small success , but fell short of its original intent .
= = = National Teaching = = =
In calling for the return of the Department of Divinity in 1874 , a group of Shinto priests issued a collective statement calling Shinto a " National Teaching . " That statement advocated for understanding Shinto as distinct from religions . Shinto , they argued , was a preservation of the traditions of the Imperial house and therefore represented the purest form of Japanese state rites . These scholars wrote ,
National Teaching is teaching the codes of national government to the people without error . Japan is called the divine land because it is ruled by the heavenly deities descendants , who consolidate the work of the deities . The Way of such consolidation and rule by divine descendants is called Shinto .
Signatories of the statement included Shinto leaders , practitioners and scholars such as Tanaka Yoritsune , chief priest of Ise shrine ; Motoori Toyokai , head of Kanda shrine ; and Hirayama Seisai , head of a major tutelary shrine in Tokyo . Nonetheless , this concept of Shinto as a " National Learning " failed to take hold in most popular conceptions of Shinto .
= = = Great Promulgation Campaign = = =
The Bureau of Shinto Affairs attempted to standardize the training of priests in 1875 . This created a division between state actors and local priests , who disagreed over the content of that standardized training . This debate concerned which kami , or spirits , to include in rituals — particularly , whether state kami should be included . This debate marked the rise of the Ise sect , which was open to a stronger state presence in Shinto , and the Izumo sect , which was not . The Izumo sect advocated for recognition of the god Ōkuninushi as an equal to Amaterasu , which had theological consequences for emperor @-@ worship . This debate , the " enshrinement debate , " posed a serious ideological threat to the Meiji era government .
A result of the enshrinement debate was that the Ministry of the Interior concentrated on distinctions of " religion " and " doctrine " , stating that " Shinto rituals ( shinsai ) are performed by the state whereas religious doctrines ( kyōhō ) are to be followed by individuals and families . " Through this logic , Shinto rituals were a civic responsibility which all Japanese subjects were expected to participate in , whereas " religious " Shinto was a matter of personal faith and subject to freedom of religion . This debate marked an early failure in crafting of a unified national Shinto practice , and led to a sharp decline in both state grants to Shinto shrines and to the appointment of Shinto priests to government positions . The Ministry of Home Affairs took responsibility for shrines in 1877 , and began to separate Shinto religious practices from indoctrination . In 1887 , the Ministry stopped financial support for most shrines , aside from select Imperial shrines tied to state functions .
= = = Yasukuni Shrine = = =
In 1879 , Yasukuni Shrine was built to enshrine the war dead . The emperor visited and performed rites for the war dead at Yasukuni , the highest possible honor in Shinto . Around this time , the state began to assign shrines with meanings rooted in patriotic nationalism ; including a network of shrines dedicated to soldiers killed in battle . These assignments had no connection to the history of these local shrines , which led to resentment .
In contemporary times , the shrine has become a controversial symbol for Japanese nationalists . While many citizens of various political persuasions visit the site to honor relatives killed in battle , whose kami ( spirit ) are said to be enshrined there , so too are the kami of several class @-@ A war criminals . These criminals were enshrined in a secret ceremony in 1978 , which has raised the ire of Japanese pacifists and the international community .
No Emperor has visited the shrine since , and visits by prime ministers and government officials to the shrine have been the subject of lawsuits and media controversy .
= = In occupied territories = =
As the Japanese extended their territorial holdings , shrines were constructed with the purpose of hosting Japanese kami in occupied lands . This practice began with a shrine in Taiwan in 1900 . Major shrines built across Asia included Karafuto Shrine in Sakhalin in 1910 and Chosen Shrine , Korea , in 1919 ; these shrines were designated just under Ise Shrine in national importance . Other shrines included Shonan Shrine in Singapore , San 'a Shrine in Hainan Island ( China ) , Akatsuki Shrine in Saigon , and Hokoku Shrine in Java .
The Japanese built almost 400 shrines in occupied Korea , and worship was mandatory for Koreans . A statement from the head of the Home Office in Korea wrote about the shrines in a directive : " ... they have an existence totally distinct from religion , and worship at the shrines is an act of patriotism and loyalty , the basic moral virtues of our nation . "
= = Post @-@ war = =
On 1 January 1946 , Emperor Shōwa issued a statement , sometimes referred to as the Humanity Declaration , in which he quoted the Five Charter Oath of Emperor Meiji , announced that he was not an Akitsumikami ( a divinity in human form ) and that Japan was not built on myths . The U.S. General Headquarters quickly defined and banned practices it identified as " State Shinto " , but because the U.S. saw freedom of religion as a crucial aspect of post @-@ war Japan it did not place a full ban on Japanese religious ceremonies involving the Emperor . General Douglas MacArthur and the State Department sought to maintain the authority of the Emperor to avoid " lasting resentment " among the Japanese people during the occupation and reconstruction of Japan .
The Shinto Directive stated it was established to " free the Japanese people from direct or indirect compulsion to believe or profess to believe in a religion or cult officially designated by the state " and " prevent a recurrence of the perversion of Shinto theory and beliefs into militaristic and ultranationalistic propaganda " .
Today , while the Imperial House continues to perform Shinto rituals as " private ceremonies " , participation and belief are no longer compelled from Japanese citizens , nor funded by the state .
Other aspects of the government 's " suprareligious " enforcement of Shinto practices , such as school trips to Shinto shrines , were forbidden . Many innovations of Meiji @-@ era Shinto are present in contemporary Shinto , such as a belief among priests that Shinto is a non @-@ religious cultural practice that encourages national unity .
= = = Controversies = = =
Controversy has emerged during the funerals and weddings of members of the Japanese Imperial Family , as they present a merging of Shinto and state functions . The Japanese treasury does not pay for these events , which preserves the distinction between state and shrine functions .
The Association of Shinto Shrines is politically active in encouraging support for the Emperor , including campaigns such as distributing amulets from Ise Shrine . Ise shrine was one of the most important shrines in State Shinto , symbolizing Amaterasu 's presence and connection to the Emperor . In contrast , the Meiji @-@ era Yasakuni shrine is frequently the target of State Shinto controversies , likely owing to its enshrinement of Japanese soldiers killed in warfare .
Conservative politicians and nationalist interest groups continue to advocate for returning the Emperor to a central political and religious position , which they believe will restore a national sense of unity .
= Messers Run =
Messers Run is a tributary of Catawissa Creek in Schuylkill County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long and flows through Kline Township and East Union Township . The only named tributary of the stream is Negro Hollow , but it has two unnamed tributaries . The creek has some alkalinity , but is slightly acidic . The main rock formations in the watershed of it are the Mauch Chunk Formation and the Pottsville Formation . The main soils in the watershed are the Leck Kill soil and the Hazleton soil .
The watershed of Messers Run has an area of 5 @.@ 98 square miles ( 15 @.@ 5 km2 ) . There are two reservoirs on the stream . It is difficult to access the stream as most of it is several hundred meters from any road . The creek is a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery and Class A Wild Trout Waters in some places . There are many species of fish inhabiting the creek , including brook , brown trout , and others . The creek has been surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission .
= = Course = =
Messers Run is approximately 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long . It begins near Interstate 81 on a mountain known as Spring Mountain in Kline Township . It flows southwest for several tenths of a mile before entering a valley and turning west @-@ southwest . After approximately a mile , the stream passes through the Lofty Reservoir . It exits the Lofty Reservoir via the reservoir 's southwestern edge and continues west and slightly south . After more than a mile , it turns west and slightly north , receiving an unnamed tributary several tenths of a mile downstream . The stream then continues west , receiving another unnamed tributary after several tenths of a mile . A few tenths of a mile later , it exits Kline Township and enters East Union Township . In East Union Township , the stream turns northwest and receives the tributary Negro Hollow . It then turns northeast for a few hundred feet and passes near the Blue Head Reservoir . The stream then turns northwest and flows for slightly less than a mile until it reaches its confluence with Catawissa Creek . Messers Run joins Catawissa Creek 33 @.@ 90 miles ( 54 @.@ 56 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Messers Run has three tributaries , only one of which is named . The named tributary is known as Negro Hollow and it flows through Delano Township , Kline Township , and East Union Township . The unnamed tributaries are known as " Trib
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to the north of the bridge , and a smaller one on the southern bank .
Early on 15 July , the 1st Parachute Brigade heard tank fire to the south of their position . Brigadier Lathbury sent out a patrol to investigate , which located the tanks and infantry of XIII Corps that had halted just south of them the previous night . The 1st Parachute Brigade and 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division now moved forward together . The main dressing station , which had continued to operate after being captured , was liberated by the 2nd Parachute Battalion . In an attempt to recapture Primosole Bridge the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , supported by the 44th Royal Tank Regiment , carried out a number of assaults . At one stage they managed to cross the bridge , but three Sherman tanks accompanying them were knocked out by the German 88s , and with no armoured support the infantry were forced to withdraw . However , an error in communication caused the Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion to withdraw to the north bank of the river , and this allowed the Durhams to establish a position at the southern end of the bridge . At the main dressing station the surgeons had operated on another 14 wounded by the time ambulances arrived from XIII Corps at 17 : 00 to evacuate the wounded . At 18 : 00 the Main Dressing Station was closed and the men moved to Johnny I. During the time the main dressing station had been active , the surgeons had completed 31 operations , and the medics had treated 109 wounded .
The Germans were aware that the British paratroopers had dismantled the explosive charges attached to Primosole Bridge , and now attempted to destroy it by driving trucks laden with explosives onto it . This was unsuccessful .
During the night the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry continued trying to capture the bridge . Their attacks also provided a distraction for the Germans while Lieutenant Colonel Pearson of the 1st Parachute Battalion led two companies of the 8th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry across the Simeto River using a small ford to establish another bridgehead on the northern bank . During the day 's battle both the British and Germans suffered heavy casualties , but the bridge was eventually retaken by the British infantry .
Leaving the British Eighth Army to continue their advance , at 07 : 00 16 July the 1st Parachute Brigade were transported in trucks to Syracuse , where they embarked on a LST . Here they remained overnight , sitting through a two @-@ hour air raid , and sailed for Valletta at 12 : 00 on 17 July . In Operation Fustian they had suffered around 141 dead , and 168 missing or wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
The recapture of Primosole Bridge did not result in the rapid advance over the Catania plain envisioned by Montgomery . The by now exhausted 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division was holding a position based on the bridge . The 5th Infantry Division took over the lead , but after a number of attacks could not make any further progress . Its 13th Infantry Brigade had to establish another bridgehead across the Simeto , but the Germans had brought in more troops and prepared defensive positions , and after hard fighting it was not until 5 August 1943 that the Eighth Army entered the city of Catania itself . Further hard fighting followed , and they entered Messina just after the United States Seventh Army on 17 August 1943 .
After an enquiry into the problems with the airborne missions in Sicily , the British Army and Royal Air Force submitted some recommendations . Aircrew had to be trained in parachute and glider operations , and pathfinders landing before the main force had to have enough time to set out their beacons . The landing plan was simplified , with complete brigades landing on one drop zone , instead of the smaller battalion landing areas used in Sicily . Gliders were no longer released at night while still over water , and their landing zones would be large enough to accommodate the aircraft with room to spare . Following the friendly fire incident over the convoy , more training was given to ships ' crews in aircraft recognition , and Allied aircraft were painted with three large white stripes on their wings . Training for pilots belonging to the Glider Pilot Regiment was increased , and improvements to the gliders were implemented , including better inter @-@ aircraft communication .
For transporting paratroops , to avoid relying solely on American aircraft and pilots , No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force was expanded , becoming No. 38 Group with its Halifax squadrons , now supported by four squadrons of Albemarles and four squadrons of Stirlings . To provide another method of delivering jeeps and artillery guns by air , the air force started experiments on parachuting them into combat , carrying the jeeps and guns in the aircraft 's large bomb bays . A second Royal Air Force transport group , No. 46 Group , was formed , and was equipped solely with Dakotas , instead of the mixture of aircraft in No. 38 Group . After these changes , the Royal Air Force groups could supply 88 Albermarles , 88 Stirlings , 36 Halifaxes and 150 Dakotas , a total of 362 planes , in addition to aircraft held as reserves .
= Operation Barras =
Operation Barras was a British Army operation that took place in Sierra Leone on 10 September 2000 . The operation aimed to release five British soldiers of the Royal Irish Regiment who had been held by a militia group known as the " West Side Boys " . The soldiers were part of a patrol that was returning from a visit to Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ( UNAMSIL ) at Masiaka on 25 August 2000 when they turned off the main road and down a track towards the village of Magbeni . There the patrol was overwhelmed by a large number of heavily armed rebels , taken prisoner , and transported to Gberi Bana on the opposite side of Rokel Creek .
The British Army negotiated the release of six of the eleven men on the patrol , but were not able to gain the freedom of their Sierra Leone Army liaison officer and the other men before the West Side Boys ' demands became increasingly unrealistic . Negotiators concluded that these were delaying tactics rather than an effort to resolve the crisis ; by 9 September , the soldiers had been held for over a fortnight . Fearing that the soldiers would be killed or moved to a location from which it would be more difficult to extract them , the British government authorised an assault on the West Side Boys ' base , to take place at dawn the following day , 10 September .
The ground operation was conducted by D Squadron , 22 Regiment Special Air Service — who assaulted Gberi Bana in a bid to extract the Royal Irish — and elements of 1st Battalion , Parachute Regiment ( 1 PARA ) , who launched a diversionary assault on Magbeni . The operation freed the five soldiers as well as twenty @-@ one Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held prisoner by the West Side Boys . At least twenty @-@ five West Side Boys were killed in the assault , as was one British soldier , while eighteen West Side Boys — including the gang 's leader , Foday Kallay — were taken prisoner and later transferred to the custody of the Sierra Leone Police . Many West Side Boys fled the area during the assault , and over 300 surrendered to UNAMSIL forces within a fortnight .
The operation restored confidence in the British forces operating in Sierra Leone , which had been undermined by the capture of the Royal Irish patrol . After the operation , the British government increased its support of UNAMSIL and its efforts to bring the Sierra Leone Civil War to an end , both politically , through the United Nations Security Council , and through the provision of staff officers to support UNAMSIL . The successful use of 1 PARA in Operation Barras influenced the creation of the Special Forces Support Group — a permanent unit , initially built around 1 PARA , whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations .
= = Background = =
Sierra Leone is a former British colony in West Africa , close to the equator , with an area of 71 @,@ 740 square kilometres ( 27 @,@ 700 square miles ) — similar in size to South Carolina or Scotland . In 2000 , the country had been consumed by a civil war since 1991 . The West Side Boys were a militia group who had been involved in the civil war . They were initially loyal to the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) , the rebel army opposing the government . They later fought for the government , against the RUF , and were involved in at least one operation directed by British officers in exchange for weapons and medical supplies . But the West Side Boys refused to integrate into the reconstituted Sierra Leone Army and began operating as bandits from the abandoned villages of Magbeni and Gberi Bana , on opposite sides of Rokel Creek .
British forces were deployed to Sierra Leone in May 2000 , initially for a non @-@ combatant evacuation operation under the codename Operation Palliser , in which they were tasked with evacuating foreign nationals — particularly those from the United Kingdom , other Commonwealth countries , and others for whom the British government had accepted consular responsibility . As part of the mission , British forces secured Sierra Leone 's main airport , Lungi . Having secured Freetown and Lungi , and evacuated the foreign nationals who wished to leave , the initial forces left and were replaced by a " Short Term Training Team " ( STTT ) , whose mission was to train and rebuild the Sierra Leone Army . The STTT was initially formed from a detachment from 2nd Battalion , The Royal Anglian Regiment , who were replaced in July 2000 by 1st Battalion , The Royal Irish Regiment ( 1 R IRISH ) .
The Special Air Service ( SAS ) is a corps of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom 's special forces . It consists of three regiments , of which two are drawn from the Territorial Army and one regular regiment — 22 Regiment , which was involved in Operation Barras . The SAS was formed by Colonel David Stirling in Africa in 1941 , at the height of the Second World War . Its original role was to penetrate enemy lines and strike at airfields and supply lines deep in enemy territory , first in North Africa and later around the Mediterranean and in occupied Europe . Stirling established the principle of using small teams — having realised that small , well @-@ trained teams could sometimes prove much more effective than a unit of hundreds of soldiers . The SAS first entered the public eye after Operation Nimrod , the operation to end the Iranian Embassy siege in 1980 .
The 1st Battalion , Parachute Regiment ( 1 PARA ) is part of the British Army 's infantry and , as in the SAS , applicants must undergo an additional level of scrutiny in order to be accepted . Unlike in the SAS , new recruits to the army can apply to join the Parachute Regiment directly from the Infantry Training Centre at Catterick in Yorkshire ( in the case of soldiers ) or the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst ( for officers ) . The regiment , whose personnel are commonly known as " paras " , specialises in parachute and other types of airborne insertion , and has close ties to the SAS , providing more of its personnel than any other regiment .
= = Capture of the Royal Irish patrol = =
On 25 August 2000 , a patrol from 1 R IRISH left their base in Waterloo to visit Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ( UNAMSIL ) and based at Masiaka . Over lunch , they were informed that the West Side Boys had begun to disarm , despite their initial reluctance , and the company commander — Major Alan Marshall — decided to take the patrol to investigate en route back to their base . The patrol turned off the main road onto a dirt track that led to the village of Magbeni , where the West Side Boys were based . As they approached the base , they were surrounded by a large group of West Side Boys , who used an anti @-@ aircraft gun mounted on a Bedford truck to block the patrol 's route . Marshall dismounted his vehicle , then resisted an attempt to grab his rifle and was beaten . He and the rest of the patrol were then forced into canoes at the bank of Rokel Creak and transported to Gberi Bana , a village on the other side of the river , just upstream from the point of the initial confrontation .
British forces in Sierra Leone were operating on the authority of the Sierra Leone government , but President Ahmad Kabbah allowed British forces to negotiate for the soldiers ' release themselves , as his government lacked the requisite expertise . The negotiations were led by Lieutenant Colonel Simon Fordham , commanding officer of 1 R IRISH , who was assisted by a small team which included hostage negotiators from the Metropolitan Police . The West Side Boys would not allow negotiators any closer to the village of Magbeni than the end of the track from the main road , so Fordham met there with the self @-@ styled " Brigadier " Foday Kallay , the gang 's leader , to negotiate for the soldiers ' release . On 29 August , Fordham demanded proof that the captive soldiers were still alive , and Kallay brought with him to that day 's meeting the two officers from the group — Marshall , the company commander , and Captain Flaherty , the regimental signals officer . During the meeting , Flaherty shook hands with Fordham and covertly passed him a sketch map of Gberi Bana which detailed the layout of the village and the building in which the soldiers were being held .
Two days later , on 31 August , five of the eleven hostages were released in exchange for a satellite telephone and medical supplies . The West Side Boys had originally decided to release the married men , but changed their minds at the last minute and released the three rangers and two of the corporals . The West Side Boys told the British negotiators that the officers and other NCOs would not be released until the gang 's remaining demands were met . The released soldiers were flown for debriefing to RFA Sir Percivale , of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary , off the coast .
After the release of the soldiers , the West Side Boys ' spokesman , the self @-@ styled " Colonel Cambodia " , used the satellite telephone to contact the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) for a lengthy interview in which they outlined a series of demands , including a re @-@ negotiation of the Lomé Peace Accord and the release of prisoners held by the Sierra Leone authorities . " Colonel Cambodia " quickly depleted the batteries in the telephone , but his call to the BBC enabled specialists from the Royal Corps of Signals to determine the exact position of the telephone .
= = Deterioration = =
The West Side Boys were unstable , possibly due to prolonged use of cannabis and cocaine , and their behaviour during the crisis was erratic . After their release , the five soldiers described an incident in which Kallay , dissatisfied with their explanation , conducted a mock execution in which he threatened to shoot the soldiers unless they told him why they had entered the West Side Boys ' territory . The gang 's drug habits also posed a problem for the British negotiators as the cannabis caused them to forget previous discussions and the cocaine made them distrustful .
During the negotiations , the relatives of several of the West Side Boys were brought to the gang 's camp to ask them to release the British soldiers . The gang responded that they had nothing against the soldiers , but that holding them had brought attention to their demands — which now included immunity from prosecution , safe passage to the UK to take up university courses , and guaranteed acceptance to the re @-@ formed Sierra Leone Army .
= = = Military planning = = =
Around the time that the five soldiers were released , two negotiators from the SAS joined Fordham 's negotiating team . One of them joined Fordham in several meetings with the West Side Boys , posing as a Royal Irish major in order to provide reconnaissance and gather intelligence in case an assault was required . At approximately the same time Lieutenant Jon Carty , RN , the medical officer on board HMS Argyll — which was operating off the coast — was brought ashore to assess the soldiers , should they be freed , or to provide immediate care in the event of an assault resulting in casualties . Argyll also served as a temporary base for two Army Air Corps Lynx attack helicopters which had been flown to Sierra Leone to support any direct action .
As planning for a potential military operation to release the captive soldiers progressed , it became clear that , given the number of West Side Boys and their separation between two locations ( Gberi Bana as well as the village of Magbeni ; see below ) , the operation could not be conducted by special forces alone . Thus , the headquarters of 1st Battalion , 1 PARA , was ordered to assemble an enhanced company group , which would support special forces if such an operation was launched . The battalion 's commanding officer selected A Company , led by Major Matthew Lowe , which had been on exercise in Jamaica at the time of the initial British deployment to Sierra Leone . Several members of A Company were new recruits who had only completed basic training two weeks prior . Lowe decided that replacing them with more experienced soldiers would risk undermining the cohesion and morale of the company , but several specialist units from elsewhere in 1 PARA were attached to A Company to bring the company group up to the required strength , including a signals group , snipers , heavy machine gun sections , and a mortar section . The additional firepower was included to maximise the options available to the planners , given that the West Side Boys had a numerical advantage and that additional resources would not be immediately available should the operation run into difficulties .
On 31 August , the company group was ordered to move to South Cerney in Gloucestershire , under the cover story that they were conducting a " readiness to move " exercise . It was only at this point , and after all mobile telephones had been confiscated to ensure operational security , that the entire company was briefed on the operation that was being planned . With the operation becoming more likely to be launched , Lowe and his planning group flew to Dakar , Senegal , on 3 September to continue planning and to study intelligence gathered from SAS patrols operating near the West Side Boys ' camp . The British government feared that deployment of forces to Sierra Leone might precipitate an adverse reaction by the West Side Boys against the captive soldiers . They calculated that it would take 14 hours to launch an assault from the United Kingdom should it be required in an emergency , so the remainder of the company group was also moved to Dakar in order to reduce the response time . In order to further reduce the response time , political authority to launch the assault in an emergency was delegated to the British High Commissioner in Freetown , Alan Jones , while the military decision was delegated to Brigadier David Richards , commander of British forces in Sierra Leone . Two days later , a pair of SAS observation teams ( one on each side of Rokel Creek ) were inserted near the villages by assault boats manned by the Special Boat Service ( SBS ) — the Royal Navy 's special forces unit . They began monitoring the West Side Boys ' movements and gathering intelligence , such as details of weapons , as well as identifying viable landing sites for helicopters .
With the progression of the plans , the enhanced A Company was tasked with planning for an assault on the village of Magbeni , to the south of Rokel Creek , while the SAS would aim to release the captive Royal Irish soldiers by assaulting Gberi Bana , on the north bank . The Magbeni assault had several purposes : to neutralise weapons in the village which could disrupt the SAS operation , to distract the West Side Boys in Magbeni and prevent them from crossing Rokel Creek to interfere with the operation in Gberi Bana , to defeat the West Side Boys and destroy their military capabilities , and to recover the Royal Irish patrol 's vehicles .
Several methods of insertion were considered , both for the paras and the special forces personnel , including an overland approach using four @-@ wheel drive vehicles , and a water @-@ borne insertion using the same method by which the SAS observation teams had arrived at their position . The planning group decided that the overland approach would not allow troops to enter the village undetected , largely due to the West Side Boys ' roadblocks on the road into the village , and that insertion from Rokel Creek was not feasible for large numbers of troops due to the sandbanks and powerful currents in the river . Thus , it was decided that the insertions would be made from three Chinook helicopters of the Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing ( JSFAW ) , which had been in Sierra Leone since the beginning of Operation Palliser .
= = = Deployment to Sierra Leone = = =
By 5 September , the British media was openly speculating on the possibility that an operation would be launched to free the remaining soldiers , having picked up on 1 PARA 's heightened readiness . The following day , the media was reporting that British forces had arrived in Sierra Leone " as a contingency " . The British special forces kept a low profile , as was traditional , and the media interest surrounding 1 PARA allowed D Squadron , 22 SAS to enter Sierra Leone unnoticed .
The enhanced A Company group — approximately 130 troops in total — arrived in the country in several groups and joined the SAS , who had already established a base in Hastings , a village 30 miles ( 50 kilometres ) south of Freetown , where several of the paras recognised former colleagues among the troopers from D Squadron . At Hastings , the paras focused on live firing exercises and rehearsed various scenarios in a scale replica of Magbeni which had been constructed at the camp . As well as learning the layout of the village and refining battle technique , the rehearsals allowed the soldiers to acclimatise to the tropical heat , and led commanders to the decision that the paras would go into battle with minimal equipment to reduce the risk of heat exhaustion — excluding weapons and ammunition , they would carry only water and field dressings . Some officers feared that the weight of body armour would increase the risk of heat exhaustion , but commanders hoped that the cooler temperatures of the early morning ( when the operation was planned to be launched ) would mitigate the effects of the weight , and decided to order its use .
A day after the arrival of the paras , Director Special Forces ( DSF ) , Brigadier John Holmes , arrived in Freetown with a headquarters staff which included the commanding officer of 22 SAS and the officer commanding D Squadron , as well as three personnel from the Royal Air Force 's Tactical Communications Wing . Holmes based himself at Seaview House , the British military headquarters in Freetown , near the British High Commission . From there , his staff established contact with the SAS observation teams on either side of Rokel Creek and with COBRA , the British government 's emergency committee in London . The DSF , who usually attends COBRA meetings during crises which may require the use of special forces , was represented by his chief of staff and by Lieutenant Colonel Tim Collins , operations officer at Headquarters Special Forces .
= = The operation = =
= = = Decision to launch = = =
On 9 September , " Colonel Cambodia " stated that the remaining six members of the Royal Irish patrol , who had now been held for over a fortnight , would only be released after a new government was formed in Sierra Leone . The negotiators concluded that the West Side Boys ' increasingly unrealistic demands were stalling tactics rather than a serious attempt to conclude the crisis . At around the same time , the SAS teams near the West Side Boys ' base reported that they had seen no sign of the captive soldiers during the four days they had been in position . There were also concerns that the West Side Boys might move further inland , and either kill the soldiers or move them to a location from which it would be more difficult for British forces to extract them . The combination of these factors led COBRA to order an assault .
The operation was to commence at first light the next day , 10 September . The intervening time was spent securing the political and legal basis for the raid . Final approval was gained from Sierra Leonean President Ahmad Kabbah , and British Prime Minister Tony Blair , while the Army Legal Corps secured approval from the Sierra Leonean Police . Fordham , who had been leading the negotiations , telephoned the West Side Boys and was able to establish that the captive soldiers were alive , and the final orders were issued in the evening of 9 September .
The two villages were to be assaulted simultaneously — Gberi Bana , where the Royal Irish were held , by the SAS and Magbeni by the paras . In addition to the remaining Royal Irish soldiers , the SAS were also tasked with extracting Lieutenant Musa Bangura — the patrol 's SLA liaison , whose extraction was given the same priority as that of the Royal Irish — and a group of Sierra Leonean civilians who were being held by the West Side Boys .
= = = Assault = = =
The task force left Hastings — approximately 15 minutes ' flying time from the West Side Boys ' camp — at approximately 06 : 15 . Downstream from the villages — approximately 15 minutes ' flying time , just out of the West Side Boys ' visual and hearing range , the helicopters went into a holding pattern to allow the SAS observation teams time to get into position to prevent the West Side Boys from attacking any of the captives before the extraction teams were on the ground . Once the observation teams were in position , the helicopters proceeded up the line of Rokel Creek , the Chinooks flying low enough that the downdraft tore off the corrugated iron roofs of several huts in the villages , including the roof of the building in which the Royal Irish were being held . As the helicopters approached , the SAS observation team at Gberi Bana engaged West Side Boys in the vicinity of the captives to prevent any gang members from attempting to kill them before the area was secured . Upon their arrival , the attack helicopters strafed the villages to make the landing zones as safe as possible for the Chinooks and destroy the heavy weapons that had been identified by the SAS observation teams .
= = = = Gberi Bana = = = =
After the first sweep by the attack helicopters , two Chinooks carried the SAS to Gberi Bana . The troopers fast @-@ roped into the village and immediately came under fire from the West Side Boys . Early on in the confrontation , the British operation sustained its first casualty — a round entered Trooper Bradley Tinnion 's flank , leaving him seriously injured . He was dragged back to the helicopter and flown to the medical team aboard RFA Sir Percivale , dying despite intensive resuscitation attempts on board . The SAS proceeded to clear the village , engaging those West Side Boys who offered resistance and capturing those who surrendered , including Foday Kallay .
The SAS located the captive British soldiers from the latter 's shouts of " British Army , British Army ! " , though Bangura had been held separately and proved more difficult to locate . He was found in a squalid open pit , which had been used by the West Side Boys as a lavatory , and had been starved and beaten during his captivity , and thus had to be carried to the helicopter . Less than 20 minutes after the arrival of the SAS , the remaining members of the Royal Irish patrol , including Bangura , had been evacuated from the area .
As the SAS operation concluded , the Chinooks ferried prisoners and bodies from Gberi Bana to the Jordanian battalion of UNAMSIL . From there , the bodies would be identified and buried , and those prisoners identified as West Side Boys would be handed over to the Sierra Leonean Police . Operation Barras also freed 22 Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held captive by the West Side Boys — the men were used as servants and put through crude military training by the West Side Boys , possibly with the intention of forcing them to fight in the future , while the women were used as sex slaves . Planners had been concerned that West Side Boys might try to conceal themselves among the civilians and so the civilians were also restrained and taken to the Jordanian peacekeepers ' base to be identified . A 23rd civilian was caught in the crossfire and killed during the assault .
= = = = Magbeni = = = =
The third Chinook carried half of the enhanced A Company group from 1 PARA to Magbeni . The helicopter hovered low above the landing zone that had been identified by the second SAS observation team and the paras jumped from the rear ramp . The observation team had warned that the ground was wet but had been unable to determine the depth of the water , so the paras were surprised to find themselves jumping into a chest @-@ deep swamp . The majority of the first group immediately waded through the swamp to get to the nearby tree line and from there to the village , but a small party tasked with securing the landing zone had to wait in the swamp for the Chinook to pick up the remaining members of the company group and return to insert them at the landing zone .
The returning Chinook , carrying the remainder of the A Company group including second @-@ in @-@ command ( 2IC ) Captain Danny Matthews , came under fire from a heavy machine gun in Magbeni , which was promptly strafed by one of the Army Air Corps Lynx helicopters until it ceased firing . The soldiers in Matthews ' helicopter exited and joined the first half of the company group on the ground . As the company group moved forward , an explosion — possibly a mortar fired by the British fire support group — injured seven men , including company commander Major Matthew Lowe , one of the platoon commanders , a signaller , and two of Lowe 's headquarters staff . Another signaller radioed in a casualty report , and one of the Chinooks en route to Gberi Bana to extract the Royal Irish ( who had just been freed by the SAS ) landed on the track through the village . The casualties were loaded onto the helicopter , which then picked up the Royal Irish and flew to RFA Sir Percivale where all 13 men were assessed by medics .
The operation continued under the leadership of Matthews , the company 2IC , who had taken command almost immediately after the company commander was wounded . Under his command , each of the platoons assaulted a different cluster of buildings to which they had been assigned during training on the replica village at Hastings . The West Side Boys ' ammunition store was found and secured and , once the rest of the buildings had been cleared , the paras took up defensive positions to block any potential counter @-@ attack and patrols went into the immediate jungle in search of any West Side Boys hiding in the bushes . The village was completely secure by 08 : 00 and the paras secured the approaches with Claymore mines and mortars positioned to prevent a counter @-@ attack , while a detachment destroyed the remaining vehicles and heavy weapons including the Bedford lorry which had blocked the Royal Irish patrol . The paras also recovered the Royal Irish patrol 's Land Rovers , which were slung under the Chinooks and removed . The last British soldiers left the area at approximately 14 : 00 .
= = = = Conclusion of the assault = = = =
The remaining members of the captured patrol were flown to RFA Sir Percivale . Fordham visited the men shortly after the operation and stated " they looked remarkably well considering the ordeal they had been through " and described them as being " physically and mentally exhausted " . After medical checks , the soldiers , who had been held for 17 days , were allowed to telephone their families and then rejoined their battalion in Freetown . The paras were flown to RFA Argus , where they spent the night before being flown back to the United Kingdom the next day . D Squadron , 22 SAS also left Sierra Leone the day after the operation , along with Director Special Forces and his headquarters staff .
= = Aftermath = =
One British soldier , Tinnion , was killed in the operation . Another twelve soldiers were injured , one seriously . The British Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) did not officially acknowledge the involvement of special forces , issuing a press release which made no mention of the SAS , but when it was made public that Brad Tinnion was a Lance Bombardier originally from 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery , it became clear to experts that Tinnion had been serving with special forces . Operation Barras was Tinnion 's first operational deployment as an SAS trooper .
Also confirmed to have died in the operation were 25 West Side Boys , but the gang 's resistance was stronger than had been expected and there was speculation that more bodies lay undiscovered in the jungle . Several other West Side Boys were captured , while others fled into the jungle . Many of those who fled later surrendered to Jordanian peacekeepers . The Jordanians had received 30 by the end of the day , and 371 — including 57 children — had surrendered within a fortnight of Operation Barras , to which Julius Spencer , Sierra Leone 's Minister for Information , declared that the West Side boys were " finished as a military threat " . Some of those who surrendered went on to volunteer for the new Sierra Leone Army and those who were accepted went into the British @-@ run training programme . Kallay , the gang 's leader , recorded a message for broadcast on Sierra Leonean radio urging the remaining West Side Boys to surrender to UNAMSIL . He also identified the bodies of West Side Boys killed in Magbeni and Gberi Bana , which were subsequently buried in a mass grave .
The morning of the operation , General Sir Charles Guthrie , Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of the British Armed Forces — was coincidentally due to appear on Breakfast with Frost , a Sunday morning political television programme hosted by Sir David Frost . The first public knowledge of Operation Barras came from Guthrie 's interview with Frost , which took place while the operation was still concluding . Guthrie told Frost " [ W ] e didn 't want to have to assault , because it 's a very difficult operation , there are big risks in it but we have done it [ ... ] because our negotiations were getting nowhere . The hostages had been there for three weeks , they [ the West Side Boys ] were threatening to kill them , or they were threatening to move them to other parts of Sierra Leone and once they 'd done that we 'd never be able to recover [ the soldiers ] with ease , which I hope we 've done this morning " . The MoD issued a press release with more details later in the day .
Several decorations were awarded to the personnel who took part in Operation Barras , including two Conspicuous Gallantry Crosses , five Military Crosses ( one of which was awarded to Matthews , who took command of the operation in Magbeni after the officer commanding was injured ) , and five Distinguished Flying Crosses . Holmes ( Director Special Forces ) was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the operation . Tinnion received a posthumous Mention in Despatches .
Marshall was later transferred to another regiment at his own request , while two of the soldiers on the patrol subsequently left the army and another two transferred to " Home Service " units ( those based permanently in Northern Ireland ) .
= = Long @-@ term impact = =
The capture of the Royal Irish patrol had undermined the confidence of the Sierra Leonean population in the British operation , which they hoped would help to bring an end to the country 's civil war , and embarrassed the British government , which had been critical of similar previous incidents involving UNAMSIL personnel . Operation Barras restored confidence in the British forces , prompting military historian William Fowler to call the operation " a necessarily spectacular endorsement of the rule of law and the elected government of Sierra Leone " .
The British media struck a celebratory note at the success of Operation Barras , but some suggested that Marshall had erred in diverting the patrol off the main road to visit the West Side Boys . Both Marshall and Bangura — the patrol 's Sierra Leone Army liaison — were adamant that the patrol had been asked by the Jordanian peacekeepers serving with UNAMSIL to , in Bangura 's words , " take a closer look " . However , the commander of UNAMSIL — General Mohamed Garba of Nigeria — initially denied that the Royal Irish had met the Jordanians and both UNAMSIL HQ and the Jordanian commanding officer denied that the patrol were asked to investigate the West Side Boys ' camp . An investigation into the capture of the patrol was launched by Land Command and a senior officer was despatched to Freetown to debrief the members of the patrol . The report was critical of Marshall , stating that he " made an error of professional judgement in diverting from a planned and authorised journey to make an unauthorised visit to the village of Magbeni . "
The risks of Operation Barras were acknowledged by the MoD and by officers involved in the planning and the assault . It was described by an SAS soldier as " not a clinical , black balaclava , Princes Gate type operation . It was a very grubby , green operation with lots of potential for things to go wrong " . Richard Connaughton observed in the journal Small Wars & Insurgencies that the operation showed that Tony Blair 's government was not averse to the possibility of casualties where they felt the cause was just . Geoff Hoon , British Secretary of State for Defence , summed up the effect of the operation at a press conference , stating that " [ Operation Barras ] sends a number of powerful messages . Firstly , it is a yet further demonstration of the refusal of successive British governments to do deals with terrorists and hostage takers . Secondly , we hope the West Side Group [ sic ] and other rebel units in Sierra Leone will now [ ... ] accept the rule of law and the authority of the democratically elected government of Sierra Leone . Thirdly , we hope all those who may in future consider taking similar actions against UK armed forces will think carefully about the possible consequences and realise there is nothing to be gained by such action " . Andrew M. Dorman of King 's College London suggested that the fate of the wider British operation in Sierra Leone depended heavily on the success or failure of Operation Barras and that , had the British forces been defeated , the United Kingdom would have been forced to withdraw all its forces from Sierra Leone . Dorman also suggests that a defeat would have " raised questions " regarding Tony Blair 's policy of using armed force for humanitarian intervention .
The success of Operation Barras was a factor in the decision to form the Special Forces Support Group ( SFSG ) , a permanent unit whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations . The SFSG was formed in 2006 from an infantry battalion — originally 1 PARA , which was the first battalion to serve in the role — with supporting elements from the Royal Marines and Royal Air Force Regiment . The SFSG went on to support special forces operations in Afghanistan and Iraq .
The capture of the Royal Irish patrol and the effectiveness of the operation to free them prompted the British government to increase its support of UNAMSIL , both politically and through the provision of staff officers to assist UNAMSIL 's operational headquarters ( though not with a significant contribution of peacekeepers , despite considerable lobbying ) . The British also applied political pressure through the United Nations Security Council on the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) — the second main party to the civil war after the government — and on Sierra Leone 's neighbour Liberia , which had provided support to the RUF . The new approach , combined with a larger and more powerful UNAMSIL , hastened the demobilisation of the RUF and thus the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War .
= History of decompression research and development =
Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure .
When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises . Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water , and some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and other tissues . Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , ( see : " Saturation diving " ) , or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state , and start diffusing out again . Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared to the ambient pressure . These bubbles , and products of injury caused by the bubbles , can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long @-@ term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub @-@ clinical decompression injury .
The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage . The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested , and used , and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable . Decompression remains a procedure with some risk , but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable for dives within the well @-@ tested range of commercial , military and recreational diving .
The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle , who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump . In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation , but in later experiments , signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed . Later , when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress , miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease , the bends , and decompression sickness . Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles , and that recompression could relieve the symptoms , further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression , and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict low @-@ risk decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness .
= = Timeline = =
1660 – Sir Robert Boyle conducted an experiment on a bird in an air pump . This predated actual intentional investigations into decompression , but the experiment was effectively a rapid decompression and caused the death of the bird by asphyxiation .
1670 – Sir Robert Boyle performed an experiment with a viper in a vacuum . A bubble was observed in its eye and it displayed signs of extreme discomfort . This was the first recorded description of decompression sickness .
1841 – Jacques Triger documented the first cases of decompression sickness in humans when two miners involved in pressurised caisson work developed symptoms .
1847 – The effectiveness of recompression for the treatment of decompression sickness ( DCS ) in caisson workers was described by B. Pol and T.J. Watelle .
1857 – Felix Hoppe @-@ Seyler repeated Boyle 's experiments and suggested that sudden death in compressed air workers was caused by bubble formation , and recommended recompression therapy .
1868 – Alfred Le Roy de Méricourt described decompression sickness as an occupational illness of sponge divers .
1873 – Dr. Andrew Smith first used the terms " caisson disease " and " compressed air illness " , describing 110 cases of decompression sickness as the physician in charge during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge . The nickname " the bends " was used after workers emerging from pressurized construction on the Brooklyn Bridge adopted a posture similar to fashionable ladies of the period " the Grecian Bend " .
1878 – Paul Bert determined that decompression sickness is caused by nitrogen gas bubbles released from tissues and blood during or after decompression , and showed the advantages of breathing oxygen after developing decompression sickness .
1897 – N. Zuntz proposed a perfusion @-@ based tissue model .
1906 – V. Schrotter suggested a uniform decompression of 20 minutes per atmosphere of pressure . J.S. Haldane was commissioned by the British Admiralty to study decompression sickness .
1908 – John Scott Haldane prepared the first recognised decompression table for the British Admiralty . This table was based on experiments performed on goats using an end point of symptomatic DCS .
1912 – Chief Gunner George D. Stillson of the United States Navy created a program to test and refine Haldane 's tables . This program ultimately led to the first publication of the United States Navy Diving Manual and the establishment of a Navy Diving School in Newport , Rhode Island . Diver training programs were later cut at the end of World War I.
1912 – Leonard Erskine Hill proposed continuous uniform decompression
1927 – Naval School , Diving and Salvage was re @-@ established at the Washington Navy Yard . At that time the United States moved their Navy Experimental Diving Unit ( NEDU ) to the same naval yard . In the following years , the Experimental Diving Unit developed the US Navy Air Decompression Tables which became the accepted world standard for diving with compressed air .
1930 's – J.A. Hawkins , C.W. Schilling and R.A. Hansen conducted extensive experimental dives to determine allowable supersaturation ratios for different tissue compartments for Haldanean model .
1935 – Albert R. Behnke et al. experimented with oxygen for recompression therapy .
1937 – US Navy 1937 tables developed by O.D. Yarborough were published .
1941 – Altitude decompression sickness was treated with hyperbaric oxygen for the first time .
1956 – US Navy Decompression Tables ( 1956 ) were published .
1960 – F.C. Golding et al. split the classification of DCS into Type 1 and 2 .
1965 – LeMessurier and Hills published their paper , A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques , which suggested that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops which is slower than off @-@ gassing while still in solution . This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for efficient gas elimination .
1965 – French Navy GERS ( Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines ) 1965 table was published .
1965 – M.W. Goodman and Robert D. Workman introduced recompression tables utilizing oxygen to accelerate elimination of inert gas
1972 – Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory ( RNPL ) published tables based on Hempleman 's tissue slab diffusion model .
1973 – Isobaric counterdiffusion was first described by D.J. Graves , J. Idicula , Christian Lambertson , and J.A. Quinn in subjects who breathed one inert gas mixture while being surrounded by another .
1973 – French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) were published .
1976 – M.P. Spencer showed that the sensitivity of decompression testing is increased by the use of ultrasonic methods which can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS emerge .
1981 – Huggins model and tables using Spencer 's formula for no @-@ decompression limits were published .
1981 – D.E. Yount described the Varied Permeability Model .
1982 – Paul K Weathersby , Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduced survival analysis into the study of decompression sickness .
1983 – ED . Thalmann published the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 nitrox and heliox closed circuit rebreathers .
1983 / 4 – Albert A. Bühlmann published Decompression – Decompression sickness . Bühlmann recognized the problems associated with altitude diving and proposed a method which calculated maximum nitrogen loading in the tissues at a particular ambient pressure .
1984 – DCIEM ( Defence and Civil Institution of Environmental Medicine , Canada ) released No @-@ Decompression and Decompression Tables based on Kidd / Stubbs serial compartment model and extensive ultrasonic testing .
1984 – Edward D. Thalmann published U.S. Navy Exponential @-@ Linear algorithm and tables for constant PO2 Nitrox closed circuit rebreather ( CCR ) applications .
1985 – Thalmann extended use of the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 heliox closed circuit rebreathers .
1985 – Bruce Bassett published recreational decompression tables based on U.S. Navy Tables .
1986 – Swiss Sport Diving Tables based on Bühlmann 's model were published .
1986 – D. E. Yount and D. C. Hoffman proposed a bubble model , which was to become the core of the Varying Permeability Model ( VPM ) .
1988 – BSAC ' 88 tables were published .
1990 – DCIEM sport diving tables released .
1990 – French Navy – Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables published .
1992 – French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) published .
1999 – National Association of Underwater Instructors ( NAUI ) published Trimix and Nitrox tables based on Bruce Wienke 's RGBM model .
2000 - The core VPM algorithm was finalized .
2001 – NAUI published recreational air tables based on the RGBM model .
2003 – V @-@ Planner with VPM @-@ B model by Erik Baker was released as a revision to work from the DecoList ( 1999 ) participants : Eric Maiken , D.E. Yount and others .
2007 – Wayne Gerth & David J. Doolette published VVal 18 and VVal 18M parameter sets for tables and programs based on the Thalmann E @-@ L algorithm , and produced an internally compatible set of decompression tables for open circuit and CCR on air and Nitrox , including in water air / oxygen decompression and surface decompression on oxygen .
2007 – Saul Goldman proposed an Interconnected Compartment Model ( 3 compartment series / parallel model ) using a single risk bearing active tissue compartment and two non @-@ risk bearing peripheral compartments which indirectly affect the risk of the central compartment . This model predicts initially fast gas washout which slows with time .
2008 – US Navy Diving Manual Revision 6 published , which includes a version of the 2007 tables by Gerth & Doolette .
= = Haldanean ( perfusion limited , dissolved phase ) models = =
Early decompression theory generally assumed that inert gas bubble formation in the tissues could be avoided during decompression , and the aim of the decompression tables and algorithms was to prevent bubble formation while minimising decompression time . Most dissolved phase models are perfusion limited , and differ mainly by the number of compartments , the range of half @-@ times , and supersaturation tolerances assumed . These models are commonly referred to as Haldanean .
= = = Haldane 's theory and tables = = =
John Scott Haldane was commissioned by the Royal Navy to develop a safe decompression procedure . The current method was a slow linear decompression , and Haldane was concerned that this was ineffective due to additional nitrogen buildup in the slow early stages of the ascent .
Haldane 's hypothesis was that a diver could ascend immediately to a depth where the supersaturation reaches but does not exceed the critical supersaturation level , at which depth the pressure gradient for off @-@ gassing is maximized and the decompression is most efficient . The diver would remain at this depth until saturation had reduced sufficiently for him to ascend another 10 feet , to the new depth of critical supersaturation , where the process would be repeated until it was safe for the diver to reach the surface . Haldane assumed a constant critical ratio of dissolved nitrogen pressure to ambient pressure which was invariant with depth .
A large number of decompression experiments were done using goats , which were compressed for three hours to assumed saturation , rapidly decompressed to surface pressure , and examined for symptoms of decompression sickness . Goats which had been compressed to 2 @.@ 25 bar absolute or less showed no signs of DCS after rapid decompression to the surface . Goats compressed to 6 bar and rapidly decompressed to 2 @.@ 6 bar ( pressure ratio 2 @.@ 3 to 1 ) also showed no signs of DCS . Haldane and his co @-@ workers concluded that a decompression from saturation with a pressure ratio of 2 to 1 was unlikely to produce symptoms .
= = = = Haldane 's model = = = =
The decompression model formulated from these findings made the following assumptions .
Living tissues become saturated at different rates in different parts of the body . Saturation time varies from a few minutes to several hours
The rate of saturation follows a logarithmic curve and is approximately complete in 3 hours in goats , and 5 hours in humans .
The desaturation process follows the same pressure / time function as saturation ( symmetrical ) , provided no bubbles have formed
The slow tissues are most important in avoiding bubble formation
A pressure ratio of 2 to 1 during decompression will not produce decompression symptoms
A supersaturation of dissolved Nitrogen that exceeds twice ambient atmospheric pressure is unsafe
Efficient decompression from high pressures should start by rapidly halving the absolute pressure , followed by a slower ascent to ensure that the partial pressure in the tissues does not at any stage exceed about twice the ambient pressure .
The different tissues were designated as tissue groups with different half @-@ times , and saturation was assumed after four half @-@ times ( 93 @.@ 75 % )
Five tissue compartments were chosen , with half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 and 75 minutes .
Depth intervals of 10 ft were chosen for decompression stops .
= = = = Decompression tables = = = =
This model was used to compute a set of tables . The method comprises choosing a depth and time exposure , and calculation the nitrogen partial pressure in each of the tissue compartments at the end of that exposure .
The depth of the first stop is found from the tissue compartment with the highest partial pressure , and the depth of first decompression stop is the standard stop depth where this partial pressure is nearest without exceeding the critical pressure ratio .
The time at each stop is the time required to reduce partial pressure in all compartments to a level safe for the next stop , 10 ft shallower .
The controlling compartment for the first stop is usually the fastest tissue , but this generally changes during the ascent , and slower tissues usually control the shallower stop times . The longer the bottom time and closer to saturation of the slower tissues , the slower the tissue controlling the final stops will be .
Chamber tests and open water dives with two divers were made in 1906 . The divers were successfully decompressed from each exposure . The tables were adopted by the Royal Navy in 1908 . The Haldane tables of 1906 are considered to be the first true set of decompression tables , and the basic concept of parallel tissue compartments with half @-@ times and critical supersaturation limits are still in use in several later decompression models , algorithms , tables and decompression computers .
= = = U.S. Navy decompression tables = = =
US Navy decompression tables have gone through a lot of development over the years . They have mostly been based on parallel multi @-@ compartment exponential models . The number of compartments has varied , and the allowable supersaturation in the various compartments during ascent has undergone major development based on experimental work and records of decompression sickness incidents .
= = = = C & R tables ( 1915 ) = = = =
The first decompression tables produced for the U.S. Navy were developed by the Bureau of Construction and Repair in 1915 and were consequently known as the C & R tables . They were derived from a Haldanean model , with oxygen decompression to depths up to 300 ft on air , and were successfully used to depths of slightly over 300 ft
= = = = Hawkins Schilling and Hansen ( 1930s ) = = = =
Submarine escape training led US Navy personnel to believe that Haldane 's allowable supersaturation ratios for fast tissues were unnecessarily conservative , as calculated values indicated that supersaturation in trainees exceeded Haldane 's limits , but they did not develop DCS . A large number ( 2143 ) of experimental dives were conducted over 3 years to derive allowable supersaturation ratios for a Haldanian 5 compartment model with compartment half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 and 70 minutes . Values for critical supersaturation derived from this experimental work were different for each tissue compartment . Values for slow tissues ( 75 and 40 @-@ minute ) were close to Haldane 's findings , but considerably higher values were found for the fast tissues . These values were so high that the researchers concluded that the 5- and 10 @-@ minute tissues were not relevant to the development of DCS . Based on these conclusions , a set of tables was computed which omitted the 5- and 10 @-@ minute tissues .
= = = = Yarbrough ( 1937 tables ) = = = =
Yarbrough 's 1937 tables were based on a Haldanean 3 compartment model with compartment half @-@ times of 20 , 40 and 70 minutes . Ascent rate was chosen to be 25 ft per minute , which was a convenient rate to pull up a diver in standard dress .
= = = = 1956 tables = = = =
Van der Aue worked on procedures for surface decompression and oxygen use in the early 1950s and during his research found problems with the 1937 tables for long dive times . He also found that the fast tissues which had been dropped in the 1930s would control decompression in some cases , so he re @-@ introduced the fast compartments to the model , and added an extra slower compartment to better model long @-@ duration dives .
Assumptions of the 1956 model :
Six parallel tissue compartments with exponential uptake and elimination of gas with compartment half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 , 80 and 120 minutes .
Symmetrical uptake and elimination half @-@ times ( same half @-@ time for each compartment for uptake and elimination )
Supersaturation ratios decrease linearly with increased ambient pressure , ( M @-@ values ) and are different for each compartment .
Each tissue compartment is assumed to fully saturate / desaturate in 6 half @-@ times . This means desaturation of the slowest ( 120 min ) compartment takes 12 hours – hence the 12 @-@ hour surface interval before a dive is not considered repetitive with these tables .
Ascent rate was chosen at 60 fsw / min as a compromise between the practical requirements for military scuba and surface supplied diving operations .
Repetitive diving was accommodated in the tables using the slowest compartment to control surface off @-@ gassing .
A minimum surface interval of 10 minutes was found necessary to ensure that the 120 @-@ minute compartment would have controlling effect for repetitive dives .
= = = = U.S. Navy exceptional exposure tables = = = =
The U.S. Navy 1956 tables were soon found to be problematic for dives deeper than 100 fsw for longer than 2 to 4 hours .
US Navy exceptional exposure tables use an 8 compartment Haldanean model developed by Workman , with half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 , 80 , 120 , 160 and 240 minutes , and are not compatible with the rest of the US Navy Air tables for repetitive diving , although for convenience they have been appended to the standard US Navy Air tables . The tables warn that no repetitive diving is permitted following an exceptional exposure dive , and although the 240 @-@ minute tissue would only desaturate completely in 24 hours , there is no restriction to assuming an unsaturated diver after 12 hours .
= = = Reformatting of the U.S. Navy 1956 tables by recreational diving community = = =
Some of the earliest modifications to the U.S. Navy tables involved changes to their layout by the recreational diving community . These include :
Nu @-@ Way repetitive dive tables
Dacor " No calculation dive tables "
NAUI tables ( original version )
= = = Modified U.S. Navy 1956 tables = = =
Decompression theory is not an exact science . Decompression models approximate a physiological process that is incompletely understood , and rather complex , by simple mathematical models , in the hope of producing a useful procedure with acceptably low risk of injury to the user . New information allows theories and models to be modified to provide more reliable results , and the availability of faster and more powerful computer processors at low cost has made more exhaustive numerical methods more practicable , and the computation of relatively far more complex models is now quite possible , even in real time .
Several factors have encouraged researchers to modify existing tables and develop new models :
Doppler bubble detection allows models to use bubble formation as an endpoint rather than symptomatic DCS .
The use of safety stops has been shown by Dr Andrew Pilmanis of the Catalina Marine Science Centre to greatly reduce bubble formation in divers .
Many decompression models use a slower ascent rate than the 60 fpm ( 18 m / min ) of the 1956 US Navy tables ( The 2008 US Navy tables have reduced ascent rate to 30 fpm ( 9 m / min ) ) .
Multiple repetitive dives . The US Navy tables were designed for a single repetitive dive , and there were concerns about the safety of extending their use to multiple repetitive dives . As an attempt to address this issue , some tables were modified to reduce the allowable bottom time for repetitive dives .
Longer nitrogen retention . The addition of longer half @-@ time compartments allows the accumulation of residual nitrogen over longer periods to be accounted for .
= = = = Jeppesen tables = = = =
Jeppesen made the simplest modification to the U.S. Navy tables by drawing a new line to reduce no @-@ stop limits on an otherwise unchanged table . Divers were recommended to remain within the modified no @-@ stop limit . If one of the new time limits was not listed on the U.S. Navy table , the next shorter table entry was to be selected .
= = = = Bassett tables = = = =
These tables were based on the 1956 US Navy tables and the no @-@ decompression limits recommended by Bruce Bassett .
Changes were also made to the table rules and decompression requirements :
Ascent rate of 10 m per minute .
A safety stop of 3 to 5 minutes at 3 to 5 metres is recommended where possible for all dives deeper than 9 m .
Total dive time is used to calculate repetitive group .
= = = = NAUI tables = = = =
The first NAUI tables were based on reformatted but otherwise unmodified US Navy 1956 tables and issued in the early 1980s .
The next version was a NAUI modification of the US Navy 1956 tables using the following modifications , and released a few years later .
No decompression limits have been reduced . In most cases this results in the repetitive group shifting one letter down , but for 50fsw it shifted 2 letters , and for 40 fsw , by three letters .
A precautionary decompression stop ( safety stop ) of 3 minutes at 15 fsw is recommended after all dives , but the time spent at the safety stop is not included in the time used to calculate repetitive group .
A surface interval of at least one hour between repetitive dives is recommended .
Repetitive dive depths are limited to 100 fsw
A repetitive dive is defined as occurring within 24 hours of the previous dive ( this allows for the slowest tissues to equilibriate with atmospheric partial pressures )
All required decompression is done at a stop depth of 15 fsw
NAUI adapted the 1995 DCIEM Sports Table for use in all NAUI courses and these were used until they were replaced by RGBM based tables in 2002 . ( The NAUI recreational air tables based on RGBM model are copyrighted 2001 )
NAUI RGBM Trimix and Nitrox tables copyrighted 1999 have also been released .
= = = = Pandora tables = = = =
These tables were designed for use on the excavation of the wreck of the Pandora
Table values at 30 fsw ( feet of seawater ) and deeper were shortened by 1 to 4 minutes , putting divers into higher repetitive groups sooner .
Repetitive group selection tables for repetitive dives were modified . The first repetitive dive uses the same repetitive group selection as the U.S. Navy tables but subsequent dives use more conservative tables which place the diver in a higher repetitive group than the Navy tables would for the same profile . This tendency is continued for the third and fourth repetitive dives .
Safety stops at 3 msw ( metres of seawater ) ( 10 fsw ) are required for repetitive dives ; 3 minutes is required after the second dive , 6 minutes after the third and 9 minutes after the fourth dive .
Maximum ascent rate was specified as 10 msw / min . ( 35 fsw / min . ) .
= = = = Huggins model and tables = = = =
In 1981 Karl Huggins modified the US Navy 6 compartment model using M values derived to follow the Spencer no @-@ decompression limits . The tables are exclusively for no @-@ decompression diving and are presented in the same format as the US Navy tables .
A major difference from the US Navy tables is that the repetitive group designators represent nitrogen levels in all tissues , unlike the USN table which represent only the 120 @-@ minute compartment . The Huggins repetitive group indicates a percentage of the M0 for the most saturated tissue , and this is intended to make the tables more applicable to multilevel diving procedures .
The Huggins tables have not been officially tested , but are more conservative than the 1956 US Navy tables . They have been calculated from limits which would theoretically produce venous bubbles 10 to 20 % of the time .
= = = = PADI Recreational Dive Planner = = = =
The PADI tables known as the PADI Recreational Dive Planner ( RDP ) were developed by Raymond Rogers and tested by DSAT ( Diving Science And Technology , an affiliate of PADI Inc . ) . The M values were derived from Spencer 's no @-@ stop limits and the repetitive group designators were based on a 60 @-@ minute tissue compartment . This combination resulted in more conservative first dives , but less conservative repetitive dives .
The RDP tables were developed for no @-@ stop diving , but recommend a safety stop at 15 fsw for 3 minutes . Emergency decompression for dives which inadvertently exceed the no @-@ stop limit is specified .
The RDP tables are available in two formats :
A regular table
" The Wheel " , Which is a circular slide @-@ rule type calculator , and allows depths to be read to 5 fsw intervals , and times to the nearest minute .
The RDP was tested for single day multi @-@ level dives and multi @-@ day dives with multiple dives per day . There were no incidences of symptomatic DCS during testing .
= = = Bühlmann tables = = =
Professor A.A. Bühlmann of the Laboratory of Hyperbaric medicine of the Medical Clinic of the University of Zurich developed the Swiss tables , more often referred to as Bühlmann tables , in the early 1960s . The model is Haldanian , with 16 tissue compartments with half @-@ times from 2 @.@ 65 minutes to 635 minutes , each with linearly varying supersaturation limits depending on the tissue and the ambient pressure , and is based on absolute pressures , which simplifies application to altitude diving .
The full set of Swiss Tables consists of tables for four
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altitude ranges : 0 to 700 m , 701 to 1500 m , 1501 to 2500 m and 2501 to 3500 m . Ascent rate was chosen as 10 m per minute .
No stop limits and decompression schedules tend to be more conservative than the US Navy air tables .
The Swiss tables use the 80 minute tissue compartment for control of repetitive dive calculations , which tends to be less conservative than the US Navy tables for this application .
= = = Modified Bühlmann tables = = =
= = = = Swiss sport diving tables = = = =
In 1986 the Bühlmann model was used to generate dive tables for recreational divers . One set was for altitudes from 0 to 700m above sea level ( 0 to 2300 ft . ) and other for altitudes from 701 to 2 @,@ 500 m ( 2 @,@ 300 to 8 @,@ 202 ft ) . The repetitive group designators are based on the 80 @-@ minute compartment .
= = = = Bühlmann / Hahn tables ( German ) = = = =
The German tables were developed by Dr. Max Hahn using a derivative of the Bühlmann ZH @-@ L16 model using half @-@ times ranging from 2 @.@ 65 to 635 minutes . Three sets were published for altitude ranges 0 – 200 m , 201 – 700 m , and 701 @-@ 1 @,@ 200 m . The repetitive group designators are based on the 80 @-@ minute compartment .
Safety factors were added to the depths in the table to take into account depth gauge errors . The depths used for calculations were 2 @.@ 4 % greater than the depths listed in the two lower altitude tables , and 3 % + 1 msw greater than the depths listed in the highest altitude table .
= = = French Navy – Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables = = =
The mathematical model used for the development of the MN 90 tables is Haldanian , and was also used for the GERS ( Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines ) 1965 table .
Haldane 's assumptions about the limiting factors for ascent are :
gas exchange in decompression is symmetrical with compression
the role of bubbles in the modification of blood @-@ tissue exchange is neglected ,
normal decompression does not produce bubbles : DCS occurs when bubbles appear ,
bubbles appear in a compartment where the ratio of the dissolved gas pressure and ambient hydrostatic pressure reaches a critical value , characterizing the maximum tolerable pressure compartment .
Specific assumptions and conditions for use of the MN90 model and tables are as follows :
For Scuba dives using air as the breathing gas at sea level , with the diver initially saturated at atmospheric pressure
12 parallel tissue compartments with half @-@ times from 5 to 120 minutes , each with its own critical ratio
The ascent rate used is 15 to 17 metres per minute to the first stop , which is the same as used in the GERS 1965 tables . From the first stop to the surface this is reduced to 6 m / min
The reference population with respect to physiology is based on 1095 medically fit divers from the French Navy in 1988 :
weight 74 kg plus or minus 8 kg ,
height 175 @.@ 9 plus or minus 5 @.@ 7 cm ,
age 32 @.@ 3 plus or minus 6 @.@ 1 years .
Only the 120 @-@ minute tissue is used for calculation of residual nitrogen for repetitive dives . Letter groups are used to indicate the residual gas content of the 120 @-@ minute tissue . Letter groups are modified according to surface interval . A residual nitrogen time is found from the repetitive group and the repetitive dive depth which is to be added to the planned bottom time .
Decompression stops are at 3 m intervals
The tables have been validated by experimental dives and modified where necessary .
The maximum permitted depth for use of air is 60 m . The data for the decompression depths of 62 m and 65 m are included in the table in case of accidentally exceeding the depth limit of 60 m .
Only one repetitive dive is allowed as there is no validation data for multiple repetitive dives
Altitude corrections are available
The tables can be used for Nitrox by calculating equivalent air depth
Oxygen may be used to accelerate decompression in @-@ water at depths not exceeding 6 m
An unusual feature of these tables is a table for reduction of residual nitrogen by breathing pure oxygen on the surface between dives .
= = Non @-@ Haldanean dissolved phase models = =
= = = Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory model = = =
In the early 1950s , Hempleman developed a diffusion limited model for gas transfer from the capillaries into the tissues ( Haldanian model is a perfusion model ) . The basis for this model is radial diffusion from a capillary into the surrounding tissue , but by assuming closely packed capillaries in a plane the model was developed into a " tissue slab " equivalent to one @-@ dimensional linear bulk diffusion in two directions into the tissues from a central surface .
The 1972 RNPL tables were based on a modified Hempleman tissue slab model and are more conservative than the US Navy tables .
A version of the RNPL tables was used by the British Sub @-@ Aqua Club ( BSAC ) until the production of the BSAC ' 88 tables in 1988 .
= = = DCIEM model and tables = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the Canadian Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine developed the Kidd / Stubbs serial decompression model . This differs from Haldanian models which are parallel models and assume that all compartments are exposed to ambient partial pressures and no gas interchange occurs between compartments . A serial model assumes that the diffusion takes place through a series of compartments , and only one is exposed to the ambient partial pressures and is in effect a compartmentalised version of the Hempelman bulk diffusion slab model .
The Kidd / Stubbs model has four serial compartments , each with a half time of approximately 21 minutes . Allowable surfacing supersaturation ratios for the initial two compartments are taken as 1 @.@ 92 and 1 @.@ 73 , while the gas concentration in the last two compartments is not considered in the computation .
DCIEM has continuously evaluated and modified the model over the years . A revised set of tables was released in 1984 , based on thousands of Doppler evaluated dives . The DCIEM 1983 decompression model is a decompression calculation model rather than a physiological model . Modifications were made to the model to get it to fit observed data , as the original model had several observed shortcomings , while retaining the basic model structure so that it could be applied to existing hardware with minimal modifications .
= = Mixed phase models ( dissolved and bubble phases ) = =
= = = Thermodynamic model = = =
LeMessurier and Hills published a paper in 1965 on A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques which suggests that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops , which is slower than elimination while still in solution , thus indicating the importance of minimising bubble phase for efficient gas elimination .
= = = Tables du Ministère du Travail = = =
= = = = Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) = = = =
The first French official ( civilian ) air decompression tables were published in 1974 by the Ministère du Travail
= = = = Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) = = = =
In 1982 , the French government funded a research project for the evaluation of the MT74 tables using computer analysis of the dive report database , which indicated that the MT74 tables had limitations for severe exposures . The government then supported a second project to develop and validate new tables . A complete set of air tables , with options of pure oxygen breathing at 6 m ( surface supplied ) , at 12 m ( wet bell ) , surface decompression , split level diving , repetitive diving , etc. was developed in 1983 . This early model already implemented the concept of continuous compartment half @-@ times . For the safe ascent criteria , the Arterial Bubble model was not derived mathematically , but an approximation was defined empirically by fitting mathematical expressions to selected exposures from the Comex database . At the time , the best fit was obtained by the expression now called AB Model @-@ 1 , which was used to compute a set of decompression tables that was evaluated offshore on selected Comex worksites . In 1986 , after some minor adjustments , the tables were included in the Comex diving manuals and used as standard procedures . In 1992 , the tables were included in the new French diving regulations under the name of Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 or MT92 tables
= = = = The arterial bubble decompression model = = = =
The arterial bubble assumption is that the filtering capacity of the lung has a threshold radius of the size of a red blood cell and that sufficiently small decompression bubbles can pass to the arterial side , especially during the initial phase of ascent . Later in the ascent , bubbles grow to a larger size and remain trapped in the lung . This may explain why conventional Doppler measurements have not detected any bubbles in the arterial circulation .
The arterial bubble assumption can introduce variability in the decompression outcome through the lung function . The first variable is individual susceptibility . The filtering capacity of the lung may be assumed to vary between individuals , and for a given individual , from day to day , and may account for the inter @-@ personal and intra @-@ persona variability which have been observed in DCS susceptibility . Basically , a good diver is a good bubble filter . This is a justification for divers who seek top physical fitness for severe decompression exposures .
The second variable is related to dive conditions and speculates an influence of CO2 on the lung filter . Raised levels of CO2 could decrease the lungs ' filtration capacity and allow bubbles to pass to the arterial side of the circulation . Thus , diving situations associated with CO2 retention and hypercapnia would be associated with a higher risk of Type II DCS . This could explain why the following situations , which are all related to high levels of CO2 , have been identified as contributing factors to DCS :
anxiety and stress ,
exhaustion or hyperventilation due to intense activity ,
cold ,
high work of breathimg .
The arterial bubble assumption is also consistent with the accidental production of arterial bubbles . One scenario considers a shunt at the heart or lung level that passes bubbles from the venous to the arterial side . A patent foramen ovale ( PFO ) is thought to only open in certain conditions . A PFO conveniently explains neurological accidents after recreational air diving without any procedure violation , but it does not explain vestibular hits in deep diving . Vestibular symptoms can appear very early in the decompression , long before the massive bubble production required to overload the system .
A second scenario considers pressure increases during decompression that reduce bubble diameters . This can allow bubbles trapped in the lung during a normal decompression to suddenly pass through the capillaries and become responsible for Type II DCS symptoms . This could explain the difference in outcomes of in @-@ water decompression versus surface decompression . Data collected in the North Sea have shown that if the overall incidence rate of the two diving methods is about the same , that surface decompression tends to produce ten times more type II DCS than in @-@ water decompression . It is assumed that when the diver ascends to the surface , bubbles are produced that are trapped by the lung capillaries , and on recompression of the diver in the deck chamber , these bubbles are reduced in diameter and pass to the arterial side , later causing neurological symptoms . The same scenario was proposed for type II DCS recorded after sawtooth diving profiles or multiple repetitive dives .
The arterial bubble assumption also provides an explanation for the criticality of the initial ascent phase . Bubbles associated with symptoms are not necessarily generated on site . There is a growth process at the beginning of the ascent that may last for several cycles until the bubbles have reached a critical size when they are either filtered in the lung or stopped at the tissue level . It is postulated that the production of a shower of small arterial bubbles during the first minutes of the initial ascent is a precursor for DCS symptoms .
An attempt was made to turn this scenario into a decompression model .
The arterial bubble model assumptions
A Diver breathes a compressed gas mixture that contains inert gas which dissolves in the various tissues during the pressure exposure . When the ascent is initiated , the inert gas is off @-@ loaded as soon as a suitable gradient is created .
Bubbles are normally produced in the vascular bed and transported by the venous system to heart , then to the lungs .
The lungs work as a filter and trap the bubbles in the capillaries which have a smaller diameter . Gas transfer into the alveoli eliminates the bubbles .
The critical issue is the filtering capacity of the lung system . Small bubbles may pass through the lungs into the systemic circulation .
At the level of the aortic arch , the distribution of blood likely to carry bubbles to neurological tissue such as the brain or the spinal cord .
The brain is a fast tissue and might be in supersaturated state in the early phase of decompression . It acts as a gas reservoir and feeds any local bubble which will grow . The bubble may just proceed through the capillaries to the venous side for another cycle , but may be trapped and will then grow in place , causing local restriction of the blood supply and finally ischemia . This may develop into central neurological symptoms .
Similarly , arterial bubbles may reach the spinal cord and grow on site from local gas and produce spinal neurological symptoms .
Much later in the decompression , bubbles may reach a significant size and exert a local deformation , particularly in stiffer tissues such as tendons and ligaments , that excites nerve terminations and produces pain .
Derivation of the Arterial Bubble Model
A model based on the Arterial Bubble assumption ( Arterial Bubble model version 2 , or AB Model 2 ) was developed for the calculation of decompression tables . This gas phase model uses an equation which can be compared to a classic " M @-@ value " associated with a corrective factor that reduces the permitted gradient for small values of the compartment time constant .
The consequence is the introduction of deeper stops than a classic dissolved phase decompression model .
The rationalization of the arterial bubble assumption considers two situations :
In the initial phase of decompression , the critical event is assumed to be the arrival of an arterial bubble in a de @-@ saturating neurological tissue . The bubble exchanges gas with the surrounding tissue and the blood . If the bubble does not exceed a critical radius , it will eventually leave the site without growing , otherwise it will block the blood circulation and cause ischemia . The critical parameter is bubble radius . This criterion is used to prevent type II neurological symptoms . The strategy for a safe rate of ascent at this stage is to balance gas exchange .
In the later phase of decompression , the critical event is assumed to be the presence of a large bubble that has taken up a large quantity of dissolved gas from the adjacent tissue in a joint . If the bubble reaches a critical volume , it will have a mechanical effect on the nerve endings causing pain in a tendon . The bubble volume is the critical parameter . This criterion is used to prevent type I pain @-@ only symptoms . The strategy for a safe ascent at this stage is to prevent any gas phase from growing beyond a critical volume .
The critical volume concept was developed by Hennessy and Hempleman who formulated a simple mathematical condition linking the dissolved gas and the safe ascent pressure :
Ptissue ≤ a × Pambient + b
Where Ptissue represents the dissolved gas tension , Pambient , the ambient pressure and a and b two coefficients . This linear relationship between dissolved gas and ambient pressure has the same mathematical form as an M value , which suggests that all the Haldanean models using M @-@ values ( including the US Navy tables previous to those based on the E @-@ L model , the Bühlmann tables and all the French Navy tables ) , may be considered expressions of the critical volume criterion , though their authors may have argued for other interpretations .
= = = U.S. Navy E @-@ L algorithm and the 2008 tables = = =
The use of simple symmetrical exponential gas kinetics models has shown up the need for a model that would give slower tissue washout . In the early 1980s the US Navy Experimental Diving Unit developed an algorithm using a decompression model with exponential gas absorption as in the usual Haldanian model , but a slower linear release during ascent . The effect of adding linear kinetics to the exponential model is to lengthen the duration of risk accumulation for a given compartment time constant
The model was originally developed for programming decompression computers for constant oxygen partial pressure closed circuit rebreathers . Initial experimental diving using an exponential @-@ exponential algorithm resulted in an unacceptable incidence of DCS , so a change was made to a model using the linear release model , with a reduction in DCS incidence . The same principles were applied to developing an algorithm and tables for a constant oxygen partial pressure model for heliox diving
The linear component is active when the tissue pressure exceeds ambient pressure by a given amount specific to the tissue compartment . When the tissue pressure drops below this cross @-@ over criterion the tissue is modelled by exponential kinetics . During gas uptake , tissue pressure never exceeds ambient , so it is always modelled by exponential kinetics . This results in a model with the desired asymmetrical characteristics of slower washout than uptake . The linear / exponential transition is smooth . Choice of cross @-@ over pressure determines the slope of the linear region as equal to the slope of the exponential region at the cross @-@ over point .
During the development of these algorithms and tables , it was recognized that a successful algorithm could be used to replace the existing collection of incompatible tables for various air and Nitrox diving modes currently in the U.S. Navy Diving Manual with a set of mutually compatible decompression tables based on a single model , which was proposed by Gerth and Doolette in 2007 . This has been done in Revision 6 of the US Navy Diving Manual published in 2008 , though some changes were made .
An independent implementation of the EL @-@ Real Time Algorithm was developed by Cochran Consulting , Inc. for the diver @-@ carried Navy Dive Computer under the guidance of E. D. Thalmann .
= = = = Physiological interpretation = = = =
Computer testing of a theoretical bubble growth model reported by Ball , Himm , Homer and Thalmann produced results which led to the interpretation of the three compartments used in the probabilistic LE model , with fast ( 1 @.@ 5 min ) , intermediate ( 51 min ) and slow ( 488 min ) time constants , of which only the intermediate compartment uses the linear kinetics modification during decompression , as possibly not representing distinct anatomically identifiable tissues , but three different kinetic processes which relate to different elements of DCS risk .
They conclude that bubble evolution may not be sufficient to explain all aspects of DCS risk , and the relationship between gas phase dynamics and tissue injury requires further investigation .
= = = BSAC ' 88 Tables = = =
The BSAC ' 88 Tables are published in the form of a booklet of four table sets giving no calculation repetitive diving solutions from sea level to 3000 metres altitude .
These tables were developed by Tom Hennessy to replace the RNPL / BSAC tables when the Club wanted a set of tables which could approach the versatility of a dive computer .
Very little information on the theoretical model and algorithm for the BSAC 1988 tables appears to be available . What is known , is that the tables were developed specifically for recreational diving for the British Sub @-@ Aqua Club by Dr Tom Hennessy and were released in 1988 .
Also in 1988 , a chapter titled Modelling Human Exposure to Altered Pressure Environments , by T.R. Hennessy was published in Environmental Ergonomics , discussing the shortcomings of several decompression models and the associated experimental validation procedures . In this work Hennessy proposes an alternative combined perfusion / diffusion model . The number of compartments discussed ranges from 4 in model " A " , ( perfusion limited aqueous tissue , perfusion limited lipid tissue , diffusion limited aqueous tissue and diffusion limited lipid tissue ) to 2 in model " B " ( where the assumption is made that if there is intravascular undissolved gas ( bubbles ) , the perfusion limited compartments would become diffusion limited ) .
Hennessy concludes that if the undissolved and dissolved gas content of a tissue cannot be independently measured either directly or indirectly then the safe maximum limits relative to the ambient pressure cannot be accurately determined through decompression trials and it will not be possible to systematically develop a comprehensive biophysical model for gas exchange . He proposes a best fit double compartment model for dissolved gas and a single compartment model for undissolved gas as these are the simplest models consistent with available data .
The parameters used in the design of these tables include :
Bubbles are assumed to form after every decompression .
These bubbles affect gas uptake and release on repetitive dives , resulting in a faster saturation on repetitive dives due to a combination of redissolved nitrogen from the bubbles , residual dissolved nitrogen , plus the nitrogen uptake due to the repeated exposure .
Bubbles do not redissolve immediately on recompression , and rates of gas uptake will alter from initial dive to repetitive dives , so repetitive dives must be handled differently in the mathematical model to predict safe decompression .
Rates of gas elimination are considered to be asymmetric to uptake , and the model becomes more conservative as the number of dives , depth and duration increases .
The BSAC ' 88 Tables use a series of seven tables , labelled A to G , to take into account the variation in ingassing and outgassing rates assumed for sequential dives .
Depth increments of 3 m are used .
In a significant departure from conventional practice , the tables are not based on a bottom time defined as time of leaving the surface to time leaving the bottom , but on time to reach a depth of 6 m during the ascent .
Ascent rate to 6m is restricted to a maximum of 15 m per minute .
Ascent from 6 m to the surface must take 1 minute .
Decompression stops are done at 9 m and 6 m , and at the surface , as surface interval is considered a decompression period .
No stops are scheduled at 3 m , as it is considered too difficult to maintain a consistent depth in waves .
The initial dive uses table A , and the diver is allocated a Surfacing Code based on depth and time of the dive . After a surface interval of at least 15 minutes the diver can select a new Current Tissue Code which models the residual nitrogen load , and uses this code to select the repetitive dive table .
The BSAC ' 88 tables are presented in a format which does not require any calculation by the user .
= = = Varying Permeability Model = = =
This decompression model was developed by D.E. Yount and others at the University of Hawaii to model laboratory observations of bubble formation and growth in both inanimate and in vivo systems exposed to pressure variations . It presumes that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in aqueous media , including living tissues . These bubble nuclei are spherical gas phases that are small enough to remain in suspension yet strong enough to resist collapse , their stability being provided by an elastic surface layer consisting of surface @-@ active molecules with variable gas permeability . These skins resist the effect of surface tension , as surface tension tends to collapse a small bubble by raising internal pressure above ambient so that the partial pressure gradient favours diffusion out of the bubble in inverse proportion to the radius of the surface .
Any nuclei larger than a specific " critical " size , will grow during decompression . The VPM aims to limit the cumulative volume of these growing bubbles during and after decompression to a tolerable level by limiting the pressure difference between the gas in the bubbles and the ambient pressure . In effect , this is equivalent to limiting the supersaturation , but instead of using an arbitrary linear fit to experimental data , the physics of bubble growth is used to model the acceptable supersaturation for any given pressure exposure history .
Growth in size and number of gas bubbles is computed based on factors representing pressure balances in the bubbles , physical properties of the " skins " and the surrounding environment . If the total volume of gas in the bubbles is predicted to be less than a " critical volume " , then the diver is assumed to be within the safe limits of the model .
The bubble model is superposed on a multiple parallel tissue compartment model . Ingassing is assumed to follow the classic Haldanean model .
= = = = Bubble population distribution = = = =
Bubble size vs number has an exponential distribution
= = = = Bubble nucleation = = = =
Gas bubbles with a radius greater than 1 micron should float to the surface of a standing liquid , whereas smaller ones should dissolve rapidly due to surface tension . The Tiny Bubble Group has been able to resolve this apparent paradox by developing and experimentally verifying a new model for stable gas nuclei .
According to the varying @-@ permeability model , gas bubble nuclei are simply stable microbubbles . The stability of these microbubbles is due to elastic skins or membranes consisting of surface @-@ active molecules . These skins are normally permeable to gas , and collapse is prevented by their compression strength . These skins can become stiff and effectively impermeable to gas when they are subjected to large compressions , typically exceeding 8 atm , at which stage the pressure inside increases during further compression as predicted by Boyle 's law .
Essentially , there are three parameters in the VP model : the compression strength of the skin ; the initial radius ; and the onset pressure for impermeability .
= = = = Ordering hypothesis = = = =
The ordering hypothesis states that nuclei are neither created nor destroyed by the pressure schedule , and initial ordering according to size is preserved .
It follows from the ordering hypothesis that each bubble count is determined by the properties and behavior of that one " critical " nucleus which is right at the bubble formation threshold . All nuclei that are larger than the critical nucleus will form bubbles , and all nuclei that are smaller will not . Furthermore , a family of pressure schedules which yields the same bubble count N is characterized by the same critical nucleus and hence by the same critical radius , the same crumbling compression , and the same onset of impermeability .
= = = = Development of decompression model = = = =
The original assumption was that bubble number is directly proportional to decompression stress . This approach worked well for long exposures , but not when the exposure time varied considerably .
A better model was obtained by allowing more bubbles to form on the shorter dives than on the longer dives . The constant bubble number assumption was replaced by a " dynamic @-@ critical @-@ volume hypothesis " . As in earlier applications of the critical @-@ volume criterion , it was assumed that whenever the total volume of gas phase accumulated exceeds a critical value , signs or symptoms of DCS will appear . In the special case of long exposures the two models are equivalent .
The " dynamic " aspect of this hypothesis is that gas is continuously entering and leaving the gas phase .
The accumulated volume is calculated as a function of time by integrating over the product of the bubble number and the degree of supersaturation , and subtracting the free gas that is being dissipated continuously by the lung .
Gas uptake and elimination are assumed to be exponential , as in conventional Haldanean models .
As a first approximation only the inert gasses are taken into account . For oxygen partial pressures above 2 @.@ 4 bar , the quantity of oxygen dissolved in the arterial blood exceeds the amount that the body can use , and the hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen in both the veins and the arteries . If more oxygen is added , the partial pressure of oxygen in the venous blood rises .
= = = = Comparison of VPM profiles with other models = = = =
Comparisons of VPM profiles with USN decompression schedules for extreme exposure dives consistently produce similar total ascent times , but significantly deeper first decompression stops .
= = = Reduced Gradient Bubble Model = = =
The RGBM developed by Dr Bruce Wienke at Los Alamos National Laboratory is a hybrid model which modifies a Haldanian model with factors to take some account of bubble mechanics to model gas phase production during decompression . The bubble factor modifies the M @-@ values of the Haldanian model , making it more conservative .
Features of the modifying factor ξ include :
ξ starts on the first dive of a repetitive series with the maximum value of one , so it will make the model more conservative or unchanged .
ξ decreases for repetitive dives .
ξ decreases as exposure time increases .
ξ increases with increased surface interval .
ξ modifies fast compartments more than slow compartments .
ξ decreases with the depth of a dive segment
ξ has more effect on repetitive dives which are deeper than previous dives in the series .
The effect is to reduce no @-@ stop dive time or increase decompression requirements for repetitive dive in the following categories :
Following a short surface interval .
Following a long dive .
Following a deep dive .
Which are deeper than previous dives .
The model has been used to some extent in some Suunto dive computers , and in the HydroSpace Explorer computer , where it is a user selected option for computation formula , with a choice of additional conservatism factors .
The complete RGBM treats coupled perfusion @-@ diffusion transport as a two @-@ stage process , with perfusion providing a boundary condition for gas penetration of the tissues by diffusion . Either process can dominate the exchange depending on time and rate coefficients .
Simplified implementations which require less computational power are available for use in personal decompression computers . These are dominated by perfusion . The inherent biological unsaturation of tissues is considered in the calculations .
The model assumes that bubble nuclei are always present in a specific size distribution , and that a certain number are induced to grow by compression and decompression . An iterative computation is used to model ascent to limit the combined volume of the gas phase . Gas mixtures of helium , nitrogen , and oxygen contain bubble distributions of different sizes , but the same phase volume limit is used .
The model postulates bubble nuclei with aqueous and / or lipid skin structure , in a number and size distribution quantified by an equation @-@ of @-@ state . Like the VPM , RGBM assumes the size distribution is exponentially decreasing in size . Unlike the varying permeability model , bubble seeds are assumed permeable to gas transfer across skin boundaries under all pressures .
The size of nuclei which will grow during decompression is inversely proportional to the supersaturation gradient .
At higher pressures , skin tension of the bubble nuclei reduces gas diffusion to a slower rate . The model assumes that bubble skins are stabilized by surfactants over calculable times scales , which results in variable persistence of the bubble nuclei in the tissues .
= = Modifications to models and algorithms for diluent gases other than nitrogen = =
Decompression models and algorithms developed for binary mixtures of nitrogen and oxygen can not be used for gases containing significant amounts of other diluent gases without modification to take into account the different solubilities and diffusion constants of the alternative or added diluents . It is also highly desirable to test any such modifications , to make sure the schedules produced by them are acceptably safe .
= = = Alternative diluent gases = = =
Helium is by far the most important of the alternative diluents used to date .
Hydrogen
Neon
Combinations of these gases , particularly the trinary mixtures of helium , nitrogen and oxygen known generically as Trimix .
= = = Decompression models which have been adapted to include alternative and multiple diluents = = =
Bühlmann algorithm
VPM algorithm
RGBM algorithm
= = Commercial diving tables = =
To a large extent commercial offshore diving uses heliox tables that have been developed by the major commercial diving enterprises such as Comex , Oceaneering International ( OI ) Alpha tables , American Oilfield Diving ( AOD ) Company gas tables , though modifications of the US Navy Partial pressure tables are also used . In 2006 the unmodified US Navy tables ( Revision 5 ) were considered to result in an unacceptably high rate of decompression sickness for commercial applications .
" Cx70 " heliox tables were developed and used by Comex between 1970 and 1982 . The tables were available in two versions . One was designed for surface @-@ supplied diving and limited to 75 m . The diver breathed heliox as the bottom mix and 100 % oxygen at the 6 m stop . The other was designed for closed bell bounce diving and allowed for exposures up to 120 minutes , and depths to 120 m . The diver breathed heliox in the water and in the bell , air after transfer into the deck decompression chamber , and finally oxygen on built in breathing system ( BIBS ) from 12 m to the surface . These tables produced a relatively high incidence of decompression sickness .
The French Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) and Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) were developed specifically for commercial diving .
Norwegian Diving and Treatment Tables , ISBN 82 @-@ 992411 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 , referenced in NORSOK Standard U100 2 @.@ 24 for manned underwater operations , are available in Norwegian , Danish and English text and are approved for commercial diving .
= = = Other reading = = =
Brubakk , A. O. ; Neuman , T. S. ( 2003 ) . Bennett and Elliott 's physiology and medicine of diving ( 5th Revised ed . ) . United States : Saunders . ISBN 0 @-@ 7020 @-@ 2571 @-@ 2 .
Hamilton , Robert W ; Thalmann , Edward D ( 2003 ) . " 10 @.@ 2 : Decompression Practice " . In Brubakk , Alf O ; Neuman , Tom S. Bennett and Elliott 's physiology and medicine of diving ( 5th Revised ed . ) . United States : Saunders. pp. 455 – 500 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7020 @-@ 2571 @-@ 2 . OCLC 51607923 .
Elliott , David ( 4 December 1998 ) . " Decompression theory in 30 minutes " . SPUMS Journal ( South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society ) 28 ( 4 ) : 206 – 214 . Retrieved 4 March 2016 .
= Veratalpa =
Veratalpa lugdunensiana is a fossil mammal from the Miocene of France . Known from a single astragalus ( a footbone ) , the species was assigned to its own genus , Veratalpa , by Florentino Ameghino in 1905 . He placed it in Talpidae , the family of the moles , but in 1974 , John Howard Hutchison argued that the astragalus was not talpid and more likely came from a rodent . The astragalus is about 4 @.@ 5 mm long , broad for a talpid , and has the head oriented farther from the axis of the foot than in talpids .
= = Taxonomy = =
Argentine naturalist Florentino Ameghino described Veratalpa in an overview of the astragali from the middle Miocene of Vieux Collonges in France . The astragalus is a bone of the foot that is part of the ankle joint . He listed several species of the family Talpidae ( moles and related species ) from Vieux Collonges , including " espèce C " ( " species C " ) , which he named as a new genus and species , Veratalpa lugdunensiana , in a footnote . In a 1906 review of Ameghino 's paper , Édouard Louis Trouessart affirmed that Veratalpa probably represented a new genus of mole , but noted that the specific name lugdunensiana would have been more correctly written " lugdunensis " . According to Trouessart , the suffix -ana is appropriate for names that reference persons , but not for those that refer to places , such as this name , which is derived from Lugdunum ( the Latin name for Lyon ) .
In a 1974 review of Miocene European talpids , John Howard Hutchison wrote that the astragalus of Veratalpa lacked any features that would ally it with talpids and commented that it was most likely a rodent . In their 1997 Classification of Mammals , Malcolm McKenna and Susan Bell listed Veratalpa as a member of Placentalia of uncertain affinities .
= = Description = =
The astragalus of Veratalpa is the largest among those from Vieux Collonges that Ameghino assigned to Talpidae . Although at 4 @.@ 5 mm it is about as long as his " species A " , it is broader , and Hutchison noted the broadness as one of the characters that argue against classification of Veratalpa in Talpidae . Like living moles , it has a broad , flat , and short head , but it forms a noticeably small angle with the body — in actual moles , the head is more axially oriented ( i.e. , towards the central axis of the foot ) . The surface of the head that contacts the navicula is less rounded than in moles . The body is low and nearly square and has a diameter of about 3 mm . The trochlea — a surface on the body of the bone that articulates with the tibia ( lower leg bone ) — is not large and pulley @-@ like , as in talpids . There is a small perforation on the lower side of the body . This perforation is larger in Ameghino 's other supposed talpids , and Trouessart suggested on the basis of this feature that the internal parts of the toes were reduced in Veratalpa .
= = Distribution = =
Veratalpa is known only from the locality of Vieux Collonges near Lyon in southeastern France ; Ameghino knew this locality as " Mont @-@ Ceindre " . This rich fissure filling locality has yielded thousands of fossils and is currently dated to the early @-@ middle Miocene boundary , around 17 million years ago ( MN 4 / 5 in the MN zonation ) . As Veratalpa is known from a single astragalus , Ameghino considered it to be rare . He distinguished six talpid species among the astragali , but according to Hutchison only Ameghino 's species F ( which was assigned to Talpidae with a query ) is really a talpid .
= SMS Arminius =
SMS Arminius was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy , later the Imperial German Navy . The ship was designed by the British Royal Navy Captain Cowper Coles and built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in Cubitt Town , London as a speculative effort ; Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark , though the vessel was not delivered until after the war . The ship was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns in a pair of revolving gun turrets amidships . She was named for Arminius , the victor of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest .
Arminius served as a coastal defense ship for the first six years of her service with the Prussian Navy . She saw extensive service in the Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars during the process of German unification . The vessel was the primary challenge to the French blockade of German ports during the latter conflict . After the wars , Arminius was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and used in a variety of secondary roles , including as a training ship for engine @-@ room crews and as a tender for the school ship Blücher . The ship was eventually sold in 1901 and broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The warship that came to be SMS Arminius was designed by Captain Cowper Coles , a British Royal Navy officer and advocate of turret @-@ armed ironclad warships . Arminius was nearly identical to the Danish ironclad Rolf Krake , also designed by Captain Coles . The vessel was constructed with transverse frames and constructed with an iron hull , which contained eight watertight compartments . The ship was 61 @.@ 60 meters ( 202 @.@ 1 ft ) long at the waterline and 63 @.@ 21 m ( 207 @.@ 4 ft ) long overall . The ship had a beam of 10 @.@ 9 m ( 36 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 32 m ( 14 @.@ 2 ft ) forward and 4 @.@ 55 m ( 14 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . She was designed to displace 1 @,@ 653 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 627 long tons ; 1 @,@ 822 short tons ) but at combat load , Arminius displaced up to 1 @,@ 829 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 016 short tons ) .
The ship 's crew consisted of ten officers and 122 enlisted men . She carried a number of smaller boats , including two pinnaces , two cutters , and one dinghy . Arminius was not a particularly successful design ; she suffered from severe , fast rolling , especially in heavier seas . She also shipped a great deal of water over the bow and was unbalanced in steering . The ship turned rapidly to starboard but was sluggish in turning to port . Indeed , the ship was required to have the rudder at 15 degrees to port in order to remain on a straight course . It was also impossible to control the ship with only sail power .
The ship was powered by a single two @-@ cylinder single expansion engine built by J. Penn & Sons , Greenwich . The engine drove a single two @-@ bladed screw that was 3 @.@ 96 m ( 13 @.@ 0 ft ) in diameter . Four transverse trunk boilers , each of which had four fireboxes apiece , supplied steam to the engine . The boilers were also built by J Penn & Sons , Greenwich , and were arranged in a single boiler room . Limited electrical power was provided by a single generator , which supplied 1 @.@ 9 kilowatts at 55 volts . The ship was equipped with a schooner rig with a surface area of 540 square meters . The propulsion system was rated at 1 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 890 kW ) and a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , though on trials , Arminius reached 1 @,@ 440 ihp ( 1 @,@ 070 kW ) and 11 @.@ 2 kn ( 20 @.@ 7 km / h ; 12 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried 171 t ( 168 long tons ; 188 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a range of 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at a cruising speed of 8 kn ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , Arminius was equipped with a main battery of four rifled , bronze 72 @-@ pounder cannon , but after delivery to the Prussian Navy , they were replaced with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 19 guns . These guns were supplied with a total of 332 rounds , and could elevate to 12 degrees . At maximum elevation , the guns could engage targets out to 2 @,@ 800 m ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) . After 1881 , four machine guns were installed , along with a single 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tube mounted in the bow above the waterline .
Arminius 's armor consisted of wrought iron backed with teak plating . The conning tower was protected by 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron on 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) of teak . The armored belt ranged in thickness from 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of iron on the bow and stern to 114 mm amidships , the entire length of which was backed by 229 m of teak . The two turrets were armored with 114 mm of iron on 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) of timber .
= = Service history = =
She was built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London as a speculative project , possibly to sell to the Confederate Navy . The ship was laid down in 1863 and launched on 20 August 1864 . Prussia instead purchased the ship on 20 August 1864 , and commissioned her on 22 April 1865 as SMS Arminius . Delivery was delayed by the British government ; the British were sympathetic to Denmark , which was then engaged in a war with Prussia and Austria . The British therefore prevented the ship from being delivered until after the war was concluded . The cost of the ship , which amounted to some 1 @,@ 887 @,@ 000 gold marks , was paid in part by public donations . Arminius served as a harbor defense ship for six years , through 1871 . Along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert , Arminius was the first armored warship acquired by the Prussian Navy .
At the outbreak of the Austro @-@ Prussian War in mid @-@ 1866 , Arminius was mobilized along with Prinz Adalbert , the only other Prussian ironclad . The ships were initially based in Kiel , but in the opening days of the war , Arminius raced to Hamburg via the Skagerrak and the Kattegat , a distance of some 940 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 740 km ; 1 @,@ 080 mi ) , in 100 hours , an impressive feat for an early ironclad warship . Without a naval threat from Austria , the Prussian navy therefore concentrated its effort against the Kingdom of Hanover . For the remainder of the conflict , Arminius operated out of Geestemünde , under the command of Reinhold Werner , and the mere appearance of Arminius caused several Hanoverian coastal batteries to surrender . On 15 June , Arminius and a pair of gunboats , Tiger and Cyclops , covered the crossing of the Elbe river by General Edwin von Manteuffel and some 13 @,@ 500 soldiers to attack the city of Hanover . By the end of the month , the Prussian army had decisively defeated the Austrians at Königgrätz and ended the war . On 3 October 1866 , the ship raced the US Navy 's monitor USS Miantonomoh in Kiel ; Arminius was two knots faster than the American vessel . In 1870 , the ship had her sailing rig removed .
At the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 , the Prussian Navy concentrated Arminius and the armored frigates Kronprinz , Friedrich Carl , and König Wilhelm in the North Sea naval base Wilhelmshaven . Arminius was stationed in Kiel at the outbreak of war , but managed to break through the French blockade by hugging the Swedish coast , which her shallow draft permitted . Her passage through Swedish territorial waters also protected the ship from French attack . Despite the great French naval superiority , the French had conducted insufficient pre @-@ war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations , and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance , which was not forthcoming . The four ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Jachmann , made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank , though they encountered no French warships . The three armored frigates thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble , which left Arminius alone to conduct operations .
Captain Otto Livonius commanded the ship during the war . In the course of the war , she sortied from the port over forty times ; these also failed to result in major combat , though she occasionally traded shots with the blockading French warships . For the majority of the war , Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert and three small gunboats . The three armored frigates remained off the island of Wangerooge . On 11 September , the three frigates were again ready for action ; they joined Arminius for another major operation , though it too did not encounter French opposition . The French Navy had by this time returned to France .
After being removed from front @-@ line service in 1872 , she was used as a training vessel for naval engineers . The ship was decommissioned in 1875 and placed in reserve . Her ram bow allowed her to be used as an ice @-@ breaker in Kiel in the 1880s . In 1882 , she was used as a tender for the cadet training vessel Blücher . The ship was rebuilt in 1888 ; during the refit the propulsion system was overhauled and replaced with German @-@ built equipment and two searchlights were installed . The ship was ultimately stricken from the naval register on 2 March 1901 and sold to shipbreakers for 72 @,@ 000 gold marks . Arminius was broken up for scrap the following year .
= Tabitha and Napoleon D 'umo =
Tabitha A. D 'umo ( née Cortopassi ; born September 11 , 1973 ) and Napoleon Buddy D 'umo ( born October 17 , 1968 ) , known together as Nappytabs , are Emmy Award @-@ winning married choreographers who are often credited with developing lyrical hip @-@ hop . They are best known for their choreography on the television show So You Think You Can Dance and for being supervising choreographers and executive producers of America 's Best Dance Crew . Since being with the former , their choreography has received both praise and criticism . They own Nappytabs urban dancewear and have been working in the dance industry since 1996 .
Tabitha and Napoleon grew up on opposite coasts of the United States and met in the early 1990s as students at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas . They began their dance career together while still in college by choreographing industrial musicals for large corporations with the hip @-@ hop dance company Culture Shock . After moving to Los Angeles in 1999 , they started teaching hip @-@ hop classes at the Edge Performing Arts Center in North Hollywood . They took additional jobs choreographing for professional sports dance teams and back @-@ up dancing for musical artists . In 2003 , they joined the faculty of Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention .
Their work was introduced to mainstream audiences in 2008 when they became supervising choreographers on America 's Best Dance Crew and resident choreographers on So You Think You Can Dance . It was on the later show that their lyrical hip @-@ hop choreography style gained exposure . The pair 's career progressed to providing creative direction for tours and live events , where they worked with Christina Aguilera , Ricky Martin , Celine Dion , and Jennifer Lopez . They continued to develop their dancewear line by breaking out of its previously online @-@ only presence and opening a physical store location in 2010 .
From television and concerts , their move into theater occurred gradually . In 2010 , they directed the JabbaWockeeZ 's MÜS.I.C. stage show and began to work with Cirque du Soleil ; they choreographed Viva Elvis and were contributing choreographers for Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour . In 2012 , they continued to establish themselves in television as choreographers for Madonna 's Super Bowl halftime performance . They also choreographed several music videos including two for K @-@ pop artists TVXQ and BoA . Aside from their choreography , creative direction , and dancewear line , Tabitha and Napoleon continue to teach hip @-@ hop classes at dance studios and on the convention circuit . They have also been involved with charity work for organizations that support the arts .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1968 – 1996 : Early life and education = = =
Napoleon was born October 17 , 1968 . While growing up as one of three children in Victorville , California , he learned b @-@ boying , locking , and popping by traveling to Los Angeles and frequenting the b @-@ boy scene ; he was eventually cast as an extra in the movie Breakin ' 2 : Electric Boogaloo in 1984 . After Napoleon graduated from Apple Valley High School , he joined the army and worked as a surgeon 's assistant while stationed in Germany . Once discharged , he attended the University of Nevada , Las Vegas ( UNLV ) where he majored in molecular biology and started taking jazz and modern dance classes .
Tabitha was born September 11 , 1973 , and grew up as an only child in Galloway Township , New Jersey . Her mother enrolled her in jazz dance classes when she was young . Since there were no hip @-@ hop classes , Tabitha learned by watching music videos and participating in her school 's cheer and dance teams . She cites Michael Jackson , Janet Jackson , and Paula Abdul as influences . While cheerleading at Absegami High School , Tabitha earned " All @-@ American " status at an NCA camp and got the opportunity to perform in the Aloha Bowl in Hawaii . After Tabitha graduated , she moved to Nevada in 1991 to attend UNLV where she majored in communications and started taking formal hip @-@ hop dance classes . It was there at a party that she met Napoleon .
While hanging out with her cheerleading and dance team friends , Tabitha invited Napoleon and his body building friends to come to a casual practice session and do stunt work with them . Napoleon and his friends eventually attended a formal practice session on campus , and the coach was so impressed with their work that they all received full scholarships to join the team . Tabitha and Napoleon started dating in 1994 , but their professional partnership and dance career did not start until 1996 when they began teaching hip @-@ hop classes together at the Las Vegas Athletic Club . Since the beginning of their career , they have always worked together including their first choreography job and the first dance class they taught .
= = = 1996 – 2007 : Early career , dancewear , and creative directing = = =
While Tabitha and Napoleon were still in college , they were accepted into the dance company Culture Shock where they met members of the JabbaWockeeZ before the JabbaWockeeZ became a crew . In addition to going to school and being a part of Culture Shock , they both maintained part @-@ time jobs . Together they worked at Bunker Dance Center in Las Vegas teaching hip @-@ hop classes . Separately Napoleon worked as a personal trainer and Tabitha worked at the Rio Hotel and Casino . While dancing with Culture Shock , Tabitha created demo reels of the company to send to event organizers who were having conventions in Las Vegas . Tabitha and Napoleon used this method to book choreography jobs and it was during this time that they honed their lyrical hip @-@ hop style . Through Culture Shock , they were hired to choreograph several industrial musicals for casinos and corporations such as Nike , Levi , Redken , Matrix Hair , and MAC . They eventually worked their way up from company dancers to become the artistic directors . As their college graduation was approaching — although Tabitha was planning to take a job in public relations and Napoleon was planning to attend medical school — they both decided to change their plans and pursue a career in the dance industry .
Tabitha and Napoleon were married April 19 , 1998 . In 1999 , they moved to Los Angeles to expand their opportunities . Upon arriving in L.A. , they taught hip @-@ hop classes at the Edge Performing Arts Center .
They found extra work as back @-@ up dancers for Beyoncé , Toni Braxton , Missy Elliott , Monica , Timbaland , Sisqó , and Destiny 's Child whom they both went on tour with in 2002 . Their move from dancing into choreography occurred gradually . Jobs included choreographing performances for NFL and NBA dance teams including the Dallas Cowboys , Denver Broncos
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, Chicago Bulls , and Orlando Magic . In November 2002 , they made the cover of Dance Spirit magazine . They were profiled with seven other choreographers and interviewed about what it takes to make it as a dancer in Los Angeles . In 2003 , Napoleon started teaching classes with Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention . Tabitha joined him later and they are still permanent faculty members to this day .
In 2005 , Tabitha and Napoleon started Nappytabs dancewear . They cite the lack of appropriate dancewear for the hip @-@ hop dance community as inspiration for the company . Early in its production , Tabitha sewed the clothes herself . The Nappytabs logo began as a yin and yang like symbol with an " n " and a " t " overlapping in the middle . The word itself — Nappytabs — is a combination of Napoleon ( Nappy ) and Tabitha 's ( Tab ) nicknames . Contrary to popular belief , the name ' Nappytabs ' started as their clothing line first . They did not call themselves Nappytabs , and the word being a nickname to refer to both of them did not start until they became choreographers on So You Think You Can Dance .
Tabitha and Napoleon began creative directing stage shows and concerts in the mid @-@ 2000s . In 2006 , they served as assistant directors for Christina Aguilera ’ s Back to Basics Tour . In 2007 , they were also assistant directors for Ricky Martin ’ s Black and White Tour . Both tours were directed by Jamie King who is known primarily for his work with Madonna .
Tabitha was the host / instructor of an exercise DVD by Prevention Fitness Systems titled Drop it with Dance . The video is split into six 10 @-@ minute routines that gradually increase in difficulty ; movements from all six routines are combined in the finale " Showtime " segment . She also appeared in Rock Your Body , another dance fitness DVD hosted by Jamie King .
= = = 2008 – 2009 : Dance shows and mainstream exposure = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon became supervising choreographers for the inaugural season of America 's Best Dance Crew in 2008 . They were responsible for choreographing group routines , coming up with dance challenges , and assisting the crews as needed with polishing their performances . Also in 2008 , they took on hosting duties for Rock the Reception . On the show , they created wedding dances for engaged couples and their wedding party to perform at the reception . The participants were real life couples with no dance experience . In addition to America 's Best Dance Crew and Rock the Reception , they joined the choreography and judging team on the fourth season of So You Think You Can Dance . It was on this show that their lyrical hip @-@ hop choreography style gained mainstream exposure .
Lyrical hip @-@ hop is a fluid and more interpretive version of standard hip @-@ hop often danced to downtempo rap music or R & B music . The term itself was coined by choreographer and producer Adam Shankman in reference to a routine choreographed by Tabitha and Napoleon to Leona Lewis ' song " Bleeding Love " . " Bleeding Love " was nominated for a 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography . After the season ended , Tabitha and Napoleon directed the 2008 So You Think You Can Dance Tour . They continued creative directing several other concerts throughout the remainder of the year .
They teamed up with Jamie King again and served as assistant directors for Celine Dion 's Taking Chances Tour . They directed Monsters of Hip Hop : The Show and America 's Best Dance Crew Live which featured dance crews JabbaWockeeZ , Super Cr3w , Fanny Pak , ASIID , and Breaksk8 . OMG ! gave the concert a positive review stating that the five crews represented a good mix of styles and that the concert brought the best parts of the show to the stage .
In January 2009 , the Nappytabs dancewear website launched which began the start of online clothing sales . Their dancewear website is designed and maintained by Ryan Cyphert 's 3nine Design media company . Cyphert is also a professional dancer and a colleague of Tabitha and Napoleon ; they have all taught at Shock the Intensive dance convention . When Tabitha and Napoleon joined So You Think You Can Dance , dancers on the show , as well as on America 's Best Dance Crew and Dancing With the Stars , were already wearing their clothing line during rehearsals . Some of the sponsors were not happy about it and wanted to cover the Nappytabs logo on the clothing . In response to this , judge and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe decided to start calling Tabitha and Napoleon " Nappytabs " during the show so that viewers who looked them up on Google would find their store 's website .
In April 2009 , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed two couples ' routines and a group routine for the second season of So You Think You Can Dance Australia . The " Arab Money " hip @-@ hop routine that they choreographed received positive reviews from the judges but their " Dead and Gone " lyrical hip @-@ hop routine , which was performed later on the same episode , received the most praise . Bonnie Lythgoe called it the " top routine of the night " . Jason Coleman added " the choreography [ was ] absolutely spectacular " and Matt Lee said it was " ... probably the best routine in the series . " While in Australia , Tabitha and Napoleon were judges at the 2009 Australian Hip Hop Championships in Sydney .
Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed several television specials later in the year . In September , they choreographed the opening dance sequence on the season seven premiere of The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The routine featured both DeGeneres and the top ten dancers from season five of So You Think You Can Dance . At the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , they choreographed a routine honoring dance that featured Karina Smirnoff and Maksim Chmerkovskiy from Dancing With The Stars ; Katee Shean , Mark Kanemura , and Joshua Allen from So You Think You Can Dance ; and four members of Quest Crew — the winners of season three of America 's Best Dance Crew . They finished the year with choreography for Carrie Underwood 's All @-@ Star Holiday Special and Jennifer Lopez ' performances at the American Music Awards and Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Stage productions and brand expansion = = =
In 2010 , Tabitha and Napoleon returned to So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) for season seven and started to work with four different productions of Cirque du Soleil . In February , they provided choreography for Cirque du Soleil 's Viva Elvis show at the Aria hotel in Las Vegas . They also choreographed a Viva Elvis guest appearance on Dancing with the Stars . On SYTYCD , they choreographed routines for the contestants as well as one guest performance for the cast of Cirque du Soleil 's Beatles Love . They worked with Love again at the NHL awards and with their sister Cirque productions Kà , for a guest performance on America 's Got Talent , and Mystère , for a guest performance on Lopez Tonight . After SYTYCD ended , they appeared as guest choreographers on the Ukrainian version of the show called Everybody Can Dance ! / Танцюють всі ! .
Aside from choreography , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to develop and expand their dancewear line . In May , they opened the Nappytabs store and dance studio in the North Hollywood Arts District . Although they design their own clothing , they commissioned some print and t @-@ shirt designs from Alex Lodermeier who has also designed for Propr , a clothing line owned by Ben Harper , David Arquette , and David Bedwell . Through Nappytabs , they also started to sponsor The Pulse on Tour dance convention and the Industry Voice online newsletter . Their clothing appears in independent R & B singer John Gillette 's music video " All Bad " . Tabitha was a featured dancer in the video and Napoleon made a cameo appearance at the end .
Also in May , the JabbaWockeeZ ' MÜS.I.C. ( pronounced MUSE @-@ i @-@ see ) stage show , which Tabitha and Napoleon directed , opened at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel . MÜS.I.C. was the first hip @-@ hop dance stage show on the Las Vegas Strip . The show was 90 minutes long involving dancing , comedy , and magic . In October , MÜS.I.C. moved to the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino . At the Monte Carlo premiere , the JabbaWockeeZ brought Tabitha on stage for a cameo appearance .
In February 2011 , Tabitha and Napoleon made their music video directorial debut with the song " All These Boys " by Jasmine Villegas . Unlike John Gillette 's " All Bad " they did not dance or appear in the video , but they did serve as the choreographers . In the Spring , they returned to working in television with two projects . At the invitation of Nigel Lythgoe , they joined the production crew on the tenth season of American Idol as staging and creative directors . They also choreographed the Howie Mandel @-@ produced television show Mobbed which premiered after American Idol on March 31 , 2011 . The pilot episode was actually shot in September 2010 , but after drawing 10 @.@ 8 million views it was picked up as a series .
In April 2011 , they started work on the film Make Your Move starring Derek Hough from Dancing With the Stars and K @-@ pop singer BoA Kwon . Their relationship with BoA extended past the production of the film when they choreographed the music video for her song " Only One " — the title track from her seventh studio album . SeoulBeats.com called Tabitha and Napoleon 's involvement " beyond perfect " and acknowledged that using lyrical hip @-@ hop suited the song 's tempo and BoA 's movement . Due to scheduling conflicts with the production of Make Your Move , Tabitha and Napoleon did not return to America 's Best Dance Crew as supervising choreographers for season six . When filming was complete , they did return to Cirque du Soleil as two of ten choreographers for Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour . Like other stage shows they 've worked on in the past , this one was also directed by Jamie King . In the midst of all their professional accomplishments during the year , Christmas 2011 brought personal changes as Napoleon announced on their Twitter page that Tabitha was pregnant .
= = = 2012 – present : Music videos and K @-@ pop = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon spent the beginning of 2012 apart . While Tabitha was choreographing Madonna 's halftime performance for Super Bowl XLVI , Napoleon was shooting more scenes for COBU 3D and scouting for the seventh season of America 's Best Dance Crew . Although they never returned to America 's Best Dance Crew as supervising choreographers , Napoleon continued to serve as a talent scout — an extra role he had on the show since its inception . After the Super Bowl , Tabitha worked with Madonna again . She choreographed her music video " Girl Gone Wild " which featured all @-@ male Ukrainian dance troupe Kazaky . On August 10 , 2012 , she gave birth to son , London Riley D 'umo . During the last months of the year , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to work with K @-@ pop artists . They choreographed the music videos " Humanoids " by TVXQ and " I Got A Boy " by Girls ' Generation . TVXQ , Girls ' Generation , and BoA are all signed to S. M. Entertainment .
In May 2013 — two years after the premiere of MÜS.I.C. — the JabbaWockeeZ debuted a new stage show at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino called PRiSM , a backronym for Painting Reality in a Spectrum of Movement . Like their previous show , this one was also directed by Tabitha and Napoleon . The previous month , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed the music video " Puttin ' on the Ritz " by Herb Alpert , a jazz musician and co @-@ founder of A & M Records . On June 25 , 2013 , they recreated the video on SYTYCD as the opening routine for season ten 's Top 20 performance episode . Yahoo ! Music called the performance " absolutely epic " . Like the video , it was also shot in one take and several people made cameo appearances including Sean Cheesman , Travis Wall , Chris Scott , Nigel Lythgoe , Mary Murphy , Jason Gilkison , Herb Alpert , Lani Hall , and Tabitha and Napoleon themselves .
In February 2014 , Tabitha and Napoleon teamed up with TVXQ again to choreograph their music video " Spellbound " — the title track from their seventh album . Just like Alpert 's " Puttin ' on the Ritz " , this video was shot in one take , and just like BoA 's " Only One " , SeoulBeats.com gave it a positive review : " With two people in the group , there is not much of an opportunity to play around with different formations . However , Nappytabs tends to utilize this formation for TVXQ – rotating the members in the foreground and background , instead of always keeping the two in the centre . And this works especially well with the one @-@ shot style , since it allows room for the duo to work the entire space on set , on and off @-@ camera . " Billboard.com also gave the video a positive review : " The duo makes a strong case for 2014 's best choreography in the [ Spellbound ] video . " Tabitha and Napoleon also choreographed Super Junior @-@ M 's music video " Swing " — the title track from their third EP .
In the Spring , Tabitha and Napoleon were judges at the hip @-@ hop competition World of Dance Los Angeles . In the Summer , they directed Derek and Julianne Hough 's Move Live on Tour and Jennifer Lopez 's A.K.A. promotional tour . In the later part of the year , they directed and choreographed the music video for " Harlem Hopscotch " , the first single from Maya Angelou 's posthumous poetry album Caged Bird Songs . The video premiered December 23 , 2014 , on Oprah.com and features cameo appearances by ballroom dancer Derek Hough and actress Zendaya . Tabitha and Napoleon also choreographed Ed Sheeran 's music video for the single " Thinking Out Loud " . As of October 2015 , it had amassed over 750 million views .
In 2015 , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to work on music videos . They choreographed BoA 's " Kiss My Lips " and EXO 's " Call Me Baby " . Afterward , they choreographed Mariah Carey 's Number 1 's residency at Ceasar 's Palace hotel and executive produced the eighth season of America 's Best Dance Crew . Toward the end of the year , they sponsored the Dance Teacher Summit through their clothing line and appeared as judges on Every Single Step , a show Dance Spirit magazine called the " Project Runway for choreographers " .
In 2016 , Tabitha and Napoleon directed Jennifer Lopez 's Las Vegas residency All I Have .
= = Choreography style = =
= = = Artistry = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon 's choreography is primarily hip @-@ hop ; however , it varies across genres depending on what project they 're working on . For example , on America 's Best Dance Crew the group routines they choreographed have all been hip @-@ hop . However , on So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) they choreographed a few jazz routines and on Cirque du Soleil 's Viva Elvis their work incorporated acro . In general , their choreography emphasizes big visuals , which they attribute to their cheerleading past , and is " ... largely centered on storytelling and physical comedy . " Inspiration for lifts is taken from lucha libre , adagio , and swing dance . The style they are most known for is lyrical hip @-@ hop .
= = = Lyrical hip @-@ hop = = =
Lyrical dance is a studio @-@ based dance style that uses a combination of classical dance techniques from jazz and ballet to tell a story through movement . With jazz and ballet , technique alone can provide a good performance but in lyrical dance expressing emotion is emphasized just as much as technique . Hip @-@ hop is an urban dance style that is characterized as hard @-@ hitting involving isolations — moving certain body parts independently from others — and musicality , the body 's sensitivity to changes in music . Hip @-@ hop can incorporate movement from its substyles locking , breaking , popping , and boogaloo to add a different movement quality but conveying emotion does not have to be present as the dance is more about bravado and personal enjoyment . Lyrical hip @-@ hop is a fluid and more interpretive version of standard hip @-@ hop . It combines the nuances of lyrical dance with the vocabulary and foundational movements found in hip @-@ hop . According to Dance Spirit magazine , what differentiates lyrical hip @-@ hop from standard hip @-@ hop is that dancers interpret the beat differently . In lyrical hip @-@ hop there are still isolations , gliding , and body waves just like in standard hip @-@ hop . However , the movements are smoother and more fluid rather than hard @-@ hitting and , like lyrical dance , emphasis is placed on storytelling and conveying emotion through the choreography .
Lyrical hip @-@ hop first gained mainstream exposure , and its name , in 2008 on season four of SYTYCD . The term itself is credited to Adam Shankman , a choreographer and judge on the program , who made a comment in reference to a routine choreographed by Tabitha and Napoleon D 'umo to Leona Lewis ' song " Bleeding Love " . Due to Shankman 's comment and their subsequent work on seasons four through seven , Tabitha and Napoleon are credited with developing this style .
Some hip @-@ hop purists feel the interpretive and softer approach means lyrical hip @-@ hop is not hip @-@ hop at all . From a purist perspective , dancing to the lyrics would make the choreography linear and too technical . This is because dancing to the words would take precedence over dancing to the beat . Traditionally in hip @-@ hop , dancing to the beat is essential ; lyrics can accent the movement , but the beat is the guiding force for the dancing . Other hip @-@ hop dancers , such as choreographer Shane Sparks , believe that lyrical hip @-@ hop is hip @-@ hop but not different enough for it to have a separate label or be in its own subgenre .
= = = Teaching = = =
Although Tabitha and Napoleon have a solid career in choreography and creative direction , they spend a significant amount of time teaching classes at dance studios and conventions . They have stated that teaching helps their choreography because it keeps them current on new hip @-@ hop social dances ( party dances ) . They are faculty members at Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention . In the past they have taught at Shock the Intensive , the Edge Performing Arts Center , Millennium Dance Complex , Hip Hop International , Dance Blitz , Seattle Theater Group , Coastal Dance Rage , the Dance Teacher Web Conference and Expo , Teen Dance Company of the Bay Area , JUMP , Xtreme Dance Force , ProDance , Triple Threat Dance , Project 818 , Boogiezone , iHollywood , the So You Think You Can Dance Experience , DANCE ! The Convention , the Hollywood Summer Tour , Velocity , Radix , The Zoo , and VIP Dance Events .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = JabbaWockeeZ = = =
The JabbaWockeeZ performed the show MÜS.I.C. from May 2010 to September 2012 . Over the course of their two @-@ year run , the show received mixed reviews . For their second show PRiSM they signed a six @-@ year deal which included building a new 830 @-@ seat theater in a space that used to house a motion @-@ simulator ride . Upon opening , PRiSM was met with positive reviews . Tabitha and Napoleon directed both shows .
= = = = MÜS.I.C. = = = =
The first run of MÜS.I.C. was held at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel and casino . Las Vegas Weekly wrote that MÜS.I.C. had " game @-@ changing potential " because it was the first time hip @-@ hop dance had headlined a show on the Las Vegas Strip . In contrast , the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal ( LVRJ ) criticized the show for being repetitious and for having a bare stage for the first 20 minutes . LVRJ also criticized the use of masks as not appealing to a casual viewer because it inhibited the dancers ' personality : " Even if a generational split is in play here , it would be tough to hear the creators argue that the show would suffer if , after 20 minutes or so -- gasp ! -- makeup or clown @-@ face replaced the masks to expand the original concept . " In October 2010 , the show moved to the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino . Changes to the original show included a bigger stage , a new set , and added dance routines . CraveOnline.com called the new show " amazing " and Zap2It.com described it as " a vibrant , frenetic and multi @-@ genre extravaganza of visuals , sound and movement . "
In April 2012 , the Jabbawockeez began running two MÜS.I.C. shows in tandem . Some members stayed with the flagship show in Las Vegas while the others took the show on limited residencies elsewhere . Their first residency outside Las Vegas was in Australia at the Jupiters Hotel and Casino in Gold Coast , Queensland . Gold Coast Magazine gave the show a good review describing it as " magical ... it truly does stir an emotional response through your soul and the combination of dance and drama make it appealing to all ages . " After leaving Jupiters , the Jabbawockeez took up a second month @-@ long residency in August 2012 at Harrah 's Resort Atlantic City casino in New Jersey . Philly.com gave it a lukewarm review : " The problem is that as good as Jabbawockeez is at what [ they do ] , the novelty wears off about a third @-@ way through the show ... the bulk of the performance pretty much offers little more than variations on a theme . As such , Jabbawockeez would have much more impact as a featured act in a variety show than it has on its own . " The members that stayed in Las Vegas temporarily moved into an 800 @-@ seat tent outside the Monte Carlo to continue their show . VegasChatter.com reviewed the tent show and called it " an entertaining , fun , and interactive performance show . " They performed in the tent from June 2012 through September 2012 with the understanding they would take up residence in the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in the Spring of 2013 .
= = = = PRiSM = = = =
The JabbaWockeeZ second stage show PRiSM opened at the Luxor Las Vegas on May 31 , 2013 . The show 's original title was Nonsense ( a nod to the crew 's name ) because , at the time , they lacked a cohesive theme . However , it was Napoleon 's idea to change the title to PRiSM since there were seven crew members and when light goes into a prism , seven colors emerge ( the Luxor hotel is in the shape of a triangular prism ) . From that point on , unity and color became the themes of the show .
PRiSM received positive reviews . Las Vegas Weekly wrote " Those who deride the art of pantomime or breakdancing need to check this show out . It will change your mind . " Las Vegas Sun ( LVS ) described the show as " a mix of great choreography , interesting storylines and special effects reminiscent of Electric Daisy Carnival ... " . LVS also wrote " It ’ s great to see a different kind of headliner — in content and ethnic makeup — thriving on the Strip . " Vegas Kool stated that the new theater " ... is laid out [ so ] everyone has a great view of the stage . " Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal ( LVRJ ) directly addressed Tabitha and Napoleon 's involvement in " ... turning the Jabbawockeez brand into an oddly endearing mix of mime , modern dance and physical theater . "
Several reviewers noted that overall PRiSM is better than MÜS.I.C. LVRJ wrote " ... it all seems to hang together better this time , with a seamless flow and unifying themes of brotherhood and diversity . " Dance Track Magazine wrote " Not only does the show have a much more intimate feel than previous Jabbawockeez shows , but PRiSM also includes increased audience participation , intensified humor and a storyline that is dramatic and flows through the entire performance . " IGoShows.com had the same observation : " ... the [ previous ] shows were plagued by lost opportunities , undeveloped ideas , and repetition . They seem to have corrected these shortcomings . ' Prism ' is better in almost every way over its predecessors . The show has a cohesiveness that it never had before , good follow @-@ through on ideas , and far more intriguing staging . The choreography is strong , varied , and doesn ’ t suffer the repetition that had invaded it previously . "
= = = So You Think You Can Dance = = =
Most criticism of Tabitha and Napoleon 's choreography has come as a result of their work on So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) . Over the course of their involvement with the show , they have received mixed reviews . At worst , their choreography has been criticized as " softie hip @-@ hop ( more like ' hip @-@ pop ' ) " . At best , it has been described as " amazing " and " bring [ ing ] out the best in their dancers ... " .
= = = = Seasons four , five , and six = = = =
Lyrical hip @-@ hop gained exposure and popularity during Tabitha and Napoleon 's first season with SYTYCD ( season four ) . On the first performance episode , contestants Katee Shean and Joshua Allen performed a D 'umo choreographed lyrical hip @-@ hop piece to the song " No Air " by Jordin Sparks . This routine received positive reviews and was later chosen as a " Judges ' Favorite " by judge and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe to be performed again during the finale . BuddyTV.com wrote that the routine deserved an Emmy nomination . Although Tabitha and Napoleon were not nominated for " No Air " , they were nominated for " Bleeding Love " , another lyrical hip @-@ hop routine performed by Mark Kanemura and Chelsie Hightower which the San Francisco Gate called a " great drama from hip @-@ hop choreographers Tabitha and Napoleon D 'Umo , danced with chemistry and theatrical flair . " This routine was picked as a " Judges ' Favorite " by choreographer and judge Christopher " Lil ' C " Toler . In June 2010 , TVSquad.com named " No Air " and " Bleeding Love " two of the ten best routines from all seasons of SYTYCD . A third Tabitha and Napoleon lyrical hip @-@ hop routine choreographed to Alicia Keys ' song " Like You 'll Never See Me Again " did not receive as much critical praise or attention as " Bleeding Love " or " No Air " ; however , Nigel Lythgoe confessed when giving feedback on the dance that season four was the first time he had been emotionally affected by hip @-@ hop routines .
Seasons five and six brought less praise for Tabitha and Napoleon . During season five 's Top 8 performance episode , Lythgoe commented after a hip @-@ hop routine choreographed by Shane Sparks " It 's wonderful to have Shane Sparks back this season . He brings something else ... I 've been a little disappointed with our hip @-@ hop this year . " Out of the ten hip @-@ hop routines ( both couples and group routines ) choreographed on season five previous to Lythgoe 's comment , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed seven . The most significant criticism came during season six in response to " People are Strange " — a routine about how aliens would attempt to dance hip @-@ hop . None of the judges liked the routine . Lythgoe said the routine placed concept ( theme ) over substance ( dancing ) . All the judges felt that the dance was weird and that the choreography was more to blame for the dancers ' performance than the dancing itself . Of the routine " Give it to me Right " that Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed on a later season six episode about two fraternizing office employees , TVSquad.com wrote that many parts were awkward and that the dance only became enjoyable once the dancers " stopped cavorting around the desk and got out on the floor . " In contrast to the mediocre to bad reviews , two other routines they choreographed were picked as " Judges ' Favorite " during the season six finale : " Beggin ' " ( chosen by Lil ' C ) and " I Can Transform Ya " ( chosen by Mary Murphy ) .
= = = = Seasons seven and eight = = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon received their best reviews on SYTYCD during season seven after a performance they choreographed to the song " Outta Your Mind " by Lil Jon . Creators.com called the routine " brilliantly imaginative . " Pioneer Local called it " powerful ... It 's been so long since [ Tabitha and Napoleon ] have had a showstopping hip @-@ hop number on SYTYCD . Not since Season 4 when they had Katee , Joshua , tWitch , Mark and Chelsie have they pulled out hip @-@ hop this good . " The routine was performed by ballet dancer Alex Wong and " All @-@ Star " hip @-@ hop dancer Stephen " tWitch " Boss from season four . The concept is about a psychologist ( tWitch ) who teaches a dancer ( Alex ) to let go of his technique and inhibitions and just dance . After the performance , tWitch and Alex received a standing ovation from the crowd and all three judges — Nigel Lythgoe , Mia Michaels , and Adam Shankman . Host Cat Deeley commented " I have never , never , in ' So You Think You Can Dance ' history , heard a roar from a crowd like this - ever . " Lythgoe called the concept " brilliant ... This is about a ballet dancer doing the most incredible hip @-@ hop ... If this routine and you are not up for an Emmy with Napoleon and Tabitha next year , I don 't know why not . It 's probably one of the funnest , best hip @-@ hop routines we 've ever had on this show . " In slight disagreement , the Wall Street Journal noted that " Outta Your Mind " may in fact be nominated for an Emmy , but it is unlikely to win because past winners have all been lyrical , very emotional routines .
On a later episode , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed a lyrical hip @-@ hop routine to Alicia Keys debut single " Fallin ' . " Of the dance , judge Mia Michaels stated " That to me felt more real than any contemporary piece , honestly , because it came from such a raw raw space and place . That was absolutely unbelievable , and it was like watching a dance film . " Lythgoe stated that the dance reminded him of " Bleeding Love " and " No Air " from season four and added " Somehow Napoleon and Tabitha have this ability ... to put emotion into hip @-@ hop routines and it really is a real talent . "
The positive reviews continued through the rest of the season . Of Tabitha and Napoleon 's " Scars " routine about angry clowns , Lythgoe called the piece " stunning " and Michaels described it as " hip @-@ hop theater " . After the episode aired , Dance Spirit magazine wrote " Tabitha and Napoleon are on FIRE this season ! " The Los Angeles Times echoed this comment stating that season seven had been " Nappytabs ' best season " . On the Top 3 performance episode , after their " Power " routine danced by eventual champion Lauren Froderman and " All @-@ Star " tWitch , Michaels commented " Nappytabs what a season you have had , my God . It 's been like home run after home run after home run ... " . Shankman echoed this comment on the finale by calling Tabitha and Napoleon " the MVPs of the season " . Four of their routines — " Fallin ' " , " Scars " , " Battle for the Beat " , and " My Chick Bad " — were chosen as " Judges ' Favorite " during the season seven finale broadcast . Due to an injury sustained by Alex Wong , " Outta Your Mind " was not picked as a judge 's favorite . Instead , it was performed by tWitch and special guest Ellen DeGeneres as a tribute to Alex just before Lauren Froderman was declared the winner of season seven .
Season eight brought back mixed feedback . Early in the season , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed a lyrical hip @-@ hop routine " Coming Home " about a veteran coming back to his wife after returning from his deployment . The routine generated positive while emotional responses causing both guest judge Debbie Reynolds and resident judge Mary Murphy to cry while giving feedback . The Star Ledger placed " Coming Home " at number three in its list of the top five routines performed during season eight . Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed another lyrical hip @-@ hop routine " I Got You " on the Top 16 performance episode . Celebuzz.com called the routine " dramatic and breathtaking " . The dance generated positive reviews from the judges causing them to spontaneously kiss one another in response to a kiss that was choreographed into the dance . On the Top 8 performance episode , Lady Gaga appeared as a guest judge in which three hip @-@ hop routines were performed . Although Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed two of them , she criticized their work while giving feedback on all three . She indirectly criticized them after a lyrical hip @-@ hop piece choreographed by Marty Kudelka in which she referred to the dance style as " dated " . Of the two routines they did choreograph , she criticized their use of props in both of them . A flower was used in the first routine " Take a Bow " about a cheating boyfriend asking for forgiveness . Several props including trash cans , rags , and brooms were used in the second routine " Bad Boys for Life " about waste management workers . Aside from disliking the props , she described their hip @-@ hop choreography for " Bad Boys for Life " as " contrived " . On the finale , " Coming Home " was not picked as a " Judges Favorite " but two other routines they choreographed , " I Got You " and " Break Ya Neck " , were chosen instead by judges Nigel Lythgoe and Lil ' C respectively .
= = = Make Your Move = = =
Make Your Move was released in South Korea on April 17 and the United States on April 18 . With the exception of a make @-@ out scene the choreography was generally praised among critics . The Washington Post stated " Although the bit of bedroom footwork was more laugh @-@ inducing than anything , some of the dancing really is spectacular . Scenes from the competing clubs include impressive choreography and gravity @-@ defying moves . " KPopStarz.com wrote " The dance teams and performances are enough to dominate the scenes , and definitely deserve a look . They bring forth the unique charm of watching a dance movie . " RogerEbert.com stated " ' Make Your Move ' rests on the success of its various dance sequences , not its plot . And the dancing here is exciting , innovative , and specific . Each ' number ' has a story behind it , a motivation , a different look and feel ... I could have lived without the choreographed ( literally ) foreplay scene , as they dance their way to the bed , but there are other dance sequences between the two where their chemistry vibrates off the screen . " The Hollywood Reporter said " The Romeo and Juliet @-@ inspired plotline basically serves as a framing device allowing the opportunity for a plethora of exuberant dance sequences that particularly show off Hough 's considerable talent . "
= = Awards and recognition = =
Primetime Emmy Awards
Tabitha and Napoleon have won two Emmys from a total of four nominations . At the 2013 Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony , they joined the other six choreography nominees and created a routine honoring dance that was performed just before the Outstanding Choreography award was presented . 2013 was the first year the Outstanding Choreography award was presented at the Primetime Emmys telecast rather than at the Creative Arts Emmys ceremony which takes place a week prior .
MTV Video Music Awards
Dancers ' Choice Awards
The Carnival Choreographer 's Ball
World of Dance
Entertainment Weekly
In 2011 , Entertainment Weekly compiled a list of the " 25 Best Performances Ever " on So You Think You Can Dance . Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed four routines on the list .
= = Charity work = =
Tabitha and Napoleon have donated money and their time to different non @-@ profit organizations . In 2009 , they made an appearance at the Life Changing Lives Gala , the proceeds of which benefited the Wounded Warrior Project , the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation , and the Boys & Girls Clubs . At the event , dancers Katie Shean and Joshua Allen from season four of So You Think You Can Dance performed the D 'umo choreographed " No Air " lyrical hip @-@ hop routine about a soldier telling his girlfriend he is being deployed .
In the wake of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Tabitha and Napoleon held a week @-@ long fundraiser from online sales of their dancewear line . The money raised was donated to Artists for Peace and Justice who in turn gave 100 % of their donations toward humanitarian relief efforts . For a separate fundraiser , they donated Nappytabs merchandise for a silent auction held by the organization Art4Life to benefit the American Cancer Society .
In 2012 , they taught classes at " The JabbaWockeez Experience " held at the Alexis Park Resort in Las Vegas . The event raised money for the Monsters on the Move Foundation which grants scholarships to aspiring dancers .
In 2013 , they worked with the Jabbawockeez again on a music video to the song " Celebrate " by Empire of the Sun and Tommy Trash . The music video also featured Les Twins , 8 Flavahz , and Harry Shum , Jr. and was used to raise money for a Coke ( RED ) campaign to decrease the number of HIV @-@ infected newborns and raise awareness about AIDS . For Veterans Day 2013 , they choreographed a military themed performance for the Homeward Bound Telethon that aired live on the Military Channel . The purpose of the telethon was to raise money for veterans who suffer from traumatic brain injury and PTSD .
Tabitha and Napoleon are on the board of directors of the Dizzy Feet Foundation and the advisory board of The Young Choreographers Festival .
= Joseph Szigeti =
Joseph Szigeti ( Hungarian : Szigeti József , [ ˈjoːʒɛf ˈsiɡɛti ] ; 5 September 1892 – 19 February 1973 ) was a Hungarian violinist .
Born into a musical family , he spent his early childhood in a small town in Transylvania . He quickly proved himself to be a child prodigy on the violin , and moved to Budapest with his father to study with the renowned pedagogue Jenő Hubay . After completing his studies with Hubay in his early teens , Szigeti began his international concert career . His performances at that time were primarily limited to salon @-@ style recitals and the more overtly virtuosic repertoire ; however , after making the acquaintance of pianist Ferruccio Busoni , he began to develop a much more thoughtful and intellectual approach to music that eventually earned him the nickname " The Scholarly Virtuoso " .
Following a bout of tuberculosis that required a stay in a sanatorium in Switzerland , Szigeti settled in Geneva , where he became Professor of Violin at the local conservatory in 1917 . It was in Geneva that he met his future wife , Wanda Ostrowska , and at roughly the same time he became friends with the composer Béla Bartók . Both relationships were to be lifelong .
From the 1920s until 1960 , Szigeti performed regularly around the world and recorded extensively . He also distinguished himself as a strong advocate of new music , and was the dedicatee of many new works by contemporary composers . Among the more notable pieces written for him are Ernest Bloch 's Violin Concerto , Bartók 's Rhapsody No. 1 , and Eugène Ysaÿe 's Solo Sonata No. 1 . After retiring from the concert stage in 1960 , he worked at teaching and writing until his death in 1973 , at the age of 80 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Szigeti was born Joseph " Jóska " Singer to a Jewish family in Budapest , Austria @-@ Hungary . His mother died when he was three years old , and soon thereafter the boy was sent to live with his grandparents in the little Carpathian town of Máramaros @-@ Sziget ( hence the name Szigeti ) . He grew up surrounded by music , as the town band was composed almost entirely of his uncles . After a few informal lessons on the cimbalom from his aunt , he received his first lessons on the violin from his Uncle Bernat at the age of six .
Szigeti quickly showed a talent for the violin . Several years later , his father took him to Budapest to receive proper training at the conservatory . After a brief stint with an inadequate teacher , Szigeti auditioned at the Franz Liszt Academy of Music and was admitted directly into the class of Jenő Hubay , without the usual delays and formalities .
Hubay , who had been a student of Joseph Joachim in Berlin , had by that time established himself as one of the preeminent teachers in Europe and a fountainhead of the Hungarian violin tradition . Szigeti joined such violinists as Franz von Vecsey , Emil Telmányi , Jelly d 'Arányi and Stefi Geyer in Hubay ’ s studio .
In those days , Europe produced a great many child prodigies , inspired by the phenomenal success of the young Czech virtuoso Jan Kubelík and formed by rigorous teaching and enthusiastic parents . The Hubay studio was no exception ; Szigeti and his fellow wunderkinder performed extensively in special recitals and salon concerts during their study at the Liszt Academy .
In 1905 , at the age of thirteen , Szigeti made his Berlin debut playing Bach 's Chaconne in D minor , Ernst 's Concerto in F @-@ sharp minor , and Paganini 's Witches Dance . Despite the formidable program , the event received mention only by a photograph in the Sunday supplement of the Berliner Tageblatt captioned : " A Musical Prodigy : Josef Szigeti " .
Szigeti spent the next few months with a summer theater company in a small Hungarian resort town , playing mini @-@ recitals in between acts of folk operetta . In that same vein , the next year he played at a circus in Frankfurt , where he appeared under the pseudonym " Jóska Szulagi " . Also in 1906 , Hubay took Szigeti to play for Joseph Joachim in Berlin . Joachim was impressed , and suggested that Szigeti should finish his studies with him . Szigeti declined the offer , both out of loyalty to Hubay and a perceived aloofness and lack of rapport between Joachim and his students .
= = = Broadening horizons = = =
Soon after the meeting with Joachim , Szigeti embarked on a major concert tour of England . Midway through the tour , in Surrey , he met a music @-@ loving couple who effectively adopted him , extending an invitation to stay with them for an indefinite length of time .
Throughout England , he gave many successful concerts , including the premiere of the first work dedicated to him : Hamilton Harty 's Violin Concerto . Also during this time , Szigeti toured with an all @-@ star ensemble including legendary singer Dame Nellie Melba and pianists Ferruccio Busoni and Wilhelm Backhaus . Philippe Gaubert , a famous French flutist of the day , as well as the young singer John McCormack , were also part of these tours .
The most significant of the new contacts was Busoni . The great pianist and composer became Szigeti 's mentor during these formative years , and the two would remain close friends until Busoni 's death in 1924 . By Szigeti 's own admission , before meeting Busoni his life was characterized by a certain laziness and indifference brought on by the then @-@ typical life of a young prodigy violinist . He had grown accustomed to playing crowd @-@ pleasing salon miniatures and dazzling virtuosic encores without much thought . He knew little of the works of the great masters ; he could play them , but not fully understand them . As Szigeti put it , Busoni — particularly through their careful study of Bach 's Chaconne — " shook me once and for all out of my adolescent complacency " .
= = = Illness and new beginnings = = =
In 1913 , Szigeti was diagnosed with tuberculosis and was sent to a sanatorium in Davos , Switzerland to recover , interrupting his concert career . During his stay at the sanatorium , he became re @-@ acquainted with the composer Béla Bartók , who was recovering from pneumonia . The two had known each other only in passing during their conservatory days , but now they began a friendship that would last until Bartók ’ s death in 1945 .
In 1917 , having by then made a full recovery , at age 25 Szigeti was appointed Professor of Violin at the Geneva Conservatory of Music . Szigeti said that this job , although generally satisfying , was often frustrating due to the mediocre quality of many of his students . The years teaching in Geneva provided an opportunity for Szigeti to deepen his understanding of music as an art , along with other aspects such as chamber music , orchestral performance , music theory and composition . Also during that time , Szigeti met and fell in love with Wanda Ostrowska , a young woman of Russian parentage who had been stranded in Geneva by the Russian Revolution of 1917 . They married in 1919 .
= = = American debut = = =
In 1925 , Szigeti met Leopold Stokowski and played the Bach Chaconne in D minor for him . Less than two weeks later , Szigeti received a telegram from Stokowski ’ s manager in Philadelphia inviting him to perform with the Philadelphia Orchestra later that year : it was his American debut . Szigeti had never played with an American orchestra before , nor heard one , and later he wrote of suffering stage fright . He was taken aback by the American concert scene , and the way that its publicity and popularity driven agents and managers determined much of what was heard in American concert halls . He believed they were not interested in works by the great masters , but preferred the popular light salon pieces he had left behind in his prodigy days . ( To the end of his life , Szigeti loved to quote one memorable , cigar @-@ chewing impresario who told him , with regard to Beethoven 's Kreutzer Sonata , " Well , let me tell you , Mister Dzigedy — and I know what I ’ m talking about — your Krewtzer Sonata bores the pants off my audiences ! " )
= = = Maturity = = =
By 1930 , Szigeti was established as a major international concert violinist . He performed extensively in Europe , the United States and Asia , and made the acquaintance of many of the era ’ s leading instrumentalists , conductors and composers .
In 1939 , to escape the war and Nazi persecution of the Jews , Szigeti emigrated with his wife to the United States , where they settled in California . ( A year later , Bartók also fled to America , and just two days after his arrival , he and Szigeti played a sonata recital at the Library of Congress in Washington , D.C. )
During the 1930s , 1940s and into the 1950s , Szigeti recorded extensively , leaving a significant legacy . Notable recordings include the above @-@ mentioned Library of Congress sonata recital ; the studio recording of Bartók 's Contrasts with Benny Goodman on clarinet and the composer at the piano ; the violin concertos of Beethoven , Brahms , Mendelssohn , Prokofiev ( No. 1 ) and Bloch under the batons of such conductors as
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Bruno Walter , Hamilton Harty and Sir Thomas Beecham ; and various works by J.S. Bach , Busoni , Corelli , Handel and Mozart . One of his last recordings was of the Six Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin by Bach ; although his technique had deteriorated noticeably by that time , the recording is prized for Szigeti 's insight and depth of interpretation .
In 1950 , Szigeti was detained at Ellis Island upon returning from a European concert tour and was held for several days , officially " temporarily excluded " from the country . The reasons for his detention remain unclear . The following year , he became a naturalized American citizen .
= = = Later years = = =
During the 1950s , Szigeti began to develop arthritis in his hands and his playing deteriorated . Despite his weakened technical mastery , his intellect and musical expression were still strong , and he continued to draw large audiences to his concerts . In Naples , Italy , in November 1956 , just after the Soviets crushed the Hungarian uprising , as soon as he walked onto the stage the audience burst into wild applause and shouts of Viva l ’ Ungheria ! ( Italian for " Long live Hungary ! " ) , delaying the concert for nearly fifteen minutes .
In 1960 Szigeti officially retired from performing , and returned to Switzerland with his wife . There he devoted himself primarily to teaching , although he still traveled regularly to judge international violin competitions . Top @-@ class students from all over Europe and the United States came to study under him . One of these students was Arnold Steinhardt , who spent the summer of 1962 with Szigeti . He came to the conclusion that " Joseph Szigeti was a template for the musician I would like to become : inquisitive , innovative , sensitive , feeling , informed " .
Toward the end of his life , Szigeti suffered from frail health . He was put on strict diets and had several stays in hospital , but his friends asserted that this did nothing to dampen his characteristic cheerfulness . He died in Lucerne , Switzerland on February 19 , 1973 , at the age of 80 . The New York Times ran a front @-@ page obituary that ended with this 1966 quote from violinist Yehudi Menuhin :
We must be humbly grateful that the breed of cultured and chivalrous violin virtuosos , aristocrats as human beings and as musicians , has survived into our hostile age in the person of Joseph Szigeti .
= = Family life = =
In 1918 , while teaching in Geneva , Szigeti met and fell in love with Wanda Ostrowska . She was born in Russia and had been stranded by the Russian Revolution of 1917 with her sister at a finishing school in Geneva . In 1919 , Szigeti and Ostrowska decided to get married , but due to the turbulent political situation in Europe , many unexpected bureaucratic obstacles were thrown up in their path . The first problem was the impossibility of contacting Ostrowska 's family , and the couple were forced to go ahead without parental consent , with the permission only of Ostrowska 's sister and the headmistress of the finishing school . Further bureaucratic entanglements threatened the young couple 's hopes , but eventually the officials responsible granted them a dispensation to marry . Szigeti recalls in his memoirs the words of Consul General Baron de Montlong at the critical moment :
Let us not , if we can avoid it , fall victim to the dead letter of the law . I don 't want to postpone the happiness of these two youngsters if we can help it . All laws have been twisted and tortured out of semblance of law , what with war and revolutions . For once let 's twist and turn one for a good cause , yes ?
Just before the birth of their only child , daughter Irene , Szigeti found himself stuck in Berlin during the Kapp Putsch of 1920 , unable to return to Geneva . The entire city had been paralyzed by a general strike , and the trains were not running . His scheduled concert could not go on as planned , but he was forced to stay in Berlin for " interminable days " while the Putsch ran its course . Szigeti writes : " ... the impossibility of communicating by phone or wire with my wife--whose condition I pictured with the somewhat lurid pessimism usual to young prospective fathers--was certainly a greater torment to me than all the other discomforts put together " .
By 1940 , the outbreak of World War II forced the Szigetis to leave Europe for the United States . ( Irene remained in Switzerland , having married pianist Nikita Magaloff earlier that year . ) They settled in California , where Wanda , always fond of nature , was delighted to be able to raise her own garden . In a letter to a friend , Szigeti describes their California life :
Wanda is happy , doing wonders with her gardening , chicken and rabbit raising , preserve and pâté de foie making . She doesn 't budge from our place , doesn 't want to come back to New York even for a visit , which I , for one , can well understand ! Two dogs , an aviary full of exotic birds , tomatoes , grapes , strawberries , asparagus , artichokes , lovely flowers ( camellias too ! ) , right in our own little world .
Szigeti narrowly escaped being killed in the plane crash that claimed the life of movie star Carole Lombard in January 1942 . Szigeti , who was on his way to Los Angeles for a concert , was forced to give up his seat on TWA Flight 3 at a refueling stop in Albuquerque , NM to allow the plane to take on 15 soldiers who , it being wartime , had priority . The plane , off course at night and with wartime blackout conditions in effect , crashed into a mountain cliff after take off from an intermediate stop in Las Vegas , killing everyone on board .
In 1960 , the couple returned to Europe and settled near Lake Geneva in Switzerland , close to the home of their daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law . They remained there for the rest of their lives . Wanda died in 1971 , predeceasing her husband by two years .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critics = = =
Writing in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Boris Schwarz commented :
Szigeti 's performing technique was not always flawless and his tone lacked sensuous beauty , although it acquired a spiritual quality in moments of inspiration ... Szigeti held the bow in an old @-@ fashioned way , with the elbow close to the body , and produced much emphatic power , but not without extraneous sounds . Minor reservations , however , were swept aside by the force of his musical personality .
This comment illustrates well the general nature of Szigeti 's reception by both critics and fellow musicians : while his musical insights , intellect , and depth of interpretation were almost universally lauded , the purely technical aspect of his playing was awarded a more mixed reaction . His tone in particular seems to have been occasionally uneven from performance to performance . A 1926 recital review in The New York Times , for example , laments that
... his performance was stiff and dry in its observance of letter and its absence of spirit ... Mr. Szigeti was not only inclined to dryness of tone and angularity of phrase , but there were also passages of poor intonation .
In contrast , a review from the previous year in the same journal remarked after a performance of the Beethoven concerto that
Mr. Szigeti has a rather small but beautiful tone , elegance , finish . He played with a quiet sincerity which grew upon the audience , though not with the virility and sweep that other violinists find ... it is clear that Mr. Szigeti is a player to command esteem and respect for his musicianship , for the genuineness of his interpretations , and his artistic style .
= = = Musicians = = =
Among his fellow musicians , Szigeti was widely admired and respected . Violinist Nathan Milstein wrote that
Szigeti ... was an incredibly cultured musician . Actually his talent grew out of his culture ... I always admired him , and he was respected by musicians ... in his late years , he finally got the appreciation he deserved from the general public as well .
In his memoirs , published in 2004 , cellist János Starker asserts that
Szigeti was one of the giants among the violinists I had heard from childhood on , and my admiration for him is undiminished up to this day .
Starker then describes a recital he attended late in Szigeti 's career , illustrating both the extent to which Szigeti was suffering from arthritis and his ability to still communicate his musical ideas effectively :
" He invited me to his recital in Town Hall ... the first few minutes were excruciating : as I saw later , his fingers had deteriorated to the point that he had almost no flesh on them . But once he loosened up a bit he produced heart @-@ rending beauty .
Violinist Yehudi Menuhin comments at length about Szigeti in his own memoirs , remarking as many others did on Szigeti 's intellectual approach to music , but in a somewhat more critical fashion :
Apart from Enesco , he was the most cultivated violinist I have ever known but while Enesco was a force of nature , Szigeti , slender , small , anxious , was a beautifully fashioned piece of porcelain , a priceless Sèvres vase . Curiously for a Hungarian , from whom one expects wild , energetic , spontaneous qualities , Szigeti travelled even farther up a one @-@ way road of deliberate intellectualism . A young accompanist who worked with Szigeti told me that two hours concentration wouldn 't get them beyond the first three bars of a sonata--so much analysis and ratiocination went into his practice ... A similar persnicketiness marked his adjudication . Shortly before he died in 1973 , he was a member of our jury at the City of London Carl Flesch Concours ... I was struck not only by the sharpness of his intellect but also by what seemed to me the perversity of his opinions . Some particular aspect of a competitor 's playing would hold his attention , and he would take violent issue with it , to the exclusion of everything else . For him a violinist was made or broken , a prize awarded or withheld , on details that to me scarcely mattered .
Nevertheless , Menuhin too referred to Szigeti as " a violinist whom I much admired and a man of whom I was very fond " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = The writer = = =
During his time in America , Szigeti took to writing ; his memoirs , With Strings Attached : Reminiscences and Reflections were published in 1947 . The New York Times reviewed it favorably : although in their description the book was " constructed along utterly anarchistic lines , with each episode and anecdote left pretty much on its own " , they asserted that " It also has the flavor of life in it , and it is marked by an exhilarating revolt against the custom of arranging catastrophes and triumphs under neat chapter headings " .
In 1969 , he published his treatise on violin playing , Szigeti on the Violin . In it Szigeti presents his opinions about the then @-@ current state of violin playing and the various challenges and issues facing musicians in the modern world , as well as a detailed examination of violin technique as he understood it .
A recurring theme in the first part is the changing nature of violinist ’ s lives during Szigeti ’ s later years . In his youth , concert artists relied primarily on recitals to establish themselves and attract critical attention and acclaim ; by the time of Szigeti ’ s writings , the recital had been eclipsed in importance by the competition . Szigeti was dismayed by this trend , especially since he considered the fast @-@ paced and intense preparation necessary for high @-@ level competitions to be " … incompatible with the slow maturing either of the performing artist or of the repertoire . " Szigeti believed that such accelerated development of a musician led to performances that " lack ( ed ) the stamp of authenticity , the mark of a personal view evolved through trial and error . " In a similar vein , he was skeptical of the effects produced by the recording industry on the culture of music @-@ making . In Szigeti ’ s opinion , the allure of the recording contract and the instant " success " that it implied led many young artists to record works before they were musically ready , and thus contributed to the problem of artificially fast development and resulting musical immaturity .
Szigeti also offers a lengthy and detailed explanation of his approach to violin technique . He believed that a violinist should be concerned primarily with musical goals , rather than simply choosing either the easiest or most impressively virtuosic way to play a certain passage . He was particularly concerned with tone color : he advised that " The player should cultivate a seismograph @-@ like sensitivity to brusque changes of tone colour caused by fingerings based on expediency and comfort rather than the composer ’ s manifest or probable intentions . " Other topics prominently discussed include the most effective position of a violinist 's left hand , the violin works of Béla Bartók , a cautionary list of widely accepted misprints and editorial inaccuracies in the standard repertoire , and most notably , the vital importance of J.S. Bach 's Six Sonatas and Partitas for any violinist 's technical and artistic development .
= = = New music = = =
Szigeti was an avid champion of new music , and frequently planned his recitals to include new or little @-@ known works alongside the classics . Many composers wrote new works for him , notably Béla Bartók , Ernest Bloch , and Eugène Ysaÿe , along with lesser @-@ known composers such as David Diamond and Hamilton Harty .
The reason for Szigeti 's appeal to composers was articulated by Bloch upon completion of his Violin Concerto : the concerto 's premiere would have to be delayed a full year for Szigeti to be the soloist , and Bloch agreed , saying that
Modern composers realize that when Szigeti plays their music , their inmost fancy , their slightest intentions become fully realized , and their music is not exploited for the glorification of the artist and his technique , but that artist and technique become the humble servant of the music .
Szigeti was also the dedicatee of the first of Eugène Ysaÿe 's Six Sonatas for Solo Violin ; in fact , Ysaÿe 's inspiration to compose the sonatas came from hearing Szigeti 's performances of J.S. Bach 's Six Sonatas and Partitas , to which they are intended as a modern counterpart .
Perhaps Szigeti 's most fruitful musical partnership was with his friend Béla Bartók . The first piece Bartók dedicated to him was the First Rhapsody for violin and orchestra ( or piano ) of 1928 ; the rhapsody , based on both Romanian and Hungarian folk tunes , was one of a pair of violin rhapsodies written in 1928 ( the other being dedicated to Zoltán Székely . ) In 1938 , Szigeti and clarinetist Benny Goodman teamed up to commission a trio from Bartók : originally intended to be a short work just long enough to fill both sides of a 78 rpm record , the piece soon expanded beyond its modest intent and became the three @-@ movement Contrasts for piano , violin and clarinet . In 1944 , by which time Szigeti and Bartók had both fled to the United States to escape the war in Europe , Bartók 's health was failing and he had sunk into depression . He was in dire need of money , but felt no inspiration to compose and was convinced that his works would never sell to an American audience . Szigeti came to his friend 's aid by securing donations from the American Society of Composers and Publishers to pay for Bartók 's medical treatment , and then , together with conductor and compatriot Fritz Reiner , persuaded Serge Koussevitzky to commission from Bartók what eventually became his much @-@ beloved Concerto for Orchestra . The work 's success brought Bartók some measure of financial security and provided him with a much @-@ needed emotional boost .
As well as performing new works dedicated to him , Szigeti also championed the music of other contemporary composers , notably Sergei Prokofiev and Igor Stravinsky . He was among the first violinists to make Prokofiev 's First Violin Concerto a standard part of his repertoire , and frequently performed and recorded works of Stravinsky ( including the Duo Concertante , recorded with the composer at the piano in 1945 . ) The Berg Violin Concerto he even recorded twice , under the baton of Dimitri Mitropoulos .
= Ionian Islands under Venetian rule =
The Ionian Islands were a maritime and overseas possession of the Republic of Venice from the mid @-@ 14th century until the late 18th century . The conquest of the islands took place gradually . The first to be acquired was Cythera and the neighboring islet of Anticythera , indirectly in 1238 and directly after 1363 . In 1386 , Corfu voluntarily became part of Venice 's colonies . Following a century , Venice captured Zante in 1485 , Cephalonia in 1500 and Ithaca in 1503 . The conquest was completed in 1718 with the capture of Lefkada . Each of the islands remained part of the Venetian Stato da Màr until Napoleon Bonaparte dissolved the Republic of Venice in 1797 . The Ionian Islands are situated in the Ionian Sea , off the west coast of Greece . Cythera , the southernmost , is just off the southern tip of the Peloponnese and Corfu , the northernmost , is located at the entrance of the Adriatic Sea . In modern Greek , the period of Venetian rule over Greek territory is known as Venetokratia or Enetokratia ( Modern Greek : Βενετοκρατία or Ενετοκρατία ) and literally means " rule of the Venetians " . It is believed that the Venetian period on the Ionian Islands was agreeable , especially compared with the coinciding Turkish rule over other parts of present @-@ day Greece .
The governor of the Ionian Islands during the Venetian period was the Provveditore generale da Mar , who resided on Corfu . Additionally , each island 's authorities were divided into the Venetian and the domestic authorities . The economy of the islands was based on exporting local goods , primarily raisins , olive oil and wine , whereas Venetian lira , the currency of Venice , was also the currency of the islands . Some features of the culture of Venice were incorporated in the culture of the Ionian Islands , thus influencing to this day local music , cuisine and language . The Italian language , for instance , which was introduced on the islands as the official language and was adopted by the upper class , is still popular today throughout the islands .
= = Relations between Venice and Byzantium = =
Venice was founded in 421 after the destruction of nearby communities by the Huns and the Lombards . In the shifting Italian borders of the following centuries , Venice benefited from remaining under the control of the Roman Empire - increasingly as the furtherest Northwestern outpost of the now Constantinople centered power . During Justinian I 's reconquest of Italy from the Visigoths , Venice was an increasingly important stronghold for the Empire 's Exarchate of Ravenna . The political centre of the exarchate , and the most senior military officials of the Empire , were situated in Ravenna . The subordinate military officials who were their representatives in the Venetian lagoons were called tribunes , and only in about AD 697 were the lagoons made a separate military command under a dux ( doge ) . Notwithstanding the election of the first Doge , vassalic evidence such as honours and orders received by the doge from the Emperor implies that Venice was considered part of the Byzantine Empire even after the capture of Ravenna by the Lombards . Despite the Pax Nicephori ( 803 ) , which recognised Venice as Byzantine territory , the influence of the Eastern Roman Emperor slowly faded away . By 814 Venice functioned as a fully independent republic . Even so , Venice became a partner of the Empire and trading privileges were granted to it by the Emperors via treaties , such as the Byzantine – Venetian Treaty of 1082 .
The Fourth Crusade ( 1202 – 1204 ) was initially intended to invade Muslim @-@ controlled areas ; instead , the Crusaders attacked the capital of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople , resulting in the temporary dissolution of the empire and the sack of its capital . As Venice was one of the participants in the Crusade its relations with the Byzantine Empire were strained during this period . Moreover , by styling himself " Lord of one @-@ quarter and one @-@ eighth of the whole Empire of Romania " after the Crusade , the Doge of Venice at that time , Enrico Dandolo ( who had masterminded the attack and personally led the final assault ) contributed to the deterioration of the relations between the two states . Efforts to improve relations , for example through the Nicaean – Venetian Treaty of 1219 , proved unsuccessful . A period of friendly relations only followed the Sicilian Vespers in 1282 , when Venice , foreseeing the fall of Charles , the French King of Sicily , began forming closer relations with Byzantium . Venice had been bound by an alliance with Charles against Byzantium in 1281 .
= = Appellation = =
The Islands were referred to , both individually and collectively , by various names . After Venice captured Cephalonia on 24 December 1500 , the administration of the defense of all the islands was delegated to an official seated in Corfu . This official was being referred to as " the General Provveditore of the Three Islands " ( Provveditore Generale delle Tre Isole ) and resided at the fortress of Angelokastro from 1387 to the end of the 16th century . The Three Islands refer to Corfu , Zante and Cephalonia . The Venetian equivalent for " Ionian Islands " is Ixołe Jonie , the Italian being Isole Ionie and the Greek Ιόνια Νησιά in Modern Greek and Ἰόνιοι Νῆσοι in Katharevousa .
Below are the seven principal islands from north to south , including their Greek and Italian names in parentheses :
Corfu ( Kerkyra ; Corfù )
Paxos ( Paxi ; Passo )
Lefkada ( Leucas ; Santa Maura or Lèucade )
Cephalonia ( Kefal ( l ) onia or Kefal ( l ) inia ; Cefalonia )
Ithaca ( Ithaki or Thiaki ; Itaca , Val di Compare or Piccola Cefalonia )
Zante ( Zakynthos ; Zante or Zacinto )
Cythera ( Kythira ; Cerigo )
Cythera and Lefkada were additionally called Çuha Adası or Çuka Adası and Ayamavra respectively by the Ottomans .
= = History = =
= = = Roman and Byzantine period = = =
During the Roman Empire , the Ionian Islands were variously part of the provinces of Achaea and Epirus vetus . These would form , with the exception of Cythera , the Byzantine theme of Cephallenia in the late 8th century . From the late 11th century , the Ionian Islands became a battleground in the Byzantine – Norman Wars . The island of Corfu was held by the Normans in 1081 – 1085 and 1147 – 1149 , while the Venetians unsuccessfully besieged it in 1122 – 1123 . The island of Cephalonia was also unsuccessfully besieged in 1085 , but was plundered in 1099 by the Pisans and in 1126 by the Venetians . Finally , Corfu and the rest of the theme , except for Lefkada , were captured by the Normans under William II of Sicily in 1185 . Although Corfu was recovered by the Byzantines by 1191 , the other islands henceforth remained lost to Byzantium , and formed a County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos under William 's Greek admiral Margaritus of Brindisi .
= = = The Frankokratia = = =
Following the Fourth Crusade and the signature of the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae , Corfu came under Venetian rule . In 1207 though , doge Pietro Ziani ceded the island as a feudum to ten Venetian nobles , provided that they demonstrate loyalty and devotion and that they pay taxes . Corfu passed in the hands of the Despotate of Epirus around 1214 , and was captured in 1257 by Manfred of Sicily , who put his admiral Philippe Chinard there in charge of his eastern possessions . Nonetheless , with the defeat of Manfred at Benevento and the signature of the Treaty of Viterbo on 27 May 1267 , Corfu became a possession of the Angevin Kingdom of Naples . Meanwhile , the rest of the islands continued to form part of the County palatine , which throughout its existence was governed by three families : the Orsini family , the House of Anjou and the Tocco family . The rule of the family of Tocco lasted for 122 years , up until 1479 , when Ottomans captured Cephalonia , Zante , Lefkada and Ithaca .
= = = The Venetian conquest = = =
On 13 February 1386 Corfu became once more a Venetian possession and this time Venetian rule would last until the end of the Republic . This was accomplished voluntary by the people of Corfu . On 10 May , the Corfiotes appointed five ambassadors to submit to the Venetian senate . The Ottomans made several attempts to capture Corfu , the first of which was in 1537 . This attack led Venice to an alliance with the Pope and Emperor Charles V. , known as the Holy League , against the Ottoman Empire . Another major unsuccessful Ottoman attack was that of July 1716 .
After the partition of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 , Cythera fell into Venetian hands in 1238 through the marriage of Marco Venier with the daughter of the Greek lord of the island . Cythera and Anticythera constituted part of the Stato da Mar for the first time in 1363 followed by an interruption of a three @-@ year Turkish rule , between 1715 and 1718 . With the Treaty of Passarowitz Cythera and Anticythera passed to the Venetian Republic and remained under its control until its fall , in 1797 .
The Turkish rule in the three islands of Cephalonia , Zante and Ithaca was short @-@ lived . In 1481 , two years after the beginning of the Turkish rule , Antonio Tocco invaded and briefly occupied Cephalonia and Zante but he was soon driven out by the Venetians . Zante was officially recovered by the Venetians in 1485 . Then , Cephalonia , after sixteen years of Turkish occupation ( 1484 – 1500 ) , became part of the Stato da Mar on 24 December 1500 , with the Siege of the Castle of St. George . Finally , Ithaca , following the fate of Cephalonia , was conquered by Venice in 1503 .
Lefkada , part of the Despotate of Epirus since the latter 's foundation in 1205 , was incorporated by Leonardo I Tocco into the County of Cephalonia in 1362 . The Despotate of Epirus was one of the three Byzantine Empires in exile created after the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . Following the fate of the other central Ionian Islands , it was captured by the Turks in 1479 and then by the Venetians in 1502 . However , Venetian rule did not last , as Lefkada was given back to the Ottoman Empire one year later . Turkish rule over Lefkada lasted for over 200 years , from 1479 to 1684 , when Francesco Morosini attacked and subdued the island during the Morean War . Lefkada , however , did not become officially Venetian until 1718 , with the signature of the Treaty of Passarowitz .
= = = Dissolution of the Republic and aftermath = = =
Napoleon Bonaparte declared war against Venice on 3 May 1797 . The signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio , on 17 October 1797 , marked the dissolution of the Republic of Venice and the sharing of its territories between France and Austria . The lands of the Terraferma up to the River Adige , the city itself and the possessions of the Balkan peninsula of Istria and Dalmatia were yielded to Austria . The Ionian Islands , part of Venetian maritime territories , were ceded to France . Napoleon organized the islands into three departments : Corcyre , Ithaque , and Mer @-@ Égée . The first included the islands of Corfu and Paxos , as well as the former Venetian settlements of Butrint and Parga situated in Epirus . The second department was formed by the islands of Cephalonia , Ithaca and Lefkada and the cities of Preveza and Vonitsa , whereas Zante and Cerigo were part of the third department . The French rule , however , did not last as Russia allied with the Ottoman Empire in September 1798 and in 1799 a Russo @-@ Ottoman naval expedition captured the islands . With the signing of a treaty between Russia and the Porte on 21 March 1800 , an independent island republic under the protection of both the empires was established . The name of the new state was agreed to be the " Septinsular Republic " and included all the territories of the three former French departments except for the continental possessions of Parga , Preveza , Vonitsa and Butrint . With the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 , the seven islands were given back to France by Russia . In October 1809 , Great Britain took possession of all the islands with the exception of Corfu and Paxos , which was only surrendered in 1814 . In 1815 , the Ionian Islands became a British protectorate under the name United States of the Ionian Islands .
= = Administration = =
The civil and military governor of the Ionian Islands was the Provveditore generale da Mar , who lived on Corfu and had the supreme command of the armed Venetian fleet . In the early days of Venetian rule , he was elected only in case of need and on several occasions in peacetime , the Provveditore generale da Mar was appointed as Provveditore generale delle tre Isole , " Provveditore generale of the three Islands " .
Authorities in the islands were divided into two types : the Venetian ones , occupied by Venetians and represented the sovereign state and its political and military power over the Islands , and the domestic authorities , which were appointed by the Communal Council ( Consiglio della Comunità ) . The Venetians were appointed by the Great Council of Venice . There were three officials constituting the reggimento ( " regime " ) of each island . The head of the reggimento had the title of Provveditore in all the islands except for Corfu , where he was called Bailo . The title could only be held by a nobleman . The subordinate Venetian officials were the consiglieri , two on each island , who performed administrative and judicial functions along with the Provveditore of each island . The Provveditore ' s responsibilities also included security from hostile raids , taxation , religious and other issues .
In Corfu the Venetian officials included a Bailo , a Provveditore and a Capitano , two Consiglieri , a Capitano della cittadella and a Castellano della fortezza . In Cephalonia and Zante there were only one Provveditore and two Consiglieri . When Lefkada was incorporated a Provveditore ordinario and a Provveditore straordinario became the representatives of Venice on the island , although , in 1595 , another provveditore was appointed to the Fortress of Asso . In Cythera the reggimento included both a Provveditore and a castellano . The domestic authorities comprised both a Consiglio Maggiore and a Consiglio Minore composed of members of the local aristocracy .
There were ten fortresses throughout the islands , with one on each island serving as its capital . On Corfu , however , there were three fortresses ; two in the town of Corfu and the Angelokastro . On Cephalonia there were two , the castle of St. George or the Fortress of Cephalonia ( Città di Cefalonia ) and the Fortress of Asso ( Fortezza d 'Asso ) in the northern part .
= = Economy = =
The Ionian economy during the Venetian period was largely based on exporting local products . The most important of the agricultural products of Corfu was olive oil . On the islands of Cephallonia and Zante the main exports were raisins , olive oil and wine . One of the most significant exports was olive oil . Groves of olive trees were planted throughout the islands during the Venetian period as olive oil was important to Venice 's economy . Although the production of it was successful , the Republic only allowed exportation to Venice . Statistics for the years 1766 @-@ 1770 indicate 1 @,@ 905 @,@ 917 olive trees on Corfu , 113 @,@ 161 on Zante , 38 @,@ 516 on Cephalonia , 44 @,@ 146 on Lefkada and 31 @,@ 884 on Cythera .
Nevertheless , raisin exports were the most important export of the islands during the Venetian rule . By the early 18th century Zante , Cephalonia , and part of Ithaca had become a major centre of the currant trade . Because of the fierce competition in the raisin trade between Venice and the United Kingdom , Venice prohibited the free export of raisins from the islands . Another measure was the nuova imposta , a heavy export tax for foreign ships .
The currency of the islands during Venetian rule was the Venetian lira , as in Venice . There was a special issue for the Islands ; the observe side of it has the complete or shertened inscription CORFU / CEFALONIA / ZANTE in three lines . The reserve depicts the winged and haloed lion of Saint Marc in a front view , holding the book of the Gospel in his fore @-@ paws . The Ionian Islands formed part of the Venetian maritime trade route to the Orient .
= = Demographics = =
When the central Ionian Islands were captured by Venice their population was very low and Ithaca was completely uninhabited . To address this problem , a small colonisation to the islands took place . Catholic Italians from Terraferma and Orthodox Greeks from the Stato da Mar were transferred to the islands as part of the colonisation . Τhe population eventually increased : in 1765 @-@ 1766 it had reached 111 @,@ 439 ; in 1780 , the population was 150 @,@ 908 . Fourteen years later , there were 155 @,@ 770 inhabitants throughout the islands .
These are some figures concerning the population of each island during the Venetian period :
= = = Language and education = = =
During the Venetian period all public acts were drawn up in the Venetian language , the official language of the Government . Greek remained spoken by the peasantry whereas Venetian was adopted by the upper class and it was generally preferred within the towns . Thus , the Venetian language became , if not the common language of the Ionians , at least the prestige one . The Venetians did little in the area of education , mainly due to the fact that schooling was not a responsibility of the state at that time in Europe but a private matter . Some authors believe that this was done intentionally by Venice , as part of its colonial policy . People belonging to the upper classes were more likely to be educated and to have studied in an Italian university , usually that of Padua . Modelled after the academies operating at that time in Venice , the first literary academy , Accademia degli Assicurati , was founded in Corfu in 1656 by individuals . It had as an emblem two rocks beneath a winged lion , with an inscription His Semper hovering in the air .
= = = Religion = = =
Venetians , being Catholics , retained the privileges enjoyed by the Latin bishopric of the islands under the Count Palatine Dynasties . The Catholics were not numerous , and during the Venetian period , they were mainly concentrated in Corfu and Cephalonia . Most of them were descendants of Italian settlers but there were some conversions by Greeks to Catholicism . According to the law , Greek Orthodox priests and monks had to accept the Catholics as their superiors , though the Venetians placed the interests of the Republic ahead of those of the Papacy . Mixed marriages between Catholic and Orthodox Christians were allowed . These two were the main factors in the decline of Roman Catholicism in the Islands .
Jews were also a native religious group to the Islands during the Venetian period . They were even fewer in number than the Catholics ; in 1797 the number of Jews in Corfu appears to have been only two thousand . Jewish presence in Corfu can be traced since the times of the Principality of Taranto . In Cephalonia , there is evidence of Jewish habitation in the old capital , the Castle of St. George , since the early 17th century . When the capital of the island was transferred to Argostoli the Jews resettled there .
= = = Social structure = = =
The social structure of the islands followed that of Venice . The whole population was divided into three classes : the nobles ( nobili ) , the bourgeoisie ( citadini ) and the common people ( populari ) .
= = Legacy = =
Throughout Venice 's old possessions , but above all in the Ionian islands , the memory of the Republic is deeply rooted in the population , who recall it with a shade of nostalgia even after so much time and so many events . Because of the long Venetian period , the manners and traditions of the inhabitants of the Ionian Islands are a mixture of Greek and Italian . The Venetian influence is illustrated in all aspects of culture and everyday life . In 1800 the Septinsular Republic was established ; its flag design was based on the flag of the Republic of Venice . In addition , Italian was the co @-@ official language of both the Septinsular Republic and the United States of the Ionian Islands . Because of its status , Italian was also taught at schools along with Greek and English ( Ionian Islands were a protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1815 until 1864 ) . In the First Year of the secondary education , for instance , Greek was taught four times a week , Italian three times and English twice . In the Greek Census of 1907 , 4 @,@ 675 people from the Ionian Islands stated Catholicism as their denomination , about 1 @.@ 8 % of the total population ( 254 @,@ 494 ) , while 2 @,@ 541 ( 1 % ) Ionians stated Italian as their mother tongue , making it the second language by number of speakers . The Italian language remains popular on the islands . The Hellenic Union of Eptanisians , a civil non @-@ profit company working for the promotion of the Heptanesian Culture , objected to the decision of the Ministry to abolish the teaching of Italian in schools , saying that " especially for the Ionian Islands the selection of the Italian language has become a tradition for their schools , but also a necessary language because of the many tourists from Italy and other relations e.g. cultural , commercial , etc . , of the islands with the country " and they propose " respect for the choice of the children and recognition of their right to learn the language they want and especially the Italian as it 's the language with the greatest preference on the Ionian Islands " .
These cultural remnants of the Venetian period were the pretext of Mussolini 's desire to incorporate the Ionian Islands into the Kingdom of Italy . Even before the outbreak of World War II and the Greek @-@ Italian War , Mussolini had expressed his wish to annex the Ionian Islands as part of his wider plans for an Italian Empire centered around the Mediterranean Sea . On 15 October , in a meeting in the Palazzo Venezia , he made the final decision to invade Greece . His initial goal was the occupation of Corfu , Zante and Cephalonia . After the fall of Greece , in early April 1941 , the invaders divided its lands into three occupation zones ; the Italians occupied much of the country , including the Ionians . Mussolini informed General Carlo Geloso that the Ionian Islands would form a separate Italian province through a de facto annexation , but the Germans would not approve it . The Italian authorities nevertheless continued to prepare the ground for the annexation . Finally , on 22 April 1941 , after discussions between the German and Italian rulers , German führer Adolf Hitler agreed that Italy could proceed with a de facto annexation of the islands . From then on , until the end of the war , the islands passed through a phase of Italianization in all areas , from their administration to their economy .
= Elk =
The elk , or wapiti ( Cervus canadensis ) , is one of the largest species within the deer family , Cervidae , in the world , and one of the largest land mammals in North America and Eastern Asia . This animal should not be confused with the larger moose ( Alces alces ) to which the name " elk " applies in the British Isles and Eurasia . Apart from the moose , the only other member of the deer family to rival the elk in size is the south Asian sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) .
Elk range in forest and forest @-@ edge habitat , feeding on grasses , plants , leaves , and bark . Male elk have large antlers which are shed each year . Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the rut , including posturing , antler wrestling ( sparring ) , and bugling , a loud series of vocalizations that establishes dominance over other males and attracts females .
Although they are native to North America and eastern Asia , they have adapted well to countries in which they have been introduced , including Argentina , Australia and New Zealand . Their great adaptability may threaten endemic species and ecosystems into which they have been introduced .
Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases , some of which can be transmitted to livestock . Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations , largely by vaccination , have had mixed success .
Some cultures revere the elk as a spiritual force . In parts of Asia , antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines . Elk are hunted as a game species . The meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken .
It was long believed to be a subspecies of the European red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) , but evidence from a number of mitochondrial DNA genetic studies beginning in 1998 show that the two are distinct species . Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the former 's wider rump patch and paler @-@ hued antlers .
= = Naming and etymology = =
Early European explorers in North America , who were familiar with the smaller red deer of Europe , thought that the larger North American animal resembled a moose , and consequently gave it the name elk , which is the common European name for moose . The word elk is related to the Latin alces , Old Norse elgr , Scandinavian elg / älg and German Elch , all of which refer to the animal known in North America as the moose .
The name wapiti is from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti , meaning " white rump " . This name is used in particular for the Asian subspecies ( Altai wapiti , Tian Shan wapiti , Manchurian wapiti and Alashan wapiti ) , because in Eurasia the name elk continues to be used for the moose .
Asian subspecies are sometimes referred to as the maral , but this name applies primarily to the Caspian red deer ( Cervus elaphus maral ) , a subspecies of red deer . There is a subspecies of elk in Mongolia called the Altai wapiti ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ) , also known as the Altai maral . ( The name " Siberian elk " is used for Alces alces ssp. cameloides . )
= = Taxonomy = =
Members of the genus Cervus ( and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk ) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago , during the Oligocene in Eurasia , but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene . The extinct Irish elk ( Megaloceros ) was not a member of the genus Cervus , but rather the largest member of the wider deer family ( Cervidae ) known from the fossil record .
Until recently , red deer and elk were considered to be one species , Cervus elaphus . However , mitochondrial DNA studies , conducted on hundreds of samples in 2004 from red deer and elk subspecies as well as other species of the Cervus deer family , strongly indicate that elk , or wapiti , should be a distinct species , namely Cervus canadensis . The previous classification had over a dozen subspecies under the C. elaphus species designation ; DNA evidence concludes that elk are more closely related to Thorold 's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer . Though elk and red deer can produce fertile offspring in captivity , geographic isolation between the species in the wild and differences in mating behaviors indicate that reproduction between them outside a controlled environment would be unlikely . However , the two species have freely inter @-@ bred in New Zealand 's Fiordland National Park , where the cross @-@ bred animals have all but removed the pure elk blood from the area .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are numerous subspecies of elk described , with six from North America and four from Asia , although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species ( adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior ) . Populations vary as to antler shape and size , body size , coloration and mating behavior . DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers , mane and rump patch development are based on " climatic @-@ related lifestyle factors " . Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times , four remain , including the Roosevelt ( C. canadensis roosevelti ) , tule ( C. canadensis nannodes ) , Manitoban ( C. canadensis manitobensis ) and Rocky Mountain ( C. canadensis nelsoni ) . The eastern elk ( C. canadensis canadensis ) and Merriam 's elk ( C. canadensis merriami ) subspecies have been extinct for at least a century .
Four subspecies described in Asia include the Altai wapiti ( C. canadensis sibiricus ) and the Tianshan wapiti ( C. canadensis songaricus ) . Two distinct subspecies found in China and Korea are the Manchurian wapiti ( C. canadensis xanthopygus ) and the Alashan wapitis ( C. canadensis alashanicus ) . The Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations . The Alashan wapiti of north central China is the smallest of all subspecies , has the lightest coloration and is the least studied . Biologist Valerius Geist , who has written on the world 's various deer species , holds that there are only three subspecies of elk . Geist recognizes the Manchurian and Alashan wapiti but places all other elk into C. canadensis canadensis , claiming that classification of the four surviving North American groups as subspecies is driven , at least partly , for political purposes to secure individualized conservation and protective measures for each of the surviving populations .
Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of elk . All American forms seem to belong to one subspecies ( Cervus canadensis canadensis ) . Even the Siberian elk ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ) are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies , too . However the Manchurian wapiti ( Cervus canadensis xanthopygus ) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms , but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti . The Chinese forms MacNeill 's deer , Kansu red deer , and Tibetan red deer belong also to the wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies . These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species , namely the Central Asian red deer ( Cervus wallichi ) , which also includes the Kashmir stag .
Northern and American group
Roosevelt elk ( C. c. roosevelti )
Tule elk ( C. c. nannodes )
Manitoban elk ( C. c. manitobensis )
Rocky Mountain elk ( C. c. nelsoni )
Eastern elk ( C. c. canadensis ; extinct )
Merriam 's elk ( C. c. merriami ; extinct )
Altai wapiti ( C. c. sibiricus )
Tian Shan wapiti ( C. c. songaricus )
Eastern group
Manchurian wapiti ( C. c. xanthopygus )
Alashan wapiti ( C. c. alashanicus )
Southern group ( Central Asian red deer )
MacNeill 's deer ( C. c. macneilli )
Kansu red deer ( C. c. kansuensis )
Tibetan red deer ( C. c. wallichii )
Kashmir stag ( C. c. hanglu )
= = Biology = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
The elk is a large animal of the ungulate order Artiodactyla , possessing an even number of toes on each foot , similar to those of camels , goats and cattle . It is a ruminant species , with a four @-@ chambered stomach , and feeds on grasses , plants , leaves and bark . During the summer , elk eat almost constantly , consuming between 4 and 7 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 and 15 @.@ 4 lb ) of vegetation daily . In North America , males are called bulls , and females are called cows . In Asia , stag and hind , respectively , are sometimes used instead .
Elk are more than twice as heavy as mule deer and have a more reddish hue to their hair coloring , as well as large , buff colored rump patches and smaller tails . Moose are larger and darker than elk ; bulls have distinctively different antlers . Elk gather in herds , while moose are solitary . Elk cows average 225 to 241 kg ( 496 to 531 lb ) , stand 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder , and are 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) from nose to tail . Bulls are some 40 % larger than cows at maturity , weighing an average of 320 to 331 kg ( 705 to 730 lb ) , standing 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) at the shoulder and averaging 2 @.@ 45 m ( 8 @.@ 0 ft ) in length . The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk ( C. c. roosevelti ) , found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California , Oregon and Washington , and in the Canadian province of British Columbia . Roosevelt elk have been reintroduced into Alaska , where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) . More typically , male Roosevelt elks weigh around 300 to 544 kg ( 661 to 1 @,@ 199 lb ) , while females weigh 260 to 285 kg ( 573 to 628 lb ) . The smallest @-@ bodied race is the tule elk ( C. c. nannodes ) , which weighs from 170 to 250 kg ( 370 to 550 lb ) in both sexes .
Only the males have antlers , which start growing in the spring and are shed each winter . The largest antlers may be 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long and weigh 18 kilograms ( 40 lb ) . Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of 2 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) per day . While actively growing , the antlers are covered with and protected by a soft layer of highly vascularised skin known as velvet . The velvet is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed . Bull elk may have eight or more tines on each antler ; however , the number of tines has little to do with the age or maturity of a particular animal . The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti have the smallest . The formation and retention of antlers is testosterone @-@ driven . After the breeding season in late fall , the level of pheromones released during estrus declines in the environment and the testosterone levels of males drop as a consequence . This drop in testosterone leads to the shedding of antlers , usually in the early winter .
During the fall , elk grow a thicker coat of hair , which helps to insulate them during the winter . Males , females and calves of Siberian and North American elk all grow thin neck manes ; female and young Manchurian and Alaskan wapitis do not . By early summer , the heavy winter coat has been shed , and elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies . All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails . They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats , with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish , darker coat in the summer . Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests . Most have lighter yellow @-@ brown to orange @-@ brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head , neck , and legs during the summer . Forest @-@ adapted Manchurian and Alaskan wapitis have darker reddish @-@ brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months . Calves are born spotted , as is common with many deer species , and they lose their spots by the end of summer . Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older . This characteristic has also been observed in the forest @-@ adapted European red deer .
= = = Behavior = = =
Adult elk usually stay in single @-@ sex groups for most of the year . During the mating period known as the rut , mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cow elk and will try to defend females in their harem . Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other , walking back and forth . This allows potential combatants to assess the other 's antlers , body size and fighting prowess . If neither bull backs down , they engage in antler wrestling , and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries . Bulls also dig holes in the ground , in which they urinate and roll their body . A male elk 's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis . The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows .
Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut , from August into early winter . A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators . Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age . Bulls between two and four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems , and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems . Young and old bulls that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than do bulls in their prime . A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight . Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter .
Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as bugling , which can be heard for miles . Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands , meadows , and savannas , where sound can travel great distances . Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call . Bugling is most common early and late in the day and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature , akin to the howl of the gray wolf .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two , and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts . By the autumn of their second year , females can produce one and , very rarely , two offspring , although reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kilograms ( 440 lb ) . The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kilograms ( 33 and 35 lb ) . When the females are near to giving birth , they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd , and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators . Calves are born spotted , as is common with many deer species , and they lose their spots by the end of summer . Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older . After two weeks , calves are able to join the herd , and are fully weaned at two months of age . Elk calves are as large as an adult white @-@ tailed deer by the time they are six months old . The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year , leaving about the time that the next season 's offspring are produced . The gestation period is the same for all subspecies .
Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild . In some subspecies that suffer less predation , they may live an average of 15 years in the wild .
= = = Predators and defensive tactics = = =
Wolf and coyote packs and the solitary cougar are the most likely predators , although brown and black bears also prey on elk . Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves , though they can sometimes take a winter @-@ weakened adult . In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem which includes Yellowstone National Park , bears are the most significant predators of calves . Major predators in Asia include the wolf , dhole , brown bear , Siberian tiger , Amur leopard , and snow leopard . Eurasian lynx and wild boar sometimes prey on Asian elk calves . Historically , tigers in the Lake Baikal region fed on Manchurian wapiti , and continue to do so in the Amur region .
Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers . Antlers provide a means of defense , as does a strong front @-@ leg kick , which is performed by either sex if provoked . Once the antlers have been shed , bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators . Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest .
After the rut , females form large herds of up to 50 individuals . Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations ; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours . When approached by predators , the largest and most robust females may make a stand , using their front legs to kick at their attackers . Guttural grunts and posturing effectively deter all but the most determined predators .
= = = Migration = = =
As is true for many species of deer , especially those in mountainous regions , elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring , following the retreating snows , and the opposite direction in the fall . Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements . During the winter , they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat . Roosevelt elk are generally non @-@ migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources .
The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herd numbers over 200 @,@ 000 individuals and during the spring and fall , they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S. Elk in the southern regions of Yellowstone National Park and in the surrounding National Forests migrate south towards the town of Jackson , Wyoming , where they winter for up to six months on the National Elk Refuge . Conservationists there ensure the herd is well fed during the harsh winters . Many of the elk that reside in the northern sections of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem migrate to lower altitudes in Montana , mainly to the north and west .
= = = Diet = = =
Elk are ruminants and therefore have four @-@ chambered stomachs . Unlike white @-@ tailed deer and moose which are primarily browsers , elk have a similarity to cattle as they are primarily grazers , but like other deer , they also browse . Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings , seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest . Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season , with native grasses being a year @-@ round supplement , tree bark being consumed in winter and forbs and tree sprouts during the summer . Elk consume an average of 9 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 20 lb ) of various vegetation daily . Particularly fond of aspen sprouts which rise in the spring , elk have had some impact on aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist .
Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use .
= = = Parasites and disease = = =
At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk . Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk . Parelaphostrongylus tenuis ( brainworm or meningeal worm ) is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species , leading to death . The definitive host is the white @-@ tailed deer , in which it normally has no ill effects . Snails and slugs , the intermediate hosts , can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing . The liver fluke Fascioloides magna and the nematode Dictyocaulus viviparus are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk . Since infection by either of these parasites can be lethal to some commercial livestock species , their presence in elk herds is of some concern .
Chronic wasting disease , transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion , affects the brain tissue in elk , and has been detected throughout their range in North America . First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer , the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions . Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss , increased watering needs , disorientation and listlessness , and at an advanced stage the disease leads to death . The disease is similar to but not the same as mad cow disease , and no risks to humans have been documented , nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle . In 2002 , South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease .
The Gram @-@ negative bacterial disease brucellosis occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist . In domesticated cattle , brucellosis causes infertility , abortions and reduced milk production . It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever , producing flu @-@ like symptoms which may last for years . Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals , elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho . Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd management measures , which are expected to be successful .
A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites ( 21 cases , primarily Eimeria sp. and Ostertagia sp . ) or bacterial infections ( 12 cases , mostly pneumonia ) .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited Beringia , a steppe region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the Pleistocene . Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species , including brown bear , camel , horse , caribou , and moose , as well as humans . As the Pleistocene came to an end , ocean levels began to rise ; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America . In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for tundra , true deserts , and the gulf coast of the U.S. The elk of southern Siberia and central Asia were once more widespread but today are restricted to the mountain ranges west of Lake Baikal including the Sayan and Altai Mountains of Mongolia and the Tianshan region that borders Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , and China 's Xinjiang Province . The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America .
Throughout their range , they live in forest and in forest edge habitat , similar to other deer species . In mountainous regions , they often dwell at higher elevations in summer , migrating down slope for winter . The highly adaptable elk also inhabit semi @-@ deserts in North America , such as the Great Basin . Manchurian and Alashan wapiti are primarily forest dwellers and their smaller antler size is a likely adaptation to a forest environment .
= = = Introductions = = =
The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies has been reintroduced by hunter @-@ conservation organizations in the Appalachian region of the eastern U.S. , where the now extinct eastern elk once lived After elk were reintroduced in the states of Kentucky , North Carolina and Tennessee , they migrated into the neighboring states of Virginia and West Virginia , and have established permanent populations there . Elk have also been reintroduced to a number of other states , including Pennsylvania , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Etolin and Afognak Islands in Alaska . As of 1989 , population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782 @,@ 500 , and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded 1 million . Prior to the European colonization of North America , there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent .
Outside their native habitat , elk and other deer species , especially white tails , were introduced in areas that previously had few if any large native ungulates . Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat , hides and antler velvet , they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems . Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century . There they are now considered an invasive species , encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores . This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world 's 100 worst invaders . Both elk and red deer have also been introduced into Australia .
The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century , and current populations are primarily European red deer , with only 15 percent being elk . There is significant hybridization of elk with the more numerous red deer to the extent that pure elk may no longer exist in the wild in New Zealand . These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species , as they consume more palatable species which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk . The long @-@ term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found , and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them . As in Chile and Argentina , the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species .
= = Cultural references = =
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples . Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the Anasazi of the southwestern U.S. More recent Native American tribes , including the Kootenai , Cree , Blackfeet , Ojibwa and Pawnee , produced blankets and robes from elk hides . The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota , and played a spiritual role in their society . At birth , Lakota males were given an elk 's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away . The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their " courting coats " as a sign of sexual prowess . The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk , not the physical one , was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength , sexual prowess and courage .
Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler @-@ less female elk , which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance . By the beginning of the Bronze Age , the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art , coinciding with a cultural transformation away from hunting .
The Rocky Mountain elk is the official state animal for Utah . An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan . The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks ( B.P.O.E. ) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity . A representation of the majestic head of the male , with its spreading antlers , was adopted as the first badge of the Order ; and is still the most conspicuous element of its copyrighted fraternal emblem . A prized possession of many members of the B.P.O.E. are jewel encrusted , gold mounted elk teeth – which are actually ivory .
= = Commercial uses = =
Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact .
Elk are held in captivity , or farmed , for hunting , meat production and velvet collection . In what is known as a canned hunt , a hunter pays a fee for an essentially guaranteed chance to shoot an elk in an escape @-@ proof range . While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale , some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores . The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef , pork , and chicken . Elk meat is also a good source of iron , phosphorus and zinc .
A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kilograms ( 22 to 24 lb ) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States , Canada and New Zealand , this velvet is collected and sold to markets in East Asia , where it is used in medicine . Velvet is also considered by some cultures to be an aphrodisiac . However , consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with chronic wasting disease may contain prions that could result in a human getting variant Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease .
Antlers are also used in artwork , furniture and other novelty items . All Asian subspecies , along with other deer , have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese , Turkic peoples , Tungusic peoples , Mongolians , and Koreans . Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand .
Elk hides have been used for thousands of years for tepee covering , blankets , clothing and footwear . Modern uses are more decorative , but elk skin shoes , gloves and belts are not uncommon .
Since 1967 , the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter . The antlers are then auction
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offers a shorter in @-@ hospital stays , less need for postoperative pain control , and a reduced risk of lung problems after surgery . VATS may also be used to achieve chemical pleurodesis ; this involves insufflation of talc , which activates an inflammatory reaction that causes the lung to adhere to the chest wall .
If a chest tube is already in place , various agents may be instilled through the tube to achieve chemical pleurodesis , such as talc , tetracycline , minocycline or doxycycline . Results of chemical pleurodesis tend to be worse than when using surgical approaches , but talc pleurodesis has been found to have few negative long @-@ term consequences in younger people .
= = = Aftercare = = =
If pneumothorax occurs in a smoker , this is considered an opportunity to emphasize the markedly increased risk of recurrence in those who continue to smoke , and the many benefits of smoking cessation . It may be advisable for someone to remain off work for up to a week after a spontaneous pneumothorax . If the person normally performs heavy manual labor , several weeks may be required . Those who have undergone pleurodesis may need two to three weeks off work to recover .
Air travel is discouraged for up to seven days after complete resolution of a pneumothorax if recurrence does not occur . Underwater diving is considered unsafe after an episode of pneumothorax unless a preventative procedure has been performed . Professional guidelines suggest that pleurectomy be performed on both lungs and that lung function tests and CT scan normalize before diving is resumed . Aircraft pilots may also require assessment for surgery .
= = Prevention = =
A preventative procedure ( thoracotomy or thoracoscopy with pleurodesis ) may be recommended after an episode of pneumothorax , with the intention to prevent recurrence . Evidence on the most effective treatment is still conflicting in some areas , and there is variation between treatments available in Europe and the US . Not all episodes of pneumothorax require such interventions ; the decision depends largely on estimation of the risk of recurrence . These procedures are often recommended after the occurrence of a second pneumothorax . Surgery may need to be considered if someone has experienced pneumothorax on both sides ( " bilateral " ) , sequential episodes that involve both sides , or if an episode was associated with pregnancy .
= = Epidemiology = =
The annual age @-@ adjusted incidence rate ( AAIR ) of PSP is thought to be three to six times as high in males as in females . Fishman cites AAIR 's of 7 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 2 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years in males and females , respectively . Significantly above @-@ average height is also associated with increased risk of PSP — in people who are at least 76 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 meters ) tall , the AAIR is about 200 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years . Slim build also seems to increase the risk of PSP .
The risk of contracting a first spontaneous pneumothorax is elevated among male and female smokers by factors of approximately 22 and 9 , respectively , compared to matched non @-@ smokers of the same sex . Individuals who smoke at higher intensity are at higher risk , with a " greater @-@ than @-@ linear " effect ; men who smoke 10 cigarettes per day have an approximate 20 @-@ fold increased risk over comparable non @-@ smokers , while smokers consuming 20 cigarettes per day show an estimated 100 @-@ fold increase in risk .
In secondary spontaneous pneumothorax , the estimated annual AAIR is 6 @.@ 3 and 2 @.@ 0 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years for males and females , respectively , with the risk of recurrence depending on the presence and severity of any underlying lung disease . Once a second episode has occurred , there is a high likelihood of subsequent further episodes . The incidence in children has not been well studied , but is estimated to be between 5 and 10 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years .
Death from pneumothorax is very uncommon ( except in tension pneumothoraces ) . British statistics show an annual mortality rate of 1 @.@ 26 and 0 @.@ 62 deaths per million person @-@ years in men and women , respectively . A significantly increased risk of death is seen in older victims and in those with secondary pneumothoraces .
= = History = =
An early description of traumatic pneumothorax secondary to rib fractures appears in Imperial Surgery by Turkish surgeon Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu ( 1385 – 1468 ) , which also recommends a method of simple aspiration .
Pneumothorax was described in 1803 by Jean Marc Gaspard Itard , a student of René Laennec , who provided an extensive description of the clinical picture in 1819 . While Itard and Laennec recognized that some cases were not due to tuberculosis ( then the most common cause ) , the concept of spontaneous pneumothorax in the absence of tuberculosis ( primary pneumothorax ) was reintroduced by the Danish physician Hans Kjærgaard in 1932 . In 1941 , the surgeons Tyson and Crandall introduced pleural abrasion for the treatment of pneumothorax .
Prior to the advent of anti @-@ tuberculous medications , iatrogenic pneumothoraces were intentionally given to people with tuberculosis in an effort to collapse a lobe , or entire lung , around a cavitating lesion . This was known as " resting the lung " . It was introduced by the Italian surgeon Carlo Forlanini in 1888 , and publicized by the American surgeon John Benjamin Murphy in the early 20th century ( after discovering the same procedure independently ) . Murphy used the ( then ) recently discovered X @-@ ray technology to create pneumothoraces of the correct size .
= = Other animals = =
Non @-@ human animals may experience both spontaneous and traumatic pneumothorax . Spontaneous pneumothorax is , as in humans , classified as primary or secondary , while traumatic pneumothorax is divided into open and closed ( with or without chest wall damage ) . The diagnosis may be apparent to the veterinary physician because the animal exhibits difficulty breathing in , or has shallow breathing . Pneumothoraces may arise from lung lesions ( such as bullae ) or from trauma to the chest wall . In horses , traumatic pneumothorax may involve both hemithoraces , as the mediastinum is incomplete and there is a direct connection between the two halves of the chest . Tension pneumothorax — the presence of which may be suspected due to rapidly deteriorating heart function , absent lung sounds throughout the thorax , and a barrel @-@ shaped chest — is treated with an incision in the animal 's chest to relieve the pressure , followed by insertion of a chest tube .
= Gunpowder Plot =
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason , was a failed assassination attempt against King James I of England and VI of Scotland by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert Catesby .
The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of England 's Parliament on 5 November 1605 , as the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which James 's nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Princess Elizabeth , was to be installed as the Catholic head of state . Catesby may have embarked on the scheme after hopes of securing greater religious tolerance under King James had faded , leaving many English Catholics disappointed . His fellow plotters were John Wright , Thomas Wintour , Thomas Percy , Guy Fawkes , Robert Keyes , Thomas Bates , Robert Wintour , Christopher Wright , John Grant , Ambrose Rookwood , Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham . Fawkes , who had 10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in suppression of the Dutch Revolt , was given charge of the explosives .
The plot was revealed to the authorities in an anonymous letter sent to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , on 26 October 1605 . During a search of the House of Lords at about midnight on 4 November 1605 , Fawkes was discovered guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder — enough to reduce the House of Lords to rubble — and arrested . Most of the conspirators fled from London as they learned of the plot 's discovery , trying to enlist support along the way . Several made a stand against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcester and his men at Holbeche House ; in the ensuing battle , Catesby was one of those shot and killed . At their trial on 27 January 1606 , eight of the survivors , including Fawkes , were convicted and sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered .
Details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England , Father Henry Garnet . Although he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death , doubt has been cast on how much he really knew of the plot . As its existence was revealed to him through confession , Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute confidentiality of the confessional . Although anti @-@ Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the plot 's discovery , many important and loyal Catholics retained high office during King James I 's reign . The thwarting of the Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for many years afterwards by special sermons and other public events such as the ringing of church bells , which have evolved into the Bonfire Night of today .
= = Background = =
= = = Religion in England = = =
Between 1533 and 1540 , the Tudor King Henry VIII took control of the English Church from Rome , the start of several decades of religious tension in England . English Catholics struggled in a society dominated by the newly separate and increasingly Protestant Church of England . Henry 's daughter , Elizabeth I , responded to the growing religious divide by introducing the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , which required anyone appointed to a public or church office to swear allegiance to the monarch as head of the Church and state . The penalties for refusal were severe ; fines were imposed for recusancy , and repeat offenders risked imprisonment and execution . Catholicism became marginalised , but despite the threat of torture or execution , priests continued to practise their faith in secret .
= = = Succession = = =
Queen Elizabeth , unmarried and childless , steadfastly refused to name an heir . Many Catholics believed that her Catholic cousin , Mary , Queen of Scots , was the legitimate heir to the English throne , but she had been executed for treason in 1587 . The English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil , negotiated secretly with Mary 's son , James VI of Scotland , who had a strong claim to the English throne as Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed . In the months before Elizabeth 's death on 24 March 1603 , Cecil prepared the way for James to succeed her .
Some exiled Catholics favoured Philip II of Spain 's daughter , Infanta Isabella , as Elizabeth 's successor . More moderate Catholics looked to James 's and Elizabeth 's cousin Arbella Stuart , a woman thought to have Catholic sympathies . As Elizabeth 's health deteriorated , the government detained those they considered to be the " principal papists " , and the Privy Council grew so worried that Stuart was moved closer to London to prevent her from being kidnapped by papists .
Despite competing claims to the English throne , the transition of power following Elizabeth 's death went smoothly . James 's succession was announced by a proclamation from Cecil on 24 March , which was generally celebrated . Leading papists , rather than causing trouble as anticipated , reacted to the news by offering their enthusiastic support for the new monarch . Jesuit priests , whose presence in England was punishable by death , also demonstrated their support for James , who was widely believed to embody " the natural order of things " . James ordered a ceasefire in the conflict with Spain , and even though the two countries were still technically at war , King Philip III sent his envoy , Don Juan de Tassis , to congratulate James on his accession .
For decades , the English had lived under a monarch who refused to provide an heir , but James arrived with a family and a future line of succession . His wife , Anne of Denmark , was the daughter of a king . Their eldest child , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry , was considered a handsome and confident boy , and their two younger children , Princess Elizabeth and Prince Charles , were proof that James was able to provide heirs to continue the Protestant monarchy .
= = = Early reign of James I = = =
James 's attitude towards Catholics was more moderate than that of his predecessor , perhaps even tolerant . He promised that he would not " persecute any that will be quiet and give an outward obedience to the law " , and believed that exile was a better solution than capital punishment : " I would be glad to have both their heads and their bodies separated from this whole island and transported beyond seas . " Some Catholics believed that the martyrdom of James 's mother , Mary , Queen of Scots , would encourage James to convert to the Catholic faith , and the Catholic houses of Europe may also have shared that hope . James received an envoy from the Habsburg Archduke Albert of the Southern Netherlands , ruler of the remaining Catholic territories after over 30 years of war in the Dutch Revolt by English @-@ supported Protestant rebels . For the Catholic expatriates engaged in that struggle , the restoration by force of a Catholic monarchy was an intriguing possibility , but following the failed Spanish invasion of England in 1588 the papacy had taken a longer @-@ term view on the return of a Catholic monarch to the English throne .
During the late 16th century , Catholics made several assassination attempts against Protestant rulers in Europe and in England , including plans to poison Elizabeth I. The Jesuit Juan de Mariana 's 1598 On Kings and the Education of Kings explicitly justified the assassination of the French king Henry III — who had been stabbed to death by a Catholic fanatic in 1589 — and until the 1620s , some English Catholics believed that regicide was justifiable to remove tyrants from power . Much of the " rather nervous " James I 's political writing was " concerned with the threat of Catholic assassination and refutation of the [ Catholic ] argument that ' faith did not need to be kept with heretics ' " .
= = = Early plots = = =
In the absence of any sign that James would move to end the persecution of Catholics , as some had hoped for , several members of the clergy ( including two anti @-@ Jesuit priests ) decided to take matters into their own hands . In what became known as the Bye Plot , the priests William Watson and William Clark planned to kidnap James and hold him in the Tower of London until he agreed to be more tolerant towards Catholics . Cecil received news of the plot from several sources , including the Archpriest George Blackwell , who instructed his priests to have no part in any such schemes . At about the same time , Lord Cobham , Lord Grey de Wilton , Griffin Markham and Walter Raleigh hatched what became known as the Main Plot , which involved removing James and his family and supplanting them with Arbella Stuart . Amongst others , they approached Henry IV of France for funding , but were unsuccessful . All those involved in both plots were arrested in July and tried in autumn 1603 ; Sir George Brooke was executed , but James , keen not to have too bloody a start to his reign , reprieved Cobham , Grey , and Markham while they were at the scaffold . Raleigh , who had watched while his colleagues sweated , and who was due to be executed a few days later , was also pardoned . Stuart denied any knowledge of the Main Plot . The two priests , condemned by the pope , and " very bloodily handled " , were executed .
The Catholic community responded to news of these plots with shock . That the Bye Plot had been revealed by Catholics was instrumental in saving them from further persecution , and James was grateful enough to allow pardons for those recusants who sued for them , as well as postponing payment of their fines for a year .
On 19 February 1604 , shortly after he discovered that his wife , Queen Anne , had been sent a rosary from the pope via one of James 's spies , Sir Anthony Standen , James denounced the Catholic Church . Three days later , he ordered all Jesuits and all other Catholic priests to leave the country , and reimposed the collection of fines for recusancy . James changed his focus from the anxieties of English Catholics to the establishment of an Anglo @-@ Scottish union . He also appointed Scottish nobles such as George Home to his court , which proved unpopular with the Parliament of England . Some Members of Parliament made it clear that in their view , the " effluxion of people from the Northern parts " was unwelcome , and compared them to " plants which are transported from barren ground into a more fertile one " . Even more discontent resulted when the King allowed his Scottish nobles to collect the recusancy fines . There were 5 @,@ 560 convicted of recusancy in 1605 , of whom 112 were landowners . The very few Catholics of great wealth who refused to attend services at their parish church were fined £ 20 per month . Those of more moderate means had to pay two @-@ thirds of their annual rental income ; middle class recusants were fined one shilling a week , although the collection of all these fines was " haphazard and negligent " . When James came to power , almost £ 5 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to over £ 10 million in 2008 ) was being raised by these fines .
On 19 March , the King gave his opening speech to his first English Parliament in which he spoke of his desire to secure peace , but only by " profession of the true religion " . He also spoke of a Christian union and reiterated his desire to avoid religious persecution . For the Catholics , the King 's speech made it clear that they were not to " increase their number and strength in this Kingdom " , that " they might be in hope to erect their Religion again " . To Father John Gerard , these words were almost certainly responsible for the heightened levels of persecution the members of his faith now suffered , and for the priest Oswald Tesimond they were a rebuttal of the early claims that the King had made , upon which the papists had built their hopes . A week after James 's speech , Lord Sheffield informed the king of over 900 recusants brought before the Assizes in Normanby , and on 24 April a Bill was introduced in Parliament which threatened to outlaw all English followers of the Catholic Church .
= = Plot = =
The conspirators ' principal aim was to kill King James , but many other important targets would also be present at the State Opening , including the monarch 's nearest relatives and members of the Privy Council . The senior judges of the English legal system , most of the Protestant aristocracy , and the bishops of the Church of England would all have attended in their capacity as members of the House of Lords , along with the members of the House of Commons . Another important objective was the kidnapping of the King 's daughter , third in the line of succession , Princess Elizabeth . Housed at Coombe Abbey near Coventry , the Princess lived only ten miles north of Warwick — convenient for the plotters , most of whom lived in the Midlands . Once the King and his Parliament were dead , the plotters intended to install Elizabeth on the English throne as a titular Queen . The fate of Princes Henry and Charles would be improvised ; their role in state ceremonies was , as yet , uncertain . The plotters planned to use Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , as Elizabeth 's Protector , but most likely never informed him of this .
= = = Initial recruitment = = =
Robert Catesby ( 1573 – 1605 ) , a man of " ancient , historic and distinguished lineage " , was the inspiration behind the plot . He was described by contemporaries as " a good @-@ looking man , about six feet tall , athletic and a good swordsman " . Along with several other conspirators , he took part in the Earl of Essex 's rebellion in 1601 , during which he was wounded and captured . Queen Elizabeth allowed him to escape with his life after fining him 4 @,@ 000 marks ( equivalent to more than £ 6 million in 2008 ) , after which he sold his estate in Chastleton . In 1603 Catesby helped to organise a mission to the new king of Spain , Philip III , urging Philip to launch an invasion attempt on England , which they assured him would be well supported , particularly by the English Catholics . Thomas Wintour ( 1571 – 1606 ) was chosen as the emissary , but the Spanish king , although sympathetic to the plight of Catholics in England , was intent on making peace with James . Wintour had also attempted to convince the Spanish envoy Don Juan de Tassis that " 3 @,@ 000 Catholics " were ready and waiting to support such an invasion . Concern was voiced by Pope Clement VIII that using violence to achieve a restoration of Catholic power in England would result in the destruction of those that remained .
According to contemporary accounts , in February 1604 Catesby invited Thomas Wintour to his house in Lambeth , where they discussed Catesby 's plan to re @-@ establish Catholicism in England by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament . Wintour was known as a competent scholar , able to speak several languages , and he had fought with the English army in the Netherlands . His uncle , Francis Ingleby , had been executed for being a Catholic priest in 1586 , and Wintour later converted to Catholicism . Also present at the meeting was John Wright , a devout Catholic said to be one of the best swordsmen of his day , and a man who had taken part with Catesby in the Earl of Essex 's rebellion three years earlier . Despite his reservations over the possible repercussions should the attempt fail , Wintour agreed to join the conspiracy , perhaps persuaded by Catesby 's rhetoric : " Let us give the attempt and where it faileth , pass no further . "
Wintour travelled to Flanders to enquire about Spanish support . While there he sought out Guy Fawkes ( 1570 – 1606 ) , a committed Catholic who had served as a soldier in the Southern Netherlands under the command of William Stanley , and who in 1603 was recommended for a captaincy . Accompanied by John Wright 's brother Christopher , Fawkes had also been a member of the 1603 delegation to the Spanish court pleading for an invasion of England . Wintour told Fawkes that " some good frends of his wished his company in Ingland " , and that certain gentlemen " were uppon a resolution to doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spain healped us nott " . The two men returned to England late in April 1604 , telling Catesby that Spanish support was unlikely . Thomas Percy , Catesby 's friend and John Wright 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , was introduced to the plot several weeks later . Percy had found employment with his kinsman the Earl of Northumberland , and by 1596 was his agent for the family 's northern estates . About 1600 – 1601 he served with his patron in the Low Countries . At some point during Northumberland 's command in the Low Countries , Percy became his agent in his communications with James . Percy was reputedly a " serious " character who had converted to the Catholic faith . His early years were , according to a Catholic source , marked by a tendency to rely on " his sword and personal courage " . Northumberland , although not a Catholic himself , planned to build a strong relationship with James in order to better the prospects of English Catholics , and to reduce the family disgrace caused by his separation from his wife Martha Wright , a favourite of Elizabeth . Thomas Percy 's meetings with James seemed to go well . Percy returned with promises of support for the Catholics , and Northumberland believed that James would go so far as to allow Mass in private houses , so as not to cause public offence . Percy , keen to improve his standing , went further , claiming that the future King would guarantee the safety of English Catholics .
= = = Initial planning = = =
The first meeting between the five conspirators took place on 20 May 1604 , probably at the Duck and Drake Inn , just off the Strand , Thomas Wintour 's usual residence when staying in London . Catesby , Thomas Wintour , and John Wright were in attendance , joined by Guy Fawkes and Thomas Percy . Alone in a private room , the five plotters swore an oath of secrecy on a prayer book . By coincidence , and ignorant of the plot , Father John Gerard ( a friend of Catesby 's ) was celebrating Mass in another room , and the five men subsequently received the Eucharist .
= = = Further recruitment = = =
Following their oath , the plotters left London and returned to their homes . The adjournment of Parliament gave them , they thought , until February 1605 to finalise their plans . On 9 June , Percy 's patron , the Earl of Northumberland , appointed him to the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms , a mounted troop of 50 bodyguards to the King . This role gave Percy reason to seek a base in London , and a small property near the Prince 's Chamber owned by Henry Ferrers , a tenant of John Whynniard , was chosen . Percy arranged for the use of the house through Northumberland 's agents , Dudley Carleton and John Hippisley . Fawkes , using the pseudonym " John Johnson " , took charge of the building , posing as Percy 's servant . The building was occupied by Scottish commissioners appointed by the King to consider his plans for the unification of England and Scotland , so the plotters hired Catesby 's lodgings in Lambeth , on the opposite bank of the Thames , from where their stored gunpowder and other supplies could be conveniently rowed across each night . Meanwhile , King James continued with his policies against the Catholics , and Parliament pushed through anti @-@ Catholic legislation , until its adjournment on 7 July .
The conspirators returned to London in October 1604 , when Robert Keyes , a " desperate man , ruined and indebted " was admitted to the group . His responsibility was to take charge of Catesby 's house in Lambeth , where the gunpowder and other supplies were to be stored . Keyes 's family had notable connections ; his wife 's employer was the Catholic Lord Mordaunt . Tall , with a red beard , he was seen as trustworthy and , like Fawkes , capable of looking after himself . In December Catesby recruited his servant , Thomas Bates , into the plot , after the latter accidentally became aware of it .
It was announced on 24 December that the re @-@ opening of Parliament would be delayed . Concern over the plague meant that rather than sitting in February , as the plotters had originally planned for , Parliament would not sit again until 3 October 1605 . The contemporaneous account of the prosecution claimed that during this delay the conspirators were digging a tunnel beneath Parliament . This may have been a government fabrication , as no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution , and no trace of one has ever been found . The account of a tunnel comes directly from Thomas Wintour 's confession , and Guy Fawkes did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation . Logistically , digging a tunnel would have proved extremely difficult , especially as none of the conspirators had any experience of mining . If the story is true , by 6 December the Scottish commissioners had finished their work , and the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords . They ceased their efforts when , during tunnelling , they heard a noise from above . The noise turned out to be the then @-@ tenant 's widow , who was clearing out the undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords — the room where the plotters eventually stored the gunpowder .
By the time the plotters reconvened at the start of the old style new year on Lady Day , 25 March , three more had been admitted to their ranks ; Robert Wintour , John Grant , and Christopher Wright . The additions of Wintour and Wright were obvious choices . Along with a small fortune , Robert Wintour inherited Huddington Court ( a known refuge for priests ) near Worcester , and was reputedly a generous and well @-@ liked man . A devout Catholic , he married Gertrude Talbot , who was from a family of recusants . Christopher Wright ( 1568 – 1605 ) , John 's brother , had also taken part in the Earl of Essex 's revolt and had moved his family to Twigmore in Lincolnshire , then known as something of a haven for priests . John Grant was married to Wintour 's sister , Dorothy , and was lord of the manor of Norbrook near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Reputed to be an intelligent , thoughtful man , he sheltered Catholics at his home at Snitterfield , and was another who had been involved in the Essex revolt of 1601 .
= = = Undercroft = = =
In addition , 25 March was the day on which the plotters purchased the lease to the undercroft they had supposedly tunnelled near to , owned by John Whynniard . The Palace of Westminster in the early 17th century was a warren of buildings clustered around the medieval chambers , chapels , and halls of the former royal palace that housed both Parliament and the various royal law courts . The old palace was easily accessible ; merchants , lawyers , and others , lived and worked in the lodgings , shops , and taverns within its precincts . Whynniard 's building was along a right @-@ angle to the House of Lords , alongside a passageway called Parliament Place , which itself led to Parliament Stairs and the River Thames . Undercrofts were common features at the time , used to house a variety of materials including food and firewood . Whynniard 's undercroft , on the ground floor , was directly beneath the first @-@ floor House of Lords , and may once have been part of the palace 's medieval kitchen . Unused and filthy , its location was ideal for what the group planned to do .
In the second week of June Catesby met in London the principal Jesuit in England , Father Henry Garnet , and asked him about the morality of entering into an undertaking which might involve the destruction of the innocent , together with the guilty . Garnet answered that such actions could often be excused , but according to his own account later admonished Catesby during a second meeting in July in Essex , showing him a letter from the pope which forbade rebellion . Soon after , the Jesuit priest Oswald Tesimond told Garnet he had taken Catesby 's confession , in the course of which he had learnt of the plot . Garnet and Catesby met for a third time on 24 July 1605 , at the house of the wealthy catholic Anne Vaux in Enfield Chase . Garnet decided that Tesimond 's account had been given under the seal of the confessional , and that canon law therefore forbade him to repeat what he had heard . Without acknowledging that he was aware of the precise nature of the plot , Garnet attempted to dissuade Catesby from his course , to no avail . Garnet wrote to a colleague in Rome , Claudio Acquaviva , expressing his concerns about open rebellion in England . He also told Acquaviva that " there is a risk that some private endeavour may commit treason or use force against the King " , and urged the pope to issue a public brief against the use of force .
According to Fawkes , 20 barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first , followed by 16 more on 20 July . The supply of gunpowder was theoretically controlled by the government , but it was easily obtained from illicit sources . On 28 July , the ever @-@ present threat of the plague again delayed the opening of Parliament , this time until Tuesday 5 November . Fawkes left the country for a short time . The King , meanwhile , spent much of the summer away from the city , hunting . He stayed wherever was convenient , including on occasion at the houses of prominent Catholics . Garnet , convinced that the threat of an uprising had receded , travelled the country on a pilgrimage .
It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England , but he was back in London by late August , when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed . More gunpowder was brought into the room , along with firewood to conceal it . The final three conspirators were recruited in late 1605 . At Michaelmas , Catesby persuaded the staunchly Catholic Ambrose Rookwood to rent Clopton House near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Rookwood was a young man with recusant connections , whose stable of horses at Coldham Hall in Stanningfield , Suffolk was an important factor in his enlistment . His parents , Robert Rookwood and Dorothea Drury , were wealthy landowners , and had educated their son at a Jesuit school near Calais . Everard Digby was a young man who was generally well liked , and lived at Gayhurst House in Buckinghamshire . He had been knighted by the King in April 1603 , and was converted to Catholicism by Gerard . Digby and his wife , Mary Mulshaw , had accompanied the priest on his pilgrimage , and the two men were reportedly close friends . Digby was asked by Catesby to rent Coughton Court near Alcester . Digby also promised £ 1 @,@ 500 after Percy failed to pay the rent due for the properties he had taken in Westminster . Finally , on 14 October Catesby invited Francis Tresham into the conspiracy . Tresham was the son of the Catholic Thomas Tresham , and a cousin to Robert Catesby — the two had been raised together . He was also the heir to his father 's large fortune , which had been depleted by recusant fines , expensive tastes , and by Francis and Catesby 's involvement in the Essex revolt .
Catesby and Tresham met at the home of Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and cousin , Lord Stourton . In his confession , Tresham claimed that he had asked Catesby if the plot would damn their souls , to which Catesby had replied it would not , and that the plight of England 's Catholics required that it be done . Catesby also apparently asked for £ 2 @,@ 000 , and the use of Rushton Hall in Northamptonshire . Tresham declined both offers ( although he did give £ 100 to Thomas Wintour ) , and told his interrogators that he had moved his family from Rushton to London in advance of the plot ; hardly the actions of a guilty man , he claimed .
= = = Monteagle letter = = =
The details of the plot were finalised in October , in a series of taverns across London and Daventry . Fawkes would be left to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames , while simultaneously a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth . Fawkes would leave for the continent , to explain events in England to the European Catholic powers .
The wives of those involved and Anne Vaux ( a friend of Garnet who often shielded priests at her home ) became increasingly concerned by what they suspected was about to happen . Several of the conspirators expressed worries about the safety of fellow Catholics who would be present in Parliament on the day of the planned explosion . Percy was concerned for his patron , Northumberland , and the young Earl of Arundel 's name was brought up ; Catesby suggested that a minor wound might keep him from the chamber on that day . The Lords Vaux , Montague , Monteagle , and Stourton were also mentioned . Keyes suggested warning Lord Mordaunt , his wife 's employer , to derision from Catesby .
On Saturday 26 October , Monteagle ( Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) received an anonymous letter while at his house in Hoxton . Having broken the seal , he handed the letter to a servant who read it aloud :
My Lord , out of the love I bear to some of your friends , I have a care of your preservation . Therefore I would advise you , as you tender your life , to devise some excuse to shift your attendance at this parliament ; for God and man hath concurred to punish the wickedness of this time . And think not slightly of this advertisement , but retire yourself into your country where you may expect the event in safety . For though there be no appearance of any stir , yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow this Parliament ; and yet they shall not see who hurts them . This counsel is not to be condemned because it may do you good and can do you no harm ; for the danger is passed as soon as you have burnt the letter . And I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it , to whose holy protection I commend you .
Uncertain of the letter 's meaning , Monteagle promptly rode to Whitehall and handed it to Cecil ( then Earl of Salisbury ) . Salisbury informed the Earl of Worcester , considered to have recusant sympathies , and the suspected papist Henry Howard , 1st Earl of Northampton , but kept news of the plot from the King , who was busy hunting in Cambridgeshire and not expected back for several days . Monteagle 's servant , Thomas Ward , had family connections with the Wright brothers , and sent a message to Catesby about the betrayal . Catesby , who had been due to go hunting with the King , suspected that Tresham was responsible for the letter , and with Thomas Wintour confronted the recently recruited conspirator . Tresham managed to convince the pair that he had not written the letter , but urged them to abandon the plot . Salisbury was already aware of certain stirrings before he received the letter , but did not yet know the exact nature of the plot , or who exactly was involved . He therefore elected to wait , to see how events unfolded .
= = = Discovery = = =
The letter was shown to the King on Friday 1 November following his arrival back in London . Upon reading it , James immediately seized upon the word " blow " and felt that it hinted at " some strategem of fire and powder " , perhaps an explosion exceeding in violence the one that killed his father , Lord Darnley , at Kirk o ' Field in 1567 . Keen not to seem too intriguing , and wanting to allow the King to take the credit for unveiling the conspiracy , Salisbury feigned ignorance . The following day members of the Privy Council visited the King at the Palace of Whitehall and informed him that , based on the information that Salisbury had given them a week earlier , on Monday the Lord Chamberlain Thomas Howard , 1st Earl of Suffolk would undertake a search of the Houses of Parliament , " both above and below " . On Sunday 3 November Percy , Catesby and Wintour had a final meeting , where Percy told his colleagues that they should " abide the uttermost triall " , and reminded them of their ship waiting at anchor on the Thames . By 4 November Digby was ensconced with a " hunting party " at Dunchurch , ready to abduct Princess Elizabeth . The same day , Percy visited the Earl of Northumberland — who was uninvolved in the conspiracy — to see if he could discern what rumours surrounded the letter to Monteagle . Percy returned to London and assured Wintour , John Wright , and Robert Keyes that they had nothing to be concerned about , and returned to his lodgings on Gray 's Inn Road . That same evening Catesby , likely accompanied by John Wright and Bates , set off for the Midlands . Fawkes visited Keyes , and was given a pocket watch left by Percy , to time the fuse , and an hour later Rookwood received several engraved swords from a local cutler .
Although two accounts of the number of searches and their timing exist , according to the King 's version , the first search of the buildings in and around Parliament was made on Monday 4 November — as the plotters were busy making their final preparations — by Suffolk , Monteagle , and John Whynniard . They found a large pile of firewood in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords , accompanied by what they presumed to be a serving man ( Fawkes ) , who told them that the firewood belonged to his master , Thomas Percy . They left to report their findings , at which time Fawkes also left the building . The mention of Percy 's name aroused further suspicion as he was already known to the authorities as a Catholic agitator . The King insisted that a more thorough search be undertaken . Late that night , the search party , headed by Thomas Knyvet , returned to the undercroft . They again found Fawkes , dressed in a cloak and hat , and wearing boots and spurs . He was arrested , whereupon he gave his name as John Johnson . He was carrying a lantern now held in the Ashmolean Museum , Oxford , and a search of his person revealed a pocket watch , several slow matches and touchwood . The barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of faggots and coal . Fawkes was taken to the King early on the morning of 5 November .
= = = Flight = = =
As news of " John Johnson 's " arrest spread among the plotters still in London , most fled northwest , along Watling Street . Christopher Wright and Thomas Percy left together . Rookwood left soon after , and managed to cover 30 miles in two hours on one horse . He overtook Keyes , who had set off earlier , then Wright and Percy at Little Brickhill , before catching Catesby , John Wright , and Bates on the same road . Reunited , the group continued northwest to Dunchurch , using horses provided by Digby . Keyes went to Mordaunt 's house at Drayton . Meanwhile , Thomas Wintour stayed in London , and even went to Westminster to see what was happening . When he realised the plot had been uncovered , he took his horse and made for his sister 's house at Norbrook , before continuing to Huddington Court .
The group of six conspirators stopped at Ashby St Ledgers at about 6 pm , where they met Robert Wintour and updated him on their situation . They then continued on to Dunchurch , and met with Digby . Catesby convinced him that despite the plot 's failure , an armed struggle was still a real possibility . He announced to Digby 's " hunting party " that the King and Salisbury were dead , before the fugitives moved west to Warwick .
In London , news of the plot was spreading , and the authorities set extra guards on the city gates , closed the ports , and protected the house of the Spanish Ambassador , which was surrounded by an angry mob . An arrest warrant was issued against Thomas Percy , and his patron , the Earl of Northumberland , was placed under house arrest . In " John Johnson 's " initial interrogation he revealed nothing other than the name of his mother , and that he was from Yorkshire . A letter to Guy Fawkes was discovered on his person , but he claimed that name was one of his aliases . Far from denying his intentions , " Johnson " stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and Parliament . Nevertheless , he maintained his composure and insisted that he had acted alone . His unwillingness to yield so impressed the King that he described him as possessing " a Roman resolution " .
= = = Investigation = = =
On 6 November , the Lord Chief Justice , Sir John Popham ( a man with a deep @-@ seated hatred of Catholics ) questioned Rookwood 's servants . By the evening he had learnt the names of several of those involved in the conspiracy : Catesby , Rookwood , Keyes , Wynter [ sic ] , John and Christopher Wright , and Grant . " Johnson " meanwhile persisted with his story , and along with the gunpowder he was found with , was moved to the Tower of London , where the King had decided that " Johnson " would be tortured . The use of torture was forbidden , except by royal prerogative or a body such as the Privy Council or Star Chamber . In a letter of 6 November James wrote : " The gentler tortours [ tortures ] are to be first used unto him , et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur [ and thus by steps extended to greater ones ] , and so God speed your good work . " " Johnson " may have been placed in manacles and hung from the wall , but he was almost certainly subjected to the horrors of the rack . On 7 November his resolve was broken ; he confessed late that day , and again over the following two days .
= = = Last stand = = =
On 6 November , with Fawkes maintaining his silence , the fugitives raided Warwick Castle for supplies and continued to Norbrook to collect weapons . From there they continued their journey to Huddington . Bates left the group and travelled to Coughton Court to deliver a letter from Catesby , to Father Garnet and the other priests , informing them of what had transpired , and asking for their help in raising an army . Garnet replied by begging Catesby and his followers to stop their " wicked actions " , before himself fleeing . Several priests set out for Warwick , worried about the fate of their colleagues . They were caught , and then imprisoned in London . Catesby and the others arrived at Huddington early in the afternoon , and were met by Thomas Wintour . They received practically no support or sympathy from those they met , including family members , who were terrified at the prospect of being associated with treason . They continued on to Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire , the home of Stephen Littleton , a member of their ever @-@ decreasing band of followers . Tired and desperate , they spread out some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , to dry out . Although gunpowder does not explode unless physically contained , a spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant , and a man named Morgan ( a member of the hunting party ) .
Thomas Wintour and Littleton , on their way from Huddington to Holbeche House , were told by a messenger that Catesby had died . At that point , Littleton left , but Thomas arrived at the house to find Catesby alive , albeit scorched . John Grant was not so lucky , and had been blinded by the fire . Digby , Robert Wintour , John Wintour , and Thomas Bates , had all left . Of the plotters , only the singed figures of Catesby and Grant , and the Wright brothers , Rookwood , and Percy , remained . The fugitives resolved to stay in the house and wait for the arrival of the King 's men .
Richard Walsh ( Sheriff of Worcestershire ) and his company of 200 men besieged Holbeche House on the morning of 8 November . Thomas Wintour was hit in the shoulder while crossing the courtyard . John Wright was shot , followed by his brother , and then Rookwood . Catesby and Percy were reportedly killed by a single lucky shot . The attackers rushed the property , and stripped the dead or dying defenders of their clothing . Grant , Morgan , Rookwood , and Wintour were arrested .
= = Reaction = =
Bates and Keyes were captured shortly after Holbeche House was taken . Digby , who had intended to give himself up , was caught by a small group of pursuers . Tresham was arrested on 12 November , and taken to the Tower three days later . Montague , Mordaunt , and Stourton ( Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) were also imprisoned in the Tower . The Earl of Northumberland joined them on 27 November . Meanwhile the government used the revelation of the plot to accelerate its persecution of Catholics . The home of Anne Vaux at Enfield Chase was searched , revealing the presence of trap doors and hidden passages . A terrified servant then revealed that Garnet , who had often stayed at the house , had recently given a Mass there . Father John Gerard was secreted at the home of Elizabeth Vaux , in Harrowden . Elizabeth was taken to London for interrogation . There she was resolute ; she had never been aware that Gerard was a priest , she had presumed he was a " Catholic gentleman " , and she did not know of his whereabouts . The homes of the conspirators were searched , and looted ; Mary Digby 's household was ransacked , and she was made destitute . Some time before the end of November , Garnet moved to Hindlip Hall near Worcester , the home of the Habingtons , where he wrote a letter to the Privy Council protesting his innocence .
The foiling of the Gunpowder Plot initiated a wave of national relief at the delivery of the King and his sons , and inspired in the ensuing parliament a mood of loyalty and goodwill , which Salisbury astutely exploited to extract higher subsidies for the King than any ( bar one ) granted in Elizabeth 's reign . Walter Raleigh , who was languishing in the Tower owing to his involvement in the Main Plot , and whose wife was a first cousin of Lady Catesby , declared he had had no knowledge of the conspiracy . The Bishop of Rochester gave a sermon at St. Paul 's Cross , in which he condemned the plot . In his speech to both Houses on 9 November , James expounded on two emerging preoccupations of his monarchy : the divine right of kings and the Catholic question . He insisted that the plot had been the work of only a few Catholics , not of the English Catholics as a whole , and he reminded the assembly to rejoice at his survival , since kings were divinely appointed and he owed his escape to a miracle . Salisbury wrote to his English ambassadors abroad , informing them of what had occurred , and also reminding them that the King bore no ill will to his Catholic neighbours . The foreign powers largely distanced themselves from the plotters , calling them atheists and Protestant heretics .
= = = Interrogations = = =
Sir Edward Coke ( pronounced " Cook " ) was in charge of the interrogations . Over a period of about ten weeks , in the Lieutenant 's Lodgings at the Tower of London ( now known as the Queen 's House ) he questioned those who had been implicated in the plot . For the first round of interrogations , no real proof exists that these people were tortured , although on several occasions Salisbury certainly suggested that they should be . Coke later revealed that the threat of torture was in most cases enough to elicit a confession from those caught up in the aftermath of the plot .
Only two confessions were printed in full : Fawkes 's confession of 8 November , and Wintour 's of 23 November . Having been involved in the conspiracy from the start ( unlike Fawkes ) , Wintour was able to give extremely valuable information to the Privy Council . The handwriting on his testimony is almost certainly that of the man himself , but his signature was markedly different . Wintour had previously only ever signed his name as such , but his confession is signed " Winter " , and since he had been shot in the shoulder , the steady hand used to write the signature may indicate some measure of government interference — or it may indicate that writing a shorter version of his name was less painful . Wintour 's testimony makes no mention of his brother , Robert . Both were published in the so @-@ called King 's Book , a hastily written official account of the conspiracy published in late November 1605 .
Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , was in a difficult position . His midday dinner with Thomas Percy on 4 November was damning evidence against him , and after Thomas Percy 's death there was nobody who could either implicate him or clear him . The Privy Council suspected that Northumberland would have been Princess Elizabeth 's protector had the plot succeeded , but there was insufficient evidence to convict him . Northumberland remained in the Tower and on 27 June 1606 was finally charged with contempt . He was stripped of all public offices , fined £ 30 @,@ 000 ( about £ 5 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) , and kept in the Tower until June 1621 . The Lords Mordaunt and Stourton were tried in the Star Chamber . They were condemned to imprisonment in the Tower , where they remained until 1608 , when they were transferred to the Fleet Prison . Both were also given significant fines .
Several other people not involved in the conspiracy , but known or related to the conspirators , were also questioned . Northumberland 's brothers , Sir Allen and Sir Josceline , were arrested . Anthony @-@ Maria Browne , 2nd Viscount Montagu had employed Fawkes at an early age , and had also met Catesby on 29 October , and was therefore of interest ; he was released several months later . Agnes Wenman was from a Catholic family , and related to Elizabeth Vaux . She was examined twice but the charges against her were eventually dropped . Percy 's secretary and later the controller of Northumberland 's household , Dudley Carleton , had leased the vault where the gunpowder was stored , and consequently he was imprisoned in the Tower . Salisbury believed his story , and authorised his release .
= = = Jesuits = = =
Thomas Bates confessed on 4 December , providing much of the information that Salisbury needed to link the Catholic clergy to the plot . Bates had been present at most of the conspirators ' meetings , and under interrogation he implicated Father Tesimond in the plot . On 13 January 1606 he described how he had visited Garnet and Tesimond on 7 November to inform Garnet of the plot 's failure . Bates also told his interrogators of his ride with Tesimond to Huddington , before the priest left him to head for the Habingtons at Hindlip Hall , and of a meeting between Garnet , Gerard , and Tesimond in October 1605 . At about the same time in December , Tresham 's health began to deteriorate . He was visited regularly by his wife , a nurse , and his servant William Vavasour , who documented his strangury . Before he died Tresham had also told of Garnet 's involvement with the 1603 mission to Spain , but in his last hours he retracted some of these statements . Nowhere in his confession did he mention the Monteagle letter . He died early on the morning of 23 December , and was buried in the Tower . Nevertheless he was attainted along with the other plotters , his head was set on a pike either at Northampton or London Bridge , and his estates confiscated .
On 15 January a proclamation named Father Garnet , Father Gerard , and Father Greenway ( Tesimond ) as wanted men . Tesimond and Gerard managed to escape the country and live out their days in freedom ; Garnet was not so lucky . Several days earlier , on 9 January , Robert Wintour and Stephen Littleton were captured . Their hiding place at Hagley , the home of Humphrey Littleton ( brother of MP John Littleton , imprisoned for treason in 1601 for his part in the Essex revolt ) was betrayed by a cook , who grew suspicious of the amount of food sent up for his master 's consumption . Humphrey denied the presence of the two fugitives , but another servant led the authorities to their hiding place . On 20 January the local Justice and his retainers arrived at Thomas Habington 's home , Hindlip Hall , to arrest the Jesuits . Despite Thomas Habington 's protests , the men spent the next four days searching the house . On 24 January , starving , two priests left their hiding places and were discovered . Humphrey Littleton , who had escaped from the authorities at Hagley , got as far as Prestwood in Staffordshire before he was captured . He was imprisoned , and then condemned to death at Worcester . On 26 January , in exchange for his life , he told the authorities where they could find Father Garnet . Worn down by hiding for so long , Garnet , accompanied by another priest , emerged from his priest hole the next day .
= = = Trials = = =
By coincidence , on the same day that Garnet was found , the surviving conspirators were arraigned in Westminster Hall . Seven of the prisoners were taken from the Tower to the Star Chamber by barge . Bates , who was considered lower class , was brought from the Gatehouse Prison . Some of the prisoners were reportedly despondent , but others were nonchalant , even smoking tobacco . The King and his family , hidden from view , were among the many who watched the trial . The Lords Commissioners present were the Earls of Suffolk , Worcester , Northampton , Devonshire , and Salisbury . Sir John Popham was Lord Chief Justice , Sir Thomas Fleming was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer , and two Justices , Sir Thomas Walmsley and Sir Peter Warburton , sat as Justices of the Common Pleas . The list of traitors ' names was read aloud , beginning with those of the priests : Garnet , Tesimond , and Gerard .
The first to speak was the Speaker of the House of Commons ( later Master of the Rolls ) , Sir Edward Philips , who described the intent behind the plot in lurid detail . He was followed by the Attorney @-@ General Sir Edward Coke , who began with a long speech — the content of which was heavily influenced by Salisbury — that included a denial that the King had ever made any promises to the Catholics . Monteagle 's part in the discovery of the plot was welcomed , and denunciations of the 1603 mission to Spain featured strongly . Fawkes 's protestations that Gerard knew nothing of the plot were omitted from Coke 's speech . The foreign powers , when mentioned , were accorded due respect , but the priests were accursed , their behaviour analysed and criticised wherever possible . There was little doubt , according to Coke , that the plot had been invented by the Jesuits . Garnet 's meeting with Catesby , at which the former was said to have absolved the latter of any blame in the plot , was proof enough that the Jesuits were central to the conspiracy ; according to Coke the Gunpowder Plot would always be known as the Jesuit Treason . Coke spoke with feeling of the probable fate of the Queen and the rest of the King 's family , and of the innocents who would have been caught up in the explosion .
Each of the condemned , said Coke , would be drawn backwards to his death , by a horse , his head near the ground . He was to be " put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both " . His genitals would be cut off and burnt before his eyes , and his bowels and heart then removed . Then he would be decapitated , and the dismembered parts of his body displayed so that they might become " prey for the fowls of the air " . Confessions and declarations from the prisoners were then read aloud , and finally the prisoners were allowed to speak . Rookwood claimed that he had been drawn into the plot by Catesby , " whom he loved above any worldy man " . Thomas Wintour begged to be hanged for himself and his brother , so that his brother might be spared . Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment . Keyes appeared to accept his fate , Bates and Robert Wintour begged for mercy , and Grant explained his involvement as " a conspiracy intended but never effected " . Only Digby , tried on a separate indictment , pleaded guilty , insisting that the King had reneged upon promises of toleration for Catholics , and that affection for Catesby and love of the Catholic cause mitigated his actions . He sought death by the axe and begged mercy from the King for his young family . His defence was in vain ; his arguments were rebuked by Coke and Northumberland , and along with his seven co @-@ conspirators , he was found guilty by the jury of high treason . Digby shouted " If I may but hear any of your lordships say , you forgive me , I shall go more cheerfully to the gallows . " The response was short : " God forgive you , and we do . "
Garnet may have been questioned on as many as 23 occasions . His response to the threat of the rack was " Minare ista pueris [ Threats are only for boys ] " , and he denied having encouraged Catholics to pray for the success of the " Catholic Cause " . His interrogators resorted to the forgery of correspondence between Garnet and other Catholics , but to no avail . His jailers then allowed him to talk with another priest in a neighbouring cell , with eavesdroppers listening to every word . Eventually Garnet let slip a crucial piece of information , that there was only one man who could testify that he had any knowledge of the plot . Under torture Garnet admitted that he had heard of the plot from fellow Jesuit Oswald Tesimond , who had learnt of it in confession from Catesby . Garnet was charged with high treason and tried in the Guildhall on 28 March , in a trial lasting from 8 am until 7 pm . According to Coke , Garnet instigated the plot : " [ Garnet ] hath many gifts and endowments of nature , by art learned , a good linguist and , by profession , a Jesuit and a Superior as indeed he is Superior to all his predecessors in devilish treason , a Doctor of Dissimulation , Deposing of Princes , Disposing of Kingdoms , Daunting and deterring of subjects , and Destruction . " Garnet refuted all the charges against him
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Comedy Awards — at which it won four out of five " Best TV Comedy Drama " nominations — the National Television Awards , and television societies worldwide . It has been broadcast in over 34 countries and has been remade for local audiences in the United States and European countries . The series also spawned merchandise , including soundtracks , DVDs and spin @-@ off books .
= = Background = =
Series creator Mike Bullen 's working relationship with Granada Television began in 1994 when his agent sold his first screenplay , a one @-@ off comedy @-@ drama called The Perfect Match , to the company 's head of comedy Andy Harries . Harries had been looking for television scripts that would reflect the lives of people from his generation — people in their 30s who were under @-@ represented on television . The Perfect Match , about a man who proposes to his girlfriend at the FA Cup Final and has to deal with constant media attention afterwards , was made and then broadcast in 1995 . Harries asked Bullen to pitch more ideas for television to The Perfect Match 's assistant producer Christine Langan . As a fan of American television such as Thirtysomething , Frasier and Hill Street Blues , Bullen pitched Cold Feet , a traditional " boy @-@ meets @-@ girl , boy @-@ loses @-@ girl , boy @-@ wins @-@ girl @-@ back " story told from both sides of the relationship but using elements of fantasy and flashback to distort events to fit a character 's point of view . The initial pitch centred on Adam Williams and Rachel Bradley ( James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale ) , which Harries believed would diminish the storytelling potential if the ITV Network Centre commissioned a full series after the pilot , so Bullen " tacked on " plots for two other couples — Adam and Rachel 's respective friends Pete and Jenny Gifford ( John Thomson and Fay Ripley ) and David and Karen Marsden ( Robert Bathurst and Hermione Norris ) .
The pilot was directed by Father Ted 's Declan Lowney over 12 days in 1996 on location around Greater Manchester . The programme was one of four one @-@ off Comedy Premieres made by Granada for ITV . Cold Feet was eventually broadcast on 30 March 1997 . It received only 3 @.@ 5 million viewers and little critical attention . As ITV 's comedy portfolio was so thin , Cold Feet was submitted as the network 's comedy entry at the Montreux Television Festival in May 1997 . There it won the Silver Rose for Humour and the Rose d 'Or , the highest accolade of the festival . ITV scheduled a repeat broadcast a few days afterwards but did not commission a series . Not until David Liddiment 's appointment as director of programming at ITV in August 1997 was a six episode series ordered .
= = Series synopses = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
The first series begins nine months after the pilot episode . After Pete and Jenny 's baby is born in Episode 1 , the couple have a hard time getting any sleep . Pete has to cope with the death of his father in Episode 4 . Adam and Rachel decide to rent a house together . He is horrified to discover in Episode 2 that she is married to another man . While he is staying with Pete and Jenny , Rachel has sex with her visiting husband ( Lennie James ) — who leaves soon after — and is pregnant by Episode 6 . Just as hers and Adam 's relationship is recovering , she tells him that he might not be the father , and that she is moving to London until the birth . Karen and David have recently hired Ramona as a nanny to their young son Josh . At her publishing job , Karen edits the novel of a renowned author ( Denis Lawson ) , whom she becomes attracted to . She plans to sleep with him on a book tour but is humiliated when she finds out he is not attracted to her . David tries to sleep with Ramona to get back at Karen , which causes friction between the couple . They seek guidance counselling to repair their marriage .
= = = Series 2 = = =
Six months after the last series , Rachel returns from London and tells Adam that she aborted the baby , and their relationship seems over for good . They both start seeing other people — he one of Pete 's colleagues ( Rosie Cavaliero ) and she a man much younger than her ( Hugh Dancy ) — but reconcile after Adam is diagnosed and treated for testicular cancer in Episode 5 . David is made redundant at work and decides to be a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad for Josh . After some interference from Karen , he takes a new job . Their relationship improves from the first series ; they spend their wedding anniversary in Paris and Karen announces in Episode 6 that she is pregnant . Pete and Jenny 's marriage deteriorates when she reveals she had a crush on Adam . Pete later sleeps with a co @-@ worker — with whom Adam was also briefly involved — and Jenny tells him to move out of the house . They decide to give their marriage another chance when Adam 's cancer puts things into perspective . In Episode 6 , all three couples see in the new millennium on a trip to Lindisfarne , where Pete and Jenny 's relationship worsens again as the others ' improve .
= = = Series 3 = = =
Half a year after the Lindisfarne trip , Pete and Jenny have separated . He moves from house to house , eventually finding a houseshare with a gay landlord . He has a brief fling with Ramona , which is followed by some dates with a teacher ( Pooky Quesnel ) . Jenny begins a relationship with a dotcom millionaire ( Ben Miles ) , who decorates her house with flowers and takes her on a trip to New York . The fling ends when Jenny realises he does not love her . She and Pete reconcile after briefly considering a divorce . David and Karen bring home their newborn twins , and Karen 's ex @-@ pat mother ( Mel Martin ) moves in for a couple of episodes . Karen is reunited with an old boyfriend ( Richard Dillane ) , who is in Manchester for a photography exhibition . Karen is rivalled by Jenny , who has returned to working to pay the bills while Pete is living elsewhere . David takes a sudden interest in politics after meeting local residents ' activist Jessica ( Yasmin Bannerman ) . He starts an affair with her but she dumps him after being offended by his insensitivity when he tries to end it . Karen finds out about the affair in Episode 8 but is adamant that she and David will stay together for the children . Adam and Rachel decide to have children but are distraught to discover that she is infertile from complications with her abortion . They decide to get married instead but Adam is briefly tempted when he reunites with a long @-@ lost love ( Victoria Smurfit ) on his stag weekend to Belfast .
= = = Series 4 = = =
Jenny and Pete await the birth of their second child but after a miscarriage , Jenny rethinks her current lifestyle . In Episode 2 she decides to take a job in New York , and leaves with little Adam . Pete is unhappy for a time but begins a relationship with Jo Ellison , a friend of Rachel 's . The relationship goes well until Jo has to return to Australia after her visa expires . Pete follows her and declares his love and they get married in Episode 8 . Karen and David are sleeping in separate beds until she decides he should move out . He moves into Pete 's spare bedroom and starts seeing a therapist ( Michael Troughton ) . Karen develops alcoholism and decides to seek therapy too . She and David reconcile and he moves back in . Soon , she starts an affair with a publisher , Mark ( Sean Pertwee ) , which is revealed to David in Episode 8 . Having had enough of the lies , he leaves Karen . Adam and Rachel decide to adopt a child and begin going through the procedures . They are pleased when they later discover that Rachel is pregnant but are distraught when their social worker tells them that the adoption cannot proceed . In Australia for Pete and Jo 's wedding , Rachel goes into premature labour and gives birth to a boy .
= = = Series 5 = = =
Three months after the birth of their baby , Adam is made redundant . He gets a new job , but then he and Rachel are told that after the death of their landlord they will be evicted from their house . As they search for a new place to live , Adam 's estranged father , Bill ( Ian McElhinney ) , arrives . Bill and Adam patch up their relationship and he offers Adam and Rachel the money to buy their own house . On the way to the auction , Rachel is killed in a car crash , leaving Adam devastated . Her ashes are scattered in the final episode . Karen and David are going through an amicable divorce but when she starts seeing Mark again and David starts seeing his new lawyer Robyn ( Lucy Robinson ) , it escalates , as they begin using each other 's adultery and her alcoholism as a basis for custody of the children . Karen stops seeing Mark and the divorce cools down . Both re @-@ evaluate their lives after Rachel 's death ; David develops his relationship with Robyn and Karen plans a trip with Ramona . Pete and Jo 's marriage deteriorates when she sleeps with a co @-@ worker ( Richard Armitage ) on a work weekend away . Jenny returns from New York in Episode 4 and moves back in with Pete after he asks Jo for a divorce .
= = = Series 6 = = =
It was announced in November 2015 that a sixth series of Cold Feet was in pre @-@ production and would be shown during 2016 . The character Rachel will not be returning . Helen Baxendale " I was really touched he ’ d ( writer : Mike Bullen ) written Rachel into it , but I felt it wasn ’ t right for me , Rachel or the new series .
= = Cast and characters = =
Cold Feet began its first series with the six main cast members — James Nesbitt , Helen Baxendale , John Thomson , Fay Ripley , Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst — who had appeared in the pilot . Thomson 's character Pete Gifford was written specifically for him after his performance in The Perfect Match made a positive impression on Christine Langan . Norris originally auditioned for the part of Rachel but was cast as Karen because the role suited her social class . Nesbitt got an audition through a mutual friend of pilot director Declan Lowney , and read the part in his natural accent because he was keen to play a Northern Irish character in a contemporary drama unconnected to The Troubles . Baxendale was best known for her role in Cardiac Arrest and was hesitant to star as Rachel because she did not believe she could perform comedy . Bathurst was known to Langan for his starring role in Joking Apart . Ripley thought she would be auditioning for the part of Rachel , and had to put on an accent for her role as natural Mancunian Jenny . When the fourth series was commissioned , Ripley announced that she was leaving the show to broaden her career options . Kimberley Joseph was cast as Jo Ellison , a replacement character who remained on screen until Cold Feet 's conclusion . Bullen makes numerous Hitchcock @-@ esque cameo appearances ; he plays a neighbour and a husband in the first series and a workman in the third .
Despite all receiving equal billing in the credits , the original principal cast members were paid different salaries in the first few years ; Baxendale and Nesbitt were the most well @-@ known , so received more than Ripley , Thomson , Norris and Bathurst , who were comparatively less well @-@ known to audiences . Prompted by the continued success of the show , Andy Harries reviewed the salaries in 2000 and decided to pay all six actors the same amount . The amount was not publicly disclosed but was believed to be £ 20 @,@ 000 per episode , plus repeat broadcast royalties . Another pay deal for the fourth series in 2001 increased the salaries of the cast to £ 50 @,@ 000 . For the final series in 2003 , they each received £ 75 @,@ 000 an episode .
= = = Main characters = = =
The six core characters were devised to be " regular people , not distinguished by their careers or by crime " and were based on people from Mike Bullen 's life .
Adam Williams is a serial womaniser who lives a carefree lifestyle until he settles down with Rachel — though he is still tempted by the next @-@ door neighbour and women in fast cars . Bullen based Adam 's womanising personality on how he saw himself during his twenties . He is diagnosed and treated for testicular cancer during the second series , a storyline developed by Bullen to directly contrast Adam 's Lothario characterisation . Adam marries Rachel in Series 3 and their son , Matthew , is born in Series 4 . In Series 5 , Adam 's estranged father Bill Williams arrives in Manchester . Adam moves to patch up the relationship after Bill comes out as a bisexual . After Rachel 's death , Adam and Matthew leave their old house to see Bill . Adam 's backstory was inconsistent ; the first series established that Adam and Pete had known each other since their childhood when they attended the same school in Manchester . To justify Adam 's accent , his Northern Irish origins were developed in Series 3 and it was explained on screen that he spent his school holidays there . His background is reinforced when his father is introduced in Series 5 . Bullen admitted that Adam 's biography was never fully planned but conceded that Cold Feet was " full of gaffes " .
Rachel Bradley is an advertising executive . After being with Adam for nine months , she admits to him that she is married but promises to ask her estranged husband for a divorce . Unknown to Adam , while her husband is in Manchester , she has sex with him and later finds out she is pregnant . Unable to cope with not knowing who the father is , she terminates the pregnancy . The abortion causes her to become infertile . She marries Adam at the end of Series 3 and has a surprise conception in Series 4 , which leads to the birth of her child . She is killed in a car crash in Series 5 . Helen Baxendale became pregnant during Series 4 , which meant the plot of Rachel being infertile had to be abandoned and the rest of the series re @-@ written . Baxendale found the character limiting and hard to play when she was just " the woman that Adam saw through rose @-@ tinted glasses " . She found that , as the series progressed , Bullen learned how to write for the character , giving her a clearer idea of how to play her . She found the death of Rachel " unfair " and believed the character was being punished for terminating her pregnancy .
Pete Gifford is Jenny 's husband and has been Adam 's best friend since childhood . Bullen based Pete on his own childhood friend , with whom he went through university . Pete is often deliberately insensitive towards Adam , which Thomson attributes to Pete thinking Adam is jealous of his achievements . In Series 2 , Pete has an affair with co @-@ worker Amy . It upsets his marriage to Jenny and by Series 3 they are separated . At the beginning of Series 4 , they are back together and expecting a second child . After Jenny miscarries , she leaves Pete and takes little Adam with her . Pete has a rebound relationship with Jo , and marries her at the end of Series 4 . They break up at the end of Series 5 .
Jenny Gifford is Pete 's wife . She spends much of the first series raising their baby . In Series 2 , she develops a brief crush on Adam . She throws Pete out of the house when she finds out about his affair with Amy but they try to repair the marriage after Adam 's cancer treatment . When she and Pete separate in Series 3 , she asserts her independence in a series of short @-@ lived secretarial jobs , and by dating millionaire Robert Brown . She and Pete briefly consider a divorce but get back together after Robert dumps her . In Series 4 , the couple are expecting a second child . Jenny miscarries and re @-@ evaluates her life in Manchester . She is offered a job in New York by the head of the company she works for and decides to divorce Pete and leave for America with their son . She returns for Rachel 's funeral in Series 5 and moves back in with Pete . Ripley said of her character , " Jenny 's very ballsy and speaks her mind , but she 's more sensitive than people give her credit for . She 's seen as very hard but I don 't think she is — it 's just that she won 't show her vulnerability to everyone . "
David Marsden is a management consultant and the husband of Karen . The Marsdens were the least @-@ developed characters when the pilot was produced ; Robert Bathurst noted that David was " set up as a post @-@ Thatcherite boo @-@ boy to represent all that is evil about materialism " . He was concerned that the only character note in the script related to David 's high salary and that , to make more than a brief cameo appearance in the series , the character needed to be significantly developed . David is made redundant in Series 2 and Karen arranges for him to take a new , better @-@ paid job . In Episode 3 , the couple celebrate their wedding anniversary in Paris . The episode originally had a downbeat ending scripted but was changed on the advice of Andy Harries and the editor of the episode . David and Karen both then have affairs ; David with local residents ' campaigner Jessica in Series 3 , and Karen with publisher Mark in Series 4 . The affairs lead to the end of their marriage , which was discussed to great lengths by the production staff . David starts a relationship with his solicitor , Robyn Duff , in Series 5 and divorces Karen .
Karen Marsden is a publishing editor and the wife of David . Of Karen , Norris said " [ S ] he 's the strength behind the marriage . David thinks he wears the trousers and she is prepared to think that to an extent . So she manages to massage his ego and then does her own thing anyway . " Karen becomes an alcoholic in Series 4 and seeks therapy to control her urges . After trying to put David 's affair with Jessica behind them , Karen starts an affair with publisher Mark . She breaks up with him via email while in Australia but he flies down and reveals their relationship to David . She briefly gets back together with Mark during her divorce from David in Series 5 but ends the relationship again when he wants nothing to do with her children . After Rachel 's death , Karen sees a grief counsellor . Norris and Bullen changed Karen 's personality significantly between the pilot and the series ; Norris altered the character 's accent to be less " posh " and Bullen wrote her to be more sympathetic . Bullen found it difficult to write situations for Karen that took place outside the character 's house . Eventually , he wrote a storyline for her in Series 2 where she rebels against her upper @-@ middle @-@ class lifestyle by smoking cannabis at a dinner party . Norris was disappointed that the plot of Karen and David 's divorce could not be developed further in Series 5 , as the majority of screen time was given to Adam and Rachel .
Jo Ellison is introduced as a co @-@ worker at Rachel 's advertising agency in Series 4 . After Jenny leaves England and Jo is evicted from her flat , she moves into Pete 's spare room . The two fall in love and marry in Australia in Episode 8 . In Series 5 , Pete suspects that Jo may have married him as a visa scam to stay in Britain . Their relationship is damaged and Jo sleeps with a colleague on a work weekend away . Pete asks her for a divorce when he finds out . Jo was devised when Bullen and Harries wanted Pete to fall in love with an Australian woman so they could film the Series 4 finale in Sydney . Kimberley Joseph was based in Los Angeles and had been out of work for 18 months before getting an audition with Spencer Campbell . Two weeks later she had moved to Manchester and was doing read @-@ throughs with the rest of the cast . Joseph thought Bullen had envisioned the character as a coarse " big fat truck @-@ driving lesbian type " before he met her . Thomson thought Pete 's lust for Jo was a rebound from Jenny and that , while Jo genuinely liked Pete , she did not actually love him , which Pete suspects when he reads Jo 's emails in Series 5 , Episode 2 .
= = = Supporting characters = = =
Significant supporting roles in the series are played by Jacey Salles ( Ramona Ramirez , Series 1 – 5 ) , Rosie Cavaliero ( Amy , Series 2 ) , Ben Miles ( Robert Brown , Series 3 ) , Yasmin Bannerman ( Jessica Barnes , Series 3 ) , Sean Pertwee ( Mark Cubitt , Series 4 – 5 ) , Richard Armitage ( Lee , Series 5 ) and Lucy Robinson ( Robyn Duff , Series 5 ) .
Salles is introduced as Ramona Ramirez in Series 1 , Episode 1 . Jacey Salles expected to play the Marsdens ' Spanish nanny for just two episodes , believing that the characters would regularly replace their son 's carer . She subsequently appeared in 27 episodes . Salles , half @-@ Spanish herself , auditioned for the role after appearing in the Granada film The Misadventures of Margaret — executive @-@ produced by Andy Harries . The character was developed to be the complete opposite of the typically English Karen and David . David finds her continental personality annoying but Karen enjoys it . Ramona 's role in Series 2 developed beyond just child @-@ caring — in Episode 2 , she bribes David for £ 30 to cook dinner for his former boss . By Series 3 , she has a major storyline where she dates Pete . In Series 4 , she gets caught up in Karen and David 's deteriorating marriage and briefly quits to work for their neighbours , and to work part @-@ time at a strip club . In Series 5 , she dates Lee , a fitness instructor who is the catalyst of Pete and Jo 's break @-@ up when he sleeps with Jo .
Doreen Keogh is introduced in Series 1 , Episode 4 as Pete 's mother Audrey Gifford . She makes a cameo appearance in Series 3 , Episode 1 , and reappears in Series 4 , Episode 4 and Series 5 , Episode 1 . The character 's recurrence was based on the good chemistry between Keogh and Thomson .
Yasmin Bannerman played local residents ' campaigner Jessica in Series 3 . Bannerman and Bathurst did not know that Jessica and David would have a full @-@ blown affair after their kiss in Episode 3 , as David was seen as too much of a " jittery type " . The character appears in five episodes . Bathurst was more impressed with the storylines that came out of the affair , rather than the affair itself : " It was the deception , the guilt and the recrimination rather than the actual affair , which was neither interesting nor remarkable " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Mike Bullen has sole writing credit on 26 episodes of the series ; four episodes of Series 3 were written by David Nicholls , and Bullen co @-@ wrote one episode of Series 4 and 5 with Mark Chappell and Matt Greenhalgh respectively . Bullen usually wrote ten pages of script per day , whatever the quality of his writing . His own third draft was usually submitted to the producers as the " first " draft . As he was still an inexperienced writer by the time production of the first series began in January 1998 , Bullen was aided by Christine Langan , who pitched in as a script editor . Storylines were planned in advance — the producers knew that they wanted to split up Adam and Rachel at the end of Series 1 — but the later scripts were written once filming on earlier episodes had already begun . The number of people on the development team varied ; the third series ' comprised Bullen , Langan , Harries , producer Spencer Campbell , script editor Camilla Campbell , ITV 's controller of comedy , and a team of five writers .
Many storylines were based on life experiences of the production team ; Bullen and his wife Lisa had their first child in late 1997 , which made Bullen identify with the Pete character , whose son is born in the first episode . Bullen incorporated his experiences of the first few months of parenthood into the Pete and Jenny storyline . Adam 's testicular cancer storyline in Series 2 , Episode 5 was influenced by a similar condition that afflicted Harries , and was supplemented by the newspaper columns written by terminal cancer sufferer John Diamond . If a storyline was not drawn from real life experiences , it was researched by communicating with experts ; Bullen consulted the relationship support charity Relate for the scenes of Karen and David 's marriage guidance session in Series 1 , Episode 5 , and consulted Dr Sammy Lee for information about Rachel 's intracytoplasmic sperm injection in Series 3 . When it was decided to have Rachel 's abortion lead to her developing Asherman 's syndrome in Series 3 , the British Pregnancy Advisory Service ( BPAS ) were contacted . BPAS strongly recommended that the plot be developed in a different direction , on the basis that infertility from what would appear to have been a routine abortion would be an " improbable link " , though the producers proceeded with their original story anyway .
By the time pre @-@ production on the third series began , Bullen had grown tired of writing the series single @-@ handedly and believed all the stories that could be told had been told . ITV were keen to increase the number of episodes per series to 20 but Granada refused , though did agree to add two more , bringing the total to eight . A writing team of five was assembled , overseen by Bullen . Four of the scriptwriters were deemed not good enough and they parted company with Granada . David Nicholls remained and scripted four of the eight @-@ third series episodes ; Bullen wrote the other four and his interest in the series was revived .
At the conclusion of the third series , Bullen announced that he did not want to write a fifth series , and that the fourth would be the last . Series 4 , Episode 8 was produced as the final episode but the cast and crew realised that they would like to make one final series for proper closure . Bullen agreed to write the final episodes on the condition that there would be just four , and that he could kill off a character . Matt Greenhalgh co @-@ wrote Series 5 , Episode 3 with Bullen , specifically the scenes depicting Rachel 's death . Greenhalgh worked on the script at the same time as he was writing his BBC Three series Burn It , also set in Manchester . In a 2007 interview , he said that he was not a fan of Cold Feet — decrying the depiction of Manchester in the series — and that killing off Rachel was " a privilege " .
= = = Filming = = =
All episodes of Cold Feet were shot on film stock on locations in and around Greater Manchester . Sets were designed by Chris Truelove to reflect the characters ; Karen and David 's home was designed as a spacious detached house intended to be located in Bowdon , while Pete and Jenny and Adam and Rachel had smaller middle @-@ class abodes intended to be located in Didsbury . All exteriors of the characters ' houses were shot on location . Christine Langan was keen to avoid a generic sitcom style of filming , citing the formulae of such programmes as " tired and dreary " and lacking emotional depth . To achieve this goal , she and Harries recruited directors with little background in television . These included Nigel Cole , who came from an advertising background and was keen to use the two episodes of the first series he was allotted to " make his mark " and establish himself as a good television director . Other directors included Mark Mylod , Tom Hooper , Tom Vaughan , Pete Travis , Jon Jones , Ciaran Donnelly and Tim Sullivan .
For the first series , interior sets were built at the Blue Shed Studios in Salford . Three directors and three film crews were used to film the six 50 @-@ minute episodes over 14 weeks from March to May 1998 . Locations included an empty shop unit near Piccadilly station for the charity shop sex scene in Episode 3 and a Masonic Lodge for the gala dinner scenes in Episode 6 . In the second year , the sets were moved to the Spectrum Arena in Warrington , where filming ran from March to June . The series featured the first location shoots outside Manchester ; a short scene in Episode 2 featuring Bathurst was filmed over half a day in Blackpool ; Bathurst , Norris and a small production crew filmed scenes in Paris for Episode 3 ; exterior location scenes of the characters on holiday in Episode 6 were filmed on Lindisfarne , though the castle interiors were shot at Hoghton Tower . The second series also featured more visual effects ; in Episode 5 Adam dreams about being chased by a giant testicle ( which was computer @-@ generated ) and in Episode 6 a fireworks explosion was supervised by pyrotechnics experts . The testicle dream scene drew mixed reaction . The Mirror 's television critic Charlie Catchpole praised it but Robert Bathurst was critical : " I hated that sequence . I thought it was really unfunny . It was a lousy prop and awful graphics and there was too much of it — it would have been much better if it was like a Monty Python foot come smacking down like that and get it over with . You couldn 't keep up that surprise and hilarity for all the minutes it was on the screen . " By the third series , Cold Feet 's sets were permanently located on a Granada warehouse stage and were left intact between series . This meant the basic sets could be used on other Granada programmes , such as The Grimleys and My Beautiful Son . After the final episode was filmed in 2002 , the sets were dismantled and taken to a landfill .
In Series 3 , Cold Feet shot outside England for the first time for Episode 5 . A storyline featuring Adam 's stag weekend was originally scripted to take place first in Blackpool and then in Dublin . James Nesbitt suggested that it should be filmed in Belfast and Portrush , near where he grew up . He , Andy Harries and producer Spencer Campbell scouted the locations in April 2000 before filming went ahead later that year . Local businesspeople were so eager to promote the area that they waived any fees Granada would have given them for allowing filming , meaning the location manager only spent £ 20 , considerably less than the £ 3 @,@ 000 a typical shoot of that length would have cost . This location shoot inspired the producers to film even further away from Manchester ; in November 2000 , Bullen and Harries spoke at the Screen Producers Association of Australia conference , where they decided to base the fourth series finale in Sydney . The episode was written to be a " normal episode " of Cold Feet that just had a different background . The main cast — except for Helen Baxendale who was pregnant — the producers and Ciaran Donnelly shot for 18 days in October 2001 in locations that included Hyde Park , Kirribilli , Double Bay and the northern beaches . Budget problems meant an overseas location could not be secured for Series 5 , so scenes in the final episode were shot in Portmeirion , Wales .
Screen time was divided up equally between the couples over the course of an episode , though occasionally some scenes would run longer ; in Series 4 , Episode 3 , the scenes of Karen clubbing went on for ten uninterrupted minutes . These scenes were also a rarity for location filming ; usually filming in public places was done on a Sunday during closing hours but the clubbing scenes in this episode were filmed during opening hours at the Music Box in Manchester . A hand @-@ held camera was used to enhance the frenetic pace .
= = = Music = = =
Incidental music for the series was composed by Mark Russell . He also composed a theme tune , which was used as an alternative to Space 's " Female of the Species " . Christine Langan heard " Female of the Species " on The Chart Show while the pilot was being produced and decided to make it the theme song . She remained involved in choosing popular music used on the show for the three series she worked on it . " Female of the Species " was used as a closing theme throughout the first series . For the second series , it was replaced by Morcheeba 's " Let Me See " , except for the last episode when John Lennon 's " Love " was used . The Mirror 's Charlie Catchpole described the diagetic popular music in the school reunion scenes of Series 2 , Episode 4 — " Don 't You Want Me " ( The Human League ) , " Relax " ( Frankie Goes to Hollywood ) , " Temptation " ( Heaven 17 ) , " True " ( Spandau Ballet ) , " Do You Really Want to Hurt Me " ( Culture Club ) and " Tainted Love " ( Soft Cell ) — as " [ catching ] the changing mood with devastating precision " . Catchpole 's positive comments about the music led to a previously shelved soundtrack album being released .
= = Broadcast = =
The ITV Network Centre originally scheduled the first series to be broadcast in the 10 pm timeslot on Sunday nights . This went against the wishes of Andy Harries , who wanted it broadcast at 9 pm in the so @-@ called " ironing slot " — generally used for programmes that an audience does not have to concentrate on . David Liddiment compromised by allowing the show to start at 9 @.@ 30 pm Harries was able to get the second series moved to 9 pm , which annoyed advertisers . The third series remained in the same timeslot but , like other series on the network , suffered from ITV 's late decision to add a third advert break to hour @-@ long shows . Episode 8 , featuring Adam and Rachel 's wedding , was broadcast on Boxing Day — the first time the show was aired on a Tuesday . The eighth episode of Series 4 and all four episodes of Series 5 were extended to fill a 90 @-@ minute timeslot .
The series was repeated when ITV launched digital channel ITV3 , then marketed towards over @-@ 35 viewers . In the United States , Cold Feet was first broadcast on the cable network Bravo . Bravo bought the pilot and first three series for $ 1 million . The pilot was broadcast as a " sneak peek " before the regular series run began . From 2005 the series was broadcast by BBC America . When broadcast on SABC 3 in South Africa , the series is retitled Life , Love and Everything Else . Worldwide , it has been broadcast in over 34 countries .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Critical response to the first episode was not favourable ; in The Independent , Nicholas Barber called it the most depressing TV programme he had ever seen . He wrote of the six main characters , " Are we supposed to care about these people ? The theory , I think , is that we should relate to them , because their lives are as prosaic as our own , and because Cold Feet is a portrait of urban life as it really is in the Nineties . This is another way of saying the writer hasn 't bothered with research or imagination . " He criticised the conclusion of Episode 1 but praised the other five , which he had seen on preview tapes . On The Late Review , Germaine Greer and Tony Parsons singled out Nesbitt 's acting ; Greer called him " especially awful " and Parsons wished that he had plunged to his death from the scissor lift Adam appears on at the beginning of the episode . General reaction improved as the first year went on . At the conclusion of the first series , Andrew Billen compared it with Vanity Fair in the Evening Standard and was pleased that it offered a televisual outlet for the " forgotten " twentysomethings . Paul Hoggart for The Times wrote positively of the writing , directing , acting , and editing and looked forward to how Rachel 's pregnancy plot would be resolved in the second series .
Other critics hailed it as " the British answer to Thirtysomething " ; in 1998 , Meg Carter wrote in The Independent , " More than 10 years on , Granada Television has finally produced a modern show that mines the rich seam of a generation that is as confused as it is liberated by increased choice and freedom , and that caters for an audience which has not , traditionally , watched very much ITV . " Mark Lawson compared it to the American sitcom Friends , a series that is also based around three men and three women , and featured Helen Baxendale in a guest role . In a 2003 interview with Bullen on BBC Radio 4 's Front Row , Lawson asked whether Friends had influenced Cold Feet . Bullen explained that the connection was made by media as " a useful shorthand " , that he was irritated by the characters in Friends and " would liked to have taken a baseball bat to them " .
In 2001 , Andrew Billen compared the contemporary cultural relevance of the series to The Way We Live Now , as a follow @-@ up to his comparison of the first series with Vanity Fair : " In previous years we have seen the anguish caused by infidelity , impotence and infertility . This season the characters face the hazards thrown up by miscarriage , alcoholism and a late @-@ flowering career . Sustaining relationships looks as hard as ever . Yet there is nothing each protagonist wants more than old @-@ fashioned domestic bliss . " The review resonated with other critics ; in The Scotsman , Linda Watson @-@ Brown wrote an overall positive review of the series in general — dismissing the spate of " anti @-@ Cold Feet " reviews — but criticised " the ease with which problems are resolved and morality used to slap the viewer in the face " . The final episode set in Australia polarised critics ; in a column focusing on Chewin ' the Fat , Scotsman critic Aidan Smith accused the big @-@ budget episode " which somehow managed to squeeze the Harbour Bridge into every shot " of being the point the series jumped the shark , and Times columnist Caitlin Moran complimented it , but was concerned that the series ' original main characters — Adam and Rachel — were being sidelined by everyone including Mike Bullen .
When the fifth series began in 2003 , critics welcomed its end . Paul Hoggart wrote in The Times that the flashback and fantasy scenes were becoming so overused on television that their use in Cold Feet was less surprising than it was in 1998 . In Scotland on Sunday , Helen Stewart lamented the loss of Fay Ripley and Jenny 's replacement by " the bland but international crossover @-@ friendly Jo , [ ... ] who is sufficiently pointless to be dismissed even by her fellow characters as ' not as good as Jenny ' . " Stewart also criticised Hermione Norris 's acting and Karen for being a " spoon @-@ faced moaner " . A brief article on the MediaGuardian website described a " revisionist backlash " as critics ' negative opinions of the series clashed with the positive reaction that greeted it in 1998 .
= = = Depiction of social issues = = =
Cold Feet 's cast and crew were frequently praised for their depiction of real @-@ life social issues on the series . When Cold Feet began , Christine Langan stated , " The real challenge was to overcome the traditional view that many of the issues we cover — jealousy , guilt , money , sexual problems , parental death — are ordinary issues , hardy perennials and , as such , not interesting enough for drama . " The fourth episode of the first series was controversial due to its depiction of the characters freely discussing their sex lives ; in the left @-@ wing New Statesman , Andrew Billen praised it as a homage to La Ronde and , despite the sex @-@ talk , being " intricately constructed as a farce " . The right @-@ wing tabloid Daily Mail 's critic wrote that the episode " veered a little too close last night towards the category of ' adult entertainment ' , with all its connotations of sleaze and smut " and " we found ourselves immersed in their sex lives on a level of embarrassing intimacy which most people would share only with their doctor " . A complaint was made by a viewer to the Independent Television Commission — the commercial television regulator — about the depiction of sex , but it was not upheld .
A scene in Series 2 , Episode 4 showing Karen smoking a joint at a dinner party was controversial with censors at the writing stage ; all scripts were required to be sent to Granada 's Compliance department to ensure they maintained the ITC 's code of conduct . The department would not allow Karen 's drug use to be portrayed without some cost to her , so suggested that Karen and Adam could be arrested while rolling joints at the school reunion . Bullen thought the idea was " ludicrous " so added a scene where David berates Ramona for her drug use . Despite the measures taken , four people complained to the ITC about the glamorisation of drugs . The ITC dismissed the complaints . The scenes of Jo and Audrey smoking cannabis in Series 5 , Episode 1 drew seven complaints to the ITC by people who thought it would give children the wrong impression of drugs . The ITC dismissed the complaints on the basis that the episode was broadcast after the watershed . Mark Lawson was unappreciative of the scene , writing that the drugs plot was a " forced jollity " compared to the other humorous scenes in the episode .
In Series 3 , Adam and Rachel seek intracytoplasmic sperm injection ( ICSI ) when they have trouble conceiving a child naturally . The characters take out bank loans of thousands of pounds to pay for the treatment , which is unsuccessful each time . The producers devised this storyline because IVF was a major contemporary issue and wrote the treatment as a failure because it was representative of the odds of conception in real life .
Rachel 's problem with conception is soon diagnosed as being due to " partial Asherman 's syndrome " , a storyline that runs through Series 3 and 4 . The plot was analysed on an episode of BBC Radio 4 's Woman 's Hour . Ann Furedi of BPAS , which had supplied information to the writing team during the research stages , stated that there had not been a recorded case of Asherman 's syndrome in the United Kingdom since the second world war . Further to that , she stated that the consensus among medical groups was that there was no real direct link between abortions and infertility ; rather an untreated infection could
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a Flame . Frederik Magle ( organ improvisations ) . Proprius Music PRCD 2061
2011 Elektra . Featured symphonic music by Frederik Magle on the Suspekt @-@ album . Universal Music / Tabu Records .
2013 Nordisk Musik . Music for voice and brass quintet , including " Lys på din vej " . Povl Dissing , Signe Sneh Schreiber , Den Kongelige Livgardes Messingensemble ( Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards ) . Exlibris EXLCD30158
= New York State Route 12D =
New York State Route 12D ( NY 12D ) is a north – south state highway located in the northern part of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is in the Oneida County village of Boonville , where it intersects NY 12 . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 12 in the Lewis County village of Lyons Falls . NY 46 and NY 294 are also present in the immediate area of the route 's southern terminus .
NY 12D was originally assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to most of what is now NY 12 between Boonville and Lowville . The alignments of both routes between the two locations were swapped c . 1939 , placing NY 12D on its current alignment from Boonville to Potters Corners ( in the Town of West Turin ) and on NY 26 between Potters Corners and Lowville . The overlap between NY 12D and NY 26 remained in place until the 1970s when NY 12D was realigned onto its current routing between Potters Corners and Lyons Falls , replacing then @-@ New York State Route 337 .
= = Route description = =
NY 12D begins at an intersection with NY 12 at the southeastern edge of the village of Boonville in northern Oneida County . While NY 12 bypasses the village to the east , NY 12D heads northwest into the village on Main Street . At Schuyler Street , NY 12D bears west for one block to Post Street , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 46 . The eastern terminus of NY 294 is located one block to the south at the junction of Post and Ford Streets . NY 12D , meanwhile , turns north at Post Street and follows the street out of the village and through the town of Boonville to the Lewis County town of Leyden .
Within Leyden , NY 12D passes through largely rural terrain with the exception of a pair of roadside communities : the hamlet of Talcottville on the Sugar River , a tributary of the nearby Black River , and the community of Locust Grove at the intersection of NY 12D and Locust Grove Road . The route crosses into West Turin roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , where it intersects NY 26 at Potters Corners . NY 26 turns north here to follow the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 12D ; however , NY 12D turns northeast onto the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 26 toward Lyons Falls . Near the western edge of the village , NY 12D passes over NY 12 with no access between the two . The connection is made a short distance to the southeast via McAlpine and Cherry Streets , which NY 12D follows to terminate at NY 12 .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 27 , an unsigned legislative route that initially extended from Forestport to Alexandria Bay via Boonville , Lowville , and Watertown . From Boonville to Lowville , Route 27 utilized what is now NY 12D and NY 26 . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the segment of legislative Route 27 between Boonville and Lowville via Potters Corners was designated as part of NY 12 . An alternate route of NY 12 between Potters Corners and Lowville via Lyons Falls was assigned NY 12D as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , NY 12D was rerouted south of Lyons Falls to follow a routing similar to modern NY 12 to Boonville . The former routing of NY 12D between Potters Corners and Lyons Falls was redesignated as NY 337 c . 1935 . The routings of NY 12 and NY 12D between Boonville and Lowville were swapped c . 1939 .
Originally , NY 12 entered Lyons Falls on Franklin Street and followed Center and McAlpine Streets through the village before leaving the area on Cherry Street . NY 12 was rerouted onto its current alignment around the western edge of Lyons Falls in the late 1940s ; however , NY 337 was not truncated nor rerouted to meet the new path of NY 12 . Instead , NY 337 was initially extended eastward along the former alignment of NY 12 on McAlpine Street to a new terminus at Center Street . It was rerouted east of Cherry Street to follow Cherry south to NY 12 c . 1970 . The former routing of NY 337 along McAlpine Street from Cherry Street to a grade crossing with the Mohawk , Adirondack and Northern Railroad , a distance of 0 @.@ 03 miles ( 48 m ) , is now designated as NY 970J , an unsigned reference route . The overlap between NY 12D and NY 26 north of Potters Corners was eliminated c . 1972 when NY 12D was rerouted to follow NY 337 to Lyons Falls , placing NY 12D on its current alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
= Scott Carson =
Scott Paul Carson ( born 3 September 1985 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Championship club Derby County .
Carson joined the Leeds United football academy in 2002 , making his full first @-@ team debut for Leeds against Manchester United in February 2004 . He made his first appearance for the England under @-@ 21 team in the same month and later set a record of 29 caps for the under @-@ 21 side .
In January 2005 , he moved to Liverpool for a £ 750 @,@ 000 fee and was called up for the England senior team later that year . He made nine appearances for Liverpool , including the UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final victory over Juventus in April 2005 , before going on loan to Sheffield Wednesday , Charlton Athletic and Aston Villa in successive seasons to gain experience .
Following the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship , Carson made his full debut for the England senior team against Austria in November 2007 . After his return to Liverpool from his loan spell at Aston Villa at the end of the 2007 – 08 season , he joined West Bromwich Albion for a £ 3 @.@ 25 million fee in July 2008 . In 2011 he moved to Bursaspor of Turkey . After two years in Turkey , he moved back to England with Wigan Athletic , where he remained until 2015 when he signed for Derby County .
= = Club career = =
= = = Leeds United = = =
Born in Whitehaven , Cumbria , Carson grew up in Cleator Moor , where he attended Ehenside School . Although a promising rugby league player as a youth , he instead chose to concentrate on football , playing in goal for his school team from the age of " about 11 or 12 " . He quickly rose through the youth teams at local side Cleator Moor Celtic to play for the men 's team when he was 15 . He joined the Leeds United football academy in July 2002 after impressing former Leeds defender Peter Hampton while playing for non @-@ league Workington in the FA Youth Cup . He spent less than a year in the academy and half a season with the reserves before making his first @-@ team debut in January 2004 , coming on as a late substitute after Paul Robinson was sent off against Middlesbrough . Two weeks later , he made his full debut , starting against Manchester United in a 1 – 1 draw at Old Trafford , and made one further appearance in the 2003 – 04 season against Chelsea in May 2004 . Robinson left Leeds in May 2004 and Leeds signed Scottish international goalkeeper Neil Sullivan two months later to compete with Carson for a first @-@ team place , and to help Carson develop and improve . Carson 's contract was due to expire at the end of the 2004 – 05 season but Leeds were keen to retain him and in December 2004 offered him a new long @-@ term contract . However , he chose to join Liverpool , who paid Leeds a £ 750 @,@ 000 fee for him , in January 2005 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Carson joined Liverpool on a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract and was to provide competition for Jerzy Dudek for a first @-@ team place . He made his first team debut for Liverpool in March 2005 in a defeat to Newcastle United , and made three consecutive appearances in April , including the home leg of the UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final victory over Juventus . He was an unused substitute when Liverpool were victorious in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final and 2005 UEFA Super Cup .
= = = = Sheffield Wednesday ( loan ) = = = =
Carson made only four appearances in the 2005 – 06 season , all in cup competitions , and in March 2006 , was allowed to move to Sheffield Wednesday on loan . Wednesday sought his services to help solve their goalkeeping crisis , while Carson was looking to gain more first team experience and to challenge for a place in the England 2006 FIFA World Cup squad . He kept five clean sheets in nine games for Wednesday , whose assistant manager Kevin Summerfield hailed his contribution as a key factor in helping the club escape relegation . He returned to Liverpool at the end of the season and in July 2006 , extended his contract with Liverpool until 2011 .
= = = = Charlton Athletic ( loan ) = = = =
In August 2006 , Carson joined Charlton Athletic on loan for the 2006 – 07 season , after Charlton failed in a bid for Norwich City goalkeeper Robert Green . Carson explained that " Liverpool want me to get some experience and then hopefully I can go back next season and be challenging Pepe [ Reina ] for the number one spot . There were a couple of Championship clubs interested but I need to be playing Premiership football because Robert Green , Ben Foster and Chris Kirkland are going to be playing week in , week out so I need to be performing . " He played in 36 of 38 Premier League games , missing only the two matches against Liverpool due to the terms of his loan deal . Although he was unable to prevent Charlton from being relegated at the end of 2006 – 07 , his outstanding form led him to be named as the Charlton Athletic Player of the Year , the first loan player ever to receive the award .
= = = = Aston Villa ( loan ) = = = =
Carson returned to Liverpool at the end of the season and in June 2007 , Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez confirmed that he would be part of the first @-@ team squad for the 2007 – 08 season , saying “ He must fight with Pepe Reina now for a starting place . ” Carson remained second choice to Reina , however , and faced further competition following the signing of Charles Itandje in August 2007 ; as a result , Carson was loaned out again , this time to Aston Villa at a cost to Villa of £ 2 million . Benitez said of the deal , " We do not want to sell him , we are very happy with Scott . But he needs to play to keep up his England place . " Aston Villa manager Martin O 'Neill preferred Carson to Thomas Sørensen and Stuart Taylor , and Carson played in all but three of Villa 's 38 league matches , missing the two games against Liverpool as he was ineligible to play , and kept 11 clean sheets during the 2007 – 08 season . He received the first red card of his career when he fouled Carlos Tevez in Villa 's 4 – 1 Premier League defeat to Manchester United .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Carson returned to Liverpool at the end of the 2007 – 08 season but in July 2008 joined West Bromwich Albion on a four @-@ year contract for a £ 3 @.@ 25 million fee , possibly rising to £ 3 @.@ 75 million , with an option for the club to extend the contract by another year . Carson , who had played for five different clubs since making his debut for Leeds in 2004 , explained that he wanted to get settled at one club , saying " I 've been like a nomad for three or four years . It 'll be good to get some roots and hopefully settle . I can see myself here for four or five years , even longer . " He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Arsenal in the opening game of the 2008 – 09 Premier League season . Despite relegation to the Championship Carson kept his first team place and after the departure of captain Jonathan Greening he was given the captaincy . West Bromwich Albion won promotion back to the Premier League , finishing second , 12 points clear of third place Nottingham Forest with Carson keeping 15 clean sheets out of 43 games . He had been playing regular football for the Midlands side , but in the 2010 – 11 season , his form seemed to dip and in January 2011 , Carson was briefly dropped to the bench for Welsh goalkeeper Boaz Myhill . After the appointment of Roy Hodgson as West Bromwich Albion head coach , he swiftly found himself back in favour at The Hawthorns .
= = = Bursaspor = = =
On 1 July 2011 , Carson completed a move to Turkish Süper Lig club Bursaspor for a £ 2 million fee . Carson enjoyed a good first season with Bursaspor . He was an ever @-@ present as they finished eighth , conceding thirty @-@ five goals in thirty @-@ four games , the fifth @-@ lowest in the 2011 – 12 Süper Lig season . He also received a runner @-@ up medal for the 2011 – 12 Turkish Cup .
In his second season in Turkey , he played twenty @-@ nine league games and conceded thirty @-@ three goals , helping his team concede the sixth @-@ fewest number of goals in the 2012 – 13 Süper Lig season . Bursaspor finished fourth and qualified for the 2013 – 14 UEFA Europa League .
= = = Wigan Athletic = = =
Carson joined Wigan Athletic for £ 700 @,@ 000 on a three @-@ year deal on 4 July 2013 .
= = = Derby County = = =
After Wigan 's relegation to League One , Carson signed a two @-@ year deal with Championship club Derby County with an option for a third year ; the fee was undisclosed .
= = International career = =
Carson was first called up to the England under @-@ 21 squad in October 2003 , a month after his 18th birthday , for the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifier against Turkey . At the time he was yet to make his competitive debut for Leeds United 's first team , and had previously played only four games for England at other levels . He made his under @-@ 21 debut in a 3 – 2 win for England against the Netherlands in February 2004 . He was selected in the squad for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship , and in the third game against Serbia , he earned his 28th under @-@ 21 cap , eclipsing the record held by Gareth Barry and Jamie Carragher . His 29th and final cap came against the hosts , the Netherlands , in the semi @-@ final , which finished level at 1 – 1 after extra @-@ time . In the resultant penalty shoot @-@ out , he saved one of the 16 penalties he faced and also scored one himself , but England lost 13 – 12 . Carson has since been overtaken by James Milner as the England Under @-@ 21 team 's most @-@ capped player .
In May 2005 , while still a member of the under @-@ 21 side , Carson was called up to the England senior team squad for the team 's tour of the United States later that month . A year later , he came on as substitute for Robert Green , who had suffered a serious injury , in the England B international friendly against Belarus in May 2006 . The injury to Green , who had been named in the England squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , led to Carson , who was on standby , being promoted to the England squad for the tournament , although he did not make any appearances . Carson continued to be selected for the England senior team squad , and in May 2007 , made his second appearance for the England B team in a 3 – 1 win over Albania . Following the 2007 UEFA Under @-@ 21 Championships , he made his full England debut in a friendly against Austria in November 2007 when he kept a clean sheet . A week later , he made his competitive debut in a crucial match against Croatia , which England lost 3 – 2 , resulting in their failure to qualify for UEFA Euro 2008 . Carson was held particularly culpable for the first goal , when Niko Kranjčar 's speculative shot from 30 yards dipped and bounced in front of him , with Carson only succeeding in parrying the ball into the net . England coach Steve McClaren was sacked the next day , as commentators criticised McClaren for selecting an inexperienced goalkeeper for the match .
New manager Fabio Capello named Carson in his first England squad for the friendly match against Switzerland in February 2008 , but the goalkeeper did not make the final squad for the match against France the following month due to injury . After failing to make Capello 's squads for the next five internationals , Carson was recalled to the England squad in October 2008 for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Kazakhstan and Belarus . He won his third England cap in November 2008 , in a friendly against Germany in Berlin when he came on for the second half . In doing so he became the first West Bromwich Albion player to play for England for 24 years . He won his fourth cap as a second @-@ half substitute against Sweden on 15 November 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Carson married Amy Barton on 17 May 2008 in Egremont ; the couple have three children .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 17 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 15 November 2011 .
= = Honours = =
Liverpool
UEFA Super Cup : 2005
West Bromwich Albion
Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2009 – 10
Bursaspor
Turkish Cup runner @-@ up : 2011 – 12
Individual
Charlton Athletic Player of the Year : 2006 – 07
= Bam Thwok =
" Bam Thwok " is a 2004 download @-@ only single by the American alternative rock band the Pixies . Written and sung by bassist Kim Deal , the song was released exclusively through the iTunes Store on June 15 , 2004 . Upon its release , " Bam Thwok " was a commercial success , debuting at number one on the very first release of the UK Download Chart . The song was the band 's first recording since 1991 's Trompe le Monde .
Originally composed for the film Shrek 2 , " Bam Thwok " was not selected for the final soundtrack . The song 's lyrics display a surrealistic and nonsensical nature typical of the band ; Deal 's inspiration was a discarded child 's art book she found on a New York City street . " Bam Thwok " ' s major theme is " showing goodwill to everyone . "
= = Background = =
Following their 2004 reunion , the Pixies felt that recording a new song would " break the ice " between band members after their acrimonious split in 1993 . As the band were announcing dates for their reunion world tour , DreamWorks contacted manager Ken Goes to enquire whether they would be interested in recording a song for the title sequence of Shrek 2 . The band agreed , and frontman Black Francis and Deal began composing riffs for a song aimed at children . Deal had been experimenting with a chord progression for a while , and since her band The Breeders were then inactive , she decided to donate her new composition to the Pixies .
The Pixies chose Deal 's riff , as it was a " poppier , more kid @-@ friendly thing , " and Francis agreed to let her sing lead vocals and write the new song ; significantly , Francis is relegated to backing vocals on the track . Francis ' move was meant to warm the previously cold relations between the two — in the previous two Pixies studio albums , 1990 's Bossanova and 1991 's Trompe le Monde , Francis , the band 's principal songwriter , had not let Deal contribute any songs or sing lead vocals . This became one of the reasons for the Pixies ' 1993 split . However , the two appeared at the time to have resolved their differences : Francis praised " Bam Thwok , " as " a really good song . " despite joking in interviews about how he planned to remove as many of her compositions as possible from a hypothetical new album . However , Deal eventually left the band in June 2013 , before the release of the band 's next album , Indie Cindy .
= = Recording and release = =
The band arranged and rehearsed the song in lead guitarist Joey Santiago 's Pro Tools home studio , which he had built for his husband @-@ and @-@ wife band The Martinis . After in the words of Deal , " working it up a bit in Joe 's [ Santiago ] Pro Tools thing , " " Bam Thwok " was recorded in a DreamWorks @-@ funded demo session . The band travelled to Stagg Street Studios , a studio in Los Angeles , California , to record the song with engineer Ben Mumphrey . Francis later said the recording session " was very relaxed , a nice way to break the ice , " and admitted that " it didn 't feel like twelve years had passed . " The song was mixed by Mumphrey at Sound City Studios in late March .
" Bam Thwok " was released on the iTunes Store at midnight on June 15 , 2004 . The Pixies chose to release in that fashion as they were not signed to a major record label ; their earlier albums had been released on 4AD and Elektra Records . At the time of " Bam Thwok " ' s release , the Pixies ' management gave no indication as to whether future releases would be limited to the iTunes Music Store . Additionally , DreamWorks rejected the recording and the song never appeared on the Shrek 2 soundtrack .
= = Lyrics and melody = =
The theme of " Bam Thwok " is , according to Deal , " about loving everyone , showing goodwill to everyone " . The lyrics are typically surreal and offbeat ; Deal 's main inspiration for the song and its title was a discarded art book she found on a New York City street while on tour in the late 1990s . She later described the book : " From the handwriting , you could tell that this book must have belonged to a little kid . This kid had written a short story , a paragraph really , about a party that took place in another universe , about people and monsters that were partying together . That 's what provided the inspiration for the lyrics . "
The song is structured around a four @-@ beat guitar melody that incorporates major chords throughout . It begins with full instrumentation , over which Santiago layers a short guitar solo . During the first verse , the guitars and bass " drop down " , and do not re @-@ emerge until the chorus , which is repeated several times . A fifteen @-@ second " carousel @-@ esque " organ solo appears approximately midway through the song . The actual sound clip was performed and recorded by Santiago 's father @-@ in @-@ law " many years ago " while he was a missionary in the Philippines .
= = Reception = =
" Bam Thwok " debuted at number one on an early version of the UK Download Chart , although one report said that the fact that the Pixies were in first place despite releasing the single halfway through the period surveyed and only through iTunes " suggests there could be problems to iron out ... [ unless ] all iTunes owners are big fans of the Pixies . " In a press release from Apple , Pixies manager Ken Goes said : " By distributing our first song in 13 years exclusively on iTunes , we were able to quickly and inexpensively make it available to millions of fans in the US and Europe . One week after its release , we are thrilled at the response from iTunes users that have helped to make " Bam Thwok " a top seller across four countries . "
Hannah Harper of BBC Music remarked that the song was " not the greatest thing they 've ever done . " Band members noticed the change in output ; David Lovering , the Pixies ' drummer , commented that " it 's very unlike us . It 's a Pixies song but it 's still unlike a Pixies song " .
= Potato Sack =
The Potato Sack is the name of an alternate reality game ( ARG ) created by the Valve Corporation and the developers of thirteen independent video games to promote the release of Valve 's title , Portal 2 , in April 2011 . Valve president Gabe Newell envisioned the game as a " Cross Game Design Event " in December 2010 , and allowed the developers a free rein to design the game using Valve 's Portal intellectual property . The game , requiring players to find and solve a number of puzzles hidden within updates of the thirteen games , ultimately led to the opportunity for players to release Portal 2 about 10 hours earlier than its planned release by playing games under the pretense of powering up GLaDOS , the sentient computer antagonist from Portal 2 . The ARG 's theme of potatoes is based on plot elements within Portal 2 , specifically that for part of the game , GLaDOS 's personality module is run off a potato battery .
Large numbers of people participated in solving the puzzles within the ARG . Reaction from players and journalists was mixed ; some saw the ARG as a show of strong support and commitment by Valve for independent game development , while others thought the ultimate conclusion was of limited benefit to justify buying the games to begin with .
= = History = =
= = = The Potato Sack Bundle = = =
The ARG began without announcement with the release of the " Potato Sack Bundle " on Steam on April 1 , 2011 , which offered the included games at 75 % off their normal price . The games included in the Potato Sack are listed below with their developer and release year .
= = = The first update = = =
On the release date of the Potato Sack bundle , players found the games within it had recently received updates . Most provided an immediate cosmetic change by replacing or adding assets that referred to potatoes . When players started looking deeper into these new assets , they discovered a series of glyphs that referred to other games associated with specific letters , as well as nonsense sentences that lead to specific cyphers . Other hints were less direct , using online services such as Twitter and YouTube to embed clues . In the case of Toki Tori , sections of new levels included braille code that referred to latitude and longitude coordinates of Two Tribes ' headquarters . One player , " Jake _ R " , traveled to Two Tribes , where he discovered the glyphs and cyphers posted outside their headquarters . Several of Two Tribes ' developers , upon learning of his presence , began filming him from a barbershop across the street . They would later use this footage of him climbing a pole to find these clues as part of another clue during the second phase .
= = = The second update = = =
On April 7 , each of the games in the Potato Sack received a second major update . Players found that by completing certain tasks in the game , they would be presented with login screens for the fictional Aperture Science corporation within the Steam interface . Other tasks and clues led to passwords that could be used to log in to these Aperture Science screens . These provided players with compressed archives of pictures that consisted of Portal 2 artwork , including photographs from around Seattle ( where Valve is based ) embedded in their alpha channels . Each archive included a portion of a larger archive that was password @-@ protected ; the password was unveiled using the glyphs , cyphers , and letters from the first update . The larger archive gave further photographs of the Seattle area . When the locations of these points were mapped and connected per the puzzle 's instructions , the map showed the word " prelude " . Furthermore , players that reached and logged into these screens received a potato icon for each accessed screen on their Steam profile .
= = = The third update = = =
On April 12 , another update for each game was released . These updates were all Portal themed , such as levels based on Aperture Science in The Ball and Killing Floor . Again , players found that by completing specific tasks in the new content , they would be presented with an Aperture Science screen , though this time the screens provided a cryptic audio clue . These clues were found to be two @-@ part clues relating to the previously @-@ identified locations around Seattle . By mapping these points , using locations commonly shared by one clue , players were led to the name of a Steam group that contained a single member by the name of " dinosaur " , a reference to an earlier ARG used for Portal 2 's announcement . Screenshots within this user 's profile gave a QR Code that pointed to a website with a countdown time set to expire on the morning of April 15 , 2011 . Players who discovered these audio clues would be awarded another potato on their Steam profile . A total of 36 possible potatoes were found : 35 within the games and the referenced Steam group , and a 36th earned by obtaining all 35 of the other potatoes .
Concurrent with these changes , Portal 2 became available for pre @-@ loading on the Steam client . At this point , several journalists and players suspected that Portal 2 may have been unlocked early at the end of the countdown timer . This correlated with a separate puzzle embedded in messages sent by Newell to a number of gaming sites ; the message suggested the " early release " of material and " thirteen offsite chambers " , seemingly referring to the independent games , as well as a message " 4 / 19 / 2011 7 AM = = 4 / 15 / 2011 9 AM " , again referencing the planned Portal 2 release date and the countdown timer . As April 15 drew near , about nine heavily involved players from the ARG appeared to disengage from the various chat rooms , leaving with the message " There 's a hole in the sky through which I can fly " — a line used in early advertisements for Portal ; when contacted by other players , these individuals remained coy and cryptic about their actions , appearing to have been " infected " by GLaDOS . It was later revealed that these players , contacted by Valve a few days prior , were invited to Valve 's headquarters to be the first to play Portal 2 .
= = = GLaDOS @ Home = = =
At the end of the countdown timer , the countdown website redirected to a new page on the fictional Aperture Science website , calling itself " GLaDOS @ Home " . Spoofing other distributed computing efforts like Folding @ home , the site stated that if players generated enough CPU cycles by playing the thirteen games in the Potato Sack , GLaDOS would be rebooted earlier , effectively suggesting an earlier release of Portal 2 before the originally scheduled time of 7 : 00 AM PDT on April 19 , 2011 . The number of potatoes found would also serve to help to " boost " the effort . Only one game , Killing Floor , saw an update in this phase , where a special chamber in their Portal @-@ themed map would be opened for players to complete for an in @-@ game achievement . The players organized a schedule of games to be played to maximize the rate of progression , and eventually , ended up unlocking Portal 2 on Steam about ten hours before this scheduled time . The approximately 1800 players that had successfully earned all 36 potatoes by the time of Portal 2 's launch were given the Valve complete pack , including Portal 2 , which they could gift to other players . Players who had found at least thirteen potatoes or played each of the Potato Sack games for a minimum amount of time received Portal 2 @-@ themed items within Team Fortress 2 .
= = = Reunion = = =
On June 13 , 2012 , the Potato Sack bundle briefly returned to Steam under the name " Potato Sack - June 2012 " .
= = Development = =
Valve had previously performed an ARG in the week prior to the announcement of Portal 2 , at the start of March 2010 . The ARG was initiated by a new patch to Portal that led to a sequence of puzzles , which were ultimately solved within hours of the patch 's release .
The idea of the Potato Sack ARG came from Valve president Gabe Newell sometime around December 2010 . Following on the success of the first ARG , he saw a way to promote both the highly anticipated Portal 2 release along with several independent games through a " Cross Game Design Event " . Dejobaan Games ' Leo Jaitley believed that Valve targeted developers that had proven track records of working with other developers , and not necessarily for the sales or popularity of the specific games . Valve invited the twenty independent developers to their headquarters on December 16 , though did not explain the rationale for the visit . Only there did Valve explain the promotion , with the ultimate goal being the early release of Portal 2 at the conclusion of the ARG , according to Gaijin Games ' CEO Alex Neuse . According to Rob Jagnow of Lazy 8 Studios , Valve assured the developers of an open relationship , stating that they had " No constraints . No NDAs . " and that the project was " built on trust and mutual respect " . Jaitley commented " most studios got involved knowing that there was likely to be some payoff , but without anything upfront or any promises of riches " .
To help with the ARG , Valve gave the developers a free rein over the game 's structure , and full access to Portal intellectual property to include within their games . Such assets included further voice work from Ellen McLain , the voice actress for GLaDOS , who recorded additional lines for the developers of the games to taunt the players with . Furthermore , the developers were given the opportunity to play what had existed of Portal 2 to build ideas for the ARG . Valve and the indie developers worked together over the next few days to design the ARG , creating the three phases , the timing between phases to allow for the puzzles to be solved , and the general fiction of the game . The developers decided to design the fiction of the ARG around the return of GLaDOS , who had been apparently destroyed at the end of Portal , leaving clues to her revival in the various games . The potato theme was based on Portal 2 's fiction , in which , during a portion of the game , GLaDOS ' personality is placed into a potato battery . To help promote the ARG , Valve and the developers arranged for the Potato Sack sale as to " make it easier for hard @-@ core fans to participate in every aspect of the ARG " .
Between the December meeting and second gathering in March 2011 , prior to the ARG 's launch , there was no direct verbal communication between Valve or the developers . Instead , the independent developers spent time , using a shared wiki provided by Valve , to plan out and coordinate the game . They also had to develop the new content for their games , which in most cases was work in addition to existing projects that they were presently undertaking . Others had to go back to older programming code and re @-@ acquaint themselves with it before undertaking the new additions for the ARG . Valve 's Jeep Barnett helped to coordinate the large effort . The second visit to Valve in March 2011 was to affirm the plans for the launch of the ARG .
The first update was tied with April Fools ' Day , with the addition of potatoes and gibberish sentences being in line with the pranks one normally sees on that day . Throughout the ARG , the players were monitored by the developers through the Internet Relay Chat , forums , and web sites that were being used to coordinate the solving effort . This allowed , for example , Two Tribes to prepare for Jake _ R 's visit , and the integration of a screenshot of the chat log in to one of the puzzles . In another example , another chat room user , following a red herring , visited a physical location near the California studio for Team Meat ; Edmund McMillen was able to arrange to meet the user and give him a signed copy of Super Meat Boy . Monitoring of the players enabled the developers to provide hints and clues for puzzles that players were struggling with as to allow the ARG to progress in a timely manner . While many puzzles of the ARG included cross @-@ game clues — such as finding the password for one of the Aperture Science login screens from another game — Neuse felt they could have increased the cross @-@ game complexity of the puzzles if they had more time to plan it out . The developers were aided by the agility of Valve in its participation . During the second phase , one of the developers asked if Newell would become involved in the ARG . Newell then fed the image with the encrypted message to media outlets . Valve also placed hidden messages in promotional videos for Portal 2 which helped to point the ARG players in specific directions , including calling some of the players out by name .
There were points during the ARG that players used unexpected means to solve a puzzle , but the developers and the player community worked around these issues . In some cases , players attempted to download beta versions of the patches to the games , but Valve was able to respond , usually in minutes , to block access to these . Valve also quickly responded to a web site that used Steam credentials to award players the potatoes without having to complete the target achievements ; only about 1 % of the potatoes were earned this way , and Valve later revoked them , though let players earn them again though legitimate means . Other players examined the files and binary code of the patched games to try to find password strings or other identifiers that would normally be seen only while playing the game . In at least one case , where this action served to reveal the solution to the puzzle before it was truly solved , the ARG players discouraged this behavior and apologized to Valve for these actions . When possible , the developers laid red herrings for those that tried to hack the ARG , including the use of Rickrolling .
Jagnow commented on several changes the developers would have made in hindsight after the completion of the ARG . One aspect he considered was the weak part of the fiction of the ARG , something he believed they would have integrated more in the game from the start . The release of the Potato Sack on April 1 may have been a bad decision according to Jagnow , as they did not get the press exposure they thought they would in conjunction with the other April Fool 's events occurring that day , with some media outlets hesitant to report on potential pranks for fear of having to retract these later . In the third phase , where certain players were " taken over " by GLaDOS , Jagnow felt they extracted these players from the game too early as they were influential in coordinating the chat rooms and wiki , leaving the remaining players confused . Instead , Jagnow suggested they should have found a way to allow these players to continue participating until near the end . Jagnow considered the push of the crescendo of the ARG , the " appearance " of GLaDOS @ Home , to have been the biggest failing . Originally scheduled for April 16 or 17 , it was pushed to April 15 to allow more players , including international ones , to participate in the effort to release Portal 2 early , and to gain media attention . Instead , the developers found that existing players of the ARG were frustrated with no new puzzles to solves , while new players brought to the site by the media were skeptical and saw the event as " a cheap media ploy to get players to buy the Potato Sack in the hope of an early Portal 2 release " .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the alternate reality game received mixed response from gamers , some praising it as outstanding marketing between Portal 2 and the indie gamers , others considering it a way to force players to buy games they do not want to gain access to Portal 2 earlier . Pete Davison of GamePro considered it a " risky marketing move " that relied on Valve 's long @-@ standing reputation with the community to build on their trust , as well as a " hugely positive sign of support for indie games " from the company . David Ewalt of Forbes considered the tactic a huge benefit for the indie developers , whose games led Steam sales charts in the weeks leading to Portal 2 's release . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica noted that it was entirely possible to ignore the alternate reality game without any negative effects or losing any potential benefits . Luke Plunkett of Kotaku was more critical , commenting that for most players in North America , having the release only ten hours earlier — occurring overnight for many — would be " business as usual " in that they would not be able to play until the next day ; thus , players that purchased and spent time in the Potato Sack games may have simply wasted their money for something they didn 't want to gain almost nothing back . Leigh Alexander of Gamasutra also criticized the ARG for not providing an idea of the expectation of reward when it was successfully completed , comparing the ten @-@ hour gain to a vignette in the movie A Christmas Story , where the main character after saving up money and waiting weeks for a secret decoder ring to decipher a message from a radio program , finds that the coded message is only an advertising blurb . Alexander suggested that instead , ARGs should give players an idea of the type of reward that may be offered , and then can exceed player 's expectations when it is completed . Retailers in countries where the disc @-@ based version of the game would have lagged a few days behind the Steam release opted to break their street date to avoid losing sales to the digital downloads .
Though direct sales from Steam are unknown , the Potato Sack ARG helped to boost sales of the independent games . The whole Potato Sack promotion was the second @-@ highest selling compilation on Steam in the week prior to Portal 2 's release , following Portal 2 itself and ahead of the Potato Sack / Portal 2 bundle . Dylan Fitterer , programmer for Audiosurf , noted that during the promotion , more than 6000 people were playing his game at a time , compared to 300 players before the event . Fitterer also saw an opportunity to create a new game based upon the ARG @-@ themed addition to Audiosurf . Ichiro Lambe of Dejobaan Games was also pleased with the sales increased ; while not a windfall , it helped him to continue to live comfortably . Thomas Grip of Frictional Games claimed that the boost of sales for Amnesia within the first two days of the Potato Sack sale completely covered the development costs for the added " Justine " content they had developed for the ARG . John Gibson of Tripwire Interactive believed that similar ARGs could be run in the future without the presence of a major title like Portal 2 as long as there is a significant payoff for the players .
Journalists noted that many of the user reviews for Portal 2 on Metacritic evoked negative opinion of the game , believed to be tied to the minimal impact on Portal 2 's release time . These users cited complaints about the game being too short ( with some saying it is only four hours long ) , the existence of paid downloadable content at launch for some versions , and supposed evidence that the game on Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X were ports of the console version . Journalists have defended Valve in these claims , countering that the game 's length depends on the amount of immersion the player puts into the game , that the downloadable content is only cosmetic additions for the co @-@ op mode , and that the quality of the graphics on the Windows and Mac version do not suggest a simple console port .
= Neville Southall =
Neville Southall MBE ( born 16 September 1958 ) is a Welsh former international footballer . He has been described as one of the best goalkeepers of his generation and won the FWA Footballer of the Year award in 1985 .
He joined Bury from Winsford United for a £ 6 @,@ 000 fee in 1980 , and turned professional in his early 20s after a number of years as a semi @-@ professional and amateur player . During his teenage years he worked as a binman , waiter and hod carrier . He moved on to Everton for £ 150 @,@ 000 in 1981 and established himself as the club 's first @-@ choice goalkeeper by the 1983 – 84 season . He went on to make a club record 578 appearances in the Football League and Premier League ( 750 in all competitions ) ; his honours with the club include a European Cup Winners ' Cup medal in 1985 , a First Division championship medal in 1984 – 85 and 1986 – 87 , an FA Cup winners medal in 1984 and 1995 , and an FA Charity Shield winners medal in 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , and 1995 . He also played in the 1985 and 1989 FA Cup finals , the League Cup final in 1984 , and helped Everton to a second place in the league in 1985 – 86 . After leaving Everton in 1998 , he became Torquay United 's regular goalkeeper for two years . He also made a handful of appearances for numerous other clubs .
He played internationally for Wales , winning a record 92 caps between 1982 and 1998 , though he did not feature in any major international competitions . As an individual , he was named on the PFA Team of the Year four consecutive times , and was listed as one of the world 's top ten goalkeepers by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics on four occasions . He is a member of the Gwladys Street 's Hall of Fame . He has been named as one of the 100 ' Greatest Players of the 20th Century ' by World Soccer magazine . In 1995 he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) for his services to football .
Since his retirement as a player , Southall has briefly managed Dover Athletic , Hastings United and Margate , and has coached at numerous clubs as well as the Welsh national youth teams . He has also worked extensively with disadvantaged children , and set up his own educational consultancy .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Born and raised in Llandudno to Fred and Rose Southall , he was the middle child of three boys . Southall played youth football for his school team and the Llandudno Swifts , where he played alongside Joey Jones . He was educated at Ysgol John Bright , though left without any qualifications at age 16 . At age 14 he toured Germany with the Llandudno Swifts and was offered a chance to play for the youth team of Bundesliga outfit Fortuna Düsseldorf , but decided against the move to Germany . The Swifts were a poor side that were regularly beaten heavily , though the near constant barrage of shots he faced enabled Southall to improve on his shot @-@ stopping skills .
As a teenager , Southall had unsuccessful trials at Wrexham , Crewe Alexandra and Bolton Wanderers . He aspired to be a postman , and never believed that he would make a living playing football . He then worked as a binman , waiter and hod carrier and therefore entered the game relatively late . He played for Llandudno Town at age 15 , before joining Northern Premier League side Bangor City on £ 10 a week as a semi @-@ professional the following year . Bangor manager Dave Elliott regularly selected veteran goalkeeper Peter Eales ahead of Southall . Everton asked Elliot permission to take Southall on trial , but Elliot left the club shortly after and no trial took place . With Bangor in financial trouble the paid playing staff began to leave the club , and Southall left Bangor and went on to accept an offer of £ 3 a week to play for Conwy United . He moved on to Cheshire County League club Winsford United at the age of 20 . The club won the Cheshire Senior Cup in 1980 , and Southall was voted the club 's Player of the Year .
= = = Bury = = =
Southall 's performances attracted the attention of Bury and Wigan Athletic , and he was convinced to sign with Bury after he was personally approached by manager Dave Connor . Bury paid Winsford £ 6 @,@ 000 and would later pay another £ 25 @,@ 000 after he was sold on . However he never played for Connor as he was replaced by Jim Iley before the start of the 1980 – 81 season ; despite this managerial change he was still seen as the future replacement to club stalwart John Forrest . He received specialist goalkeeping coaching from Wilf McGuinness . He made his first team debut against Wigan Athletic on 20 September , in a 2 – 1 victory . The " Shakers " had an indifferent league campaign in the Fourth Division , though they managed to reach the Third Round of the FA Cup and beat Newcastle United in the League Cup . Southall kept 15 clean sheets after conced
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Reservation 188 at the southwest corner of 3rd and D Street NW in the Judiciary Square neighborhood . It is sited between the U.S. Department of Labor 's Frances Perkins Building and Metropolitan Police Department headquarters .
The bronze sculpture of Pike measures 11 ft ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high and depicts him as a Masonic leader , not a Confederate officer . He is wearing a double @-@ breasted vest and a long coat . His right arm is extended and with the left hand he holds a book , thought to be his work Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry . The sculpture surmounts a granite , Beaux @-@ Arts base that is 17 @.@ 2 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) tall and 17 @.@ 1 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide . On the front of the memorial ( north side ) , a bronze sculpture representing the Goddess of Masonry rests halfway down the base . With her right hand , she holds the banner of the Scottish Rite on a staff . She is wearing a long Greek robe and facing downward , her ankles crossed and feet dangling .
Inscriptions on the memorial include the following :
G. TRENTANOVE / FLLI GALLI FUSERO ( base of Pike 's sculpture )
33 / DEUS MEUMQUE JUS ( on banner held by Goddess figure )
ALBERT PIKE ( front of upper base )
Born December 29th , 1809 . / Died April 2nd , 1891 . ( rear of base )
AUTHOR - VIXIT / LABORUM EJUS SUPERTITIES SUN FRUCTUS - POET ( front of lower base )
SCHOLAR - SOLDIER ( left side of lower base )
ORATOR - JURIST ( right side of lower base )
PHILANTHROPIST - ERECTED 1901 BY THE SUPREME COUNCIL OF / THE AASR OF FREEMASONRY / FOR THE S J U.S.A. - PHILOSOPHER ( rear of lower base )
= Mount Rainier =
Mount Rainier ( pronounced : / reɪˈnɪər / ) , Mount Tacoma , or Mount Tahoma is the highest mountain of the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest , and the highest mountain in the U.S. state of Washington . It is a large active stratovolcano located 54 miles ( 87 km ) south @-@ southeast of Seattle . It is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States and the Cascade Volcanic Arc , with a summit elevation of 14 @,@ 411 ft ( 4 @,@ 392 m ) .
Mt . Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world , and it is on the Decade Volcano list . Because of its large amount of glacial ice , Mt . Rainier could potentially produce massive lahars that could threaten the entire Puyallup River valley , and poses a grave threat to sections of Seattle , a city with nearly a million people living in it .
= = Name = =
Mount Rainier was first known by the Native Americans as Talol , or Tacoma or Tahoma . One hypothesis of the word origin is [ təqʷúʔbəʔ ] ( " mother of waters " ) , in the Lushootseed language spoken by the Puyallup people . Another hypothesis is that " Tacoma " means " larger than Mount Baker " in Lushootseed : " Ta " , larger , plus " Koma ( Kulshan ) " , Mount Baker . Other names originally used include Tahoma , Tacobeh , and Pooskaus .
The current name was given by George Vancouver , who named it in honor of his friend , Rear Admiral Peter Rainier . The map of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804 @-@ 1806 refers to it as " Mt . Regniere " .
Although " Rainier " had been considered the official name of the mountain , Theodore Winthrop , in his posthumously published 1862 travel book The Canoe and the Saddle , referred to the mountain as " Tacoma " and for a time , both names were used interchangeably , although " Mt . Tacoma " was preferred in the city of Tacoma .
In 1890 , the United States Board on Geographic Names declared that the mountain would be known as " Rainier " . Following this in 1897 , the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve , and the national park was established three years later . Despite this , there was still a movement to change the mountain 's name to " Tacoma " and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924 .
In the lead up to Super Bowl XLVIII , the Washington State Senate passed a resolution on Friday , January 31 , 2014 , temporarily renaming the mountain Mount Seattle Seahawks until the midnight after the Super Bowl , Monday , February 3 , 2014 , in response to the renaming of 53 mountains in Colorado after the 53 members of the Denver Broncos by Governor of Colorado John Hickenlooper .
After the renaming of Mount McKinley in 2015 , debate over the name resumed .
= = Geographical setting = =
Mount Rainier is the highest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range . This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Seattle and Tacoma . Mount Rainier is ranked third of the 128 ultra @-@ prominent mountain peaks of the United States . Mount Rainier has a topographic prominence of 13 @,@ 210 ft ( 4 @,@ 026 m ) , which is greater than that of K2 , the world 's second @-@ tallest mountain , at 13 @,@ 189 ft ( 4 @,@ 020 m ) . On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the Seattle @-@ Tacoma metropolitan area to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as " the Mountain . " On days of exceptional clarity , it can also be seen from as far away as Corvallis , Oregon ( at Marys Peak ) and Victoria , British Columbia .
With 26 major glaciers and 36 sq mi ( 93 km2 ) of permanent snowfields and glaciers , Mount Rainier is the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states . The summit is topped by two volcanic craters , each more than 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) in diameter , with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater . Geothermal heat from the volcano keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice , and has formed the world 's largest volcanic glacier cave network within the ice @-@ filled craters , with nearly 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of passages . A small crater lake about 130 by 30 ft ( 39 @.@ 6 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) in size and 16 ft ( 5 m ) deep , the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14 @,@ 203 ft ( 4 @,@ 329 m ) , occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft ( 30 m ) of ice and is accessible only via the caves .
The Carbon , Puyallup , Mowich , Nisqually , and Cowlitz Rivers begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier . The sources of the White River are Winthrop , Emmons , and Fryingpan Glaciers . The White , Carbon , and Mowich join the Puyallup River , which discharges into Commencement Bay at Tacoma ; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of Lacey ; and the Cowlitz joins the Columbia River between Kelso and Longview .
= = = Subsidiary peaks = = =
The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits . The highest is called the Columbia Crest . The second highest summit is Point Success , 14 @,@ 158 ft ( 4 @,@ 315 m ) , at the southern edge of the summit plateau , atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver . It has a topographic prominence of about 138 ft ( 42 m ) , so it is not considered a separate peak . The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap , 14 @,@ 112 ft ( 4 @,@ 301 m ) , at the northwestern edge , which overlooks Liberty Ridge , the Sunset Amphitheater , and the dramatic Willis Wall . Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft ( 150 m ) , and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence @-@ based rules . A prominence cutoff of 400 ft ( 122 m ) is commonly used in Washington state .
High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as Little Tahoma Peak , 11 @,@ 138 ft ( 3 @,@ 395 m ) , an eroded remnant of the earlier , much higher , Mount Rainier . It has a prominence of 858 ft ( 262 m ) , and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest , so it is usually considered a separate peak . If considered separately from Mt . Rainier , Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington .
= = Geology = =
Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc that consists of lava flows , debris flows , and pyroclastic ejecta and flows . Its early volcanic deposits are estimated at more than 840 @,@ 000 years old and are part of the Lily Formation ( about 2 @.@ 9 million to 840 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The early deposits formed a " proto @-@ Rainier " or an ancestral cone prior to the present @-@ day cone . The present cone is more than 500 @,@ 000 years old .
The volcano is highly eroded , with glaciers on its slopes , and appears to be made mostly of andesite . Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) before a major debris avalanche and the resulting Osceola Mudflow approximately 5 @,@ 000 years ago . In the past , Rainier has had large debris avalanches , and has also produced enormous lahars ( volcanic mudflows ) due to the large amount of glacial ice present . Its lahars have reached all the way to Puget Sound , a distance of more than 30 mi ( 48 km ) . Around 5 @,@ 000 years ago , a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow , which went all the way to the site of present @-@ day Tacoma and south Seattle . This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1 @,@ 600 ft ( 500 m ) of Rainier , bringing its height down to around 14 @,@ 100 ft ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . About 530 to 550 years ago , the Electron Mudflow occurred , although this was not as large @-@ scale as the Osceola Mudflow .
After the major collapse approximately 5 @,@ 000 years ago , subsequent eruptions of lava and tephra built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1 @,@ 000 years ago . As many as 11 Holocene tephra layers have been found .
= = = Modern activity and the current threat = = =
The most recent recorded volcanic eruption was between 1820 and 1854 , but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858 , 1870 , 1879 , 1882 and 1894 as well .
Although Mount Rainier is an active volcano , as of 2016 seismic monitors within Mount Rainier National Park and on top of the mountain appear to show that it is indeed very much alive , but very soundly asleep . However , an eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and an eruption would also cause trouble from Vancouver , Canada to San Francisco because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere .
Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire . This includes mountains and calderas like Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak in California , Crater Lake , Three Sisters , and Mount Hood in Oregon , Mount Saint Helens , Mount Adams , Glacier Peak , and Mount Baker in Washington , and Mount Cayley , Garibaldi , Silverthrone , and Mount Meager in British Columbia . All of the above are dormant , but alive , and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future , including Mount Rainier . Of these , only two have erupted in the past hundred years : Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 & 2004 . However , past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of sub @-@ plinian eruptions or higher : Crater Lake 's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to implode , and Mt . Rainier 's closest neighbor , Mount St. Helen 's had a huge chunk of the side of the mountain blow up in a phreatic explosion caused by a mix of gas and water ; where St. Helens was once perfectly symmetrical there is now , thirty five years later , a huge crater at the top of one face . Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in this range at 2 @-@ 3 per century .
Mount Rainier is currently listed as a Decade Volcano , or one of the 16 volcanoes with the greatest likelihood of causing great loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes . If Mt . Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18 , 1980 eruption , the effect would be cumulatively greater , because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the volcano compared to Mount St. Helens , the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier , and the simple fact that Mt Rainier is a much bigger volcano , almost twice the size of St. Helens . Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property , as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits . According to the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , about 150 @,@ 000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier . Not only is there much ice atop the volcano , the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity . According to Geoff Clayton , a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm , RH2 Engineering , a repeat of the Osceola mudflow would destroy Enumclaw , Orting , Kent , Auburn , Puyallup , Sumner and all of Renton . Such a mudflow might also reach down the Duwamish estuary and destroy parts of downtown Seattle , and cause tsunamis in Puget Sound and Lake Washington . Rainier is also capable of producing pyroclastic flows and expelling lava .
According to K. Scott , a scientist with the USGS :
" A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire ... For example , a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years , on the average , is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire . People know the danger of fire , so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms , but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars , and few have applicable flood insurance . "
The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in Pierce County . The more populous King County is also in the lahar area , but currently has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard . More recently ( since 2001 ) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up , leading local authorities in at @-@ risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the Armero tragedy .
= = = Seismic background = = =
Typically , up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit . Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time , predominantly in the region of 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 km ) below the summit . These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier . Presumably , hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids . Seismic swarms ( not initiated with a mainshock ) are common features at volcanoes , and are rarely associated with eruptive activity . Rainier has had several such swarms ; there were days @-@ long swarms in 2002 , 2004 , and 2007 , two of which ( 2002 and 2004 ) included M 3 @.@ 2 earthquakes . A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier . Yet another swarm was observed in 2011 .
= = = Glaciers = = =
Glaciers are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier . They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers , including some that provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation . Together with perennial snow patches , the 26 major glaciers cover about 36 square miles ( 93 km2 ) of the mountain 's surface and have a volume of about 1 cubic mile ( 4 @.@ 2 km3 ) .
Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by deformation , the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals . Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier . During May 1970 , Nisqually Glacier was measured moving as fast as 29 inches ( 74 cm ) per day . Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter , probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base .
The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past . For example , during the last ice age , from about 25 @,@ 000 to about 15 @,@ 000 years ago , glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin .
Between the 14th century and 1850 , many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age . Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the Little Ice Age . During the Little Ice Age , the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft ( 200 to 240 m ) downvalley from the site of the Glacier Bridge , Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers merged at the base of Glacier Island , and the terminus of Emmons Glacier reached within 1 @.@ 2 mi ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) of the White River Campground .
Retreat of the Little Ice Age glaciers was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid . Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950 , Mount Rainier 's glaciers lost about one @-@ quarter of their length . Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s , however , many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid @-@ century . The Carbon , Cowlitz , Emmons , and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s . Since the early @-@ 1980s , however , many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed .
The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows , through glacial outburst floods not associated with any eruption . The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s , and again in August , 2015 .
= = Human history = =
At the time of European contact , the river valleys and other areas near the mountain were inhabited by many Pacific Northwest tribes who hunted and gathered berries in its forests and mountain meadows . These included the Nisqually , Cowlitz , Yakama , Puyallup , and Muckleshoot .
Captain George Vancouver reached Puget Sound in early May 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain .
In 1833 , Dr. William Fraser Tolmie explored the area looking for medicinal plants . Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump received a hero 's welcome in the streets of Olympia after their successful summit climb in 1870 . The first female ascent was made in 1890 by Fay Fuller , accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates .
John Muir climbed Mount Rainier in 1888 , and although he enjoyed the view , he conceded that it was best appreciated from below . Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain . In 1893 , the area was set aside as part of the Pacific Forest Reserve in order to protect its physical and economic resources , primarily timber and watersheds .
Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment , railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism . On March 2 , 1899 , President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park as America 's fifth national park . Congress dedicated the new park " for the benefit and enjoyment of the people " and " ... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber , mineral deposits , natural curiosities , or wonders within said park , and their retention in their natural condition . "
In 1998 , the United States Geological Survey began putting together the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System to assist in the emergency evacuation of the Puyallup River valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow . It is now run by the Pierce County Department of Emergency Management . Tacoma , at the mouth of the Puyallup , is only 37 mi ( 60 km ) west of Rainier , and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi ( 43 and 32 km ) away , respectively .
Mt . Rainier appears on four distinct United States postage stamp issues . In 1934 , it was the 3 @-@ cent issue in a series of National Park stamps , and was also shown on a souvenir sheet issued for a philatelic convention . The following year , in 1935 , both of these were reprinted by Postmaster General James A. Farley as special issues given to officials and friends . Because of complaints by the public , " Farley 's Follies " were reproduced in large numbers . The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is imperforate . Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available .
The Washington state quarter , which was released on April 11 , 2007 , features Mount Rainier and a salmon .
= = Climbing and recreation = =
Mountain climbing on Mount Rainier is difficult , involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of Alaska . Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit . Climbing teams demand experience in glacier travel , self @-@ rescue , and wilderness travel . About 8 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 people attempt the climb each year , about 90 % via routes from Camp Muir on the southeast flank . Most of the rest ascend Emmons Glacier via Camp Schurman on the northeast . About half of the attempts are successful , with weather and conditioning being the most common reasons for failure . All climbers who plan to climb above high camps , Camp Muir and Camp Schurman , are required by law to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb . Additionally , solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the Superintendent before attempting to climb .
The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981 , when eleven people lost their lives in an ice fall on the Ingraham Glacier . This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier .
More recently , the mountain received media attention in 2012 , as one of the park rangers lost his life when several climbers were caught in a storm while trying to ascend the mountain . While trying to help load the climbers into a rescue helicopter , the ranger lost his footing , and slid 3 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) to his death .
In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years , six climbers — two guides , and four clients — last heard from on May 28 , 2014 , were presumed dead on May 31 , 2014 , when low @-@ flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers . Officials concluded that there was no possible chance for survival after the climbers fell 3 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) while attempting or returning from the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route . Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9 @,@ 500 ft ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) , possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing , though the exact cause of the accident is unknown . The bodies of three of the guest climbers were spotted on August 7 , 2014 , during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19 , 2014 . The bodies of the fourth guest climber and two guides have not been located .
About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall , avalanche , falls , and hypothermia associated with severe weather ( 58 reported since and including the 1981 accident through 2010 per American Alpine Club Accidents in North American Mountaineering and the NPS ) .
Hiking , backcountry skiing , photography , and camping are popular in the park . Hiking trails , including the Wonderland Trail — a 93 @-@ mile or 150 @-@ kilometre circumnavigation of the peak — provide access to the backcountry . Mount Rainier is also popular for winter sports , including snowshoeing and cross @-@ country skiing .
= = Climate = =
The summit of Mount Rainier has an alpine climate .
= Cowboy Jimmy Moore =
Cowboy Jimmy Moore ( September 14 , 1910 – November 17 , 1999 ) , born James William Moore , was a world @-@ class American pocket billiards ( pool ) player originally from Troup County , Georgia , and for most of his life a resident of Albuquerque , New Mexico , best known for his mastery in the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) .
An excellent athlete at various sports , Moore 's many records in billiards include winning the Michigan State Billiard Championship four times , placing second at the World Championship five times competing against the best in the world such as Willie Mosconi , Irving Crane and Luther Lassiter , winning the United States National Pocket Billiards Championship in 1958 , the National Invitation Pocket Billiards Championship in 1965 and the Legends of Pocket Billiards competition in 1984 .
Moore was also known for his straight pool exhibition work , as a formidable road player , and for his unusual pool style , which included both his flamboyant cowboy dress , and his rare form of cueing technique known as a slip stroke . Moore also worked as a technical adviser for billiard @-@ related scenes in television and film in such productions as My Living Doll , and the Jerry Lewis movie The Family Jewels . He is an inductee of the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame , the International Pocket Billiards Hall of Fame , and the Albuquerque Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Early years = =
James William Moore was born on September 14 , 1910 on a farm located in Troup County , Georgia , just outside the City of Hogansville . He was the son of a Georgia blacksmith , sheriff and streetcar conductor . He began working at a young age , supplementing his family 's income variously as a cotton picker earning 35 cents per 100 pounds , managing a fruit stand , and delivering newspapers . His family moved to Detroit when he was 13 , where other ways of making money presented themselves . Moore ran card games and pursued other games of chance , even pitching pennies . He was very good at such gambling pursuits and was a naturally gifted athlete , attaining a Triple @-@ A level as a baseball player in the minor leagues , once bowled a perfect game , and was a fine golfer .
I was shooting in the ' 70s soon after I took up golf . I thought about trying to become a pro but I figured there wasn 't any money in it . That was true , back then . Same thing for baseball . I was a pretty good pitcher — I played in the minors for Belle Isle , out of Detroit — but I didn 't think I could make a living at it .
In 1928 at 18 years of age , Moore took a job as a pinsetter at Car Barns , a local bowling alley , earning six cents a line . True to form , Moore was a quick study , for a time carrying a 233 bowling average . Moore first picked up a cue stick at Car Barns , playing on the single 4 x 8 foot pool table the bowling alley had available . According to Moore he immediately fell in love with the game ; specifically , with the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) , at which he would chiefly compete during his career , though not to the exclusion of all other billiard disciplines — Moore would become national snooker champion , and would place second at the 1961 First Annual World 's One @-@ Pocket Billiards Tournament in Johnston City , Illinois .
Straight pool was the game of championship pocket billiards competition until approximately the 1980s when it was overtaken by " faster " games such as nine @-@ ball . In the game , a shooter may attempt to pocket any object ball on the table . The object is to reach a set number of points determined by agreement before the game — typically 150 in professional competition . One point is scored for each ball pocketed in the pocket called and where no foul has transpired . According to Moore , his high run in the game was 236 ball in a row .
Six months after his first introduction to the game , Moore entered and won the 1929 Michigan State billiard championship . He successfully defended that title in the following three years . During the midst of the Great Depression , however , playing pool for trophies was not a luxury Moore could afford , so he took his game on the road .
= = On the road = =
Moore first partnered with hustler cum exhibition player , Ray St. Laurent , a colorful character who staged exhibitions wearing a red cape and mask while billed as " The Red Devil " . Although St. Laurent fostered Moore , they were not equals on the pool table . One winter evening in Canton , Ohio , St. Laurent was losing badly in a thoroughly overmatched gambling session to Ohio road legend , Don Willis , known as the " Cincinnati Kid " , who was considered by many of his colleagues of the time " the deadliest player alive " . The wager was 25 cents a ball — a not inconsiderable sum at the time — and Moore was stakehorsing the match . Eventually disgusted by the uneven proceedings , Moore told St. Laurent that he couldn 't win and asked him to step aside and let him have a go . Willis later recalled :
Here was this punk kid sitting there saying , ' I 'll play you some . ' Well , he got out of that overcoat and ran over me in my home poolroom . He never missed a ball .
Moore and Willis became traveling partners following their match , often accompanied on the road by future six @-@ time world champion Luther " Wimpy " Lassiter . Given his skill and prominent road partners , Moore 's name began to be known in the billiard world . In 1940 , the World Pocket Billiards ( straight pool ) titleholder of that year , Andrew Ponzi , sought out Moore looking for a challenge . At the match ultimately arranged , Moore first beat Ponzi out of $ 80 playing nine @-@ ball , and then beat him at his own game of choice , straight pool , with Moore scoring 125 points to Ponzi 's 82 .
After Moore 's match with Ponzi , he was hired by Ponzi 's sometime employer , Sylvester Livingston , a pool impresario who hosted exhibitions with a stable of top pool talent including Irving Crane who , like Lassiter , would become a six @-@ time world champion . During 1941 Moore performed 250 exhibitions across the country , earning $ 5 for matinees , and $ 7 for evening performances . He lost only one match over the year , and posted straight pool runs of 100 or more in 24 out of the 250 exhibitions .
By that time Moore was recognizable by his cowboy airs . He customarily wore cowboy boots , a white Stetson hat and a string tie , kept his hair in a crew @-@ cut , and was rarely seen without a cigar . He was also known for his unusual form of stroke . Moore employed a slip stroke — a shooting technique in which a player releases his gripping hand briefly and re @-@ grasps the cue farther back on the butt just before hitting the cue ball . Employing the slip stroke to good effect , Moore was deadly accurate , but could also shoot with great power .
In 1945 , Moore 's purchased a home in Albuquerque , New Mexico , where he would live for the rest of his life with his wife , Julie Chavez , whom he married in 1949 . They had seven children together : sons Jamie , Raymond and Tommy , and daughters Pamela Nathan , Kolma Moore , Emily DiLorenzo and Linda Bates . Soon after moving to Albuquerque , he became co @-@ owner and operator of the U Cue Billiards Hall located in the City . It was said that hustlers avoided going through Albuquerque just to avoid getting into a money game with Moore .
= = Exhibition and competition = =
Though Moore continued playing on the road — as he would for over 40 years — he began competing and placing in top @-@ tier tournaments . His tournament career was to be overshadowed by an enduring series of runner @-@ up finishes that would earn him the nickname " pool 's underpaid prince " in such publications as Esquire Magazine . The name that stuck with him for life , however , was Cowboy . According to Moore , he became ' Cowboy ' Jimmy Moore when he appeared at the Commodore Hotel championships in New York City in the 1950s wearing the required tuxedo , but nevertheless sporting cowboy boots and his signature white Stetson hat .
The second @-@ place @-@ saga started in 1951 at the two @-@ week @-@ long , double @-@ elimination , round robin format , World Championship tournament , held that year in Boston . At the competition , Moore was defeated in his last match by Willie Mosconi . His record was seven wins in nine matches , including triumphs over future Billiard Congress of America ( BCA ) Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers , Irving Crane and Arthur " Babe " Cranfield .
In 1952 he made a strong showing in the same competition , held once more in Boston , running 93 balls against Lassiter , beating him 150 to 25 , but again finishing behind Willie Mosconi , this time sharing second place with Jimmy Caras and Joe Procita . Moore 's match with Mosconi had an ending score of 150 to 58 in 19 innings . Moore competed in the 1953 World Championship in San Francisco , but did not place , losing in his last match to Crane , 150 @-@ 56 in 7 innings .
The following year Moore took second place yet again in the World Championship , held that year in Philadelphia . The 1954 tournament was not sponsored and was unsanctioned by the BCA ; in its absence being organized by Irving Crane . It was denominated by newspapers , such as The New York Times , as the " Unofficial World Pocket Billiard Championship . " In a career highlight in the penultimate match there , Moore was losing 148 to 8 to Irving Crane . When Crane let him back to the table , Moore ran 142 balls and out . Despite this feat , Moore was dispatched to second place by Lassiter , with a final score of 150 to 95 , sharing second place with Crane . The defending champion , Mosconi , did not participate .
Moore 's runner @-@ up streak continued in the 1956 World Championship held at Judice 's Academy in Brooklyn , New York . He clinched second place , to Willie Mosconi 's now almost ubiquitous first , with a 150 to 50 score over Al Coslosky of Philadelphia in 15 innings , a win over Richard Riggie of Baltimore , 150 to 121 , with an inspired run of 107 balls , but a loss to Lassiter , 150 to 70 in 7 innings . That same year Moore played Mosconi at a challenge match in Kinston , North Carolina . It was not Moore 's day as Mosconi posted a career highlight ; a perfect match — 150 balls in a row in one inning .
In all , Moore came in second at the World Championship five times but never took the crown . He did however win the National Pocket Billiards Championship held in Chicago at Bensinger 's Billiards in 1958 . The tournament was a challenge match , marathon straight pool race to 3 @,@ 000 points between Moore and Luther Lassiter . It was a tight competition , with Lassiter leading at one point 1 @,@ 800 to 1 @,@ 512 . Moore battled back and eventually won with a final score of 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 634 .
He didn 't think I could beat him , and that made me mad . I had to get mad to win . I was way behind , then I ran 95 , 96 , 97 and 175 , and only missed then when I scratched on the break . Ran right past him .
Moore would eventually have ten second place finishes in world @-@ title competition . Nevertheless , he frequently competed with and beat all of the players whom he so often played second fiddle to in sanctioned tournament play . In fact , later in 1958 , the same year he won the National Pocket Billiards Championship against Lassiter , he roundly defeated Mosconi in a two @-@ day exhibition match in his home town of Albuquerque , with a final score of 500 to 397 . Moore and Mosconi would battle it out many times in unsanctioned but publicized play . In addition to matches previously mentioned , they vied at Albuquerque 's old Chaplin Alley in 1956 ; at the Highland Bowl in 1958 ; and later , in matches in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , Philadelphia , Chicago and Johnston City at the Jansco Brother 's Stardust Open , where Moore would win the prize for " all @-@ around honors " .
It was not until 1965 at the National Invitation Pocket Billiards Championship , seven years after his last first place finish , that he would repeat as champion in a sanctioned tournament . At that contest held at the Riviera Terrace in New York City , along the way to first place and the prize of $ 4 @,@ 000 , Moore defeated : Onofrio Lauri 150 to 117 ; Joe Balsis 150 to -3 ; Cisero Murphy 150 to 96 ; " Champagne " Edwin Kelly 150 to 83 in 3 innings ; and the ever @-@ present Luther Lassiter , 150 to 41 in 4 innings . The runner up in the tourney was Joe Balsis .
In addition to competition , Moore served as a technical adviser for billiard @-@ related scenes in television and film , including My Living Doll starring Julie Newmar and Robert Cummings in 1964 , and the Jerry Lewis movie The Family Jewels in 1965 .
= = Later life = =
Moore was inducted into the International Pocket Billiards Hall of Fame in 1982 , the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame in 1994 , and the Albuquerque Sports Hall of Fame in 1998 . He remained competitive in tournament and match play well into his 70s . In 1984 , at age 74 , Moore won the Legends of Pocket Billiards competition on ESPN . Even in later years he was still deadly on a pool table , running 111 balls three days after his 80th birthday . " Until the traffic accident I had about a year ago , I was still playing my usual speed " Moore said in July 1999 at the age of 89 . However , Moore 's health declined rapidly that same year . He died on November 17 , 1999 of natural causes .
= USS Constellation vs L 'Insurgente =
The USS Constellation vs L 'Insurgente , or the Action of 9 February 1799 , was a single @-@ ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi @-@ War , the battle resulted in the USS Constellation 's capture of L 'Insurgente .
The previous year , an undeclared war had begun between the United States and France due to French privateering attacks against American vessels . An American squadron under Commodore Thomas Truxtun had been sent to patrol the waters between Puerto Rico and Saint Kitts with orders to engage any French forces they found in the area . While Truxtun was sailing independently of his squadron in the Constellation , his flagship , he met and engaged L 'Insurgente . After chasing the French ship through a storm , Constellation was able to force L 'Insurgente into an engagement that lasted an hour and fourteen minutes before the French frigate surrendered . The French sustained heavy casualties in the action , while the numbers of American dead and wounded were low . After the action L 'Insurgente was taken to Saint Kitts and commissioned into the United States Navy as USS Insurgent . With this and later victories , American morale soared , and Truxtun returned home to honor and praise from the American government and the public at large .
= = Background = =
In 1798 an undeclared war between the United States and France began due to French privateering attacks against American vessels . In response to the attacks , the United States government decided to go on the offensive by sending four naval squadrons to the Caribbean with orders to seize armed French vessels and prevent privateers from attacking American ships . One of the squadrons , under the command of Commodore Thomas Truxtun , was dispatched to cruise between Puerto Rico and Saint Kitts . Truxtun 's squadron consisted of his flagship , the frigate USS Constellation , the 20 @-@ gun Baltimore , the brigs Richmond and Norfolk , and the revenue cutter Virginia . Opposing Truxtun were several French vessels based out of Guadeloupe , among them a number of privateers as well as two French naval frigates and a smaller , 20 @-@ gun corvette . One of the French frigates , the L 'Insurgente , sortied out from Guadaloupe on 8 February , commanded by Michel @-@ Pierre Barreaut .
Though the 1 @,@ 265 @-@ ton Constellation was officially classified by the United States Navy as a 36 @-@ gun frigate , during the Quasi @-@ War she carried a heavier armament of 38 guns . Consisting of twenty @-@ eight 24 @-@ pounders on her main deck and ten 12 @-@ pounders on her spar deck , Constellation 's main armament had a combined throwing weight of 396 pounds ( 180 kg ) . In contrast , L 'Insurgente , rated a 32 @-@ gun Sémillante @-@ class frigate , was armed with 40 cannons . The armament of Barreaut 's 950 @-@ ton ship consisted of twenty @-@ four 12 @-@ pounders , two 18 @-@ pounders , eight 6 @-@ pounders , four 32 @-@ pounder carronades , and two 24 @-@ pounder carronades , totaling a combined throwing weight of only 282 pounds ( 128 kg ) . Thus although Barreaut 's vessel carried two more guns in total , Truxtun 's frigate had a more powerful armament due to shot weight . In a boarding action , the French frigate 's crew of 409 men would have had an advantage over the American ship 's 309 , but in a gunnery duel the Americans were superior .
= = Battle = =
At noon on 9 February , while cruising independently , Truxtun 's men sighted a frigate off the coast of Nevis . Upon approach it was evident that the vessel was flying American colors , and Constellation attempted to move closer to investigate . Unknown to Truxtun , the frigate was the French L 'Insurgente under Michel @-@ Pierre Barreaut . Nearing the still @-@ unidentified L 'Insurgente , Truxtun attempted to signal her to discern her nationality by displaying first British signals and then American signals . Unable to send the correct reply , L 'Insurgente replaced the American colors with French and fired a gun . Upon sighting Constellation at 12 : 30 p.m. , Barreaut mistook the ship for a British corvette and began to flee toward the Dutch islands of Saba and Sint Eustatius to evade his assailant . Truxtun gave chase , but was hampered at 1 : 30 p.m. when the two vessels ran into a gale . As a result of the storm , L 'Insurgente lost her main topmast and was severely damaged , while Constellation managed to avoid significant damage and was able to close in on Barreaut .
Though Truxton 's ship initially held an advantageous position in the wind known as the weather gauge , she was over @-@ armed , and as a result her leeward side heeled so much that the gunports on that side of the vessel could not be opened . Truxton decided to cede the weather gauge to the French by sailing around the L 'Insurgente 's leeward side and bringing the Constellation near the French frigate 's port side . In such a position the Constellation was disadvantaged by the wind , but was able to avoid some of the heeling effect on her guns . With the Constellation approaching his frigate fast , Barreaut tried to communicate with the Americans in order to avoid a fight . The American frigate ignored the French attempt at hailing her and closed to within fifty yards of L 'Insurgente before opening up on her with a broadside . Loading her cannons with double shot , the opening American salvo severely damaged the French frigate 's quarterdeck . Barreaut 's vessel replied with her own broadsides that damaged Constellation 's fore topmast . Midshipman David Porter , stationed in the rigging of the Constellation 's damaged mast , managed to relieve pressure from it and prevented its collapse . The L 'Insurgente attempted to close on the American frigate to board her . With less damage to her rigging , Constellation was easily able to avoid Barreaut 's attempts at boarding .
Constellation crossed L 'Insurgente 's bow and raked her with a broadside . Truxtun then maneuvered Constellation to the L 'Insurgente 's starboard side and fired further broadsides into the French frigate , but received damage to her rigging in return . Constellation slipped ahead of L 'Insurgente , again crossing her bow and raking her . Once more Constellation slipped next to L 'Insurgente 's leeward side and fired into her , disabling the French vessel 's 18 @-@ pounder guns . Constellation crossed the frigate 's bow a third time , but the French ship had by then sustained massive damage . Attempts by Barreaut 's crew to repair L 'Insurgente 's rigging were fruitless and the French captain subsequently was forced to strike his colors and surrender the vessel . The entire engagement had lasted one hour and fourteen minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
The end of the action signaled the first victory over an enemy warship for the newly formed United States Navy . After Barreaut had struck his colors , Truxtun sent a boat over to board , identify , and take possession of the French vessel . It was only upon boarding L 'Insurgente that the Americans learned the identity of their opponents . The storm and the battle had caused immense damage to the French frigate . In comparison , Constellation had suffered moderate damage to her rigging , but was otherwise still intact . French casualties included 29 killed and 41 wounded , while the Americans suffered two dead and two wounded . One American died shortly after the action ended , of wounds received from French fire ; another was executed for cowardice by Constellation 's Lieutenant Andrew Sterett after the man deserted his gun at the start of the action .
Constellation began taking on prisoners of war from L 'Insurgente , but by nightfall the two ships had become separated in a storm . Left aboard L 'Insurgente were the Constellation 's First Lieutenant John Rodgers , Midshipman David Porter , and 11 enlisted men , along with 170 French prisoners . The Americans were forced to sail the vessel short @-@ handed while guarding the French prisoners . As the prisoners outnumbered their captors and no gear to secure them could be found aboard , the Frenchmen were driven into L 'Insurgente 's lower holds . Finally , after three nights , L 'Insurgente was brought in to Saint Kitts where Constellation was waiting for her . While at the American naval depot at Saint Kitts , the Constellation 's troublesome 24 @-@ pounder guns were removed and replaced with 18 @-@ pounder cannons . At the American prize court in Norfolk , Virginia , L 'Insurgente was condemned to be sold as a war prize , with the proceeds distributed to the crew of the Constellation . Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert managed to negotiate the prize award down from $ 120 @,@ 000 to $ 84 @,@ 000 before purchasing L 'Insurgente and commissioning her in the United States Navy as the USS Insurgent .
For his victory over L 'Insurgente , Truxtun received honors both at home and abroad . When accounts of the action reached London , Truxtun was fêted by the merchants there who sent him a piece of silver plate to commemorate his victory . In the United States , morale soared upon hearing of the first American victory over the French . Truxtun was cited by Benjamin Stoddert , the Secretary of the Navy , for his excellent conduct during the action , and songs and poems such as Brave Yankee Boys were later written about the event . In contrast , when Barreaut returned to France he was accused of failing to put up sufficient resistance in the engagement and was given a court @-@ martial . Despite the accusations , he had been praised by Truxton after the action for his bravery and was acquitted during the court @-@ martial . The French were infuriated upon hearing the results of the action because the two countries were not officially at war ; Governor Edme Étienne Borne Desfourneaux of Guadeloupe demanded that Insurgent be returned to French control . Upon learning of the American refusal to repatriate Insurgent , Desfourneaux was outraged and ordered all American vessels and property to be seized , while also declaring that a state of war existed between the United States and Guadeloupe . After continuing their cruise for a few weeks , both Insurgent and Constellation were forced to return to Norfolk , Virginia , by the end of March due to the expiration of the terms of enlistment of their crews . On her next cruise Constellation dueled La Vengeance , though that French frigate escaped L 'Insurgente 's fate .
= Letocetum =
Letocetum is the ancient remains of a Roman settlement . It was an important military staging post and posting station near the junction of Watling Street , the Roman military road to North Wales , and Icknield ( or Ryknild ) Street ( now the A38 ) . The site is now within the parish of Wall , Staffordshire , England . It is owned and run by the National Trust , under the name Letocetum Roman Baths Site & Museum . The site is in the guardianship of English Heritage as Wall Roman Site .
The Romans came to Letocetum in 50 CE to establish a fortress during the early years of the invasion of Britain . The land could not support large amounts of soldiers and Letocetum , at an important cross @-@ roads , became a large scale posting station . The settlement developed with successive bath houses and mansiones built to serve the official travellers as well as the growing civilian population . It is known mainly from detailed excavations in 1912 – 13 , which concentrated on the sites of the mansio and bath @-@ house , but there is evidence of a substantial settlement with possible basilica , temples , and amphitheatre .
The remains visible today are those of the stone bath house and mansio , built in approximately 130 CE after Letocetum ceased to have a military function and became a civilian settlement . The settlement reached its peak during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and at this time occupied 8 @.@ 1 – 12 hectares ( 20 – 30 acres ) . At the end of the 3rd century , the town relocated within high defensive walls astride Watling Street . After the Romans left early in the 5th century the settlement went into decline . The modern village of Wall emerged in the land once occupied by Letocetum .
= = Name = =
The site is mentioned as Etocetum in the Antonine Itinerary and presumably represented a Latinisation of a Brittonic place name reconstructed as * Lētocaiton ( " Grey @-@ wood " ; cf . Old Welsh : Luitcoyt and modern Welsh Lwytgoed ) . The name possibly represented the species of tree prominent at the site such as ash and elm . Ford identifies the community as the Cair Luit Coyd ( " Fort Greywood " ) listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains , previously identified with Lincoln or Lichfield .
= = History = =
= = = Native settlement = = =
It is likely that a small native settlement occupied the site before the advent of the Romans , possibly as the main trading station on the boundary between two British tribes , the Corieltauvi in the East Midlands whose later tribal centre was at Ratae Corieltauvorum , and the Cornovii to the west with their original capital Uriconon ( which would later give its name to the important Roman British city of Viroconium ) at the hill fort on The Wrekin . These tribes offered little resistance to Roman rule .
= = = Military staging post = = =
In about 50 CE , a Roman vexillatio built a large timber fortress on a hilltop ( near the site of the current church ) at Letocetum . This housed the Legio XIV Gemina during the campaigns of governor Aulus Didius Gallus against the Brigantes . It was a good defensive position , but the poor farmland surrounding the fortress could not support large numbers of soldiers . During the Neronian period this initial fortress was replaced with a smaller one and Letocetum then developed into a large @-@ scale posting station . Most of the troops moved to the fortress at Viroconium during the early administration of Gaius Suetonius Paulinus in about 58 CE .
= = = Posting station = = =
A mansio was built to provide lodging for official couriers travelling on Watling Street . A bath house was also built for the travellers and the growing civilian population . When the first mansio and bath house were completed , workers were needed to provide wood for the bath house , look after animals , and repair vehicles to be used by the official travellers . The civilian population would have provided many of these services . The native settlement grew during the Flavian period onwards to occupy 8 @.@ 1 – 12 hectares ( 20 – 30 acres ) . Roman burials with 1st and 2nd century pottery were found along Watling Street in 1927 , and more in 1966 . In the field between the mansio site and Watling Street , a round depression in the ground may mark the site of a Roman amphitheatre . A large earthenware vessel in the likeness of Minerva was found near the modern church , which may therefore be the site of a temple of Minerva . A rectangular crop @-@ mark in the field to the north @-@ west of the bath @-@ house , only visible in dry weather , may be the site of another temple .
When the Legion XIV first settled at Letocetum they would have used existing trackways . A stone @-@ surfaced road was needed to allow reliable movement . Watling Street was given a stone surface past Letocetum in about 70 CE . This date is approximated from two coins found in the centre of Letocetum beneath the first road surfacing . There is no evidence to indicate when Ryknild Street was constructed , but from the layout it is thought that Watling Street was built first . Watling Street stretched from Letocetum to London in one direction and to Wroxeter and Chester in the other . Ryknild Street , 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) wide where it crossed with Watling Street , connected Letocetum with Cirencester to the south west and Yorkshire to the north east .
= = = = Early mansiones and bath houses = = = =
The foundations of the last mansio built at the site , and its associated bath @-@ house , were uncovered by archaeologists in 1912 – 13 . The rooms of both the mansio and bath @-@ house were emptied and the stone foundations were exposed . This work left , in some lower stratified levels , traces of the two earlier wooden mansiones .
The hillside had been terraced and the first mansio , whose construction is dated to 54 – 60 CE , fully occupied one terrace . It was of a sleeper beam construction , the walls were wattle and daub , some were plastered and some were painted with simple linear decoration . It has been assumed the roof was thatch and was consumed when the building was destroyed by fire . The rooms were arranged around a square courtyard approximately 19 by 19 metres ( 62 ft × 62 ft ) . Due to the construction of later buildings the known layout of the first mansio is very fragmentary . The date at which the first mansio was destroyed is uncertain , it was probably near the beginning of the 2nd century , as the destruction layers contained Flavian @-@ Trajanic samian @-@ ware , part of a mortarium dating from 70 – 100 CE and part of a glass bowl which has been dated to the 2nd century .
The evidence for the layout of the second mansio is also very fragmentary . It was a courtyard building constructed with posts set vertically in foundation trenches .
The walls were plaster and daub and some rooms were painted in vivid colours . In the courtyard was a large well 2 @.@ 29 by 2 @.@ 44 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft × 8 @.@ 0 ft ) and 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) deep , cut into the underlying sandstone . The second mansio was deliberately dismantled in about 140 – 150 CE during construction of the third mansio . The well was filled in at this time and contained a samian sherd dated 125 – 145 CE . About the same time the second hilltop fort was abandoned and the town ceased to be a military site . One of the last military features at Letocetum was the " punic ditch " associated with this last small fort . The ditch was filled before any secondary silt formed and the filling contained a Trajanic coin dated 98 – 117 CE and pottery suggesting a Hadrianic or early Antonine date .
The earliest bath @-@ house was discovered during an excavation in 1956 . In a construction trench of the very first building was a worn coin of Vespasian dated 71 CE , due to the condition of the coin it is believed that this building was erected around 100 CE . It is thought that this building was built during the military period as the surviving masonry is of high quality with finely dressed stone and a wall some 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) thick . It is thought that the second mansio , the last fort , and the first bath house all ended approximately at the end of the military period on the site .
= = = = Civilian development ; the third mansio and second bath @-@ house = = = =
Letocetum ceased to be used by the military after about 130 CE , probably leaving the town under the authority of the civitas of the Cornovii with its capital at Viroconium Cornoviorum . About this time that a new mansio and bath house were built .
The third and best @-@ understood mansio was built on a stone base about 130 CE . It was at least two storeys high and fronted by a colonnade with a tiled roof , probably supported on wooden columns . In the centre of the colonnade , a large door formed the main entrance to the interior of the building . Through the entrance hall was a colonnaded atrium or courtyard with a plastered floor , the central area probably being open to the sky and perhaps containing a herbaceous garden . Timber posts resting on these foundations around the edges of the colonnade supported a balcony above .
The entrance hall was flanked on either side by similarly sized rooms probably accessible from the central courtyard . The one on the west contained washing facilities and a gutter leading to a soak @-@ away in the central part of the building , the room to the east may possibly have been a guardroom . On the western side of the courtyard were three small rooms which opened out onto the central colonnade at ground level . The function of these rooms is uncertain , but they were probably used as private accommodation for users of the mansio . The largest room in the mansio lay in the north @-@ east corner , the chamber was heated by a channelled hypocaust system added some time after the building was first completed .
To the west of the mansio lay the public bath @-@ house , separated from it by a cobbled road between 2 @.@ 4 and 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 and 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide . From the street , a paved area led into a colonnade fronting the building on the east and continuing round the north side . Large doors in the centre of the eastern colonnade opened into a large , covered courtyard . This courtyard may have been a basilica ; a settlement of this size would be expected to have one , and this is the only candidate on the site . At the far north end of the bath complex was the stoke @-@ room or praefurnium , which contained the wood @-@ fired furnaces of the hypocaust system . This underfloor heating system was present in the tepidarium , the caldarium and the laconicum where the floors were supported on pillars of tiles or pilae . The hot combustion gases from the stoke @-@ room furnaces circulated under the floor between these pillars and were drawn up around the sides of the building through box tiles embedded in the walls , to escape finally through vents in the barrel @-@ vaulted roof .
= = = Late Roman defences ; abandoned mansio and bath @-@ house = = =
Letocetum lost its public buildings near the end of the 3rd century ; the bath @-@ house and mansio were destroyed by fire . Around this time , very solid defences were built which did not include the bath @-@ house or mansio sites . The reason the bath @-@ house and mansio were abandoned can not be determined but the reason was probably economic . Other mansio sites around Britain appear to have been abandoned at this time . This did not imply an end to the posting service at Letocetum , it may have been a less costly reorganisation . The late defences were built in about 300 CE astride Watling Street , approximately 150 metres ( 490 ft ) east of the mansio site . The defences consisted of a stone wall about 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) thick , fronted by three ditches and with a contemporary turf rampart to the rear , the area within the walls was 2 @.@ 1 hectares ( 5 @.@ 2 acres ) . The northern and western sides were identified and sectioned in 1964 and the foundations of a wall at the south west corner were uncovered . On the western side a section of wall was found still standing 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high above shallow foundations but below the ploughed soil . The wall is believed to have been built within the period 275 – 325 CE .
It is thought that the construction of these defences was related to a general uprising of the Welsh tribes , the Ordovices and Silures , that occurred at this time . The revolt was soon quelled , but , to guard against further disruptions , a series of strongholds including Letocetum , Pennocrucium , and Uxacona were established along the length of Watling Street . All 4th century archaeological remains have come from within the defences and none from outside , suggesting that the whole population were within the defences by the 4th century . The latest coin to be found at Letocetum was minted in the time of the Emperor Gratian and dated to 381 CE . Roman administration collapsed at the beginning of the 5th century and nothing has been found at the site that is datable after this time .
= = = Post @-@ Roman abandonment and later re @-@ occupation = = =
The settlement must have been significant for some time ; it is listed in the 9th century Historia Brittonum , and Reno writes " Wall , appearing as Cair Luitcoyt , and undoubtedly correctly ascribed , appears rather incongruously among such major towns and military depots as York , London , Chester , Wroxeter and Caerleon but nevertheless must have been a place of important consequence because of its inclusion as a strategic city . " The late defences led to its description as a Caer and a British , possibly Powysian , outpost was established there . We have no knowledge of the period immediately after the Roman departure as no historical or archaeological evidence is present .
Letocetum lost all importance with the development of nearby Lichfield in the 7th century as the seat of a Bishop . When the place again emerged historically it was under a new name , Wall . This name referred to the remains of the late Roman defences , parts of which were still standing in the early 19th century .
= Waylon Smithers =
Waylon J. Smithers , Jr . , usually referred to as Mr. Smithers or simply Smithers , is a recurring fictional character in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons , who is voiced by Harry Shearer . Smithers first appeared in the episode " Homer 's Odyssey " , although his voice could be heard in the series premiere " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . He is the consummate executive and personal assistant of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's owner Mr. Burns .
Smithers ' devotion to Mr. Burns was inspired from how numerous Fox executives and staff members acted towards Barry Diller . The idea for Smithers ' ambiguous sexual orientation came from Sam Simon , who proposed that Smithers should be gay , but little attention should be drawn to it . Smithers ' first name ( Waylon ) was derived from that of puppeteer Wayland Flowers .
Smithers was originally animated and intended for storyline purposes by some producers and directors to be African American . This however was ultimately changed in later episodes with conflicting and unknown confirmed reasons as to why . Matt Groening however in an unintended interview with TMZ , confirms that the animation director at that time originally drew Smithers black according to plan , but he was changed to " yellow " . When asked by the interviewer why he wasn 't kept that way , Groening did not respond other than " it was a mistake " .
Smithers is an obedient and sycophantic assistant to Mr. Burns , and the relationship between the two is a frequent running gag on The Simpsons . In many ways , Smithers represents the stereotype of a closeted gay man , and numerous overt allusions and double entendres concerning his homosexuality are made , though some of the show 's producers instead interpret him as a " Burns @-@ sexual " . In the season 27 ( 2016 ) episode " The Burns Cage " , he came out as gay .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Smithers is Mr. Burns ' devoted executive assistant . His father , Waylon Smithers , Sr. , worked for Burns until he died of radiation poisoning after saving Springfield from a potential nuclear meltdown , when Smithers was a baby . Although he is not openly gay , Smithers frequents Springfield 's gay village and goes on a vacation to a male @-@ only resort . It was revealed in a flashback that he was married to a woman once , but the two split up when Mr. Burns came between them . Smithers is shown to have a passionate and deep love for Mr. Burns , and his sexual orientation has been characterized by the writers of the show as " Burns @-@ sexual " .
Mr. Burns remained largely ignorant of Smithers ' devoted adoration , much to Smithers ' frustration . Mr. Burns himself has been involved with several women and in " A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love " , Smithers is noticeably disgusted when Mr. Burns starts looking for a female companion . Burns , for his part , views Smithers as somewhat of a lackey , albeit a highly valued one for his competence . He has " rewarded " Smithers ' devotion with the future " honor " of being buried alive with him after he dies . Smithers has been shown to be somewhat dependent on his relationship with Burns . In " Homer
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Notes
^ a signifies a remixer and additional producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
^ c signifies a vocal producer
= = Personnel = =
Audio mastering : Chaz Harper
A & R : Steve Lunt , David Stamm
Management : Dan Dymtrow
Design : Jackie Murphy
Photography : Anthony Carlucci
= = Charts = =
= = Key Cuts from Remixed = =
To promote the album , JIVE Records released an EP containing a few tracks off the album . This EP , known as Key Cuts from Remixed was sent around to DJ 's in both 12 " Vinyl and CD format .
= = = Track listings = = =
= Königsberg @-@ class cruiser ( 1905 ) =
The Königsberg class was a group of four light cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy . The class comprised four vessels : SMS Königsberg , the lead ship , SMS Nürnberg , SMS Stuttgart , and SMS Stettin . The ships were an improvement on the preceding Bremen class , being slightly larger and faster , and mounting the same armament of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
The four ships saw extensive service during World War I. Königsberg conducted commerce warfare in the Indian Ocean before being trapped in the Rufiji River and sunk by British warships . Her guns nevertheless continued to see action as converted artillery pieces for the German Army in German East Africa . Nürnberg was part of the German East Asia Squadron , and participated in the Battles of Coronel and Falkland Islands . At the former , she sank the British armored cruiser HMS Monmouth , and at the latter , she was in turn sunk by the cruiser HMS Kent .
Stuttgart and Stettin remained in German waters during the war , and both saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The two cruisers engaged in close @-@ range night fighting with the British fleet , but neither was significantly damaged . Both ships were withdrawn from service later in the war , Stettin to serve as a training ship , and Stuttgart to be converted into a seaplane tender in 1918 . They both survived the war , and were surrendered to Britain as war prizes ; they were dismantled in the early 1920s .
= = Design = =
The 1898 Naval Law authorized the construction of 30 new light cruisers by 1904 ; the Gazelle and Bremen classes filled the requirements for the first seventeen vessels . The Königsberg design followed the same general parameters as the two earlier classes , but with significant improvements in terms of size and speed . Like the Bremens , one member of the Königsberg class , Stettin , was fitted with steam turbines to evaluate their performance compared to traditional triple @-@ expansion engines .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Königsberg class had slightly different characteristics . The lead ship was 114 @.@ 8 meters ( 377 ft ) long at the waterline and 115 @.@ 3 m ( 378 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 29 m ( 17 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . The remaining three ships were 116 @.@ 8 m ( 383 ft ) long at the waterline and 117 @.@ 4 m ( 385 ft ) long overall ; they had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 14 to 5 @.@ 4 m ( 16 @.@ 9 to 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . Königsberg displaced 3 @,@ 390 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 340 long tons ; 3 @,@ 740 short tons ) as designed and up to 3 @,@ 814 t ( 3 @,@ 754 long tons ; 4 @,@ 204 short tons ) at full combat load . Nürnberg and Stuttgart were designed to displace 3 @,@ 469 t ( 3 @,@ 414 long tons ; 3 @,@ 824 short tons ) , with full load displacements of 3 @,@ 902 t ( 3 @,@ 840 long tons ; 4 @,@ 301 short tons ) and 4 @,@ 002 t ( 3 @,@ 939 long tons ; 4 @,@ 411 short tons ) , respectively . Stettin displaced 3 @,@ 480 t ( 3 @,@ 430 long tons ; 3 @,@ 840 short tons ) as designed and 3 @,@ 822 t ( 3 @,@ 762 long tons ; 4 @,@ 213 short tons ) at combat load .
The ships ' hulls were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the steel outer hull was built . The hulls were divided into thirteen or fourteen watertight compartments . A double bottom ran for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . The ships of the class were good sea boats , but they were crank and rolled up to twenty degrees . They were also very wet at high speeds and suffered from a slight weather helm ; in the case of Stuttgart , she suffered from quite severe weather helm . The ships ' metacentric height was .54 to .65 m ( 1 ft 9 in to 2 ft 2 in ) . The ships had a crew of fourteen officers and 308 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Machinery = = =
The first three Königsberg @-@ class ships ' propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines rated at 13 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . Stettin was instead equipped with a pair of Parsons steam turbines , rated at 13 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and a top speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Each ship exceeded their design speed by at least half a knot on speed trials , however . All four ships ' engines were powered by eleven coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers , which were trunked into three funnels . The ships were designed to carry 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of coal , though they could store up to 880 t ( 870 long tons ; 970 short tons ) . Königsberg could steam for 5 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 650 km ; 6 @,@ 620 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , while the other three ships ' ranges were considerably shorter . Nürnberg and Stuttgart could cruise for 4 @,@ 120 nmi ( 7 @,@ 630 km ; 4 @,@ 740 mi ) at the same speed , and Stettin had a range of 4 @,@ 170 nmi ( 7 @,@ 720 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) . Königsberg had two electricity generators , while the other three ships were equipped with three generators . The generators produced a total output of 90 and 135 kilowatts at 100 volts , respectively .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Königsberg later had a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns installed . The last three ships were also equipped with eight 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 guns with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . All four ships were also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside .
Armor protection for the members of the class consisted of two layers of steel with one layer of Krupp armor . The ships of the Königsberg class were protected by an armored deck that was 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships , and reduced to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick gave a measure of vertical protection . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . The ships ' guns were protected with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Construction = =
The first three ships of the class were built by government shipyards . Königsberg was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in 1905 , launched on 12 December 1905 , and commissioned into the German Navy on 6 April 1907 . Nürnberg was also laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel , in 1906 . Her launching occurred on 28 August 1906 , and she was commissioned on 10 April 1908 . Stuttgart was built by the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig . She was laid down in 1905 , launched on 22 September 1906 , and commissioned on 1 February 1908 . Stettin was the only ship of the class built by a private shipbuilding firm , by AG Vulcan in her namesake city . She was laid down in 1906 , launched on 7 March 1907 , and commissioned just seven months later on 29 October 1907 .
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Königsberg class served with the High Seas Fleet after their commissionings , though Stuttgart also saw service as a gunnery training ship . Nürnberg and Königsberg were deployed overseas in 1910 and 1914 , respectively . Nürnberg was sent to the East Asia Squadron , while Königsberg went to east African waters . Stuttgart and Stettin meanwhile remained in Germany .
All four ships had active careers during World War I and saw action at many major battles during the conflict . At the outbreak of war , Königsberg was stationed in German East Africa ; she was ordered to begin raiding British commerce in the region . She was relatively unsuccessful in this regard , having sunk only the British freighter City of Winchester . She did , however , surprise the British cruiser HMS Pegasus in harbor and sank her in the Battle of Zanzibar . She was then blockaded in the Rufiji River and eventually destroyed by two British monitors , HMS Mersey and HMS Severn . Königsberg 's guns were removed from the wreck and mounted on improvised gun carriages and used in German East Africa during the World War I land campaign .
Nürnberg was still assigned to the East Asia Squadron under Admiral Maximilian von Spee when war broke out . Initially based in Tsingtao , China , the squadron crossed the Pacific in an attempt to raid British commerce off South America . The ship saw action at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914 where a British squadron attempted to intercept the German flotilla . There she sank the British armored cruiser HMS Monmouth . The following month during the Battle of the Falkland Islands , Nürnberg was sunk by the armored cruiser HMS Kent , part of another British squadron sent to hunt down Spee 's squadron .
Stettin and Stuttgart both saw action with the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea . Stettin participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 , and suffered relatively minor damage . Both cruisers participated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Stettin was hit twice but was not badly damaged during the night , while Stuttgart emerged from the battle unscathed . Both ships were withdrawn from service in 1917 ; Stettin was used as a training ship , while Stuttgart was converted into a seaplane tender in 1918 . The two ships survived the war and were surrendered to Britain as war prizes ; they were later broken up for scrap in the early 1920s .
= Marceline the Vampire Queen =
Marceline the Vampire Queen is a character in the American animated television series Adventure Time created by Pendleton Ward . She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances , by Ava Acres as a child and by Cloris Leachman as an old woman . Marceline is a fun @-@ loving 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trickster vampire queen . The name " Marceline " is based on the middle name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie . The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead @-@ character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time . Unlike a traditional vampire , Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive ; rather , she eats the color red . Marceline is a musician who plays an electric bass that she made from her family 's heirloom battle @-@ axe .
The character makes her debut in the first season episode " Evicted ! " and functions as an antagonist , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progresses , Marceline becomes a close friend to Finn and Jake . Information regarding her early life remains sparse as of 2015 ; however , her demon @-@ father Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Olivia 's real @-@ life father , Martin Olson ) has appeared in several episodes . In addition , Marceline was the focus of a miniseries entitled Stakes , which aired during the show 's seventh season .
Marceline has been critically acclaimed and is popular with fans of Adventure Time . Ward himself has stated that Marceline is his favorite character in the series because he does not know everything about her history and backstory , which he noted adds a mysterious element to her character . Despite the positivity , the episodes " What Was Missing " and " Sky Witch " became somewhat controversial because of an implied past relationship between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline .
= = Creation and design = =
Marceline is one of the major characters in Adventure Time . Although she did not appear in the series ' pilot , the groundwork for her design and character were present in the series pitch book , penned by series creator Pendleton Ward . Marceline 's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie , whose middle name is Marceline . Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wears dark clothing . Ward purposely set out to make Marceline 's character complex , as he explained that " with the female characters it ’ s easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés [ … ] I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have . "
Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson . Olivia 's father Martin Olson was an acquaintance of Ward , and Olivia was encouraged to audition for Adventure Time after Ward told her father that he wanted " her as a voice " on his show . She had originally auditioned for the role of Princess Bubblegum . After her initial audition , she was asked to read for the role of Marceline , and was " definitely impressed by the character " after seeing design drawings . Martin Olson later noted that Olivia 's audition was a " sham " to please the network executives because Ward had already wanted her to be a voice on the show . In order to get into character , Olson often dresses in a manner similar to Marceline when she records her lines ; she explained , " I always find ... that on the days that I go in to record Marceline , I ’ ll dress like her , in a weird way ... I ’ ll throw on some rock n ’ roll boots , maybe some red lipstick , and just go in there . " Olson also is the character 's singing voice . According to storyboard artist Cole Sanchez , composers Casey James Basichis and Tim Kiefer produce the bass music that the character performs in the series . Many of the songs written for Marceline were uploaded onto the internet by the writers as well as the production company . For instance , Rob Sugar — the father of former storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar — often uploaded demos of songs written for Marceline by Rebecca . Furthermore , Frederator also posted demos , as well as a full version of the popular " Fry Song " , sung by Marceline in the episode " It Came from the Nightosphere " , on its official blog . In flashback sequences , younger Marceline is voiced by Ava Acres . In the fifth season episodes " Finn the Human " and " Jake the Dog " , an older , alternate universe version of the character is voiced by Cloris Leachman . Martin Olson also provides the voice for Marceline 's demonic father Hunson Abadeer . Olivia Olson later noted that the opportunity to voice act with her father was " pretty cool ” .
The design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead character and prop designer for Adventure Time . Visually , Marceline has long , dark hair . She rarely walks on the ground , generally preferring to float when she travels , moves , and sleeps . Marceline , unlike many of the other characters , wears varying outfits in most of her appearances . According to Ward , her clothing changes from episode to episode because " girls own more than one outfit " . Olson was impressed by her character 's fashion design stating , " she has really cool style [ … ] I love what they come up with [ in ] every episode . " Olson explained that when she goes in to record the voices for each episode , she is " totally surprised " by the costuming for Marceline . While she says her lines , she is able to view the animatics for the episode and sometimes has to stop to admire the unique designs . Marceline 's physical size and shape slightly changes depending on who is drawing her . Rynda later called this " one of the coolest parts " about the character 's animation due to the fact that " every artist leaves a little bit of their own taste and sensibilities in what they draw . "
= = Appearances = =
Roughly a thousand years prior to the events of the series , Marceline was born to a demon lord named Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Martin Olson ) and a human woman ( voiced by Rebecca Sugar ) . Abadeer is the ruler of the Nightosphere — a Hell @-@ like demon dimension — and subsists on the souls of sentient beings . For some reason , Marceline was left abandoned on Earth in events immediately following the Mushroom War , a mysterious war that ravaged the earth one thousand years prior to events of the series . During this time , Simon Petrikov — the name of the Ice King before he was overcome by the evil power of his crown — found Marceline in the ruins of a city and gave her a stuffed animal named Hambo to cheer her up . The two developed a caring relationship , although the crown took a toll on Simon 's mental health , forcing him to leave Marceline alone . During this period in her life , she was reunited with her father , only to be disgusted by his cold and heartless ways . Although she attempted to tolerate his evil and selfish antics , she eventually severed all ties with Abadeer after she discovered him eating fries that she had made for herself . In the following years , Marceline roamed the land of Ooo and eventually befriended a tribe of humans . She became their guardian and ally , and she helped them kill vampires , who had taken over much of the land . Marceline soon discovered that , upon killing a vampire , she was able to acquire their unique abilities . However , when she tried to fight the Vampire King himself , she was bitten . Although she eventually managed to slay him , she was turned in the process . At some point , she began a romantic relationship with a magician named Ash . The two would move into the Tree Fort , but their relationship would come to an end . Presumably , around this time , Marceline befriended Princess Bubblegum ; the two would often avoid official royal meetings and explore the Candy Kingdom 's elaborate rock candy mining complex . Eventually , however , Bubblegum pushed Marceline away , leaving an animosity between the two that lasted for a while .
In the series ' present , Marceline eventually comes into contact with Finn and Jake in the episode " Evicted ! " , when she forces them from their home . In the episode " Henchman " , Marceline tricks Finn into becoming her accomplice , but Finn soon discovers that she is not evil , but rather fond of mischief and pranks , and the two develop a friendship . In the second season premiere " It Came From the Nightosphere " , Abadeer is accidentally summoned to Ooo by Finn . While Abadeer ravages the land , Finn discovers that there is animosity between Marceline and her father . Finn manages to distract Abadeer by playing a recording of Marceline 's " Fry Song " , which leads to a brief moment of reconciliation between the two before Finn sends him back to the Nightosphere . In the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " , Ash attempts to rekindle his former relationship with Marceline via trickery . Disguised as Marceline 's " spirit animal " , he tricks Finn and Jake into believing that Marceline has fallen asleep due to a sleep spell that has been self @-@ inflicted . Following Ash 's advice , the two enter into Marceline 's mind to retrieve the " memory core " in an attempt to wake her up . Along the way , they encounter various memories of her as a child in the aftermath of the Mushroom War . However , the duo soon learn that it was an elaborate trick by Ash ; Finn and Jake actually removed Marceline 's memory of their break @-@ up . In the end , Finn is able to convince Marceline , and she promptly attacks her chauvinistic ex @-@ boyfriend . In " What Was Missing " , past animosity between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum is explored when Finn , Jake , Princess Bubblegum , BMO , and Marceline form a band in order to defeat the Door Lord and recover what was stolen from them .
In " Daddy 's Little Monster " , Marceline 's dad returns and gives her an amulet that causes her to become the demonic and evil overlord of the Nightosphere . After an ordeal , Finn saves Marceline from the amulet . Marceline admits that all she wants is for her father to understand her . When Finn wishes for an alternate reality in which the Lich never existed during the events of the fifth season premiere " Finn the Human " , a universe is created in which the Mushroom War was prevented by Simon Petrikov and Marceline never became a vampire . She appears in the episode as an extremely frail and aged half @-@ demon , who was killed when a " mutagenic bomb " that was frozen in ice by Simon Petrikov detonates . Jake manages to undo this reality with his wish and sets everything back to the way it was . In " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists the help of Princess Bubblegum , and the two are able to track down Maja , the titular Sky Witch . It is revealed that Ash sold Hambo to Maja . Only when Bubblegum trades her beloved rock shirt — which was given to her by Marceline — is Hambo able to be reunited with Marceline . After the events of " Sky Witch " , Bubblegum and Marceline are on much friendlier ground , and their friendship is completely reaffirmed in the seventh season episode " Varmints " . In " Betty " , Marceline sacrifices Hambo so that Ice King — who lost his powers and became Simon Petrikov again — can open a portal into time so that Simon can reconcile with his estranged fiancee Betty .
The miniseries Stakes , which aired during the show ’ s seventh season , documents the reemergence of five of Marceline ’ s most powerful vampiric foes : the Fool ( voiced by Ron Funches ) , the Empress Eyes ( voiced by Rebecca Romijn ) , the Hierophant ( voiced by Paul Williams ) , the Moon ( voiced by Beau Billingslea ) , and the Vampire King himself ( voiced by Billy Brown ) . The quintet remerge after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline ’ s vampiric essence , in an attempt to return Marceline to her normal half @-@ demon state . The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) to stake them one @-@ by @-@ one , although the Vampire King is neutralized through a scientific process that removes the vampiric essence from his body .
= = = Other = = =
The gender @-@ swapped version of Marceline — named Marshall Lee — appeared in the third season episode " Fionna and Cake " . This version of the character only had a small cameo and no lines . It was later revealed that another Fionna and Cake episode was in the works for season five , and that the plot would largely revolve around Marshall Lee . The episode — titled " Bad Little Boy " — aired on February 18 , 2013 . In the episode , the princesses that are captured by the Ice King are tired of his poorly written Fionna and Cake fan fiction stories , so Marceline stops by the Ice Kingdom to show him how to properly do it ; she tells a tale involving her gender @-@ swapped character , Marshall Lee . The character was voiced by comedian and musician Donald Glover .
A six issue spin @-@ off comic miniseries titled Marceline and the Scream Queens , written by Meredith Gran of Octopus Pie , debuted in July 2012 . The series featured Marceline and Princess Bubblegum forming a band and touring around Ooo . The series is published by Boom ! Studios under its kid @-@ oriented imprint KaBoom , which also publishes the rest of the Adventure Time series . Other contributors to the series include Faith Erin Hicks , and Liz Prince . KaBoom has also published Seeing Red by Kate Leth , and Marceline Gone Adrift by Gran .
Marceline is also featured in the iOS game Adventure Time : Rock Bandits . In the context of the game , the Ice King kidnaps Marceline 's fans at a concert so that they will be his fans instead . Finn and Jake must then free the captured citizens . Marceline is set to appear as a playable character in the toys @-@ to @-@ life video game Lego Dimensions , distributed via a " fun pack " containing a Marceline Lego minifigure and a constructable " Lunatic Amp " accessory .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Personality and traits = = =
In the context of the series , Marceline is a half @-@ demon and half @-@ human vampire , and the eponymous Vampire Queen , after having killed the previous Vampire King . Although she is at least 1 @,@ 000 years old , she was designed to appear in the form of an 18- to 21 @-@ year @-@ old . In her first role , Marceline functions as the antagonist of the story , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progressed , she became a close friend to the two . Ward has stated that she is not a villain . Marceline 's wandering of the Land of Ooo has made her into a fearless daredevil . Her fondness for mischief and fun has turned her into a trickster . Although appearing hostile at first , Finn soon realizes that she is " a radical dame who likes to play games " .
Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive . Rather , she only needs to eat the color red out of objects . She can eat various shades of red , including " low @-@ grade " shades such as pink . Since she is only satiated by the color , blood is only appealing to her because it is red . However , Ward has noted that she " drinks blood sometimes " . When Marceline is deprived of red , she enters into a " feral " state , and will instinctively try to kill others and drink their blood . Like traditional Western vampires , she is vulnerable to sunlight and is capable of turning into a bat of varying size . Marceline also possesses several powers , such as levitation , invisibility , and the ability to shape @-@ shift into various paranormal creatures , and self @-@ healing ; she gained these powers after absorbing the essence of five powerful vampires , as documented in Stakes . Marceline is also a survivor of the Mushroom War . Hints of her past are sprinkled through the series ; in " Memory of a Memory " a trip into Marceline 's mind shows her as a child wandering around the outskirts of a destroyed city , and " I Remember You " features her meeting Simon Petrikov in a ruined city .
She was very emotionally attached to her teddy bear Hambo , which was given to her by a still @-@ human Simon Petrikov , as revealed in the episode " I Remember You " . In " Memory of a Memory " , after Ash sold the teddy bear to a witch , Marceline was furious and broke up with him . In the episode " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists Princess Bubblegum 's help , and they retrieve the bear , but in " Betty " , she sacrifices the bear in order to allow Simon the chance to communicate with his fiancée . Although she is very independent , her detachment often makes her feel alone , as seen in " Marceline 's Closet " ; while Jake and Finn are hiding in her closet , she expresses most of her feeling via the writings of her 500 @-@ year @-@ old diary . Throughout the series , Marceline is seen playing music ; in several official sources , she is described as " a wild rocker girl " . Several times throughout the series , she jams with Finn and Jake , and various others depending on the circumstances . She is usually shown playing her axe bass , which was formerly her family 's heirloom battle axe . According to Ward , she is ambidextrous , which explains her ability to play bass with both hands . She often finds it easier to express her feelings through music , as seen with songs like the " Fry Song " , about her father , and " I 'm Just Your Problem " , about her relationship with Princess Bubblegum .
= = = Relationships = = =
Marceline has a close relationship with Finn and Jake . Marceline and Finn have many things in common with one another ; in the episodes " Evicted " and " Henchman " it is stated that the reason Marceline befriended Finn is because he simply enjoys being himself . Although she has kissed Finn platonically on the cheek twice , Ward has noted that there is no romantic subtext between the two . On the other hand , Marceline and Jake share a more complex relationship . In her initial appearances , she derived pleasure from scaring Jake , who was terrified " of her vampire bite " . Jake , in turn , felt that she was evil and had managed to take over Finn 's mind . Due to this , Jake attempted to kill her several times , to no avail . However , after the events of " Henchman " , Jake seems to have forgotten his fear of her ; in " Memory of a Memory " , he even refers to her as a " friend " in one of her memories .
Marceline shares a rocky relationship with Princess Bubblegum . Initially , in the series bible , the two were described as " friendly rivals " competing for Finn 's attention . However , as the show has gone on , their relationship has been fleshed out and changed . Marceline was the first person to address Bubblegum by her first name — Bonnibel — which occurred in the episode " Go With Me " . Their connections are explored further in the season three episode " What Was Missing " . In the episode , Marceline 's song " I 'm Just Your Problem " and the dialogue between her and Bubblegum implied that there may have had some sort of relationship in the past , although the exact details surrounding the nature of the relationship were not explained . This later caused an internet controversy over Marceline 's sexual orientation . However , after the events of " What Was Missing " , Marceline and Bubblegum 's relationship seems to have gotten better , as the two spend quality time together in " Sky Witch " and " Stakes " .
Marceline and her father , Hunson Abadeer , have trouble accepting one another . Initially , Marceline feels that her father does not care for her , and expresses her feelings through the before @-@ mentioned " Fry Song " . Although they admit to loving each other , Abadeer constantly pressures Marceline to follow in the family business and take over ruling the Nightosphere , a prospective job Marceline does not want . Marceline and the Ice King also have a complicated relationship . In the episode " I Remember You " , it is revealed that the Ice King — then , the human man named Simon Petrikov — discovered her crying in the ruins of a city destroyed by the Mushroom Wars . It was Simon who gave little Marceline Hambo and attempted to watch over her . This kind gesture made the Ice King a long @-@ time close friend to Marceline . However , as the crown 's power increased , Simon began to forget more and more about his relationship with Marceline , until he had all but forgotten their friendship . Former storyboard artist and current supervising director for the series Adam Muto explained that Marceline and the Ice King 's history was not part of the series ' initial plan , but something that " evolved from [ the show 's ] original course and it will likely continue to evolve in the future . "
= = Reception = =
Marceline has attracted positive critical attention . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praised that the fact that she is one " of this show ’ s most tragic characters " . He later wrote that her addition " was a major turning point for the series , introducing a hip , adventure @-@ loving female to the cast who can hold her own against Finn and Jake and also has a strong connection to Ooo ’ s past . " Furthermore , he noted that " she ’ s been at the center of some of the show ’ s most emotional episodes " , and " beyond her dramatic value , Marceline tends to just make every episode better " because " her writers clearly enjoy writing scenes for her " . Susana Polo of The Mary Sue referred to the character as " one of the radder characters " in the series . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . io9 writer Charlies Jane Anders wrote that Marceline 's — as well as the Ice King 's — appearance in " I Remember You " was " one of the most intense things I 've seen in ages . " She praised Marceline 's development from a " pretty one @-@ note villain " to a type of person that " we sort of knew " . CartoonNetwork.co.uk named her " Character of the Week " on January 24 , 2012 . The Guardian called Marceline the best character in Adventure Time in a DVD review of the series , noting in particular that " she 's … responsible for some of the show 's best songs . "
The production crew of Adventure Time are also pleased with the character . Ward has stated several times that Marceline is his favorite character because he does not " know everything about her character yet " , which he finds " mysterious [ and ] cool " . Rynda claimed that Marceline was probably his favorite character in the series because " she 's just really fun to draw . " Marceline is also particularly popular with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . The character 's popularity has been recognized by the company that owns Adventure Time . In fact , the official press release for the Adventure Time : Marceline and the Scream Queens companion comic book referred to the character as a " fan @-@ favorite " .
Marceline 's popularity has transcended into other mediums of popular culture ; American singer Willow dedicated two tracks of her debut album Ardipithecus to the character , which were eponymously named after her .
= = = Relationship controversy = = =
The episode " What Was Missing " became controversial because of an allegedly implied past relationship between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum . The controversy largely began after an accompanying " Mathematical " recap — a studio @-@ endorsed behind the scenes video series implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans . This incident was addressed by the show 's producer , Fred Seibert , who said that " in trying to get the show ’ s audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far . " Soon after , the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube , although " What Was Missing " still airs during reruns . Seibert 's decision to remove the video also proved controversial ; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode " handled female desire — female queer desire at that — in a subtle but complex way " , but that the removal of the recap and the studio 's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children 's television . Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view ; he said that , because there were " so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet " , he did not " really want to comment on it [ because ] it was a big hullaballoo . "
In August 2014 , Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia , that , according to Ward , Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past , but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal , the show has not been able to officially make clear the relationship in the series itself .
= Volvariella bombycina =
Volvariella bombycina , commonly known as the silky sheath , silky rosegill , silver @-@ silk straw mushroom , or tree mushroom , is a species of edible mushroom in the family Pluteaceae . It is an uncommon but widespread species , having been reported from Asia , Australia , the Caribbean , Europe , and North America . The fruit body ( mushroom ) begins developing in a thin , egg @-@ like sac . This ruptures and the stem expands quickly , leaving the sac at the base of the stem as a volva . The cap , which can attain a diameter of up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) , is white to slightly yellowish and covered with silky hairs . On the underside of the cap are closely spaced gills , free from attachment to the stem , and initially white before turning pink as the spores mature . The mushroom grows singly or in clusters , often appearing in old knotholes and wounds in elms and maples . V. bombycina contains compounds with antibacterial properties .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in 1774 by German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer as Agaricus bombycinus . Throughout its taxonomical history , it has been shuffled to several genera , including Pluteus ( by Elias Fries in 1836 ) , Volvaria ( Paul Kummer , 1871 ) , and Volvariopsis ( William Alphonso Murrill , 1911 ) . Rolf Singer placed it in its current genus , Volvariella , in 1951 . Other names that have been applied to the species include Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's Amanita calyptrata and August Johann Georg Karl Batsch 's Agaricus denudatus ( both published in 1783 ) , but these are illegitimate names as Schäffer 's earlier 1774 name has priority .
In 1949 , Murrill described the variety flaviceps from collections made growing on magnolia wood in Gainesville , Florida . Although he originally described it as a new species , Volvaria flaviceps , Robert Shaffer considered it a variety of V. bombycina . Variety microspora was first described in 1953 , was later ( 1961 ) named by R.W.G. Dennis ; variety palmicola was originally described as a distinct species Volvaria palmicola by Belgian mycologist Maurice Beely in 1928 , and later as a variety of V. bombycina by the same author in 1937 .
The root for the generic name Volvariella ( as well as Volvaria and Volvariopsis , genera in which the species had been formerly placed ) derives from the Latin volva , meaning " wrapper " or " a covering " . The specific epithet bombycina derives from the Latin root bombyc , or " silky " . Common names for the mushroom include the " silky sheath " , the " silky rosegill " , the " silver @-@ silk straw mushroom " , or the " tree mushroom " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Volvariella bombycina are initially egg @-@ shaped when still enclosed in the universal veil . As they expand , the caps later becoming bell @-@ shaped or convex , and finally nearly flattened in age , attaining a diameter of 5 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The dry cap surface is covered with silky threads . Its color is white to yellowish , becoming more pale approaching the margin . The flesh is thin , soft , and white , and has an odor , resembling raw potatoes . Gills are crowded close together , free from attachment to the stem , and initially white before turning pinkish as the spores mature . The stem measures 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long by 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , and is typically tapered upward or thickened below . It is white , with a smooth surface , and is often slightly curved . The universal veil is membranous , often areolate ( cracked into irregularly shaped blocks ) or scaly , and forms a long , saclike volva that wraps around the base of the stem . It is white to yellowish or dingy brown , and often divided into lobes .
The variety V. bombycina var. flaviceps is distinguished from the main form by its smaller , bright yellow caps , up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , and its dirty @-@ white , scaly volva . Murrill also noted that it developed a " peculiar sickening odor during drying " . V. bombycina var. microspora has smaller spores ( 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 μm ) , a yellow cap , and a blotched brown volva . V. bombycina var. palmicola also has a yellow cap and small spores ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 4 μm ) , but can be distinguished from the previous varieties by its distantly spaced gills .
Mushrooms produce a spore print with a color ranging from pinkish to salmon . Spores are elliptical , smooth , and measure 6 @.@ 5 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 19 – 43 by 6 – 11 μm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia that occur on the gill face ) are usually spindle shaped , but have a widely variable morphology ; they are abundant in the hymenium , and have dimensions of 26 – 122 by 8 – 57 μm . The cheilocystidia ( on the gill edge ) are similar in morphology and abundance , some may feature knobs held at the end of slender projections up to 20 μm long ; dimensions are in the range of 26 and 144 μm long by 8 – 46 μm wide . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae of V. bombycina .
The fruit bodies can be readily grown in laboratory culture .
= = = Similar species = = =
The combination of a silky white cap , white stem , pink gills , pink spore print , and growth on wood is characteristic of this species and make identification of Volvariella bombycina in the field relatively easy . Some Pluteus species have a general similar appearance , and also produce pinkish to pinkish @-@ brown spore prints , but they lack a volva . Amanita species grow on the ground and make white spore prints . V. pusilla has a small cap measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter with silky fibers and short lines visible at the cap edge when moist ; it grows in soil in gardens and greenhouses and on lawns . V. hypopithys has a medium @-@ size white cap that is 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter with silky to scaly fibers and lacks the short lines at the cap edge when moist ; it grows on the ground in woods . V. caesiotincta has a bluish @-@ gray cap , while V. gloiocephala can be distinguished from V. bombycina by its smooth cap that is sticky when damp , and a white volva .
= = = Edibility = = =
The fruit bodies are edible , and usually considered of good quality . They have been called " excellent " , " tasty " with a " modest and pleasant flavor " , and " worth eating if found in large enough quantities " .
Alexander H. Smith related a story of how unique circumstances led to the development of a local superstition about the species :
... the members of a family here in Ann Arbor were poisoned , some fatally , as the result of eating caps of a species of Amanita . The next year Volvaria bombycina fruited on a maple tree at the home of these people , and the story was circulated that some of the spores of the poisonous fungus , which caused the deaths the year before , had escaped from the house , lodged in the tree , germinated , grew and were now producing fruiting bodies . Consequently the carpophores of the Volvaria were held in great awe by the neighbors , and soon came to be referred to as the " ghost mushroom " . No one , of course , would consider eating them .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Volvariella bombycina is a saprobic species . Fruit bodies grow singly or in small groups on trunks and decayed stumps of dead hardwoods . Favored species include sugar maple , red maple , silver maple , magnolia , mango , beech , oak , and elm . It is often found in clefts and knotholes of dead or living tree trunks . It has been noted to fruit in the same location for several years . Despite its preference for hardwoods , it has been reported growing on rare instances on coniferous wood . An uncommon species with a wide distribution , it has been reported from Asia ( China , India , Korea , Pakistan ) , the Caribbean ( Cuba ) , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America . It acquired protected status in Hungary in 2005 , making it a legal offense to pick it . Variety microspora is known from Venezuela , while V. bombycina var. palmicola occurs in the DR Congo .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Several bioactive secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from Volvariella bombycina fruit bodies , mycelium , or pure culture . The compounds ergosta @-@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , ergosterol peroxide , indole @-@ 3 @-@ carboxaldehyde , and indazole were found in liquid culture . In 2009 , the novel compound isodeoxyhelicobasidin was identified from culture broth ; this compound inhibits the enzyme human elastase . The fungus also produces compounds that have antioxidative activity .
= Sale el Sol ( song ) =
" Sale el Sol " ( English : " The Sun Comes Out " ) is a song recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for her ninth studio album of the same name . The song was written and produced by the singer and her frequent collaborator Luis Fernando Ochoa and belongs to the " very rock and roll " direction of the album . Musically , " Sale el Sol " is a folk and Latin music @-@ influenced alternative rock track . Its lyrics encourage one to be optimistic during difficult times . Epic Records released " Sale el Sol " as the second single from the album on 4 January 2011 .
Critical reception towards the song was positive , with many critics praising its composition and placement as the opening track of the album . Although it appeared on only a few record charts , " Sale el Sol " performed well in Mexico and Spain , peaking at numbers one and eight on the Monitor Latino and Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . It was certified gold in both the countries . In the United States , it reached number ten on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
An accompanying music video for " Sale el Sol " was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , and features Shakira and her band performing the song in a snow @-@ decked forest . Spanish Cava wine producer Freixenet used the video as their Christmas season commercial . " Sale el Sol " was also included on the set list of The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . At the Rock in Rio concert show in May 2010 , Shakira sang the song as a tribute to Argentine singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati , who had fallen into a coma earlier that month .
= = Background and composition = =
In 2010 , Shakira began work on ninth studio album Sale el Sol . The singer split the album into three musical " directions , " one of which is " very rock and roll . " Shakira , who was a rock artist at the beginning of her career but later took on a more pop @-@ influenced approach , said it had been " fun to re @-@ encounter that side of my artistic personality . " The title track is an alternative rock song , with additional influences of folk and Latin music . Written and produced by Shakira and her frequent collaborator Luis Fernando Ochoa , " Sale el Sol " is a call for " optimism through difficult times . " The words " Sale el Sol " are Spanish for " The Sun Comes Out , " and Shakira explained why she chose the motif of the rise of the sun , saying :
" I was a little bit down at the end of last year , but as soon as this year started , the sun started shining for me . I find myself smiling more often , I feel more free and liberated . You go through difficult moments , everybody does , but there 's always the sun inside of us that never extinguishes , and it has come out for me . And , hopefully , it will be a long day in the sun . "
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Sale el Sol " was globally released as the second single from the album on 4 January 2011 . The song was made available for digitally downloading on the iTunes Store on the same day . It was a moderate commercial success , performing well in Latin American countries . It reached number one on the Monitor Latino airplay chart in Mexico . The Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) certified " Sale el Sol " gold for shipping 30 @,@ 000 units in the country . It debuted and peaked at number eight on the Spanish Singles Chart and charted for a total of 23 weeks . The Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) too certified " Sale el Sol " gold for achieving sales of 20 @,@ 000 units in Spain .
In the United States , " Sale el Sol " was a hit on the Latin Billboard charts . The song peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and appeared on it for 38 weeks in total . It was more successful on the airplay chart , peaking at number two on the Latin Pop Airplay chart .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Sale el Sol " received positive reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic highlighted its rock influences and deemed it " anthemic . " Billboard commended its lyrics , calling them " evocative and hopeful " and found it emotionally appealing , saying " Wistful and beautiful , it highlights a more pared @-@ down Shakira . " Jesus Yanez @-@ Reyes from Northern Arizona News complimented Shakira 's vocal delivery and songwriting , and felt the combination of rock and Latin music in the song made it " reminiscent " of Shakira 's earlier work . Reyes also praised its placement as the opening track of the album and commented : " Undoubtedly , this song starts the album off on the right track , with only higher expectations to come . " The instrumentation of the song reminded Carlos Macias from Terra Music of Shakira 's work in her sixth studio album Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 ( 2005 ) and called it a " good welcome " to the album .
At the Premio Lo Nuestro awards ceremony in 2012 , " Sale el Sol " was nominated for " Canción Pop del Año " ( " Pop Song of the Year " ) , but lost to another song by Shakira , " Rabiosa " .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Sale el Sol " was directed by Shakira 's frequent collaborator Jaume de Laiguana . Parts of the video also served as a Christmas season commercial for Spanish Cava wine producer Freixenet , who donated an estimated amount of 500 @,@ 000 euros to Shakira 's charity Barefoot Foundation . The singer 's official website announced the music video on 9 February 2011 . It was made available to digitally download from the iTunes Store a day earlier .
It begins with the title of the song being shown on a black background , with a bright sun @-@ like circle in place of the letter " o " . Dressed in an entirely black attire , Shakira then appears singing the song with a mic stand in a snowy forest setting . She is backed by a four @-@ piece band of musicians , who are also wearing black costumes . As the first chorus of the song ends , it start to snow . In a maze @-@ like structure , Shakira is shown running in a large golden frock , trying to find her way . Changing back to the forest setting , the camera pans upward to reveal that the maze is built behind the wall in front of which Shakira and her band are performing . The song 's bridge co @-@ indices with the occurrence of a storm and culminates with Shakira tearing her top open , after which the sun rises and the intensity of the lighting increases . The video ends with Shakira opening a door that leads her out of the maze . Scenes from Laiguana 's short documentary film Hagamos Que Salga el Sol ( Let the Sun Rise ) , which was filmed in Colombia , are interspersed in the video .
Robbie Daw from Idolator called the music video " sunny " and commented : " What more do you want from a Shakira video than the sizzling hot singer in a beautiful frock , wandering through a long maze while making her way out of the cold and into the sun @-@ drenched scenery . "
= = = Live performances = = =
" Sale el Sol " was included as the thirteenth song on the set list of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . In May 2010 , Shakira sang the song at the Rock in Rio concert show in Madrid , Spain , as a tribute to Argentine singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati , her frequent @-@ collaborator and close friend who had suffered a stroke earlier in the month and had fallen into a coma .
= = Formats and track listing = =
Digital download
" Sale el Sol " - 3 : 20
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque =
Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic : المسجد الاقصى Al @-@ Masjid al @-@ Aqsa , IPA : [ ʔælˈmæsdʒɪd ælˈʔɑqsˤɑ ] , “ the Farthest Mosque " , Hebrew : מסגד אל @-@ אקצא Misgad al @-@ Aktsa ) , also known as Al @-@ Aqsa and Bayt al @-@ Muqaddas , is the third holiest site in Islam and is located in the Old City of Jerusalem . Whilst the entire site on which the silver @-@ domed mosque sits , along with the Dome of the Rock , seventeen gates , and four minarets , was itself historically known as the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , today a narrower definition prevails , and the wider compound is usually referred to as al @-@ Haram ash @-@ Sharif ( " the Noble Sanctuary " ) , or the Temple Mount , the holiest site in Judaism . Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al @-@ Aqsa during the Night Journey . Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration , when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba .
The mosque was originally a small prayer house built by the Rashidun caliph Umar , but was rebuilt and expanded by the Umayyad caliph Abd al @-@ Malik and finished by his son al @-@ Walid in 705 CE . The mosque was completely destroyed by an earthquake in 746 and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al @-@ Mansur in 754 . His successor al @-@ Mahdi rebuilt it again in 780 . Another earthquake destroyed most of al @-@ Aqsa in 1033 , but two years later the Fatimid caliph Ali az @-@ Zahir built another mosque which has stood to the present day .
During the periodic renovations undertaken , the various ruling dynasties of the Islamic Caliphate constructed additions to the mosque and its precincts , such as its dome , facade , its minbar , minarets and the interior structure . When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 , they used the mosque as a palace and the Dome of the Rock as a church , but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin in 1187 . More renovations , repairs and additions were undertaken in the later centuries by the Ayyubids , Mamluks , Ottomans , the Supreme Muslim Council , and Jordan . Today , the Old City is under Israeli control , but the mosque remains under the administration of the Jordanian / Palestinian @-@ led Islamic Waqf .
= = Etymology = =
Masjid al @-@ Aqsa translates from Arabic into English as " the farthest mosque " . The name refers to a chapter of the Quran called " The Night Journey " in which it is said that Muhammad traveled from Mecca to " the farthest mosque " , and then up to Heaven on a heavenly creature called al @-@ Buraq al @-@ Sharif . Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as a whole is confused with a particular building within it , also known as al @-@ Jami ' al @-@ Aqsa or al @-@ Qibli or Masjid al @-@ Jumah or al @-@ Mughata ; these names refer to the southern building with the silver lead dome .
For centuries , al @-@ Masjid al @-@ Aqsa referred not only to the mosque , but to the entire sacred sanctuary , while al @-@ Jami ' al @-@ Aqsa referred to the specific site of the mosque . This changed during the period of Ottoman rule ( c. early 16th century to 1917 ) when the sanctuary complex came to be known as al @-@ Haram al @-@ Sharif .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ construction = = =
The al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount , referred to by Muslims today as the " Haram al @-@ Sharif " ( " The Noble Sanctuary " ) , an enclosure expanded by King Herod the Great beginning in 20 BCE . The mosque resides on an artificial platform that is supported by arches constructed by Herod 's engineers to overcome the difficult topographic conditions resulting from the southward expansion of the enclosure into the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys . At the time of the Second Temple , the present site of the mosque was occupied by the Royal Stoa , a basilica running the southern wall of the enclosure . The Royal Stoa was destroyed along with the Temple during the sacking of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE .
It was once thought that Emperor Justinian 's " Nea Ekklesia of the Theotokos " , or the New Church of the God @-@ Bearer , dedicated to the God @-@ bearing Virgin Mary , consecrated in 543 and commonly known as the Nea Church , was situated where al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was later constructed . However , remains identified as those of the Nea Church were uncovered in the south part of the Jewish Quarter in 1973 .
Analysis of the wooden beams and panels removed from the mosque during renovations in the 1930s shows they are made from Cedar of Lebanon and cypress . Radiocarbon dating indicates a large range of ages , some as old as 9th @-@ century BCE , showing that some of the wood had previously been used in older buildings .
In 2012 , it was reported that Robert Hamilton , an archaeologist who worked on the Temple Mount after the 1927 Jericho earthquake , had discovered remains under al @-@ Aqsa mosque that he did not publish in his book on the excavations . These included a mosaic like those used in Byzantine churches , and a Jewish mikveh from the Second Temple period .
= = = Construction by the Umayyads = = =
The current construction of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is dated to the early Umayyad period of rule in Palestine . Architectural historian K. A. C. Creswell ,
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referring to a testimony by Arculf , a Gallic monk , during his pilgrimage to Palestine in 679 – 82 , notes the possibility that the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab , erected a primitive quadrangular building for a capacity of 3 @,@ 000 worshipers somewhere on the Haram ash @-@ Sharif . However , Arculf visited Palestine during the reign of Mu 'awiyah I , and it is possible that Mu 'awiyah ordered the construction , not Umar . This latter claim is explicitly supported by the early Muslim scholar al @-@ Muthahhar bin Tahir .
According to several Muslim scholars , including Mujir ad @-@ Din , al @-@ Suyuti , and al @-@ Muqaddasi , the mosque was reconstructed and expanded by the caliph Abd al @-@ Malik in 690 along with the Dome of the Rock . Guy le Strange claims that Abd al @-@ Malik used materials from the destroyed Church of Our Lady to build the mosque and points to possible evidence that substructures on the southeast corners of the mosque are remains of the church . In planning his magnificent project on the Temple Mount , which in effect would turn the entire complex into the Haram al @-@ Sharif ( " the Noble Sanctuary " ) , Abd al @-@ Malik wanted to replace the slipshod structure described by Arculf with a more sheltered structure enclosing the qibla , a necessary element in his grand scheme . However , the entire Haram al @-@ Sharif was meant to represent a mosque . How much he modified the aspect of the earlier building is unknown , but the length of the new building is indicated by the existence of traces of a bridge leading from the Umayyad palace just south of the western part of the complex . The bridge would have spanned the street running just outside the southern wall of the Haram al @-@ Sharif to give direct access to the mosque . Direct access from palace to mosque was a well @-@ known feature in the Umayyad period , as evidenced at various early sites . Abd al @-@ Malik shifted the central axis of the mosque some 40 meters ( 130 ft ) westward , in accord with his overall plan for the Haram al @-@ Sharif . The earlier axis is represented in the structure by the niche still known as the " mihrab of ' Umar . " In placing emphasis on the Dome of the Rock , Abd al @-@ Malik had his architects align his new al @-@ Aqsa Mosque according to the position of the Rock , thus shifting the main north – south axis of the Noble Sanctuary , a line running through the Dome of the Chain and the Mihrab of Umar .
In contrast , Creswell , while referring to the Aphrodito Papyri , claims that Abd al @-@ Malik 's son , al @-@ Walid I , reconstructed the Aqsa Mosque over a period of six months to a year , using workers from Damascus . Most scholars agree that the mosque 's reconstruction was started by Abd al @-@ Malik , but that al @-@ Walid oversaw its completion . In 713 – 14 , a series of earthquakes ravaged Jerusalem , destroying the eastern section of the mosque , which was subsequently rebuilt during al @-@ Walid 's rule . In order to finance its reconstruction , al @-@ Walid had gold from the dome of the Rock minted to use as money to purchase the material . The Umayyad @-@ built al @-@ Aqsa Mosque most likely measured 112 x 39 meters .
= = = Earthquakes and reconstructions = = =
In 746 , the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was damaged in an earthquake , four years before as @-@ Saffah overthrew the Umayyads and established the Abbasid Caliphate . The second Abbasid caliph Abu Ja 'far al @-@ Mansur declared his intent to repair the mosque in 753 , and he had the gold and silver plaques that covered the gates of the mosque removed and turned into dinars and dirhams to finance the reconstruction which ended in 771 . A second earthquake damaged most of al @-@ Mansur 's repairs , excluding those made in the southern portion in 774 . In 780 , the successor caliph Muhammad al @-@ Mahdi had it rebuilt , but curtailed its length and increased its breadth . Al @-@ Mahdi 's renovation is the first known to have written records describing it . In 985 , Jerusalem @-@ born Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi recorded that the renovated mosque had " fifteen naves and fifteen gates " .
In 1033 , there was another earthquake , severely damaging the mosque . The Fatimid caliph Ali az @-@ Zahir rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034 and 1036 . The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven . Az @-@ Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle , which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque . The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof upon which the dome — made of wood — was constructed . Persian geographer , Nasir Khusraw describes the Aqsa Mosque during a visit in 1047 :
The Haram Area ( Noble Sanctuary ) lies in the eastern part of the city ; and through the bazaar of this ( quarter ) you enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway ( Dargah ) ... After passing this gateway , you have on the right two great colonnades ( Riwaq ) , each of which has nine @-@ and @-@ twenty marble pillars , whose capitals and bases are of colored marbles , and the joints are set in lead . Above the pillars rise arches , that are constructed , of masonry , without mortar or cement , and each arch is constructed of no more than five or six blocks of stone . These colonnades lead down to near the Maqsurah .
Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders in 1099 , during the First Crusade . They named the mosque " Solomon 's Temple " , distinguishing it from the Dome of the Rock , which they named Templum Domini ( Temple of God ) . While the Dome of the Rock was turned into a Christian church under the care of the Augustinians , the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was used as a royal palace and also as a stable for horses . In 1119 , it was transformed into the headquarters of the Templar Knights . During this period , the mosque underwent some structural changes , including the expansion of its northern porch , and the addition of an apse and a dividing wall . A new cloister and church were also built at the site , along with various other structures . The Templars constructed vaulted western and eastern annexes to the building ; the western currently serves as the women 's mosque and the eastern as the Islamic Museum .
After the Ayyubids under the leadership of Saladin reconquered Jerusalem following the siege of 1187 , several repairs and renovations were undertaken at al @-@ Aqsa Mosque . In order to prepare the mosque for Friday prayers , within a week of his capture of Jerusalem Saladin had the toilets and grain stores installed by the Crusaders at al @-@ Aqsa removed , the floors covered with precious carpets , and its interior scented with rosewater and incense . Saladin 's predecessor — the Zengid sultan Nur al @-@ Din — had commissioned the construction of a new minbar or " pulpit " made of ivory and wood in 1168 – 69 , but it was completed after his death ; Nur ad @-@ Din 's minbar was added to the mosque in November 1187 by Saladin . The Ayyubid sultan of Damascus , al @-@ Mu 'azzam , built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates in 1218 . In 1345 , the Mamluks under al @-@ Kamil Shaban added two naves and two gates to the mosque 's eastern side .
After the Ottomans assumed power in 1517 , they did not undertake any major renovations or repairs to the mosque itself , but they did to the Noble Sanctuary as a whole . This included the building of the Fountain of Qasim Pasha ( 1527 ) , the restoration of the Pool of Raranj , and the building of three free @-@ standing domes — the most notable being the Dome of the Prophet built in 1538 . All construction was ordered by the Ottoman governors of Jerusalem and not the sultans themselves . The sultans did make additions to existing minarets , however . In 1816 , the mosque was restored by Governor Sulayman Pasha al @-@ Adil after having been in a dilapidated state .
= = = Modern era = = =
The first renovation in the 20th @-@ century occurred in 1922 , when the Supreme Muslim Council under Amin al @-@ Husayni ( the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem ) commissioned Turkish architect Ahmet Kemalettin Bey to restore al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and the monuments in its precincts . The council also commissioned British architects , Egyptian engineering experts and local officials to contribute to and oversee the repairs and additions which were carried out in 1924 – 25 by Kemalettin . The renovations included reinforcing the mosque 's ancient Umayyad foundations , rectifying the interior columns , replacing the beams , erecting a scaffolding , conserving the arches and drum of the main dome 's interior , rebuilding the southern wall , and replacing timber in the central nave with a slab of concrete . The renovations also revealed Fatimid @-@ era mosaics and inscriptions on the interior arches that had been covered with plasterwork . The arches were decorated with gold and green @-@ tinted gypsum and their timber tie beams were replaced with brass . A quarter of the stained glass windows also were carefully renewed so as to preserve their original Abbasid and Fatimid designs . Severe damage was caused by the 1927 and 1937 earthquakes , but the mosque was repaired in 1938 and 1942 .
On 21 August 1969 , a fire was started by a visitor from Australia named Denis Michael Rohan . Rohan was a member of an evangelical Christian sect known as the Worldwide Church of God . He hoped that by burning down al @-@ Aqsa Mosque he would hasten the Second Coming of Jesus , making way for the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount . Rohan was subsequently hospitalized in a mental institution . In response to the incident , a summit of Islamic countries was held in Rabat that same year , hosted by Faisal of Saudi Arabia , the late king of Saudi Arabia . The al @-@ Aqsa fire is regarded as one of the catalysts for the formation of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( OIC , now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) in 1972 .
In the 1980s , Ben Shoshan and Yehuda Etzion , both members of the Gush Emunim Underground , plotted to blow up the al @-@ Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock . Etzion believed that blowing up the two mosques would cause a spiritual awakening in Israel , and would solve all the problems of the Jewish people . They also hoped the Third Temple of Jerusalem would be built on the location of the mosque . On 15 January , 1988 , during the First Intifada , Israeli troops fired rubber bullets and tear gas at protesters outside the mosque , wounding 40 worshipers . On 8 October , 1990 , 22 Palestinians were killed and over 100 others injured by Israeli Border Police during protests that were triggered by the announcement of the Temple Mount Faithful , a group of religious Jews , that they were going to lay the cornerstone of the Third Temple .
On 28 September 2000 , then @-@ opposition leader of Israel Ariel Sharon and members of the Likud Party , along with 1 @,@ 000 armed guards , visited the al @-@ Aqsa compound ; a large group of Palestinians went to protest the visit . After Sharon and the Likud Party members left , a demonstration erupted and Palestinians on the grounds of the Haram al @-@ Sharif began throwing stones and other projectiles at Israeli riot police . Police fired tear gas and rubber bullets at the crowd , injuring 24 people . The visit sparked a five @-@ year uprising by the Palestinians , commonly referred to as the al @-@ Aqsa Intifada , though some commentators , citing subsequent speeches by PA officials , particularly Imad Falouji and Arafat himself , claim that the Intifada had been planned months in advance , as early as July upon Yasser Arafat 's return from Camp David talks . On 29 September , the Israeli government deployed 2 @,@ 000 riot police to the mosque . When a group of Palestinians left the mosque after Friday prayers ( Jumu 'ah , ) they hurled stones at the police . The police then stormed the mosque compound , firing both live ammunition and rubber bullets at the group of Palestinians , killing four and wounding about 200 .
On 5 November 2014 , Israeli police entered Al @-@ Aqsa for the first time since capturing Jerusalem in 1967 , said Sheikh Azzam Al @-@ Khatib , director of the Islamic Waqf . Previous media reports of ' storming Al @-@ Aqsa ' referred to the Haram al @-@ Sharif compound rather than the Al @-@ Aqsa mosque itself .
= = Architecture = =
The rectangular al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and its precincts are 144 @,@ 000 square meters ( 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , although the mosque itself is about 35 @,@ 000 square meters ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and could hold up to 5 @,@ 000 worshipers . It is 83 m ( 272 ft ) long , 56 m ( 184 ft ) wide . Unlike the Dome of the Rock , which reflects classical Byzantine architecture , the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is characteristic of early Islamic architecture .
= = = Dome = = =
Nothing remains of the original dome built by Abd al @-@ Malik . The present @-@ day dome was built by az @-@ Zahir and consists of wood plated with lead enamelwork . In 1969 , the dome was reconstructed in concrete and covered with anodized aluminum , instead of the original ribbed lead enamel work sheeting . In 1983 , the aluminum outer covering was replaced with lead to match the original design by az @-@ Zahir .
Al @-@ Aqsa 's dome is one of the few domes to be built in front of the mihrab during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods , the others being the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus ( 715 ) and the Great Mosque at Sousse ( 850 ) . The interior of the dome is painted with 14th @-@ century @-@ era decorations . During the 1969 burning , the paintings were assumed to be irreparably lost , but were completely reconstructed using the trateggio technique , a method that uses fine vertical lines to distinguish reconstructed areas from original ones .
= = = Facade and porch = = =
The facade of the mosque was built in 1065 CE on the instructions of the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Mustansir Billah . It was crowned with a balustrade consisting of arcades and small columns . The Crusaders damaged the facade , but it was restored and renovated by the Ayyubids . One addition was the covering of the facade with tiles . The second @-@ hand material of the facade 's arches includes sculpted , ornamental material taken from Crusader structures in Jerusalem . The facade consists of fourteen stone arches , most of which are of a Romanesque style . The outer arches added by the Mamluks follow the same general design . The entrance to the mosque is through the facade 's central arch .
The porch is located at the top of the facade . The central bays of the porch were built by the Knights Templar during the First Crusade , but Saladin 's nephew al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa ordered the construction of the porch itself in 1217 .
= = = Interior = = =
The al @-@ Aqsa Mosque has seven aisles of hypostyle naves with several additional small halls to the west and east of the southern section of the building . There are 121 stained glass windows in the mosque from the Abbasid and Fatimid eras . About a fourth of them were restored in 1924 .
The mosque 's interior is supported by 45 columns , 33 of which are white marble and 12 of stone . The column rows of the central aisles are heavy and stunted . The remaining four rows are better proportioned . The capitals of the columns are of four different kinds : those in the central aisle are heavy and primitively designed , while those under the dome are of the Corinthian order , and made from Italian white marble . The capitals in the eastern aisle are of a heavy basket @-@ shaped design and those east and west of the dome are also basket @-@ shaped , but smaller and better proportioned . The columns and piers are connected by an architectural rave , which consists of beams of roughly squared timber enclosed in a wooden casing .
A great portion of the mosque is covered with whitewash , but the drum of the dome and the walls immediately beneath it are decorated with mosaics and marble . Some paintings by an Italian artist were introduced when repairs were undertaken at the mosque after an earthquake ravaged the mosque in 1927 . The ceiling of the mosque was painted with funding by King Farouk of Egypt .
The minbar ( " pulpit " ) of the mosque was built by a craftsman named Akhtarini from Aleppo on the orders of the Zengid sultan Nur ad @-@ Din . It was intended to be a gift for the mosque when Nur ad @-@ Din would capture Jerusalem from the Crusaders and took six years to build ( 1168 – 74 ) . Nur ad @-@ Din died and the Crusaders still controlled Jerusalem , but in 1187 , Saladin captured the city and the minbar was installed . The structure was made of ivory and carefully crafted wood . Arabic calligraphy , geometrical and floral designs were inscribed in the woodwork . After its destruction by Rohan in 1969 , it was replaced by a much simpler minbar . In January 2007 , Adnan al @-@ Husayni — head of the Islamic waqf in charge of al @-@ Aqsa — stated that a new minbar would be installed ; it was installed in February 2007 . The design of the new minbar was drawn by Jamil Badran based on an exact replica of the Saladin Minbar and was finished by Badran within a period of five years . The minbar itself was built in Jordan over a period of four years and the craftsmen used " ancient woodworking methods , joining the pieces with pegs instead of nails , but employed computer images to design the pulpit [ minbar ] . "
= = = Ablution fountain = = =
The mosque 's main ablution fountain , known as al @-@ Kas ( " the Cup " ) , is located north of the mosque between it and the Dome of the Rock . It is used by worshipers to perform wudu , a ritual washing of the hands , arms , legs , feet , and face before entry into the mosque . It was first built in 709 by the Umayyads , but in 1327 – 28 Governor Tankiz enlarged it to accommodate more worshipers . Although originally supplied with water from Solomon 's Pools near Bethlehem , it currently receives water from pipes connected to Jerusalem 's water supply . In the 20th @-@ century , al @-@ Kas was provided taps and stone seating .
The Fountain of Qasim Pasha , built by the Ottomans in 1526 and located north of the mosque on the platform of the Dome of the Rock , was used by worshipers for ablution and for drinking until the 1940s . Today , it stands as a monumental structure .
= = Religious significance in Islam = =
In Islam , the term " al @-@ Aqsa Mosque " refers to the entire Noble Sanctuary . The mosque is believed to be the second house of prayer constructed after the Masjid al @-@ Haram in Mecca . Post @-@ Rashidun @-@ era Islamic scholars traditionally identified the mosque as the site referred to in the sura ( Quranic chapter ) al @-@ Isra ( " the Night Journey " ) . This specific verse in the Quran cemented the significant religious importance of al @-@ Aqsa in Islam . The specific passage reads " Praise be to Him who made His servant journey in the night from the sacred sanctuary to the remotest sanctuary . " Muslims traditionally identify the " sacred sanctuary " as the Masjid al @-@ Haram and the " remotest sanctuary " as the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , even though initially , Rashidun and Umayyad @-@ era scholars were in disagreement about the location of the " remotest sanctuary " with some arguing it was actually located near Mecca . Eventually scholarly consensus determined that its location was indeed in Jerusalem .
= = = Isra and Mi 'raj = = =
According to the Quran and Islamic traditions , al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is the place from which Muhammad went on a night journey ( al @-@ isra ) during which he rode on Buraq , who took him from Mecca to al @-@ Aqsa . Muhammad tethered Buraq to the Western Wall and prayed at al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and after he finished his prayers , the angel Jibril ( Gabriel ) traveled with him to heaven , where he met several other prophets and led them in prayer .
= = = First qibla = = =
The historical significance of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque in Islam is further emphasized by the fact that Muslims turned towards al @-@ Aqsa when they prayed for a period of sixteen or seventeen months after migration to Medina in 624 ; it thus became the qibla ( " direction " ) that Muslims faced for prayer . Muhammad later prayed towards the Kaaba in Mecca after receiving a revelation during a prayer session [ Quran 2 : 142 – 151 ] in the Masjid al @-@ Qiblatayn . The qibla was relocated to the Kaaba where Muslims have been directed to pray ever since .
The altering of the qibla was precisely the reason the Rashidun caliph Umar , despite identifying the mosque which Muhammad used to ascend to Heaven upon his arrival at the Noble Sanctuary in 638 , neither prayed facing it nor built any structure upon it . This was because the significance of that particular spot on the Noble Sanctuary was superseded in Islamic jurisprudence by the Kaaba in Mecca after the change of the qibla towards that site .
According to early Quranic interpreters and what is generally accepted as Islamic tradition , in 638 CE Umar , upon entering a conquered Jerusalem , consulted with Ka 'ab al @-@ Ahbar — a Jewish convert to Islam who came with him from Medina — as to where the best spot would be to build a mosque . Al @-@ Ahbar suggested to him that it should be behind the Rock " ... so that all of Jerusalem would be before you . " Umar replied , " You correspond to Judaism ! " Immediately after this conversation , Umar began to clean up the site — which was filled with trash and debris — with his cloak , and other Muslim followers imitated him until the site was clean . Umar then prayed at the spot where it was believed that Muhammad had prayed before his night journey , reciting the Quranic sura Sad . Thus , according to this tradition , Umar thereby reconsecrated the site as a mosque .
Because of the holiness of Noble Sanctuary itself — being a place where David and Solomon had prayed — Umar constructed a small prayer house in the southern corner of its platform , taking care to avoid allowing the Rock to come between the mosque and the direction of Kaaba so that Muslims would face only Mecca when they prayed .
= = = Religious status = = =
Jerusalem is recognized as a sacred site in Islam . Though the Quran does not mention Jerusalem by name , it has been understood by Islamic scholars since the earliest times that many passages in the Quran refer to Jerusalem . Jerusalem is also mentioned many times in the hadith . Some academics attribute the holiness of Jerusalem to the rise and expansion of a certain type of literary genre , known as al @-@ Fadhail or history of cities . The Fadhail of Jerusalem inspired Muslims , especially during the Umayyad period , to embellish the sanctity of the city beyond its status in the holy texts . Others point to the political motives of the Umayyad dynasty which led to the sanctification of Jerusalem in Islam .
Later medieval scripts , as well as modern @-@ day political tracts , tend to classify al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam . For example , Sahih al @-@ Bukhari quotes Abu Darda as saying : " the Prophet of God Muhammad said a prayer in the Sacred Mosque ( in Mecca ) is worth 100 @,@ 000 prayers ; a prayer in my mosque ( in Medina ) is worth 1 @,@ 000 prayers ; and a prayer in al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is worth 500 prayers more than in any other mosque " . In addition , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , refers to the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam ( and calls for Arab sovereignty over it ) .
= = Current situations = =
= = = Administration = = =
The Waqf Ministry of Jordan held control of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque until the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . After Israel 's victory in that war , Israel transferred the control of the mosque and the northern Noble Sanctuary to the Islamic waqf trust , who are independent of the Israeli government . However , Israeli Security Forces are permitted to patrol and conduct searches within the perimeter of the mosque . After the 1969 arson attack , the waqf employed architects , technicians and craftsmen in a committee that carry out regular maintenance operations . The Islamic Movement in Israel and the waqf have attempted to increase Muslim control of the Temple Mount as a way of countering Israeli policies and the escalating presence of Israeli security forces around the site since the Second Intifada . Some activities included refurbishing abandoned structures and renovating .
Muhammad Ahmad Hussein is the head imam and manager of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and was assigned the role of Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in 2006 by Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas . Ownership of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is a contentious issue in the Israel @-@ Palestinian conflict . Israel claims sovereignty over the mosque along with all of the Temple Mount ( Noble Sanctuary ) , but Palestinians hold the custodianship of the site through the Islamic waqf . During the negotiations at the 2000 Camp David Summit , Palestinians demanded complete ownership of the mosque and other Islamic holy sites in East Jerusalem .
Current Imams :
Sheikh Abu Yusuf Sneia , Sheikh Ali Al Abbasi , Sheikh Sa 'eed Qalqeeli , Sheikh Walid
= = = Access = = =
Muslim residents of Israel and Palestinians living in East Jerusalem are normally allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque without restrictions . Due to security measures , the Israeli government occasionally prevents certain groups of Muslims from reaching al @-@ Aqsa by blocking the entrances to the complex ; the restrictions vary from time to time . At times restrictions have prevented all men under 50 and women under 45 from entering , but married men over 45 are allowed . Sometimes the restrictions are enforced on the occasion of Friday prayers , other times they are over an extended period of time . Restrictions are most severe for Gazans , followed by restrictions on those from West Bank . The Israeli government states that the restrictions are in place for security reasons .
Until 2000 , non @-@ Muslim visitors could enter the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque by getting a ticket from the Waqf . That procedure ended when the Second Intifada began . Fifteen years later , negotiation between Israel and Jordan might result in allowing visitors to enter once again .
= = = Excavations = = =
Several excavations outside the Temple Mount took place following the 1967 War . In 1970 , Israeli authorities commenced intensive excavations outside the walls next to the mosque on the southern and western sides . Palestinians believed that tunnels were being dug under the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque in order to undermine its foundations , which was denied by Israelis , who claimed that the closest excavation to the mosque was some 70 meters ( 230 ft ) to its south . The Archaeological Department of the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs dug a tunnel near the western portion of the mosque in 1984 . According to UNESCO 's special envoy to Jerusalem Oleg Grabar , buildings and structures on the Temple Mount are deteriorating due mostly to disputes between the Israeli , Palestinian and Jordanian governments over who is actually responsible for the site .
In February 2007 , the Department started to excavate a site for archaeological remains in a location where the government wanted to rebuild a collapsed pedestrian bridge leading to the Mughrabi Gate , the only entrance for non @-@ Muslims into the Temple Mount complex . This site was 60 meters ( 200 ft ) away from the mosque . The excavations provoked anger throughout the Islamic world , and Israel was accused of trying to destroy the foundation of the mosque . Ismail Haniya — then Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas leader — called on Palestinians to unite to protest the excavations , while Fatah said they would end their ceasefire with Israel . Israel denied all charges against them , calling them " ludicrous " .
= The Cure ( Fringe ) =
" The Cure " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It followed two women suffering from a fictional disease , who are then given radiation drugs and exploited by a pharmaceutical company to cause nearby individuals ' brains to boil .
The episode was written by Felicia D. Henderson and Brad Caleb Kane , and directed by Bill Eagles . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner meant for the first six episodes of the first season to serve as a " prologue " , while the following episodes would get " into the next chapter " of the series .
" The Cure " first aired in the United States on October 21 , 2008 on the Fox network to an estimated 8 @.@ 91 viewers . It received mixed to negative reviews , with many critics doubting the plausibility of the science depicted in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In Milford , Massachusetts , men in Hazmat suits drop a woman ( Maria Dizzia ) out of a white van , who then enters a nearby diner . Suffering from memory loss , the woman becomes irritated under a cop 's questioning and causes the other patrons ' brains to boil and then explode ; she dies soon after in the same fashion .
The Fringe team consisting of Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , and Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) arrive , and Agent Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) briefs them that the woman , Emily Kramer , disappeared two weeks previously , and that her corpse exhibits three times the radiation as the other victims . Upon further investigation of her body , Walter concludes she was suffering from a rare and incurable disease , " Bellini 's lymphocemia , " but was mysteriously cured . Further tests reveal Kramer was held against her will , and given nootropic drugs intravenously that makes her brain emit a microwave burst , then set loose by her experimenters as a test .
Another woman with the same disease , Claire Williams ( Marjan Neshat ) , is reported missing soon after . Before her disappearance , Claire 's husband tells them she also was recently cured . Her captors are shown , commenting that " the last one was a test , this one counts " . While rifling through Emily 's house , Olivia and Peter learn Emily and Claire were friends , and that Emily 's husband also knew her despite denying it earlier . He tells them they and other victims of the disease undertook private research and discovered a cure with the help of a physician , Dr. Nadim Patel ( Alok Tewari ) . Before committing suicide , the doctor tells them David Esterbrook ( Chris Eigeman ) , the chief scientist of a competitor of Massive Dynamic , is the one responsible . Olivia confronts Esterbrook at a medical conference to discover his motivations , only to be threatened by him ; Broyles admonishes her for intimidating such a high profile individual in a public setting .
To get to the high profile Esterbrook , Peter makes a deal with Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , who tells him where to find Claire before she can be turned into a radioactive bomb . The FBI storms the building , and Olivia is able to give Claire the cure before her head explodes . Estebrook arrogantly tells Olivia his lawyers will spring him out of any trouble , and she publicly arrests him to ensure the press finds out , causing his company 's stock to dramatically decrease in value . After Broyles lectures her , Olivia tells him her emotions ( which she had exhibited strongly all episode ) make her a better agent .
In a sideplot , Olivia reveals that she shot her abusive stepfather when she was nine years old , but he survived and disappeared soon after . The strong emotions Olivia exhibited in the episode were because the events take place on her birthday , and her stepfather sends her a card every year to let her know " he 's still out there " . The final scene shows Olivia opening a birthday card from her stepfather .
= = Production = =
" The Cure " was written by co @-@ executive producer Felicia D. Henderson and co @-@ producer Brad Caleb Kane , while filmmaker Bill Eagles directed it . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , executive producer Jeff Pinkner stated that the first six episodes of the first season were a " prologue " that ended with " The Cure , " and that the following episodes , beginning with " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " , were " getting into the next chapter " of the series .
Pinkner also told the Los Angeles Times that " Bellini 's lymphocemia " , the disease depicted in the episode , was invented by the writers , but its characteristics are real . He elaborated " We just didn 't want to imply that individuals working on their own could cure it . We didn 't want to be irresponsible to people with the real disease " . Some critics have noted that " Bellini 's lymphocemia " may have been a reference to Italian physician and anatomist Lorenzo Bellini .
It featured one @-@ time guest appearances by actors Chris Eigeman , Maria Dizzia , Marjan Neshat , William Hill , Lisa Emery , Robert Eli , and Alok Tewari . Eigeman 's David Esterbrook 's assistant was named after Elizabeth Sarnoff , a television writer and producer . Some of her work includes Lost , another series created by J. J. Abrams .
For the opening scene , a " special kind of blood " was placed in and around the actors ' eyes to simulate their brains boiling . For the scene in which the actress is pushed up against a glass door , the special effects department created a device wearing a brown wig with an explosive charge designed to imitate the actress ' head exploding . Director Bill Eagles described the scene as " imagin [ ing ] an egg in your microwave spinning around and around at high voltage . What happens ? Bang ! It just explodes . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial broadcast on October 21 , 2008 , " The Cure " was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 91 million viewers in the United States . It garnered a 5 @.@ 5 / 8 ratings share for all households , and was Fox 's ninth most watched show of the week .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews for the episode ranged from mixed to negative . TV Squad writer Jane Boursaw noted that Broyles " is surely one of the most intense guys on TV " , and also enjoyed Walter 's scenes . Josie Kafka from Open Salon thought the fringe cases each week were " an odd way to build a mythology : the Big Secret seems to be that people in positions of power are evil and do evil things , often for money . But if Peter 's right , and all these stand @-@ alones are also detailing a series of steps taken by the Big Bads in preparation for something ... well , that 's an exciting idea . " She gave it " two out of four Expendable Gerbils . " io9 's Annalee Newitz praised the episode , declaring it made her " officially a watcher of Fringe , rather than a sampler " . She continued , " It was the first time that the show really gelled ... I think Fringe hit its stride last night because it finally showed us our main characters ' true strengths ... More importantly , Fringe has finally gotten into its main groove : human experimentation . That 's what links all the scooby gang 's investigations together into the Pattern , and that 's what makes this show particularly timely in an age when people are scared of how biotechnology will change humanity . "
Further reviews tended to be negative . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated the episode 6 @.@ 0 / 10 , explaining " It 's starting to feel as if Walter 's loony logic is starting to influence the actual writing of Fringe . " Fickett criticized Walter 's science and " silly ranting [ s ] " , Olivia 's stepfather storyline , and believed certain lines of dialogue to be " dangerously close to self @-@ parody . " Sarah Stegall from SFScope was skeptical of the episode 's science , and explained " I really don 't want any more of this . I 'm tired of this formulaic series . I 'm tired of Anna Torv 's earnest , sad expressions — can we get this woman to laugh once or twice ? Joshua Jackson and Kirk Acevedo are good supports and foils for Olivia , but there 's no there there when it comes to Agent Dunham . " Patrick Kevin Day from the Los Angeles Times liked the opening sequence , but was distracted from fully enjoying the episode because he thought the science was " wonky . " The A.V. Club columnist Noel Murray graded the episode with a B , explaining he liked Chris Eigeman 's presence and the efforts at further developing the characters , but questioned the Pattern storyline , despite admitting that he does not require rational scientific explanations in science fiction . Tim Grierson of New York Magazine disliked the focus on Olivia , calling it " a long hour of television . " Referring to Olivia 's " feminist " speech to Broyles , Grierson continued , " It 's sort of cute how Fringe occasionally pretends that it 's more than just a freak show . But if they 're going to focus on a character , it should be Walter — though we shudder to think how his flatulence will factor into the plot . "
= Buxbaumia =
Buxbaumia ( Bug moss , Bug @-@ on @-@ a @-@ stick , Humpbacked elves , or Elf @-@ cap moss ) is a genus of twelve species of moss ( Bryophyta ) . It was first named in 1742 by Albrecht von Haller and later brought into modern botanical nomenclature in 1801 by Johann Hedwig to commemorate Johann Christian Buxbaum , a German physician and botanist who discovered the moss in 1712 at the mouth of the Volga River . The moss is microscopic for most of its existence , and plants are noticeable only after they begin to produce their reproductive structures . The asymmetrical spore capsule has a distinctive shape and structure , some features of which appear to be transitional from those in primitive mosses to most modern mosses .
= = Description = =
Plants of Buxbaumia have a much reduced gametophyte , bearing a sporophyte that is enormous by comparison . In most mosses , the gametophyte stage of the life cycle is both green and leafy , and is substantially larger than the spore @-@ producing stage . Unlike these other mosses , the gametophyte of Buxbaumia is microscopic , colorless , stemless , and nearly leafless . It consists exclusively of thread @-@ like protonemata for most of its existence , resembling a thin green @-@ black felt on the surface where it grows . The plants are dioicous , with separate plants producing the male and female organs . Male plants develop only one microscopic leaf around each antheridium , and female plants produce just three or four tiny colorless leaves around each archegonium .
Because of its small size , the gametophyte stage is not generally noticed until the stalked sporangium develops , and is locatable principally because the sporangium grows upon and above the tiny gametophyte . The extremely reduced state of Buxbaumia plants raises the question of how it makes or obtains sufficient nutrition for survival . In contrast to most mosses , Buxbaumia does not produce abundant chlorophyll and is saprophytic . It is possible that some of its nutritional needs are met by fungi that grow within the plant .
The sporophyte at maturity is between 4 and 11 mm tall . The spore capsule is attached at the top of the stalk and is distinctive , being asymmetric in shape and oblique in attachment . As with most other Bryopsida , the opening through which the spores are released is surrounded by a double peristome ( diplolepidious ) formed from the cell walls of disintegrated cells . The exostome ( outer row ) consists of 16 short articulated " teeth " . Unlike most other mosses , the endostome ( inner row ) does not divide into teeth , but rather is a continuous pleated membrane around the capsule opening . Only the genus Diphyscium has a similar peristome structure , although that genus has only 16 pleats in its endostome , in contrast to the 32 pleats in Buxbaumia . Diphyscium shares with Buxbaumia one other oddity of the sporophyte ; the foot ( stalk base ) ramifies as a result of outgrowths , so much so that they may be mistaken for rhizoids .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Species of Buxbaumia may be found across much of the temperate to subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere , as well as cooler regions of Australia and New Zealand .
The moss is an annual or biennial plant and grows in disturbed habitats or as a pioneer species . The plants grow on decaying wood , rock outcrops , or directly on the soil . They do not grow regularly or reliably at given locations , and frequently disappear from places where they have previously been found . Sporophyte stages begin their development in the autumn , and are green through the winter months . Spores are mature and ready for dispersal by the late spring or early summer . The spores are ejected from the capsule in puffs when raindrops fall upon the capsule 's flattened top .
The asymmetric sporophytes of Buxbaumia aphylla develop so that the opening is oriented towards the strongest source of light , usually towards the south . The species often grows together with the diminutive liverwort Cephaloziella , which forms a blackish crust that is easier to spot than Buxbaumia itself .
= = Classification = =
Buxbaumia is the only genus in the family Buxbaumiaceae , the order Buxbaumiales , and the subclass Buxbaumiidae . It is the sister group to all other members of class Bryopsida . Some older classifications included the Diphysciaceae within the Buxbaumiales ( or as part of the Buxbaumiaceae ) because of similarities in the peristome structure , or placed the Buxbaumiaceae in the Tetraphidales . Most recent cladistic studies using DNA sequences are not conclusive regarding the relationship between Buxbaumia and Diphyscium , but evidence suggests they are separate lines of a paraphyletic group . No recent studies favor a placement with the Tetraphidales .
The genus Buxbaumia includes twelve species :
Because of the simplicity of its structure , Goebel interpreted Buxbaumia as a primitive moss , transitional between the algae and mosses , but subsequent research suggests that it is a secondarily reduced form . The unusual peristome in Buxbaumia is now thought to be a transitional form between the nematodontous ( cellular teeth ) peristome of the Polytrichopsida and the arthrodontous ( cell wall teeth ) peristome of the Bryopsida .
= Ashland Mill Bridge =
The Ashland Mill Bridge was a lenticular pony truss bridge over the Pachaug River in Griswold , Connecticut that was built in 1886 by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company . It was built following the Ashland dam break of February 1886 which washed away the previous bridges . The bridge served the millyard of the Ashland Cotton Company , in the Jewett City section of Griswold . The bridge was 65 feet ( 20 m ) long and crossed a millrace on a skew angle . The Ashland Mill was damaged by arson in March 1994 and subsequently torn down , but the bridge itself remained . By 1999 , the town deemed the bridge unsafe and closed it , and by February 1999 , the bridge was moved to a vacant parking lot and was replaced with a new bridge . The bridge was added to the state of Connecticut historic register and it was later added to the National Register of Historic Places in April 1999 . It was removed from the National Register in February 2016 .
= = Construction = =
Heavy rains in February 1886 caused the Ashland dam to break and the resulting flood damaged the Ashland Cotton Company 's buildings and washed away the previous bridges at the site . The Berlin Iron Bridge Company was contracted to build a total of three bridges in the area , the Ashland Mill Bridge , another larger lenticular truss for Ashland Street and another 33 feet ( 10 m ) bridge for the Slater mill which was located further downstream . Clouette and Tinh note that the mill owners may have been influenced in their decision by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company 's bridges that were already in place in the surrounding area .
The Ashland Mill Bridge was a single @-@ span lenticular pony truss bridge . Completed in 1886 , it was a roadway from Ashland Street to the millyard . The bridge was made of four 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) long panels , totaling 65 feet ( 20 m ) in length . The roadway was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . The bridge 's wrought @-@ iron truss was 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) deep and it crossed the river at a 28 ° angle . All but the truss 's joints were pinned except for the endposts ' lower @-@ chord nut connections ; as was distinctive of the Berlin Iron Bridge Company 's bridges . The plate @-@ girder floor beams supported wooden stringers and floored with planks across the width of the bridge . The bridge 's railing were made of two 5 / 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5875 cm ) rods bolted to the inside of the trusses . A 1905 postcard depicts the bridge being painted red , but the paint was nearly absent by 1998 .
= = Fate = =
In March 1994 , the manufacturing buildings were damaged by arson and were subsequently demolished . The site became a town park and the bridge was anticipated to be rehabilitated and serve as a pedestrian bridge in the park . The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in April 1999 for being a historically significant example of late 19th @-@ century bridge fabrication and as a surviving example of a bridge built by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company without significant modification or deterioration . It was also locally significant as a remaining artefact of the Ashland Cotton Company , formerly a major employer in the city .
In 1999 , the town closed the bridge as it was deemed unsafe and badly deteriorated . It was estimated that $ 72 @,@ 000 would be needed to relocate the bridge . In February 1999 , an eight @-@ member committee was tasked with planning a municipal park on the site . First Selectman Paul Brycki , hoped that the pending nomination to the National Register of Historic Places would help obtain grant money to repair the bridge . Prior to February 1999 , the historic bridge was moved to a vacant parking lot near the town hall and a replacement bridge was installed . The bridge was also on the state of Connecticut 's historic register list .
= Ranbir Kapoor =
Ranbir Kapoor ( pronounced [ rəˈɳbiːr kəˈpuːr ] ; born 28 September 1982 ) is an Indian actor . Through his career in Bollywood films , he has become one of the most popular celebrities and one of the highest @-@ paid actors in India . He is the recipient of several awards , including five Filmfare Awards .
The son of actors Rishi and Neetu , and the grandson of actor @-@ director Raj , Kapoor pursued film @-@ making and method acting at the School of Visual Arts and the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute , respectively . He subsequently assisted Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the film Black ( 2005 ) . Kapoor made his acting debut with Bhansali 's tragic romance Saawariya ( 2007 ) , a box office flop but notable for earning him his first Filmfare Award — Best Male Debut . He was awarded the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for his performances in three films of 2009 — the coming @-@ of @-@ age film Wake Up Sid , the comedy Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani , and the drama Rocket Singh : Salesman of the Year .
Kapoor won two consecutive Best Actor awards at Filmfare for portraying a troubled musician in the drama Rockstar ( 2011 ) and a deaf @-@ mute man in the comedy @-@ drama Barfi ! ( 2012 ) . A starring role in the romantic comedy Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , established him as a leading Bollywood actor . However , he followed it by starring in a series of films that under @-@ performed at the box office , although his performance in the romantic drama Tamasha ( 2015 ) was praised .
In addition to acting in films , Kapoor supports charities and causes . He is the co @-@ founder of the production company Picture Shuru Productions , and is a co @-@ owner of the Indian Super League football team Mumbai City FC .
= = Early life and background = =
Ranbir Kapoor was born on 28 September 1982 in Mumbai to Rishi and Neetu , both actors of the Hindi film industry . He is the great @-@ grandson of Prithviraj and the grandson of actor @-@ director Raj . His elder sister , Riddhima ( born 1980 ) , is an interior and fashion designer . The actresses Karisma and Kareena are his first cousins . Kapoor was educated at the Bombay Scottish School in Mahim . As a student , he found little interest in academics and would rank low among his peers .
Kapoor has been vocal about how his parent 's troubled marriage affected him as a child : " Sometimes the fights would get really bad . I would be sitting on the steps , my head between my knees , till five or six in the morning , waiting for them to stop " . These experiences led to a " reservoir of emotions building up inside [ him ] " , which he said compelled him to develop an interest in film . In his early years , Kapoor was close to his mother , but had a dysfunctional relationship with his father . After completing his tenth standard examinations , he worked as an assistant director to his father on the film Aa Ab Laut Chalen ( 1999 ) , during which he developed a closer bond with him .
After completing his pre @-@ university education from the H.R. College of Commerce and Economics , Kapoor relocated to New York City to learn film @-@ making at the School of Visual Arts , and subsequently pursued method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute . In film school , Kapoor directed and starred in two short films , entitled Passion to Love and India 1964 . The loneliness of living alone in New York City coupled with his experience in film school , which he described as " useless " , inspired him to pursue a career in Bollywood . Upon returning to Mumbai , Kapoor was hired as an assistant director to Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the 2005 film Black . He described the experience : " I was getting beaten up , abused , doing everything from cleaning the floor to fixing the lights from 7 am to 4 am , but I was learning every day . " He later remarked that his motive for working on Black was to get Bhansali to offer him an acting job .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and initial success ( 2007 – 10 ) = = =
Following the release of Black , Bhansali cast Kapoor as the protagonist of his 2007 tragic romance Saawariya , alongside Sonam Kapoor and Rani Mukerji . The film tells the story of a tramp , played by him , who falls obsessively in love with a woman awaiting the return of her lover . In an interview with the news and entertainment portal Rediff.com , Kapoor stated that his character was written as a tribute to his grandfather 's iconic roles as a tramp . Saawariya was the first Indian film to be produced by a Hollywood studio ( Sony Pictures Entertainment ) , and was a highly anticipated release . However , film critics were disappointed with the picture with BBC 's Jaspreet Pandohar calling it a " misfire on a massive scale " . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand considered it " contrived and fake " , but was impressed by Kapoor 's " affable charm " and wrote that " he ’ s got that star quality to him which is so rare to find . " At the box office , Saawariya failed to earn profits . However , at the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , Kapoor was awarded a Best Male Debut trophy .
Despite the commercial failure of Saawariya , Kapoor was contracted by Yash Raj Films for a primary role in the Siddharth Anand @-@ directed romantic comedy Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) . The film was his first commercial success , in which his role was that of a womaniser who is romantically involved with three women , played by Bipasha Basu , Minissha Lamba , and Deepika Padukone , at different stages of his life . Rachel Saltz of The New York Times expressed mixed views on his performance , but predicted that his " puppy @-@ dog sweetness " would " serve him well as a Bollywood leading man " .
In 2009 , Kapoor had three film releases . In Dharma Productions 's Wake Up Sid , a coming of age film from director Ayan Mukerji , Kapoor portrayed Siddharth
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independence . Rwandans were made up of three distinct groups : the minority Tutsi were the traditional ruling class , and the Belgians had long promoted their supremacy , while the majority Hutu were agriculturalists . The third group , the Twa , were a forest @-@ dwelling pygmy people who are descended from Rwanda 's earliest inhabitants and formed less than 1 % of the population .
Tension between Tutsi and Hutu had been escalating during the 1950s , and culminated in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution . Hutu activists began killing Tutsi , forcing more than 100 @,@ 000 to seek refuge in neighbouring countries . Kagame 's family abandoned their home , living for two years in the far northeast of Rwanda and eventually crossing the border into Uganda . They moved gradually north , and settled in the Nshungerezi refugee camp in the Toro sub @-@ region in 1962 . It was around this time that , as young boys , Kagame and his future comrade , Fred Rwigyema , first met one another .
Kagame began his primary education in a school near the refugee camp , where he and other Rwandan refugees learned English and began to integrate into Ugandan culture . At the age of nine he moved to the respected Rwengoro Primary School , around 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) away , graduating with the best grades in the district . He subsequently attended Ntare School , one of the best schools in Uganda . It is also the alma mater of future Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni . The death of Kagame 's father in the early 1970s , and the departure of Rwigyema to an unknown location , led to a decline in his academic performance and an increased tendency to fight those who belittled the Rwandan population . He was eventually suspended from Ntare and completed his studies without distinction at Old Kampala Secondary School .
After finishing his schooling Kagame made two visits to Rwanda , in 1977 and 1978 . He was initially hosted by family members of his former classmates , but upon arrival in Kigali he made contact with members of his own family . He kept a low profile on these visits , believing that his status as a well @-@ connected Tutsi exile could lead to arrest ; on his second visit he entered the country through Zaire rather than Uganda to avoid suspicion . Kagame used his time in Rwanda to explore the country , familiarise himself with the political and social situation , and make connections that would prove useful to him in his later activities .
= = Military career , 1979 – 1994 = =
= = = Ugandan Bush War = = =
In 1978 , Fred Rwigyema returned to western Uganda and reunited with Kagame . During his absence , Rwigyema had joined the rebel army of Yoweri Museveni . Based in Tanzania , it aimed to overthrow the Ugandan government of Idi Amin . Rwigyema returned to Tanzania and fought in the 1979 war during which Museveni 's army , allied with the Tanzanian army and other Ugandan exiles , defeated Amin . After Amin 's defeat , inspired by Rwigyema , Kagame and other Rwandan refugees pledged allegiance to Museveni , a cabinet member in the transition government . Kagame travelled to Tanzania where the Tanzanian government , which sought to protect the new Ugandan regime , trained him as a spy .
Former incumbent Milton Obote won the 1980 Ugandan general election . Museveni disputed the result , and he and his followers withdrew from the new government in protest . In 1981 , Museveni formed the rebel National Resistance Army ( NRA ) ; Kagame and Rwigyema joined as founding soldiers , along with thirty @-@ eight Ugandans . The army 's goal was to overthrow Obote 's government , in what became known as the Ugandan Bush War .
Kagame and Rwigyema joined the NRA primarily to ease conditions for Rwandan refugees persecuted by Obote . They also had a long @-@ term goal of returning with other Tutsi refugees to Rwanda ; military experience would enable them to fight the Hutu @-@ dominated Rwandan army . In the NRA , Kagame specialised in intelligence @-@ gathering , and he rose to a position close to Museveni 's . The NRA , based in the Luwero Triangle , fought the Ugandan army for the next five years , even after Obote was deposed in a 1985 coup d 'état and the start of peace talks .
In 1986 , the NRA captured Kampala with a force of 14 @,@ 000 soldiers , including 500 Rwandans , and formed a new government . After Museveni 's inauguration as president he appointed Kagame and Rwigyema as senior officers in the new Ugandan army ; Kagame was the head of military intelligence . In addition to their army duties , Kagame and Rwigyema began building a covert network of Rwandan Tutsi refugees within the army 's ranks , intended as the nucleus for an attack on Rwanda . In 1989 Rwanda 's President Habyarimana and many Ugandans in the army began to criticise Museveni over his appointment of Rwandan refugees to senior positions , and he demoted Kagame and Rwigyema .
They remained de facto senior officers , but the change caused them to accelerate their plans to invade Rwanda . They joined an organisation called the Rwandan Patriotic Front ( RPF ) , a refugee association which had been operating under various names since 1979 . Rwigyema became the RPF leader shortly after joining and , while still working for the Ugandan army , he and Kagame completed their invasion plans .
= = = Rwandan Civil War = = =
In October 1990 , Rwigyema led a force of over 4 @,@ 000 RPF rebels into Rwanda at the Kagitumba border post , advancing 60 km ( 37 mi ) south to the town of Gabiro . Paul Kagame was not present at the initial raids , as he was attending a course at the Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth , United States . Rwigyema was killed on the third day of the attack , throwing the RPF into confusion . France and Zaire deployed forces in support of the Rwandan army , and by the end of October , the RPF had been pushed back into the far north east corner of the country .
Kagame returned to Africa and took command of the RPF forces , which had been reduced to fewer than 2 @,@ 000 troops . Kagame and his soldiers moved west , through Uganda , to the Virunga Mountains , a rugged high @-@ altitude area where the terrain worked in their favor . From there he re @-@ armed and reorganised the army , and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi diaspora . Kagame restarted combat in January 1991 , with an attack on the northern town of Ruhengeri . Benefiting from the element of surprise , the RPF captured the town and held it for a day before retreating back into the forests .
For the next year , the RPF waged a classic hit @-@ and @-@ run style guerrilla war , capturing some border areas but not making significant gains in the war against the Rwandan army . Following the June 1992 formation of a multi @-@ party coalition government in Kigali , Kagame announced a ceasefire and initiated negotiations with the Rwandan government in Arusha , Tanzania . In early 1993 groups of extremist Hutu formed and began campaigns of large @-@ scale violence against the Tutsi . Kagame responded by suspending peace talks temporarily and launching a major attack , gaining a large swathe of land across the north of the country .
Peace negotiations resumed in Arusha , and the resulting set of agreements , known as the Arusha Accords , were signed in August 1993 . The RPF were given positions in a broad @-@ based transitional government ( BBTG ) and in the national army . The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda ( UNAMIR ) , a peacekeeping force , arrived and the RPF were given a base in the national parliament building in Kigali to use during the establishment of the BBTG .
= = = Rwandan Genocide = = =
On 6 April 1994 , Rwandan President Habyarimana 's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport , killing both Habyarimana and the President of Burundi , Cyprien Ntaryamira , as well as their entourage and three French crew members . The attackers remain unknown . Historian Gérard Prunier , in a book written shortly after the incident , concluded that it was most likely a coup d 'état carried out by extreme Hutu members of Habyarimana 's government , and was a planned part of the genocide . This theory was disputed in 2006 by French judge Jean @-@ Louis Bruguière , and in 2008 by Spanish judge Fernando Andreu . Both alleged that Kagame and the RPF were responsible . At the end of 2010 the French government ordered a more thorough judicial inquiry , which employed ballistics experts . That review concluded in 2012 that the shots had originated from Camp Kanombe , an area controlled at the time by the Rwandan army ; this report reaffirmed the initial theory that Hutu extremists assassinated Habyarimana .
Following Habyarimana 's death , a military committee led by Colonel Théoneste Bagosora took immediate control of the country . Under the committee 's direction , the Hutu paramilitary group Interahamwe and the presidential guard began to kill Hutu and Tutsi opposition politicians and other prominent Tutsi figures ; within 24 hours they had killed all moderate leaders , including prime minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana . The killers then began targeting the entire Tutsi population , as well as moderate Hutu , beginning the Rwandan Genocide . Over the course of approximately 100 days , between 500 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well @-@ planned attacks .
On 7 April , Kagame warned the committee and UNAMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop . The next day , the Rwandan government forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions , but the RPF troops stationed there successfully fought back ; Kagame began an attack from the north on three fronts , seeking to link up quickly with the troops isolated in Kigali . An interim government was set up but Kagame refused to talk to it , believing that it was just a cover for Bagosora 's rule . Over the next few days , the RPF advanced steadily south , capturing Gabiro and large areas of countryside to the north and east of Kigali . They avoided attacking Kigali or Byumba at this stage , but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes . The RPF allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF @-@ controlled areas .
Throughout April there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasefire , but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped . In late April the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo , to the south of Kigali . They encountered little resistance , except around Kigali and Ruhengeri . By 16 May , they had cut the road between Kigali and Gitarama , the temporary home of the interim government , and by 13 June , they had taken Gitarama , following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road . The interim government was forced to relocate to Gisenyi in the far north west . As well as fighting the war , Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army . The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from Burundi , but were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits .
Having completed the encirclement of Kigali , Kagame spent the latter half of June fighting to take the city . The government forces had superior manpower and weapons , but the RPF steadily gained territory , as well as conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines . According to Roméo Dallaire , the force commander of UNAMIR , this success was due to Kagame being a " master of psychological warfare " ; he exploited the fact that the government forces were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali , and capitalised on the government 's loss of morale as it lost territory . The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July , and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the north west , forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the genocide . At the end of July 1994 , Kagame 's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for a zone in the south west , which had been occupied by a French @-@ led United Nations force as part of Opération Turquoise .
= = Marriage and children = =
On 10 June 1989 in Uganda , Kagame married Jeannette Nyiramongi , a Tutsi exile living in Nairobi , Kenya . Kagame had asked his relatives to suggest a suitable marriage and they recommended Nyiramongi . Kagame travelled to Nairobi and introduced himself , persuading her to visit him in Uganda . Nyiramongi was familiar with the RPF , and its goal of returning refugees to Rwanda . She held Kagame in high regard . The couple have four children . Their first child , a son they named Ivan Cyomoro Kagame , was born in 1990 . Since then a daughter , Ange Kagame , and sons Ian and Brian have been born .
= = Vice President and Minister of Defence = =
The post @-@ genocide Rwandan government took office in Kigali in July 1994 . It was based loosely on the Arusha Accords , but Habyarimana 's party was outlawed . The positions it had been assigned were taken over by the RPF . The military wing of the RPF was renamed as the Rwandan Patriotic Army ( RPA ) , and became the national army . Paul Kagame assumed the dual roles of Vice President of Rwanda and Minister of Defence while Pasteur Bizimungu , a Hutu who had been a civil servant under Habyarimana before fleeing to join the RPF , was appointed president . Bizimungu and his cabinet had some control over domestic affairs , but Kagame remained commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army and was the de facto ruler of the country .
= = = Domestic situation = = =
The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide . Many buildings were uninhabitable , and the former regime had carried with them all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country . Human resources were also severely depleted , with over 40 % of the population having been killed or fled . Many of the remainder were traumatised : most had lost relatives , witnessed killings or participated in the genocide . The army , controlled by Kagame , maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country 's structures .
Non @-@ governmental organisations began to move back into the country , but the international community did not provide significant assistance to the new regime , and most international aid was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda . Kagame strove to portray the government as inclusive and not Tutsi dominated . He directed removal of ethnicity from citizens ' national identity cards , and the government began a policy of downplaying the distinctions between Hutu , Tutsi , and Twa .
During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory , RPF soldiers killed many people they accused of participating in or supporting the genocide . Many of these soldiers were recent Tutsi recruits from within Rwanda , who had lost family or friends and sought revenge . The scale , scope , and source of ultimate responsibility of these killings is disputed . Human Rights Watch , as well as scholars such as Prunier , allege that the death toll might be as high as 100 @,@ 000 , and that Kagame and the RPF elite either tolerated or organised the killings . In an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer , Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but stated that they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control . The RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995 Kibeho massacre , in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for internally displaced persons in Butare Province . Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4 @,@ 000 people were killed , while the Rwandan government claimed that the death toll was 338 .
Shortly after taking power , the Rwandan government began prosecuting crimes committed during the genocide . The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , operating under a United Nations mandate , was set up in Arusha to judge the most senior leaders responsible for the genocide . In addition , the Rwandan government determined to prosecute all suspected perpetrators , including the many ordinary citizens who had taken part in the killings , in order to end the " culture of impunity " that it blamed for the genocide . Between 1994 and 2000 , 120 @,@ 000 suspects were arrested . The prisons were overcrowded and the courts could not process all the cases . By 2006 only 10 @,@ 000 of those arrested had been tried . The government introduced Gacaca , a village court system based on traditional Rwandan justice . The Gacaca process allowed for faster processing of cases , but lacked many safeguards and principles of international criminal law .
The unity government suffered a partial collapse in 1995 . The continuing violence , along with appointing of local government officials who were almost exclusively RPF Tutsi , caused serious disagreement between Kagame and senior Hutu government members , including prime minister Faustin Twagiramungu and interior minister Seth Sendashonga . Twagiramungu resigned in August , and Kagame fired Sendashonga and three others the next day . Pasteur Bizimungu remained president but the makeup of the new government was predominantly RPF Tutsi loyal to Kagame . Twagiramungu and Sendashonga moved abroad to form a new opposition party shortly after leaving the government .
= = = Refugee crisis and insurgency = = =
Following the RPF victory , approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries , particularly Zaire , fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan Genocide . The camps were set up by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime , including many leaders of the genocide . This regime was determined to return to power in Rwanda and began rearming , killing Tutsi residing in Zaire , and launching cross @-@ border incursions in conjunction with the Interahamwe paramilitary group . By late 1996 , the Hutu militants represented a serious threat to the new Rwandan regime , and Kagame launched a counteroffensive .
Kagame first provided troops and military training to aid a rebellion against Zaire by the Banyamulenge , a Tutsi group living near Bukavu in the Zairian South Kivu province . With Rwandan army support , the Banyamulenge defeated local security forces and began attacking the Hutu refugee camps in the area . At the same time , Kagame 's forces joined with Zairian Tutsi around Goma to attack two of the camps there . Most refugees from the attacked camps moved to the large Mugunga camp . In November 1996 the Rwandan army attacked Mugunga , causing an estimated 800 @,@ 000 refugees to flee . Many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF ; others ventured further west into Zaire .
Despite the disbanding of the camps , the defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross @-@ border insurgency campaign into Rwanda from North Kivu . The insurgents maintained a presence in Rwanda 's north western provinces and were supported by the predominantly Hutu population , many of whom had lived in the refugee camps before they were attacked . In addition to supporting the wars in the Congo , Kagame began a propaganda campaign to bring the Hutu to his side . He integrated former soldiers of the deposed genocidal regime 's military into the RPF @-@ dominated national army and appointed senior Hutu to key local government positions in the areas hit by insurgency . These tactics were eventually successful ; by 1999 , the population in the north west had stopped supporting the insurgency and the insurgents were mostly defeated .
= = = Congo Wars = = =
Although his primary reason for military action in Zaire was the dismantling of the refugee camps , Kagame also began planning a war to remove long @-@ time dictator President Mobutu Sese Seko from power . Mobutu had supported the genocidaires based in the camps , and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire . Together with Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni , Kagame supported the newly created Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo ( ADFL ) , an alliance of four rebel groups headed by Laurent @-@ Désiré Kabila , which began waging the First Congo War . The ADFL , helped by Rwandan and Ugandan troops , took control of North and South Kivu provinces in November 1996 and then advanced west , gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting . By May 1997 , they controlled almost the whole of Zaire except for the capital Kinshasa ; Mobutu fled and the ADFL took the capital without fighting . The country was renamed as the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) and Kabila became the new president . The Rwandan Defence Forces and the ADFL were accused of carrying out mass atrocities during the First Congo War , with as many as 222 @,@ 000 Rwandan Hutu refugees declared missing .
Kagame and the Rwandan government retained strong influence over Kabila following his inauguration , and the RPA maintained a heavy presence in Kinshasa . Congolese in the capital resented this , as did many in the eastern Kivu provinces , where ethnic clashes increased sharply . In July 1998 , Kabila fired his Rwandan chief @-@ of @-@ staff , James Kabarebe , and ordered all RPA troops to leave the country . Kagame accused Kabila of supporting the ongoing insurgency against Rwanda from North Kivu , the same accusation he had made about Mobutu . He responded to the expulsion of his soldiers by backing a new rebel group , the Rally for Congolese Democracy ( RCD ) , and launching the Second Congo War . The first action of the war was a blitzkrieg by the RCD and RPA , led by Kabarebe . These forces made quick gains , advancing in twelve days from the Kivu provinces west to within 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) of Kinshasa . The capital was saved by the intervention of Angola and Zimbabwe on Kabila 's side . Following the failure of the blitzkrieg , the conflict developed into a long @-@ term conventional war , which lasted until 2003 and caused millions of deaths and massive damage . According to a report by the International Rescue Committee ( IRC ) , this conflict led to the loss of between 3 million and 7 @.@ 6 million lives , many through starvation and disease accompanying the social disruption of the war .
Although Kagame 's primary reason for the two wars in the Congo was Rwanda 's security , he was alleged to gain economic benefit by exploiting the mineral wealth of the eastern Congo . The 2001 United Nations Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo alleged that Kagame , along with Ugandan President Museveni , were " on the verge of becoming the godfathers of the illegal exploitation of natural resources and the continuation of the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo " . The report also claimed that the Rwandan Ministry of Defence contained a " Congo Desk " dedicated to collecting taxes from companies licensed to mine minerals around Kisangani , and that substantial quantities of coltan and diamonds passed through Kigali before being resold on the international market by staff on the Congo Desk . International NGO Global Witness also conducted field studies in early 2013 . It concluded that minerals from North and South Kivu are exported illegally to Rwanda and then marketed as Rwandan . Kagame dismissed these allegations as unsubstantiated and politically motivated ; in a 2002 interview with newsletter Africa Confidential , Kagame said that if solid evidence against Rwandan officers was presented , it would be dealt with very seriously . In 2010 , the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the First and Second Congo Wars , charges denied by the Rwandan government .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Accession = = =
In the late 1990s , Kagame began to disagree publicly with Bizimungu and the Hutu @-@ led government in Rwanda . Kagame accused Bizimungu of corruption and poor management , while Bizimungu felt that he had no power over appointments to the cabinet and that the National Assembly was acting purely as a puppet for Kagame . Bizimungu resigned from the presidency in March 2000 . Historians do not agree on the precise circumstances of Bizimungu 's departure ; American author Stephen Kinzer contends that " one of the president 's friends called Kagame with the startling news that the president was preparing to resign " while Prunier states that Bizimungu was forced to resign , having denounced the National Assembly and attempted to sow discord within the RPF . Following Bizimungu 's resignation , the Supreme Court ruled that Kagame should become acting president until a permanent successor was chosen .
Kagame had been de facto leader since 1994 , but had focused more on military , foreign affairs and the country 's security than day @-@ to @-@ day governance . By 2000 , the threat posed by cross @-@ border rebels was much reduced and when Bizimungu resigned , Kagame decided to seek the presidency himself . The transitional constitution was still in effect , which meant the president was elected by government ministers and the national assembly rather than by a direct election .
The RPF selected two candidates , Kagame and RPF secretary general Charles Murigande ; the ministers and parliament elected Kagame by eighty @-@ one votes to three . Kagame was sworn in as president in April 2000 . Several Hutu politicians , including the prime minister Pierre @-@ Célestin Rwigema , left the government at around the same time as Bizimungu , leaving a cabinet dominated by those close to Kagame . Bizimungu started his own party following his resignation , but this was quickly banned for " destabilising the country " . He was subsequently arrested and convicted of corruption and inciting ethnic violence . He was imprisoned until 2007 , when he was pardoned by Kagame .
= = = New constitution = = =
Between 1994 and 2003 , Rwanda was governed by a set of documents combining President Habyarimana 's 1991 constitution , the Arusha Accords , and some additional protocols introduced by the transitional government . As required by the accords , Kagame set up a constitutional commission to draft a new permanent constitution . The constitution was required to adhere to a set of fundamental principles including equitable power sharing and democracy . The commission sought to ensure that the draft constitution was " home @-@ grown " , relevant to Rwanda 's specific needs , and reflected the views of the entire population ; they sent questionnaires to civil groups across the country and rejected offers of help from the international community , except for financial assistance .
The draft constitution was released in 2003 ; it was approved by the parliament , and was then put to a referendum in May of that year . The referendum was widely promoted by the government ; ultimately , 95 % of eligible adults registered to vote and the turnout on voting day was 87 % . The constitution was overwhelmingly accepted , with 93 % voting in favour . The constitution provided for a two @-@ house parliament , an elected president serving seven @-@ year terms , and multi @-@ party politics . The constitution also sought to prevent Hutu or Tutsi hegemony over political power . Article 54 states that " political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race , ethnic group , tribe , clan , region , sex , religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination " . According to Human Rights Watch , this clause , along with later laws enacted by the parliament , effectively make Rwanda a one @-@ party state , as " under the guise of preventing another genocide , the government displays a marked intolerance of the most basic forms of dissent " .
= = = Election campaigns = = =
= = = = Presidential election , 2003 = = = =
Following the adoption of the new constitution in May 2003 , the government set dates for the first elections to be held under the new law . The presidential poll was set for 25 August 2003 . In May , the parliament voted to ban the Republican Democratic Movement ( MDR ) , following a parliamentary commission report accusing the MDR of " divisive " ideology . The MDR had been one of the coalition parties in the transitional government of national unity , and was the second largest party in the country after the RPF . Amnesty International criticised this move , claiming that " the unfounded allegations against the individuals mentioned in the report appear to be part of a government @-@ orchestrated crackdown on the political opposition " .
The RPF selected Paul Kagame as its presidential candidate , to run for his first full term following his three @-@ year transitional presidency . His main challenger was Faustin Twagiramungu , who had been prime minister from 1994 to 1995 , when he resigned and moved to Brussels after a disagreement with Kagame . Twagiramungu had intended to run as the candidate for the MDR , but instead sought the presidency as an independent following the party 's banishment . Twagiramungu returned to the country in June 2003 and began campaigning in August . Two other candidates also ran : Alvera Mukabaramba , a medical doctor and former MDR member running for the newly formed Party for Progress and Concord ( PPC ) , and Jean Nepomuscene Nayinzira , an independent and former member of parliament who cited belief in God as a central part of his campaign . Mukabaramba pulled out one day before the election , accusing Twagiramungu of ethnic propaganda and advising her supporters to vote for Kagame . The election went ahead on 25 August with Kagame , Twagiramungu and Nayinzira as candidates .
Kagame declared victory in the election on 26 August , after partial results showed he had an almost insurmountable lead , and his win was later confirmed by the National Electoral Commission . The final results showed that Kagame received 95 @.@ 1 % of the vote , Twagiramungu 3 @.@ 6 % , and Nayinzira 1 @.@ 3 % ; the voter turnout was 96 @.@ 6 % . The campaign , election day , and aftermath were largely peaceful , although an observer from the European Union ( EU ) raised concerns that opposition supporters may have been intimidated by the RPF . Twagiramungu rejected the result of the election and also questioned the margin of victory , saying " Almost 100 per cent ? That 's not possible " . Twagiramungu filed a petition at the Supreme Court to nullify the result , but was unsuccessful . The EU observer also questioned the result , citing " numerous irregularities " , but praised the election overall , describing it as a " positive step " . Kagame himself , in an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer , acknowledged that the opposition had been weak , but he believed the result was genuine . He told Kinzer " they wanted security first of all . Even people who didn 't know the RPF program in detail saw us as the party that would guarantee that " . Kagame was sworn in on 12 September to begin his seven @-@ year term .
= = = = Presidential election , 2010 = = = =
Kagame 's first term expired and new elections were held in 2010 . Having served one term as elected president , Kagame was entitled to serve for one further term . The election campaign began publicly in January 2010 when Victoire Ingabire , a Hutu who had been living abroad for some years , returned to Rwanda and announced her candidacy for the presidency . This failed as she was arrested and accused of threatening state security . Ingabire caused some controversy in the country following her arrival , with comments relating to the genocide . The government accused her of breaking the country 's strict laws regarding genocide denial , and she was arrested in April 2010 . She was released on bail , but was prohibited from running in the election . In October 2012 she was sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment by the High Court of Kigali , which is heavily criticized by Amnesty International .
In May , President Kagame was officially endorsed as the RPF 's candidate for the election at the party 's national congress . Kagame then became the first candidate to be accepted when he presented his electoral papers in July . Three other candidates registered successfully for the election ; they were Jean Damascene Ntawukuriryayo of the Social Democratic Party , Prosper Higiro of the Liberal Party , and Alvera Mukabaramba of the Party for Progress and Concord . Two other contenders failed to get official documents through and did not get accepted into the race . Human Rights Watch described Kagame 's three opponents as " broadly supportive of the RPF " , and claimed that most Rwandans would not describe them as " real " opposition , while those who criticised the RPF were barred from the election .
In the run @-@ up to the election , there was some violence and several incidents involving prominent opposition and media figures . In February , there was a grenade attack in Kigali which killed two people . Rwandan prosecutors blamed Kayumba Nyamwasa , a dissident General who had become a critic of Kagame . Nywamwasa fled to Johannesburg , South Africa , and in June he survived a shooting in the city . Nyamwasa alleged that it was an assassination attempt , a charge Rwanda denied . Days later , journalist Jean @-@ Léonard Rugambage , who claimed to have uncovered the regime 's responsibility in the attempted murder , was shot dead . In July , the vice president of the Democratic Green Party , André Kagwa Rwisereka , was beheaded in Butare . There is no concrete evidence linking Kagame with the attacks , but it was sufficient for the United Nations to demand an investigation .
Kagame was declared the winner of the election , according to results released by the National Electoral Commission on 11 August . Kagame received 93 @.@ 08 % of the vote , with second placed Ntawukuriryayo polling 5 @.@ 15 % . The turnout was 97 @.@ 51 % of registered voters . Opposition and human rights groups later said that the election was tainted by repression , murder , and lack of credible competition . Kagame responded by saying " I see no problems , but there are some people who choose to see problems where there are not . " The election was largely peaceful , although there was a further grenade attack in Kigali hours after the election commission announced Kagame 's victory , injuring about 20 people . Media reports indicated the attack may have been politically motivated and connected to earlier attacks in the same area .
= = = = Constitutional referendum , 2015 = = = =
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Vision 2020 = = = =
In the late 1990s , Kagame began actively planning methods to achieve national development . He launched a national consultation process and also sought the advice of experts from emerging nations including China , Singapore and Thailand . Following these consultations , and shortly after assuming the presidency , Kagame launched an ambitious programme of national development called Vision 2020 . The major purposes of the programme were to unite the Rwandan people and to transform Rwanda from a highly impoverished into a middle income country . The programme consists of a list of goals which the government aims to achieve before the year 2020 . These include reconstruction , infrastructure and transport improvements , good governance , improving agriculture production , private sector development , and health and education improvements .
In 2011 , the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning issued a report indicating the progress of the Vision 2020 goals . The report examined the stated goals of the programme and rated each one with a status of " on @-@ track " , " on @-@ watch " or " off @-@ track " . Of 44 goals , it found that 66 % were on @-@ track , 11 % were on @-@ watch , and 22 % were off @-@ track . The major areas identified as off @-@ track were population , poverty and the environment . An independent review of Vision 2020 , carried out in 2012 by academics based in Belgium , rated progress as " quite encouraging " , mentioning development in the education and health sectors , as well as Kagame 's fostering of a favourable business environment . The review also raised concerns about the policy of " maximum growth at any cost " , suggesting that this was leading to a situation in which the rich prospered while the rural poor saw little benefit .
In November 2013 , Kagame told This Is Africa " Our thinking is based on people . In national budgets , we focus on education , health , we look at technology , skills , innovation , creativity . We are always thinking about people , people , people . "
= = = = Economy = = = =
Rwanda 's economy has grown rapidly under Kagame 's presidency , with per @-@ capita gross domestic product ( purchasing power parity ) estimated at $ 1 @,@ 592 in 2013 , compared with $ 567 in 2000 . Annual growth between 2004 and 2010 averaged 8 % per year . Kagame 's economic policy is based on liberalising the economy , privatising state owned industries , reducing red tape for businesses , and transforming the country from an agricultural to a knowledge @-@ based economy . Kagame has stated that he believes Rwanda can emulate the economic development of Singapore since 1960 , and achieving middle income country status is one of the central goals of the Vision 2020 programme . Kagame 's economic policy has been praised by many foreign donors and investors , including Bill Clinton and Starbucks chairman Howard Schultz . The DRC government and human rights groups have accused Rwanda of illegally exploiting Congolese minerals , which the London Daily Telegraph describes as an " important part " in the success of Rwanda 's economy .
Rwanda is a country of few natural resources , and the economy is heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture , with an estimated 90 % of the working population engaged in farming . Under Kagame 's presidency , the service sector has grown strongly . In 2010 , it became the country 's largest sector by economic output , contributing 43 @.@ 6 % of the country 's GDP . Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance , wholesale and retail trade , hotels and restaurants , transport , storage , communication , insurance , real estate , business services , and public administration , including education and health . Information and communications technology ( ICT ) is a Vision 2020 priority , with a goal of transforming Rwanda into an ICT hub for Africa . To this end , the government has completed a 2 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) fibre @-@ optic telecommunications network , intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce . Tourism is one of the fastest @-@ growing economic resources and became the country 's leading foreign exchange earner in 2011 . In spite of the genocide 's legacy , Kagame 's achievement of peace and security means the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination ; in the first half of 2011 , 16 % of foreign visitors arrived from outside Africa . The country 's mountain gorillas attract thousands of visitors per year , who are prepared to pay high prices for permits .
Rwanda ranks highly in several categories of the World Bank 's ease of doing business index . In 2005 , after the country was ranked 158th on the ease of doing business index , Kagame set up a special unit to analyze the economy and provide solutions to easing business . As a result , the country topped the list of reformers in 2009 . In 2012 , the country 's overall ease of doing business index ranking was 52nd out of 185 countries worldwide , and third out of 46 in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It was eighth on the 2012 rankings for ease of starting a business ; the Rwanda Development Board asserts that a business can be authorised and registered in 24 hours . The business environment and economy also benefit from relatively low corruption in the country ; in 2010 , Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the eighth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and sixty @-@ sixth cleanest out of 178 in the world .
= = = = Education and health = = = =
Kagame has made education for youth in Rwanda a high priority for his administration , allocating 17 % of the annual budget to the sector . The Rwandan government provides free education in state @-@ run schools for twelve years : six years in primary and six in secondary school . The final three years of free education were introduced in 2012 following a pledge by Kagame during his 2010 re @-@ election campaign . Kagame credits his government with improvements in the tertiary education sector ; the number of universities has risen from 1 in 1994 to 29 in 2010 , and the tertiary gross enrolment ratio increased from 4 % in 2008 to 7 % in 2011 . From 1994 until 2009 , secondary education was offered in either French or English ; since 2009 , due to the country 's increasing ties with the East African Community and the Commonwealth of Nations , English has been the sole language of instruction in public schools from primary school grade 4 onward . The country 's literacy rate , defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write , was 71 % in 2009 , up from 38 % in 1978 and 58 % in 1991 .
Rwanda 's health profile is dominated by communicable diseases , including malaria , pneumonia , and HIV / AIDS . Prevalence and mortality rates have sharply declined in the past decade but the short supply or unavailability of certain medicines continues to challenge disease management . Kagame 's government is seeking to improve this situation as one of the Vision 2020 priorities . It has increased funding , with the health budget up from 3 @.@ 2 % of national expenditure in 1996 to 9 @.@ 7 % in 2008 . It also set up training institutes , including the Kigali Health Institute ( KHI ) , and in 2008 effected laws making health insurance mandatory for all individuals ; by 2010 , over 90 % of the population was covered . These policies have contributed to a steady increase in quality of healthcare and improvement in key indicators during Kagame 's presidency . In 2010 , 91 children died before their fifth birthday for every 1000 live births , down from 163 under five deaths for every 1000 live births in 1990 . Prevalence of some diseases is declining , including the elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus and a sharp reduction in malaria morbidity , mortality rate , and specific lethality . In response to shortages in qualified medical personnel , in 2011 the Rwandan government launched an eight @-@ year US $ 151 @.@ 8 million initiative to train medical professionals .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Democratic Republic of the Congo = = = =
The Second Congo War , which began in 1998 , was still raging when Kagame assumed the presidency in 2000 . Namibia , Angola , Zimbabwe , and Chad had committed troops to the Congolese government side , while Rwanda , Uganda , and Burundi were supporting rebel groups . The rebel group Rally for Congolese Democracy ( RCD ) had split in 1999 into two factions : the RCD @-@ Goma , supported by Rwanda , and the RCD @-@ Kisangani , which was allied to Uganda . Uganda also supported the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo ( MLC ) , a rebel group from the north . All these rebel groups were at war with Kabila 's government in Kinshasa , but were also increasingly hostile to each other . Various peace meetings had been held , culminating in the July 1999 Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed by Kabila , Kagame and all the other foreign governments . The rebel groups were not party to the agreement , and fighting continued . The RPA continued to be heavily involved in the Congo War during 2000 , fighting battles against the Ugandan army in Kisangani and against Kabila 's army in Kasai and Katanga .
In January 2001 , Kabila was shot dead inside his palace . The Congolese government claimed Kabila had been killed by a rogue bodyguard , who was himself killed at the scene . According to a report published in French newspaper Le Monde , Kabila was killed by the kadogo , an army of child soldiers he was known to have assembled during the First Congo War . The kadogo had suffered badly during the battles in Kasai and Katanga , were poorly paid , and had become alienated by Kabila . Kabila 's son Joseph was appointed president and immediately began asserting his authority by dismissing his father 's cabinet and senior army commanders , assembling a new government , and engaging with the international community . The new government provided impetus for renewed peace negotiations , and in July 2002 a peace agreement was reached between Rwanda , Congo , and the other major participants , in which all foreign troops would withdraw and RCD @-@ Goma would enter a power @-@ sharing transitional government with Joseph Kabila as interim president until elections could be held . By the end of 2002 , all uniformed Rwandan troops had left Congolese territory .
Despite the agreement and subsequent ceasefire , relations between Kagame and the Congolese government have remained tense . A 2003 United Nations report alleged that Rwanda was using demobilised soldiers to continue its illegal exploitation of Congolese minerals . Meanwhile , Kagame blamed Kabila for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces . Two major insurgencies have occurred in the eastern provinces : the first , from 2005 to 2009 , was led by Congolese Tutsi Laurent Nkunda , while the second , carried out by the March 23 Movement ( M23 ) under leader Bosco Ntaganda , began in 2012 ; Ntaganda gave himself up to the International Criminal Court in early 2013 , and peace talks have taken place , but as of May 2013 the conflict is at risk of resuming . Human Rights Watch alleges that both insurgencies were supported by Rwanda , a charge Kagame denies . A leaked United Nations report in 2012 also alleges Rwandan support for M23 ; this report cites Kagame 's defence minister James Kabarebe as being effectively the commander of the movement .
= = = = Uganda and East African Community = = = =
Kagame spent most of his childhood and young adult years living in Uganda , and has a personal relationship with President Yoweri Museveni dating back to the late 1970s ; they fought together in the Ugandan Bush War , and Kagame was appointed head of military intelligence in Museveni 's national army following the NRA victory in 1986 . When the RPF soldiers abandoned the Ugandan army and invaded Rwanda in 1990 , Museveni did not explicitly support them , but according to Prunier it is likely that he had prior knowledge of the plan . Museveni also allowed the RPF safe passage through Ugandan territory to the Virunga mountains after their early defeats in the war , and revealed in a 1998 heads of state meeting that Uganda had helped the RPF materially during the Rwandan Civil War . Following the RPF victory , the two countries enjoyed a close political and trade relationship .
Rwanda and Uganda were allies during the First Congo War against Zaire , with both countries being instrumental in the setting up of the AFDL and committing troops to the war . The two nations joined forces again at the beginning of the Second Congo War , but relations soured in late 1998 as Museveni and Kagame had very different priorities in fighting the war . In early 1999 , the RCD rebel group split into two , with Rwanda and Uganda supporting opposing factions , and in August the Rwandan and Ugandan armies battled each other with heavy artillery in the Congolese city of Kisangani . The two sides fought again in Kisangani in May and June 2000 , causing the deaths of 120 soldiers and around 640 Congolese civilians . Relations slowly thawed in the 2000s , and by 2011 the two countries enjoyed a close friendship once more .
In 2007 , Rwanda joined the East African Community , an intergovernmental organisation for the East Africa region comprising Uganda , Kenya , Tanzania , Burundi , and Rwanda . The country 's accession required the signing of various agreements with the other members , including a defence intelligence sharing pact , a customs union , and measures to combat drug trafficking . The countries of the Community established a common market in 2011 , and plan further integration , including moves toward political federation and a possible single currency .
= = = = France = = = =
France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana during his years in power , as part of its Françafrique policy . When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil War in 1990 , Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France , François Mitterrand . France sent 600 paratroopers , who effectively ran the government 's response to the invasion and were instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF had gained in the first days of the war . France maintained this military presence throughout the war , engaging Kagame 's RPF forces again in February 1993 during the offensive that doubled RPF territory . In the later stages of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide , France launched Opération Turquoise , a United Nations mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for protection of displaced persons , refugees , and civilians in danger ; many Rwandans interpreted it as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF , including some who had participated in the genocide . The French remained hostile to the RPF , and their presence temporarily stalled Kagame 's advance in south western Rwanda .
France continued to shun the new RPF government following the end of the genocide and the withdrawal of Opération Turquoise . Diplomatic relations were finally reestablished in January 1995 , but remained tense as Rwanda accused France of aiding the genocidaires , while France defended its interventions . In 2006 , French judge Jean @-@ Louis Bruguière released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the plane . Bruguière subsequently issued arrest warrants for nine of Kagame 's close aides . Kagame denied the charges and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with France . Relations began to thaw in 2008 , and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009 . In 2010 , Nicolas Sarkozy became the first French president to visit Rwanda since the genocide , admitting for the first time that France made " grave errors of judgment " . Kagame reciprocated with an official visit to Paris in 2011 .
= = = = United States , United Kingdom and the Commonwealth = = = =
Since the end of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 , Rwanda has enjoyed a close relationship with the English speaking world , in particular the United States ( US ) and United Kingdom ( UK ) . The two countries have been highly supportive of the RPF programme of stabilisation and rebuilding , with the UK donating large sums each year in budget support , and the US providing military aid as well as supporting development projects . As president , Kagame has been critical of the West 's lack of response to the genocide , and the UK and US have responded by admitting guilt over the issue : Bill Clinton , who was President of the United States during the genocide , has described his failure to act against the killings as a " personal failure " . During the 2000s , Clinton and UK prime minister Tony Blair praised the country 's progress under Kagame , citing it as a model recipient for international development funds , and Clinton referred to Kagame as " one of the greatest leaders of our time " . Both Clinton and Blair have maintained support for the country beyond the end of their terms of office , Clinton via the Clinton Global Initiative and Blair through his role as an unpaid advisor to the Rwandan government .
As part of his policy of maintaining close relations with English speaking countries , Kagame sought membership of the Commonwealth of Nations , which was granted in 2009 . Rwanda was only the second country , after Mozambique , to join the Commonwealth having never had colonial links to the British Empire . Kagame attended the subsequent Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Perth , Australia , addressing the Business Forum . Rwanda also successfully applied for a rotating seat on the United Nations Security Council in 2012 , taking over the presidency of that organisation in April 2013 .
Kagame 's relations with the US and UK have come under strain in the early 2010s , following allegations that Rwanda is supporting the M23 rebel movement in Eastern Congo . The UK suspended its budgetary aid programme in 2012 , freezing a £ 21 million donation . The US has also frozen some of its military aid programme for Rwanda , although it stopped short of suspending aid altogether .
= = = = China and moves toward self @-@ sufficiency = = = =
China has been investing in Rwandan infrastructure since 1971 , with early projects including hospitals in Kibungo and Masaka . Under Kagame 's presidency , trade between the two countries has grown rapidly . The volume of trade increased five @-@ fold between 2005 and 2009 , and it doubled again in the following three years , being worth US $ 160 million in 2012 . Projects completed include the renovation of the Kigali road network , funded using a Chinese government loan and undertaken by China Road and Bridge Corporation ; the Kigali City Tower , which was built by China Civil Engineering Construction ; and a pay television service operated by Star Media .
Kagame has been vocal in his praise of China and its model for relations with Africa , saying in a 2009 interview that " the Chinese bring what Africa needs : investment and money for governments and companies . " This is in contrast to Western countries , whom Kagame accuses of focussing too heavily on giving aid to the continent rather than building a trading relationship ; he also believes that they keep African products out of the world marketplace by the use of high tariffs . China does not involve itself in the domestic affairs of the countries with which it trades , hence has not followed the West in criticising Kagame 's alleged involvement in the war in the Congo .
Kagame 's ultimate goal in international relations is to shift Rwanda from a country dependent on donor aid and loans towards self @-@ sufficiency , trading with other countries on an equal footing . In a 2009 article , Kagame wrote that " the primary purpose of aid should ultimately be to work itself out " , and should therefore focus on self @-@ sufficiency and building private sector development . Kagame cited an example of donor countries providing free fertilisers to farmers ; he believes this to be wrong because it undercuts local fertiliser businesses , preventing them from growing and becoming competitive . In 2012 , Kagame launched the Agaciro Development Fund , following proposals made at a national dialogue session in 2011 . Agaciro is a solidarity fund whose goal is to provide development finance sourced within Rwanda , supplementing aid already received from overseas . The fund invites contributions from Rwandan citizens , within the country and in the diaspora , as well as private companies and " friends of Rwanda " . The fund will allocate its funds based on consultations with the populace , as well as financing projects contributing to the Vision 2020 programme .
= = Personality and public image = =
Most observers describe Kagame 's personality as one of seriousness and intelligence . Richard Grant , writing in London 's Daily Telegraph , described Kagame as radiating " a quality of intense seriousness that is both impressive and intimidating " . Roméo Dallaire , commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide , described Kagame as having a " studious air that didn 't quite disguise his hawk @-@ like intensity " . Kagame has a highly dominant personality , which he uses to enforce his rule and to ensure that his vision for the country is followed . American journalist Stephen Kinzer , who wrote the biography A Thousand Hills in collaboration with Kagame himself , describes him as " one of the most intriguing leaders in Africa " . Kinzer credits Kagame with leadership skills that have fostered Rwanda 's rebirth following the genocide , but also cites a personality of " chronic impatience , barely suppressed anger , and impulsive scorn for critics " . In his interview with Grant , Kagame claimed he sleeps for only four hours per night , devoting the remainder of his day to work , exercise , family , and reading academic texts and foreign newspapers .
In Rwanda , Kagame 's RPF is seen as a Tutsi @-@ dominated party , and in the years following the 1994 genocide , it was deeply unpopular with the Hutu , who constitute 85 % of the population . Approximately two million Hutu lived as refugees in neighbouring countries until 1996 , when Kagame forced them to return home . Many Hutu also supported the late 1990s cross @-@ border insurgency against Kagame by defeated forces of the former regime . By 1999 , when the RPF had weakened the insurgents and the north west became peaceful , the Hutu population became broadly supportive of Kagame . Since becoming president in 2000 , Kagame has won two disputed presidential elections with over 90 % of the vote each time . Despite criticisms over opposition repression during these elections , and accusations that the figures were inflated , Kagame does receive genuine support from the population , who credit him with ensuring continued peace , stability , and economic growth .
Kagame 's image amongst international observers is varied . Human rights organisations , including Amnesty International and Freedom House , claim that Kagame hamstrings his opposition by restricting candidacies in elections to government @-@ friendly parties , suppressing demonstrations , and arresting opposition leaders and journalists . Human Rights Watch and Freedom House have accused Kagame of using strict laws criminalising " divisionism " ( ethnic hatred ) and genocide ideology to silence his critics , to the point that Rwanda is a de facto one @-@ party state . It has praised some aspects of Kagame 's rule , such as the progress made in the delivery of justice and the abolition of the death penalty . Other progressive initiatives include supporting a UN declaration on LGBT rights , as well as the world 's highest representation of women in parliament . Kagame 's image amongst foreign leaders was very positive until the late 2000s . He was credited with ending the genocide , bringing peace and security to Rwanda , and achieving development . Since 2010 , the international community has increasingly criticised Kagame following a leaked United Nations report alleging Rwanda 's support for the rebel M23 movement in Congo . In 2012 , the United Kingdom , Germany , the Netherlands and several other countries suspended programmes of budget support to Rwanda , with many redirecting their aid to project @-@ based assistance .
Kagame promotes the Internet as a means of communication between leadership and ordinary people . In addition to his personal website , which contains a personal blog , he has accounts on Flickr , YouTube , Facebook and Twitter . In 2011 , he argued with British journalist Ian Birrell on Twitter following a tweet by Birrell about media freedom in Rwanda .
Kagame has received many honours and accolades during his presidency . These include honorary degrees from the American University of the Pacific , Oklahoma Christian University , and the University of Glasgow , the Andrew Young Medal for Capitalism and Social Progress by Georgia State University , and a Clinton Global Citizen Award . Kagame has also received the highest awards bestowed by the countries of Liberia and Benin , the Distinction of the Grand Cordon in the Most Venerable Order of the Knighthood of Pioneers , and the Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit respectively . In September 2010 , the British magazine New Statesman named Kagame one of its 50 most influential figures for that year , placing him in 49th place . The Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations football tournament has been named the Kagame Interclub Cup since 2002 , due to Kagame 's sponsorship of the event .
Emmanuel Ndahiro , a close confidant of Kagame and former chief of the National Intelligence and Security Services , has been named in the Panama Papers .
= Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) has operated a total of forty @-@ eight Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft . The type entered Australian service in December 1958 , when No. 36 Squadron accepted the first of twelve C @-@ 130As , replacing its venerable Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The acquisition made Australia the first operator of the Hercules after the United States . In 1966 the C @-@ 130As were joined by twelve C @-@ 130Es , which equipped No. 37 Squadron . The C @-@ 130As were replaced by twelve C @-@ 130Hs in 1978 , and the C @-@ 130Es by twelve C @-@ 130J Super Hercules in 1999 . No. 37 Squadron became the RAAF 's sole Hercules operator in 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to converting to Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports . The C @-@ 130Hs were retired in November 2012 , leaving the C @-@ 130J as the only model in Australian service .
The RAAF 's first strategic airlifter , the Hercules has frequently been used to deliver disaster relief in Australia and the Pacific region , as well as to support military deployments overseas . The aircraft saw extensive service during the Vietnam War , transporting troops and cargo to South East Asia and undertaking aeromedical evacuation . Nineteen of the RAAF 's fleet of twenty @-@ four C @-@ 130s took part in relief efforts in 1974 – 75 after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin . Since then , the Hercules have been involved in humanitarian missions to New Guinea , Ethiopia , Rwanda , Cambodia , Bali , Sumatra , and New Zealand . They have also seen service during the Iranian Revolution in 1979 , the Fijian coups in 1987 , operations in Somalia in 1993 , INTERFET operations in East Timor in 1999 – 2000 , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq beginning in 2001 . In over fifty years of Australian service , the Hercules have accumulated 800 @,@ 000 flying hours .
= = Acquisition = =
= = = Initial selection and purchase = = =
At the end of World War II , the RAAF 's prime transport aircraft was the twin @-@ engined Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakota . In 1946 , C @-@ 47 operations were concentrated under No. 86 Wing and its three flying squadrons , Nos. 36 , 37 , and 38 , based initially at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales . Despite the robustness and versatility of the Dakota , by the early 1950s the Air Force was looking for a replacement with greater cargo capacity and longer range , to better facilitate the deployment and supply of Australian forces . In 1954 , the RAAF embarked on a major re @-@ equipment drive , following a shift in defence funding that favoured the Air Force . The Air Officer Commanding Home Command , Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch , led a mission overseas to examine potential new fighter , bomber , transport and training aircraft .
Four British transports were considered : the Blackburn Beverley , Bristol 179B , Bristol 195 and Short PD 16 / 1 . The mission also assessed the American Fairchild C @-@ 119G Flying Boxcar , Fairchild C @-@ 123 Provider and Lockheed C @-@ 130A Hercules . Of these types , the mission assessed that the Beverly , C @-@ 123 and C @-@ 130 could potentially meet the RAAF 's requirements . Following further consideration of the options after their return to Australia , in early 1955 the members of the mission unanimously recommended that Hercules be procured , as the other two types did not meet some of the most important elements of the requirement . At this time the Australian Government was reluctant to fund any new equipment for the RAAF , and a decision to acquire twelve C @-@ 130s was not made until mid @-@ 1957 . A contract for these aircraft was signed in October that year . The Australian C @-@ 130As were to be similar to those in service with the United States Air Force ( USAF ) , the main difference being the use of TF56 @-@ A @-@ 11 engines in the place of the usual TF56 @-@ A @-@ 1 and TF56 @-@ A @-@ 9s ; these engines provided almost the same amount of power , but were modified to meet Australian fuel requirements . The total cost for the aircraft , initial crew training and support equipment was $ US 36 million ( equivalent to about 16 million Australian pounds ) .
The Hercules represented a huge improvement over the C @-@ 47 in payload , range , speed and manoeuvrability , as well as offering cabin pressurisation , short @-@ takeoff @-@ and @-@ landing capability , and bulk loading and despatch via its rear cargo door . The Government expressed concern over the price , at one stage proposing the purchase of only three aircraft , but eventually the Air Force won approval for the twelve that it wanted . Described by the official history of the post @-@ war RAAF as second only to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C as the " most significant " acquisition by the Air Force , the Hercules gave the Australian military its first strategic airlift capability , which in years to come would provide a " lifeline " for deployments to Malaya , Vietnam , and other parts of South East Asia . Australia was the first country other than the United States to operate the Hercules . The RAAF 's C @-@ 130As were also the last of this variant to be built .
RAAF crews began training on the Hercules in the middle of 1958 at Stewart Air Force Base in Nashville , Tennessee . Much of the training took place on a simulator , augmented by approximately fifty hours flying time in the aircraft . To cope with the Hercules ' complexities , the aircrew category of flight engineer , absent from the RAAF since World War II , was reinstated . A new category , that of loadmaster , was also instituted ; airmen performing similar duties on Dakotas had done so on an ad hoc rather than a permanent basis , without a distinct category having been formalised . A specialist crew member was needed to make weight @-@ and @-@ balance calculations and oversee loading and despatch for the Hercules ' 20 @-@ tonne freight capacity ( compared to three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half tonnes in a Dakota ) and for its various cargo @-@ delivery systems . A large hangar previously used to service seaplanes at RAAF Base Rathmines was disassembled and re @-@ erected at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , where the C @-@ 130s would be based .
= = = Later models and upgrades = = =
A decision to purchase another twelve C @-@ 130s was announced in November 1964 . At this time the C @-@ 130As were being used to supply the Australian forces engaged in the Vietnam War . This task demonstrated that the RAAF had insufficient long @-@ ranged transport aircraft to simultaneously support overseas deployments and meet the force 's domestic requirements in Australia . As a result , the Government decided to order twelve C @-@ 130E Hercules as part of a package of acquisitions for the RAAF and Royal Australian Navy that also included ten Lockheed P @-@ 3 Orion and fourteen Grumman S @-@ 2 Tracker maritime patrol aircraft , as well as twelve Hawker Siddeley HS 748 transports . The 14 @.@ 7 @-@ million @-@ pound contract for the new C @-@ 130s was signed on 9 February 1965 . In contrast to the concerns raised by the government over the cost of purchasing the C @-@ 130As , this expansion of the Hercules force gained ready agreement , due in no small part to the benefits for the armed services , particularly the Australian Army , demonstrated by the first twelve aircraft . The long @-@ serving C @-@ 130As were replaced by new Hercules in the late 1970s ; twelve C @-@ 130Hs were ordered in June 1976 for a cost of $ A86 million , and deliveries took place between July and October 1978 .
The RAAF 's early model Hercules received several repairs and modifications during their service lives . During the early 1960s all of the C @-@ 130As were flown to the United States to receive new wing fuel tanks after the original tanks were affected by corrosion caused by tropical fungi and bacteria . Later that decade these aircraft received new panels on the upper surface of their wings after the original ones were found to be faulty . The C @-@ 130Es were also fitted with strengthened wing centre boxes in the early 1970s after equivalent USAF aircraft were found to be suffering from greater @-@ than @-@ expected wing stress during operations in Vietnam . During 1964 the C @-@ 130As received new doppler navigation systems , and the C @-@ 130Es and Hs were fitted with ring laser gyroscope inertial navigation systems from 1989 . In 1994 , four of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Hs were equipped with Electronic Warfare Self Protection packs , including radar and missile warning systems , and counter measures such as chaff and flares . Later in the decade , one of the C @-@ 130Hs was fitted with extensive signals intelligence equipment under the classified " Project Peacemate " ; this aircraft was crewed by RAAF and Defence Signals Directorate personnel and its existence was never publicly confirmed by the Government . The modified C @-@ 130H was reported to still be active in the signals intelligence role in 2008 . The C @-@ 130Hs were also among the first Australian military aircraft to be modified to allow aircrew to operate them
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while wearing night vision goggles .
The Australian Government ordered twelve C @-@ 130J Super Hercules in December 1995 and deliveries began during 1999 . As part of the deal negotiated with Lockheed Martin , seven of the RAAF 's C @-@ 130Es were transferred to the company in return for a reduced price on the new aircraft . At the time the order for the twelve C @-@ 130Js was placed , the Government also took out options for a further twenty seven Super Hercules , but these were not taken up ; the options included seven airborne early warning and control and eight aerial refuelling variants , as well as up to eight transports for the Royal New Zealand Air Force . The RAAF was the first operator of this C @-@ 130 variant , which was larger than earlier models and had a crew of only three ( two pilots and a loadmaster ) eliminating the navigator and flight engineer roles employed in earlier models . The aircraft initially suffered from a range of serious mechanical and software problems as well as a shortage of spare parts , and were assessed as " experiencing significant operational shortfalls " in a 2002 Australian National Audit Office report . The Defence Science and Technology Organisation undertook considerable research into the C @-@ 130J design and developed improvements to the aircraft that addressed problems with excessive vibration . The 2009 Defence white paper Defending Australia in the Asia Pacific Century : Force 2030 called for the acquisition of two more C @-@ 130Js to partially replace the H variants . This purchase did not go ahead , as the government instead ordered a fifth Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III .
The C @-@ 130Js have been updated since entering service . All of the aircraft were fitted with radar warning receivers by the end of 2012 , and it is planned to equip the Hercules with Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures systems by 2016 . As of 2015 , the Hercules ' communications capabilities were also to be updated by fitting the aircraft with satellite communications equipment and the equipment necessary to allow them to use the Link 16 data exchange network . At this time the C @-@ 130s were also to be fitted with new high @-@ speed airdrop ramps at the rear of their cabin , and will be cleared to drop larger loads . The C @-@ 130J 's operating software has also been upgraded over time , leading to improved performance . The RAAF is participating in the development of further software enhancements .
In March 2015 Australian Aviation reported that , as part of the process of developing a new Defence White Paper , the Australian Government was considering purchasing two LC @-@ 130J Hercules fitted with landing skis and other equipment needed to allow the aircraft to operate in Antarctica . If acquired , these aircraft would be used to support the Australian Antarctic Division 's operations following the closure of the Wilkins Runway near Casey Station .
= = Operational service = =
= = = Introduction into service = = =
The RAAF 's twelve C @-@ 130As were picked up by their newly trained Australian pilots from the Lockheed factory at Dobbins Air Force Base , Georgia , and ferried to Australia in three groups between December 1958 and March 1959 . No. 36 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Richmond , became the first unit to operate the new aircraft . Almost immediately they established regular courier services within Australia and to RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaya . These flights primarily involved transporting cargo , as Chief of the Air Staff Frederick Scherger directed in 1959 that the RAAF would continue to rely on chartered civil airliners to move military personnel on the grounds that these aircraft were better suited to the task and in wartime all the C @-@ 130s would be needed to supply troops near the front lines . In February 1960 a Hercules flew the RAAF 's first AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missiles from the United States to Butterworth to equip the CAC Sabre fighters based there . Crew training was rigorous , and from mid @-@ 1960 involved the use of a simulator . Only seasoned transport pilots flew the Hercules in its early years of service , generally having undertaken a tour of duty with No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . When No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing and its two squadrons of CAC Sabres deployed to Butterworth between October 1958 and February 1959 , seven Dakotas were required to ferry the staff and equipment of No. 3 Squadron from Australia to Malaya , compared to two Hercules for No. 77 Squadron . The Hercules were the first turboprop aircraft operated by the RAAF . They were serviced by No. 486 Maintenance Squadron , with deeper maintenance and upgrades carried out by No. 2 Aircraft Depot ( No. 2 AD ) , both units being based at Richmond . The availability of spare parts from the US caused problems early on , grounding one C @-@ 130A for almost a year .
No. 36 Squadron commenced parachute trials with the Hercules in September 1960 . Beginning in May 1962 , RAAF forces based at Ubon , Thailand , under SEATO arrangements were supplied by a regular Hercules service . In December that year , the Hercules made their first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone , when one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130s joined a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the commencement of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions would be undertaken for a further five years . In 1964 , the first two Dassault Mirage III fighters to be assembled in Australia were flown in pieces from France to the Government Aircraft Factory at Avalon , Victoria , by RAAF Hercules . The same year , following the entry into Australian service of the de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou with No. 38 Squadron , No. 486 Squadron was disbanded and its equipment and staff divided between Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons . The RAAF 's force of twelve C @-@ 130A Hercules was augmented by twelve C @-@ 130Es commencing in February 1966 . No. 37 Squadron , disbanded in 1948 , was re @-@ formed at Richmond to operate the new models . No. 486 Squadron was also re @-@ formed to provide maintenance for both Hercules squadrons . No. 36 Squadron 's tasking was mainly domestic and tactical in nature , while No. 37 Squadron 's was overseas and strategic , owing to the longer range of its C @-@ 130Es . In May 1967 , three Hercules of No. 37 Squadron supported Operation Fast Caravan , the deployment of 23 Mirages of No. 75 Squadron to Butterworth .
= = = Vietnam War era = = =
During the late 1960s , forty @-@ two per cent of Hercules flying hours were devoted to Australian Army operations . The C @-@ 130s undertook long @-@ range missions to support Australian forces fighting in the Vietnam War from 1965 until 1972 . Following the deployment of the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment to South Vietnam in early 1965 , the RAAF began fortnightly C @-@ 130 flights into the country from June that year . These flights were initially conducted by C @-@ 130As , and carried high @-@ priority cargo and passengers from Richmond to Vung Tau in South Vietnam via either Butterworth or Singapore . The scale of the supply flights into South Vietnam expanded in 1967 when No. 2 Squadron RAAF , which was equipped with English Electric Canberra bombers , was deployed to Phan Rang . A large airlift codenamed Winter Grip was also conducted in mid @-@ 1967 to replace two Australian Army battalions , which had completed their year @-@ long tour of duty , with a pair of fresh battalions . The Hercules were called upon to support the withdrawal of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) from South Vietnam , and Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons undertook many sorties to fly equipment and personnel out of the country during 1971 . In late 1972 , C @-@ 130s were used to withdraw the last remaining Australian force in South Vietnam , the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ; the final elements of this force departed aboard two Hercules on 20 December 1972 .
As well as transport operations , the Hercules flew many evacuation flights out of Vietnam to transfer wounded or sick personnel to Australia , via Butterworth , for further treatment . These flights were initially conducted as part of the regular courier service , and the patients and RAAF nurses had to endure uncomfortable conditions as the aircraft had only rudimentary facilities for personnel on stretchers . Separate evacuation flights began on 1 July 1966 , and continued at fortnightly intervals until 1972 ; more flights were made during periods in which 1 ATF suffered heavy casualties . Although the operation was generally successful , only C @-@ 130Es were assigned to this task from May 1967 after an article criticising the use of noisy C @-@ 130As to transport wounded personnel was published in The Medical Journal of Australia . The C @-@ 130Es provided much more comfortable conditions and were capable of flying directly between South Vietnam and Australia when required . A total of 3 @,@ 164 patients had been transported to Australia by the time the C @-@ 130 evacuation flights ended in early 1972 . The Hercules also returned the bodies of servicemen killed in Vietnam to Australia .
Many of the RAAF 's C @-@ 130s were redeployed to South Vietnam shortly before the end of the war in 1975 . The rapid North Vietnamese advance during the Spring Offensive displaced hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese civilians , and the Australian Government deployed a detachment of Hercules to Saigon in March 1975 as part of an international aid effort coordinated by the United States . This force , which was designated Detachment S , had an average strength of seven C @-@ 130s and about one hundred air and ground crew and was initially used to transport civilian refugees away from the front lines . After South Vietnamese soldiers were reported to have been transported alongside civilians , Prime Minister Gough Whitlam directed that the Hercules were to only carry humanitarian cargo . As the North Vietnamese advanced on Saigon , Detachment S was moved to Bangkok in Thailand , but continued to fly into South Vietnam each day . Overall , Detachment S had carried 1 @,@ 100 refugees and 900 tonnes of supplies by the end of the war . On 4 and 17 April , aircraft of the detachment flew 271 orphaned children to Bangkok as part of the US @-@ led Operation Babylift . In late April , two of No. 37 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Es were assigned to the United Nations to transport supplies throughout South East Asia ; this force was designated Detachment N. The C @-@ 130Es began operations on 3 May , and were mainly used to fly supplies into Laos . The aircraft transported cargo between Thailand , Butterworth , Hong Kong and Singapore ; by the time this mission ended in early June , the two Hercules had conducted 91 sorties for the UN . Aircraft of Detachment S evacuated Australian embassy personnel from Phnom Penh in Cambodia , as well as Saigon , shortly before they fell to Khmer Rouge and North Vietnamese forces in April 1975 , after which the force returned to Australia . Detachment N also evacuated the Australian embassy in Vientiane , Laos , during early June 1975 .
= = = Post @-@ Vietnam tasks = = =
In the years after the end of the Vietnam War , the Hercules continued to take part in military exercises and support overseas peacekeeping commitments . They also became well known in the Southern Pacific after being called on for relief following natural disasters , including tidal waves in New Guinea , cyclones in the Solomon Islands and Tonga , and fires and floods in Australia . The Hercules played a significant part in the evacuation of civilians following Cyclone Tracy in 1974 – 75 ; a No. 37 Squadron C @-@ 130E was the first aircraft to touch down in Darwin following the disaster . Eight of No. 36 Squadron 's aircraft were involved in the relief effort , flying over 550 hours , and carrying 2 @,@ 864 passengers and almost 800 @,@ 000 lbs of cargo , while No. 37 Squadron contributed 11 aircraft , flying 700 hours , and carrying 4 @,@ 400 passengers and 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 lbs of cargo . On 19 January 1978 a C @-@ 130E returning to Australia from Butterworth was used to intercept a drug @-@ smuggling aircraft near Darwin ; the smuggler eventually landed at Katherine , and was arrested . After clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours over the course of 20 years , No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130As were replaced in 1978 by C @-@ 130H models . The C @-@ 130Hs were primarily used as tactical air lifters throughout their service with the RAAF , and worked closely with the Army 's special forces units .
The disposal of the C @-@ 130As took almost a decade , with the process being subject to a police investigation . Attempts to sell the Hercules by tender during 1978 and 1979 were unsuccessful , and the American law firm Ford and Vlahos was appointed the sales agent for the aircraft in 1981 . One was sold to the French Government in 1983 and subsequently transferred to the Chadian Air Force . Another two Hercules were sold to the Columbian charter company Aviaco in 1983 , but the US State Department vetoed the deal shortly before it was to have been completed over suspicions that the aircraft would be used to smuggle drugs into the United States . A C @-@ 130A was transferred to the newly established company International Air Aid and leased to the International Red Cross to fly humanitarian supplies into Ethiopia during 1986 , but this contract was cancelled after the C @-@ 130 's pilot was accused by the Ethiopian government of photographing a military area . The Australian Federal Police eventually charged two people with defrauding the Commonwealth and conspiracy in relation to these attempts to dispose of the C @-@ 130As . Eventually , four of the C @-@ 130As were sold to Aboitiz Air Transport Corporation in May 1988 and another four were acquired by the Fowler Aeronautical Corporation the next year . Two of the remaining three aircraft were retained by the RAAF for training and heritage purposes , and the final C @-@ 130A was scrapped .
In November 1978 , a C @-@ 130H became the first Australian Hercules to land in Antarctica , at McMurdo Sound . In January – February 1979 , two No. 37 Squadron C @-@ 130Es evacuated Australian and other foreign embassy staff from Tehran , shortly before the collapse of royal rule during the Iranian Revolution . During April 1982 , a C @-@ 130H was fitted with aerial firefighting equipment acquired from the United States Forest Service for trials purposes ; several Hercules later used this equipment to fight bushfires . On 5 April 1983 , 23 of the RAAF 's Hercules performed a formation flight over Sydney ; the remaining aircraft was to have participated in this flight but was diverted to conduct a search @-@ and @-@ rescue task . The Hercules ' twelve @-@ hour endurance and ability to drop survival equipment over land or sea made it a useful aircraft for such missions . In 1986 , No. 37 Squadron transported the Popemobiles during John Paul II 's tour of Australia ; its other unusual cargoes have included a Murray Grey stud bull presented to the Chinese Government in 1973 , kangaroos and sheep for Malaysia , and archaeological exhibits from China .
In February 1987 , Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons joined No. 33 Squadron ( flying Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports ) as part of a re @-@ formed No. 86 Wing under the newly established Air Lift Group ( renamed Air Mobility Group in April 2014 ) . In May that year four C @-@ 130s flew a rifle company of the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , from Townsville to Norfolk Island during Operation Morris Dance , the Australian Defence Force 's response to the first of the 1987 Fijian coups ; the soldiers subsequently embarked onto Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) warships by helicopter . In 1988 , No. 37 Squadron 's Hercules achieved 200 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours . No. 36 Squadron achieved 100 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours on the C @-@ 130H in 1990 . Members of the travelling public experienced flying by Hercules in 1989 , when the Australian Government employed the C @-@ 130s and 707s for transport during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines ; the resulting spike in operational hours necessitated No. 486 Squadron sending detachments to several locations throughout the country to cope with increased maintenance demands . By the late 1980s , some C @-@ 130 maintenance tasks had been outsourced to commercial firms , and Air New Zealand won a four @-@ year depot maintenance contract in 1990 .
Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 , No. 86 Wing prepared to deploy five C @-@ 130s to the Middle East to evacuate 3 @,@ 000 Australian citizens from Saudi Arabia in the event that Iraq also attacked that country . An operation to fly about 95 Australians and New Zealanders directly out of Iraq and Kuwait was also planned , but would have only been conducted as a last resort due to the great dangers involved . These evacuation flights were not required as Iraq did not invade Saudi Arabia , and the Australians in Iraq departed by road . A proposal to deploy some of the Hercules as part of the Australia 's contribution to the ensuing Gulf War was also rejected in late 1990 as the aircraft had to be held in reserve in case fighting on the Pacific island of Bougainville worsened and required an evacuation operation . After Operation Desert Storm commenced in January 1991 , two C @-@ 130s were dispatched to the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands in the Indian Ocean where they were held at readiness to deploy to Saudi Arabia in case Australian citizens had to be evacuated ; these aircraft moved to Singapore on 29 January and returned to Australia in early February . Other Hercules flew supplies for the RAN warships in the region from Australia to Muscat , Oman , from January 1991 , and also transported a naval Clearance Diving Team to Muscat late in the month . In 1992 , the Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons achieved a grand total of 500 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours ; Lockheed presented No. 86 Wing with a trophy to commemorate the milestone .
The RAAF 's Hercules fleet continued to support Australian military deployments during the 1990s and 2000s . In 1993 , C @-@ 130s transported Australian troops to and from Somalia as part of Operation Solace . In late July the next year two C @-@ 130Hs flew water purifying equipment and medical supplies into Rwanda to assist the survivors of the genocide in that country . Six Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . No. 37 Squadron re @-@ equipped with new @-@ model C @-@ 130J Hercules in 1999 ; during the transition to the new aircraft the C @-@ 130Es were operated by No. 36 Squadron before being retired . The seven C @-@ 130Es transferred to Lockheed Martin as part of the C @-@ 130J purchase agreement were subsequently sold to Pakistan in 2004 . Of these aircraft , six entered service with the Pakistan Air Force and the seventh was scrapped . The RAAF 's other five C @-@ 130Es were retained to be used for ground training and museum purposes . At the end of 1999 , No. 86 Wing ceased flying the regularly scheduled intra @-@ Australia C @-@ 130 flights that had begun in May 1959 . While these courier flights had been one of the main tasks assigned to the Hercules force since the type 's introduction , the reduction in commercial airfares during the late 1990s rendered them unnecessary .
A detachment of Hercules from Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 . When violence broke out following the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999 , C @-@ 130H sorties were flown into the then @-@ Indonesian province from 6 to 14 September to evacuate United Nations personnel as well as other foreign citizens and East Timorese refugees . Four C @-@ 130E sorties were also conducted to drop food and other humanitarian supplies to refugees on 17 and 18 September . On 19 September a C @-@ 130 dropped a Special Air Service Regiment ( SAS ) team near the East Timorese capital of Dili ahead of the arrival of the main INTERFET force the next day . From 20 September , thirteen RAAF Hercules ( designated No. 86 Wing Detachment B ) and transport aircraft from several other countries flew troops and supplies into East Timor . These aircraft also dropped humanitarian supplies to refugees who had fled to mountainous regions . The poor condition of most East Timorese airfields and the potential threat of being fired upon by pro @-@ Indonesian militia were constant dangers throughout this operation . In May 2000 , heavy maintenance of the C @-@ 130s , previously carried out by No. 2 AD ( reformed as No. 503 Wing in July 1992 ) was contracted out to Qantas .
= = = Iraq War and recent operations = = =
From late 2001 , Hercules began flying into Afghanistan to support the SAS squadron deployed as part of Operation Slipper , Australia 's contribution to the War in Afghanistan . Five Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons joined relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , a detachment of Hercules from No. 36 Squadron was deployed to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . These aircraft arrived on 10 February , and began flying transport sorties twelve days later . The C @-@ 130s were the main form of transport used to move Australian personnel and equipment in the theatre before and after the outbreak of fighting on 19 March . During the invasion the Hercules supported SAS operations in western Iraq , one being the first Coalition aircraft to land at Al Asad Airbase after it was secured by special forces personnel on 12 April . The C @-@ 130s transported supplies and equipment to airstrips in southern Iraq to support the operations of US and British forces . As the first phase of the war wound down , Australian Hercules flew medical supplies into Baghdad shortly after the city was captured . A rotating detachment of three Hercules was subsequently maintained in the Middle East to support the ongoing Australian contribution to the War in Afghanistan , as well as the forces stationed in Iraq . The aircraft assigned to this detachment amassed a total of 20 @,@ 000 operational flying hours by March 2010 . An American contractor travelling on an Australian C @-@ 130 in Iraq was killed on 27 June 2004 when the aircraft was struck by gunfire shortly after it took off from Baghdad .
RAAF C @-@ 130s continued to support operations in and around Australia during the early 2000s . During April 2003 a C @-@ 130 formed part of the force that tracked the North Korean freighter Pong Su before it was boarded by special forces personnel off the coast of New South Wales . No. 36 Squadron Hercules took part in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami ; the aircraft were initially used to fly supplies into the badly damaged city of Banda Aceh . Hercules flew Australian forces into East Timor during May 2006 after the government of that country requested assistance to quell a military mutiny and widespread violence . In July that year one of the C @-@ 130s deployed to the Middle East was sent to Cyprus , where it picked up Australians who had been evacuated from Lebanon following Israeli air raids and flew them to Turkey .
RAAF C @-@ 130 operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster heavy transports and relocating to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The RAAF 's contribution to Operation Papua New Guinea Assist following Cyclone Guba in November 2007 included two Hercules , three Caribous , and a Globemaster . In November 2008 , the RAAF commemorated fifty years of Hercules operation . From that year only C @-@ 130Js were deployed to the Middle East . Four of the C @-@ 130Hs were placed in reserve at Richmond from 2009 . Together with Globemasters , Hercules transported medical staff and equipment to aid victims of the Christchurch earthquake in February 2011 . In May 2012 the government announced as part of the 2012 – 13 Budget that the remaining eight C @-@ 130Hs would be withdrawn from service a year earlier than previously scheduled . The aircraft were retired on 30 November that year . Two of the C @-@ 130Hs were retained by the Air Force for display at RAAF Museum and for ground training purposes at Richmond ; four were donated to the Indonesian Air Force , and the RAAF was reported to be considering options for the disposal of the other six . By the time the C @-@ 130H fleet was retired , the twelve aircraft had flown almost 250 @,@ 000 hours . In April 2013 the Australian government offered to sell five of the C @-@ 130Hs as well as spare parts and simulators to Indonesia at below their market value . The Indonesian government accepted this deal , and it was finalised on 26 July 2013 . The RAAF celebrated 800 @,@ 000 Hercules flying hours in September 2014 . The C @-@ 130Js had by this time accumulated over 100 @,@ 000 hours ; they are expected to remain in service until 2030 .
= New York State Route 217 =
New York State Route 217 ( NY 217 ) is a 6 @.@ 78 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 91 km ) long state highway in Columbia County , New York , in the United States . It connects NY 23 in Claverack to the Taconic State Parkway in Ghent by way of the village of Philmont . The majority of NY 217 is a rural highway , excluding portions near the NY 23 junction and in Philmont .
NY 217 originally extended from Mellenville to NY 22 in the town of Hillsdale when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was extended west to its present terminus in Claverack in the early 1930s . NY 217 was truncated westward to Harlemville in the mid @-@ 1930s , then to the Taconic Parkway in 1980 . The former routing of NY 217 is now maintained by Columbia County as County Route 21 ( CR 21 ) and County Route 21C .
= = Route description = =
NY 217 begins at an intersection with NY 23 east of the hamlet of Claverack in the town of the same name in central Columbia County . The route heads northeastward from the intersection , passing by the historic Stephen Storm House at the outskirts of Claverack hamlet and into a rural portion of the town . At an intersection with Roxbury Road , NY 217 passes the Columbia Golf and Country Club to the west and begins to parallel Claverack Creek . NY 217 intersects with CR 18 ( Fish and Game Road ) , then enters the populous hamlet of Mellenville .
In the center of Mellenville , NY 217 intersects with CR 9 ( Mellenville Road ) , with NY 217 serving as CR 9 's southern terminus . NY 217 then heads southeast , crossing Claverack Creek and passing Mellenville Union Cemetery to the north as well as the adjacent Claverack Town Park . The route turns eastward and meets the northern terminus of Roxbury Road as it enters the village of Philmont . Within Philmont , NY 217 follows Main Street through the center of the densely populated village . At an intersection with Maple Street , the highway comes within view of Summit Lake , a small water body in the center of Philmont . Past the lake , NY 217 turns northeast once more and intersects with CR 11 ( Martindale Road ) as it leaves the village .
After Philmont , NY 217 progresses its way northeastward , with the highway winding its way through a mixture of dense woods and open fields . Shortly after crossing into the town of Ghent , the route turns eastward and the woods around the highway begin to cease . Here , NY 217 meets the Taconic State Parkway by way of a parclo interchange . About 800 feet ( 240 m ) after the interchange , maintenance of the highway shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to Columbia County , and the designation changes accordingly from NY 217 to CR 21C .
= = History = =
The north – south roadway connecting the hamlets of Claverack and Mellenville ( both located within the town of Claverack ) was originally designated as the southernmost part of NY 66 in the mid @-@ 1920s . A connector between NY 66 in Mellenville and NY 22 in North Hillsdale via Philmont was designated as NY 217 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 66 was rerouted south of the hamlet of Ghent c . 1933 to follow its modern alignment to the city of Hudson . NY 217 was then extended southwestward along NY 66 's former alignment to NY 23 east of Claverack .
NY 217 was truncated on its eastern end to Harlemville c . 1935 . On April 1 , 1980 , NY 217 was truncated again , this time to its interchange with the Taconic State Parkway , as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Columbia County . The former routing of NY 217 from Harlemville to North Hillsdale is now CR 21 while the portion from the Taconic Parkway to Harlemville is designated as CR 21C .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Columbia County .
= DNA repair =
DNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome . In human cells , both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as radiation can cause DNA damage , resulting in as many as 1 million individual molecular lesions per cell per day . Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule and can alter or eliminate the cell 's ability to transcribe the gene that the affected DNA encodes . Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell 's genome , which affect the survival of its daughter cells after it undergoes mitosis . As a consequence , the DNA repair process is constantly active as it responds to damage in the DNA structure . When normal repair processes fail , and when cellular apoptosis does not occur , irreparable DNA damage may occur , including double @-@ strand breaks and DNA crosslinkages ( interstrand crosslinks or ICLs ) . This can eventually lead to malignant tumors , or cancer as per the two hit hypothesis .
The rate of DNA repair is dependent on many factors , including the cell type , the age of the cell , and the extracellular environment . A cell that has accumulated a large amount of DNA damage , or one that no longer effectively repairs damage incurred to its DNA , can enter one of three possible states :
an irreversible state of dormancy , known as senescence
cell suicide , also known as apoptosis or programmed cell death
unregulated cell division , which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerous
The DNA repair ability of a cell is vital to the integrity of its genome and thus to the normal functionality of that organism . Many genes that were initially shown to influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection .
The 2015 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Tomas Lindahl , Paul Modrich , and Aziz Sancar for their work on the molecular mechanisms of DNA repair processes .
= = DNA damage = =
DNA damage , due to environmental factors and normal metabolic processes inside the cell , occurs at a rate of 10 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 molecular lesions per cell per day . While this constitutes only 0 @.@ 000165 % of the human genome 's approximately 6 billion bases ( 3 billion base pairs ) , unrepaired lesions in critical genes ( such as tumor suppressor genes ) can impede a cell 's ability to carry out its function and appreciably increase the likelihood of tumor formation and contribute to tumour heterogeneity .
The vast majority of DNA damage affects the primary structure of the double helix ; that is , the bases themselves are chemically modified . These modifications can in turn disrupt the molecules ' regular helical structure by introducing non @-@ native chemical bonds or bulky adducts that do not fit in the standard double helix . Unlike proteins and RNA , DNA usually lacks tertiary structure and therefore damage or disturbance does not occur at that level . DNA is , however , supercoiled and wound around " packaging " proteins called histones ( in eukaryotes ) , and both superstructures are vulnerable to the effects of DNA damage .
= = = Types of damage = = =
There are several types of damage to DNA due to endogenous cellular processes :
oxidation of bases [ e.g. 8 @-@ oxo @-@ 7 @,@ 8 @-@ dihydroguanine ( 8 @-@ oxoG ) ] and generation of DNA strand interruptions from reactive oxygen species ,
alkylation of bases ( usually methylation ) , such as formation of 7 @-@ methylguanosine , 1 @-@ methyladenine , 6 @-@ O @-@ Methylguanine
hydrolysis of bases , such as deamination , depurination , and depyrimidination .
" bulky adduct formation " ( i.e. , benzo [ a ] pyrene diol epoxide @-@ dG adduct , aristolactam I @-@ dA adduct )
mismatch of bases , due to errors in DNA replication , in which the wrong DNA base is stitched into place in a newly forming DNA strand , or a DNA base is skipped over or mistakenly inserted .
Monoadduct damage cause by change in single nitrogenous base of DNA
Diadduct damage
Damage caused by exogenous agents comes in many forms . Some examples are :
UV @-@ B light causes crosslinking between adjacent cytosine and thymine bases creating pyrimidine dimers . This is called direct DNA damage .
UV @-@ A light creates mostly free radicals . The damage caused by free radicals is called indirect DNA damage .
Ionizing radiation such as that created by radioactive decay or in cosmic rays causes breaks in DNA strands . Intermediate @-@ level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage ( leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions ) leading to pre @-@ mature aging and cancer .
Thermal disruption at elevated temperature increases the rate of depurination ( loss of purine bases from the DNA backbone ) and single @-@ strand breaks . For example , hydrolytic depurination is seen in the thermophilic bacteria , which grow in hot springs at 40 @-@ 80 ° C. The rate of depurination ( 300 purine residues per genome per generation ) is too high in these species to be repaired by normal repair machinery , hence a possibility of an adaptive response cannot be ruled out .
Industrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide , and environmental chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in smoke , soot and tar create a huge diversity of DNA adducts- ethenobases , oxidized bases , alkylated phosphotriesters and crosslinking of DNA , just to name a few .
UV damage , alkylation / methylation , X @-@ ray damage and oxidative damage are examples of induced damage . Spontaneous damage can include the loss of a base , deamination , sugar ring puckering and tautomeric shift .
= = = Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage = = =
In human cells , and eukaryotic cells in general , DNA is found in two cellular locations — inside the nucleus and inside the mitochondria . Nuclear DNA ( nDNA ) exists as chromatin during non @-@ replicative stages of the cell cycle and is condensed into aggregate structures known as chromosomes during cell division . In either state the DNA is highly compacted and wound up around bead @-@ like proteins called histones . Whenever a cell needs to express the genetic information encoded in its nDNA the required chromosomal region is unravelled , genes located therein are expressed , and then the region is condensed back to its resting conformation . Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) is located inside mitochondria organelles , exists in multiple copies , and is also tightly associated with a number of proteins to form a complex known as the nucleoid . Inside mitochondria , reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) , or free radicals , byproducts of the constant production of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) via oxidative phosphorylation , create a highly oxidative environment that is known to damage mtDNA . A critical enzyme in counteracting the toxicity of these species is superoxide dismutase , which is present in both the mitochondria and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells .
= = = Senescence and apoptosis = = =
Senescence , an irreversible process in which the cell no longer divides , is a protective response to the shortening of the chromosome ends . The telomeres are long regions of repetitive noncoding DNA that cap chromosomes and undergo partial degradation each time a cell undergoes division ( see Hayflick limit ) . In contrast , quiescence is a reversible state of cellular dormancy that is unrelated to genome damage ( see cell cycle ) . Senescence in cells may serve as a functional alternative to apoptosis in cases where the physical presence of a cell for spatial reasons is required by the organism , which serves as a " last resort " mechanism to prevent a cell with damaged DNA from replicating inappropriately in the absence of pro @-@ growth cellular signaling . Unregulated cell division can lead to the formation of a tumor ( see cancer ) , which is potentially lethal to an organism . Therefore , the induction of senescence and apoptosis is considered to be part of a strategy of protection against cancer .
= = = DNA damage and mutation = = =
It is important to distinguish between DNA damage and mutation , the two major types of error in DNA . DNA damages and mutation are fundamentally different . Damages are physical abnormalities in the DNA , such as single- and double @-@ strand breaks , 8 @-@ hydroxydeoxyguanosine residues , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts . DNA damages can be recognized by enzymes , and , thus , they can be correctly repaired if redundant information , such as the undamaged sequence in the complementary DNA strand or in a homologous chromosome , is available for copying . If a cell retains DNA damage , transcription of a gene can be prevented , and , thus , translation into a protein will also be blocked . Replication may also be blocked or the cell may die .
In contrast to DNA damage , a mutation is a change in the base sequence of the DNA . A mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands , and , thus , a mutation cannot be repaired . At the cellular level , mutations can cause alterations in protein function and regulation . Mutations are replicated when the cell replicates . In a population of cells , mutant cells will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutation on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce . Although distinctly different from each other , DNA damages and mutations are related because DNA damages often cause errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair ; these errors are a major source of mutation .
Given these properties of DNA damage and mutation , it can be seen that DNA damages are a special problem in non @-@ dividing or slowly dividing cells , where unrepaired damages will tend to accumulate over time . On the other hand , in rapidly dividing cells , unrepaired DNA damages that do not kill the cell by blocking replication will tend to cause replication errors and thus mutation . The great majority of mutations that are not neutral in their effect are deleterious to a cell 's survival . Thus , in a population of cells composing a tissue with replicating cells , mutant cells will tend to be lost . However , infrequent mutations that provide a survival advantage will tend to clonally expand at the expense of neighboring cells in the tissue . This advantage to the cell is disadvantageous to the whole organism , because such mutant cells can give rise to cancer . Thus , DNA damages in frequently dividing cells , because they give rise to mutations , are a prominent cause of cancer . In contrast , DNA damages in infrequently dividing cells are likely a prominent cause of aging .
= = DNA repair mechanisms = =
Cells cannot function if DNA damage corrupts the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome ( but cells remain superficially functional when non @-@ essential genes are missing or damaged ) . Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA 's double helical structure , a variety of repair strategies have evolved to restore lost information . If possible , cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromatid as a template to recover the original information . Without access to a template , cells use an error @-@ prone recovery mechanism known as translesion synthesis as a last resort .
Damage to DNA alters the spatial configuration of the helix , and such alterations can be detected by the cell . Once damage is localized , specific DNA repair molecules bind at or near the site of damage , inducing other molecules to bind and form a complex that enables the actual repair to take place .
= = = Direct reversal = = =
Cells are known to eliminate three types of damage to their DNA by chemically reversing it . These mechanisms do not require a template , since the types of damage they counteract can occur in only one of the four bases . Such direct reversal mechanisms are specific to the type of damage incurred and do not involve breakage of the phosphodiester backbone . The formation of pyrimidine dimers upon irradiation with UV light results in an abnormal covalent bond between adjacent pyrimidine bases . The photoreactivation process directly reverses this damage by the action of the enzyme photolyase , whose activation is obligately dependent on energy absorbed from blue / UV light ( 300 – 500 nm wavelength ) to promote catalysis . Photolyase , an old enzyme present in bacteria , fungi , and most animals no longer functions in humans , who instead use nucleotide excision repair to repair damage from UV irradiation . Another type of damage , methylation of guanine bases , is directly reversed by the protein methyl guanine methyl transferase ( MGMT ) , the bacterial equivalent of which is called ogt . This is an expensive process because each MGMT molecule can be used only once ; that is , the reaction is stoichiometric rather than catalytic . A generalized response to methylating agents in bacteria is known as the adaptive response and confers a level of resistance to alkylating agents upon sustained exposure by upregulation of alkylation repair enzymes . The third type of DNA damage reversed by cells is certain methylation of the bases cytosine and adenine .
= = = Single @-@ strand damage = = =
When only one of the two strands of a double helix has a defect , the other strand can be used as a template to guide the correction of the damaged strand . In order to repair damage to one of the two paired molecules of DNA , there exist a number of excision repair mechanisms that remove the damaged nucleotide and replace it with an undamaged nucleotide complementary to that found in the undamaged DNA strand .
Base excision repair ( BER ) repairs damage to a single nitrogenous base by deploying enzymes called glycosylases . These enzymes remove a single nitrogenous base to create an apurinic or apyrimidinic site ( AP site ) . Enzymes called AP endonucleases nick the damaged DNA backbone at the AP site . DNA polymerase then removes the damaged region using its 5 ’ to 3 ’ exonuclease activity and correctly synthesizes the new strand using the complementary strand as a template .
Nucleotide excision repair ( NER ) repairs damaged DNA which commonly consists of bulky , helix @-@ distorting damage , such as pyrimidine dimerization caused by UV light . Damaged regions are removed in 12 @-@ 24 nucleotide @-@ long strands in a three @-@ step process which consists of recognition of damage , excision of damaged DNA both upstream and downstream of damage by endonucleases , and resynthesis of removed DNA region . NER is a highly evolutionarily conserved repair mechanism and is used in nearly all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells . In prokaryotes , NER is mediated by Uvr proteins . In eukaryotes , many more proteins are involved , although the general strategy is the same .
Mismatch repair systems are present in essentially all cells to correct errors that are not corrected by proofreading . These systems consist of at least two proteins . One detects the mismatch , and the other recruits an endonuclease that cleaves the newly synthesized DNA strand close to the region of damage . In E. coli , the proteins involved are the Mut class proteins . This is followed by removal of damaged region by an exonuclease , resynthesis by DNA polymerase , and nick sealing by DNA ligase .
= = = Double @-@ strand breaks = = =
Double @-@ strand breaks , in which both strands in the double helix are severed , are particularly hazardous to the cell because they can lead to genome rearrangements . Three mechanisms exist to repair double @-@ strand breaks ( DSBs ) : non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) , microhomology @-@ mediated end joining ( MMEJ ) , and homologous recombination . PVN Acharya noted that double @-@ strand breaks and a " cross @-@ linkage joining both strands at the same point is irreparable because neither strand can then serve as a template for repair . The cell will die in the next mitosis or in some rare instances , mutate . "
In NHEJ , DNA Ligase IV , a specialized DNA ligase that forms a complex with the cofactor XRCC4 , directly joins the two ends . To guide accurate repair , NHEJ relies on short homologous sequences called microhomologies present on the single @-@ stranded tails of the DNA ends to be joined . If these overhangs are compatible , repair is usually accurate . NHEJ can also introduce mutations during repair . Loss of damaged nucleotides at the break site can lead to deletions , and joining of nonmatching termini forms insertions or translocations . NHEJ is especially important before the cell has replicated its DNA , since there is no template available for repair by homologous recombination . There are " backup " NHEJ pathways in higher eukaryotes . Besides its role as a genome caretaker , NHEJ is required for joining hairpin @-@ capped double @-@ strand breaks induced during V ( D ) J recombination , the process that generates diversity in B @-@ cell and T @-@ cell receptors in the vertebrate immune system .
MMEJ starts with short @-@ range end resection by MRE11 nuclease on either side of a double @-@ strand break to reveal microhomology regions . In further steps , PARP1 is required and may be an early step in MMEJ . There is pairing of microhomology regions followed by recruitment of flap structure @-@ specific endonuclease 1 ( FEN1 ) to remove overhanging flaps . This is followed by recruitment of XRCC1 – LIG3 to the site for ligating the DNA ends , leading to an intact DNA .
DNA double strand breaks in mammalian cells are primarily repaired by homologous recombination ( HR ) and non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) . In an in vitro system , MMEJ occurred in mammalian cells at the levels of 10 – 20 % of HR when both HR and NHEJ mechanisms were also available . MMEJ is always accompanied by a deletion , so that MMEJ is a mutagenic pathway for DNA repair .
Homologous recombination requires the presence of an identical or nearly identical sequence to be used as a template for repair of the break . The enzymatic machinery responsible for this repair process is nearly identical to the machinery responsible for chromosomal crossover during meiosis . This pathway allows a damaged chromosome to be repaired using a sister chromatid ( available in G2 after DNA replication ) or a homologous chromosome as a template . DSBs caused by the replication machinery attempting to synthesize across a single @-@ strand break or unrepaired lesion cause collapse of the replication fork and are typically repaired by recombination .
Topoisomerases introduce both single- and double @-@ strand breaks in the course of changing the DNA 's state of supercoiling , which is especially common in regions near an open replication fork . Such breaks are not considered DNA damage because they are a natural intermediate in the topoisomerase biochemical mechanism and are immediately repaired by the enzymes that created them .
A team of French researchers bombarded Deinococcus radiodurans to study the mechanism of double @-@ strand break DNA repair in that bacterium . At least two copies of the genome , with random DNA breaks , can form DNA fragments through annealing . Partially overlapping fragments are then used for synthesis of homologous regions through a moving D @-@ loop that can continue extension until they find complementary partner strands . In the final step there is crossover by means of RecA @-@ dependent homologous recombination .
= = = Translesion synthesis = = =
Translesion synthesis ( TLS ) is a DNA damage tolerance process that allows the DNA replication machinery to replicate past DNA lesions such as thymine dimers or AP sites . It involves switching out regular DNA polymerases for specialized translesion polymerases ( i.e. DNA polymerase IV or V , from the Y Polymerase family ) , often with larger active sites that can facilitate the insertion of bases opposite damaged nucleotides . The polymerase switching is thought to be mediated by , among other factors , the post @-@ translational modification of the replication processivity factor PCNA . Translesion synthesis polymerases often have low fidelity ( high propensity to insert wrong bases ) on undamaged templates relative to regular polymerases . However , many are extremely efficient at inserting correct bases opposite specific types of damage . For example , Pol η mediates error @-@ free bypass of lesions induced by UV irradiation , whereas Pol ι introduces mutations at these sites . Pol η is known to add the first adenine across the T ^ T photodimer using Watson @-@ Crick base pairing and the second adenine will be added in its syn conformation using Hoogsteen base pairing . From a cellular perspective , risking the introduction of point mutations during translesion synthesis may be preferable to resorting to more drastic mechanisms of DNA repair , which may cause gross chromosomal aberrations or cell death . In short , the process involves specialized polymerases either bypassing or repairing lesions at locations of stalled DNA replication . For example , Human DNA polymerase eta can bypass complex DNA lesions like guanine @-@ thymine intra @-@ strand crosslink , G [ 8 @,@ 5 @-@ Me ] T , although can cause targeted and semi @-@ targeted mutations . Paromita Raychaudhury and Ashis Basu studied the toxicity and mutagenesis of the same lesion in Escherichia coli by replicating a G [ 8 @,@ 5 @-@ Me ] T @-@ modified plasmid in E. coli with specific DNA polymerase knockouts . Viability was very low in a strain lacking pol II , pol IV , and pol V , the three SOS @-@ inducible DNA polymerases , indicating that translesion synthesis is conducted primarily by these specialized DNA polymerases . A bypass platform is provided to these polymerases by Proliferating cell nuclear antigen ( PCNA ) . Under normal circumstances , PCNA bound to polymerases replicates the DNA . At a site of lesion , PCNA is ubiquitinated , or modified , by the RAD6 / RAD18 proteins to provide a platform for the specialized polymerases to bypass the lesion and resume DNA replication . After translesion synthesis , extension is required . This extension can be carried out by a replicative polymerase if the TLS is error @-@ free , as in the case of Pol η , yet if TLS results in a mismatch , a specialized polymerase is needed to extend it ; Pol ζ . Pol ζ is unique in that it can extend terminal mismatches , whereas more processive polymerases cannot . So when a lesion is encountered , the replication fork will stall , PCNA will switch from a processive polymerase to a TLS polymerase such as Pol ι to fix the lesion , then PCNA may switch to Pol ζ to extend the mismatch , and last PCNA will switch to the processive polymerase to continue replication .
= = Global response to DNA damage = =
Cells exposed to ionizing radiation , ultraviolet light or chemicals are prone to acquire multiple sites of bulky DNA lesions and double @-@ strand breaks . Moreover , DNA damaging agents can damage other biomolecules such as proteins , carbohydrates , lipids , and RNA . The accumulation of damage , to be specific , double @-@ strand breaks or adducts stalling the replication forks , are among known stimulation signals for a global response to DNA damage . The global response to damage is an act directed toward the cells ' own preservation and triggers multiple pathways of macromolecular repair , lesion bypass , tolerance , or apoptosis . The common features of global response are induction of multiple genes , cell cycle arrest , and inhibition of cell division .
= = = DNA damage checkpoints = = =
After DNA damage , cell cycle checkpoints are activated . Checkpoint activation pauses the cell cycle and gives the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide . DNA damage checkpoints occur at the G1 / S and G2 / M boundaries . An intra @-@ S checkpoint also exists . Checkpoint activation is controlled by two master kinases , ATM and ATR . ATM responds to DNA double @-@ strand breaks and disruptions in chromatin structure , whereas ATR primarily responds to stalled replication forks . These kinases phosphorylate downstream targets in a signal transduction cascade , eventually leading to cell cycle arrest . A class of checkpoint mediator proteins including BRCA1 , MDC1 , and 53BP1 has also been identified . These proteins seem to be required for transmitting the checkpoint activation signal to downstream proteins .
DNA damage checkpoint is a signal transduction pathway that blocks cell cycle progression in G1 , G2 and metaphase and slows down the rate of S phase progression when DNA is damaged . It leads to a pause in cell cycle allowing the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide .
Checkpoint Proteins can be separated into four groups : phosphatidylinositol 3 @-@ kinase ( PI3K ) -like protein kinase , proliferating cell nuclear antigen ( PCNA ) -like group , two serine / threonine ( S / T ) kinases and their adaptors . Central to all DNA damage induced checkpoints responses is a pair of large protein kinases belonging to the first group of PI3K @-@ like protein kinases @-@ the ATM ( Ataxia telangiectasia mutated ) and ATR ( Ataxia- and Rad @-@ related ) kinases , whose sequence and functions have been well conserved in evolution . All DNA damage response requires either ATM or ATR because they have the ability to bind to the chromosomes at the site of DNA damage , together with accessory proteins that are platforms on which DNA damage response components and DNA repair complexes can be assembled .
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An important downstream target of ATM and ATR is p53 , as it is required for inducing apoptosis following DNA damage . The cyclin @-@ dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is induced by both p53 @-@ dependent and p53 @-@ independent mechanisms and can arrest the cell cycle at the G1 / S and G2 / M checkpoints by deactivating cyclin / cyclin @-@ dependent kinase complexes .
= = = The prokaryotic SOS response = = =
The SOS response is the changes in gene expression in Escherichia coli and other bacteria in response to extensive DNA damage . The prokaryotic SOS system is regulated by two key proteins : LexA and RecA . The LexA homodimer is a transcriptional repressor that binds to operator sequences commonly referred to as SOS boxes . In Escherichia coli it is known that LexA regulates transcription of approximately 48 genes including the lexA and recA genes . The SOS response is known to be widespread in the Bacteria domain , but it is mostly absent in some bacterial phyla , like the Spirochetes . The most common cellular signals activating the SOS response are regions of single @-@ stranded DNA ( ssDNA ) , arising from stalled replication forks or double @-@ strand breaks , which are processed by DNA helicase to separate the two DNA strands . In the initiation step , RecA protein binds to ssDNA in an ATP hydrolysis driven reaction creating RecA – ssDNA filaments . RecA – ssDNA filaments activate LexA autoprotease activity , which ultimately leads to cleavage of LexA dimer and subsequent LexA degradation . The loss of LexA repressor induces transcription of the SOS genes and allows for further signal induction , inhibition of cell division and an increase in levels of proteins responsible for damage processing .
In Escherichia coli , SOS boxes are 20 @-@ nucleotide long sequences near promoters with palindromic structure and a high degree of sequence conservation . In other classes and phyla , the sequence of SOS boxes varies considerably , with different length and composition , but it is always highly conserved and one of the strongest short signals in the genome . The high information content of SOS boxes permits differential binding of LexA to different promoters and allows for timing of the SOS response . The lesion repair genes are induced at the beginning of SOS response . The error @-@ prone translesion polymerases , for example , UmuCD ' 2 ( also called DNA polymerase V ) , are induced later on as a last resort . Once the DNA damage is repaired or bypassed using polymerases or through recombination , the amount of single @-@ stranded DNA in cells is decreased , lowering the amounts of RecA filaments decreases cleavage activity of LexA homodimer , which then binds to the SOS boxes near promoters and restores normal gene expression .
= = = Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage = = =
Eukaryotic cells exposed to DNA damaging agents also activate important defensive pathways by inducing multiple proteins involved in DNA repair , cell cycle checkpoint control , protein trafficking and degradation . Such genome wide transcriptional response is very complex and tightly regulated , thus allowing coordinated global response to damage . Exposure of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to DNA damaging agents results in overlapping but distinct transcriptional profiles . Similarities to environmental shock response indicates that a general global stress response pathway exist at the level of transcriptional activation . In contrast , different human cell types respond to damage differently indicating an absence of a common global response . The probable explanation for this difference between yeast and human cells may be in the heterogeneity of mammalian cells . In an animal different types of cells are distributed among different organs that have evolved different sensitivities to DNA damage .
In general global response to DNA damage involves expression of multiple genes responsible for postreplication repair , homologous recombination , nucleotide excision repair , DNA damage checkpoint , global transcriptional activation , genes controlling mRNA decay , and many others . A large amount of damage to a cell leaves it with an important decision : undergo apoptosis and die , or survive at the cost of living with a modified genome . An increase in tolerance to damage can lead to an increased rate of survival that will allow a greater accumulation of mutations . Yeast Rev1 and human polymerase η are members of [ Y family translesion DNA polymerases present during global response to DNA damage and are responsible for enhanced mutagenesis during a global response to DNA damage in eukaryotes .
= = DNA repair and aging = =
= = = Pathological effects of poor DNA repair = = =
Experimental animals with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair often show decreased life span and increased cancer incidence . For example , mice deficient in the dominant NHEJ pathway and in telomere maintenance mechanisms get lymphoma and infections more often , and , as a consequence , have shorter lifespans than wild @-@ type mice . In similar manner , mice deficient in a key repair and transcription protein that unwinds DNA helices have premature onset of aging @-@ related diseases and consequent shortening of lifespan . However , not every DNA repair deficiency creates exactly the predicted effects ; mice deficient in the NER pathway exhibited shortened life span without correspondingly higher rates of mutation .
If the rate of DNA damage exceeds the capacity of the cell to repair it , the accumulation of errors can overwhelm the cell and result in early senescence , apoptosis , or cancer . Inherited diseases associated with faulty DNA repair functioning result in premature aging , increased sensitivity to carcinogens , and correspondingly increased cancer risk ( see below ) . On the other hand , organisms with enhanced DNA repair systems , such as Deinococcus radiodurans , the most radiation @-@ resistant known organism , exhibit remarkable resistance to the double @-@ strand break @-@ inducing effects of radioactivity , likely due to enhanced efficiency of DNA repair and especially NHEJ .
= = = Longevity and caloric restriction = = =
A number of individual genes have been identified as influencing variations in life span within a population of organisms . The effects of these genes is strongly dependent on the environment , in particular , on the organism 's diet . Caloric restriction reproducibly results in extended lifespan in a variety of organisms , likely via nutrient sensing pathways and decreased metabolic rate . The molecular mechanisms by which such restriction results in lengthened lifespan are as yet unclear ( see for some discussion ) ; however , the behavior of many genes known to be involved in DNA repair is altered under conditions of caloric restriction .
For example , increasing the gene dosage of the gene SIR @-@ 2 , which regulates DNA packaging in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans , can significantly extend lifespan . The mammalian homolog of SIR @-@ 2 is known to induce downstream DNA repair factors involved in NHEJ , an activity that is especially promoted under conditions of caloric restriction . Caloric restriction has been closely linked to the rate of base excision repair in the nuclear DNA of rodents , although similar effects have not been observed in mitochondrial DNA .
It is interesting to note that the C. elegans gene AGE @-@ 1 , an upstream effector of DNA repair pathways , confers dramatically extended life span under free @-@ feeding conditions but leads to a decrease in reproductive fitness under conditions of caloric restriction . This observation supports the pleiotropy theory of the biological origins of aging , which suggests that genes conferring a large survival advantage early in life will be selected for even if they carry a corresponding disadvantage late in life .
= = Medicine and DNA repair modulation = =
= = = Hereditary DNA repair disorders = = =
Defects in the NER mechanism are responsible for several genetic disorders , including :
Xeroderma pigmentosum : hypersensitivity to sunlight / UV , resulting in increased skin cancer incidence and premature aging
Cockayne syndrome : hypersensitivity to UV and chemical agents
Trichothiodystrophy : sensitive skin , brittle hair and nails
Mental retardation often accompanies the latter two disorders , suggesting increased vulnerability of developmental neurons .
Other DNA repair disorders include :
Werner 's syndrome : premature aging and retarded growth
Bloom 's syndrome : sunlight hypersensitivity , high incidence of malignancies ( especially leukemias ) .
Ataxia telangiectasia : sensitivity to ionizing radiation and some chemical agents
All of the above diseases are often called " segmental progerias " ( " accelerated aging diseases " ) because their victims appear elderly and suffer from aging @-@ related diseases at an abnormally young age , while not manifesting all the symptoms of old age .
Other diseases associated with reduced DNA repair function include Fanconi anemia , hereditary breast cancer and hereditary colon cancer .
= = DNA repair and cancer = =
Because of inherent limitations in the DNA repair mechanisms , if humans lived long enough , they would all eventually develop cancer . There are at least 34 Inherited human DNA repair gene mutations that increase cancer risk . Many of these mutations cause DNA repair to be less effective than normal . In particular , Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer ( HNPCC ) is strongly associated with specific mutations in the DNA mismatch repair pathway . BRCA1 and BRCA2 , two famous genes whose mutations confer a hugely increased risk of breast cancer on carriers , are both associated with a large number of DNA repair pathways , especially NHEJ and homologous recombination .
Cancer therapy procedures such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy work by overwhelming the capacity of the cell to repair DNA damage , resulting in cell death . Cells that are most rapidly dividing — most typically cancer cells — are preferentially affected . The side @-@ effect is that other non @-@ cancerous but rapidly dividing cells such as progenitor cells in the gut , skin , and hematopoietic system are also affected . Modern cancer treatments attempt to localize the DNA damage to cells and tissues only associated with cancer , either by physical means ( concentrating the therapeutic agent in the region of the tumor ) or by biochemical means ( exploiting a feature unique to cancer cells in the body ) .
= = = Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer = = =
Classically , cancer has been viewed as a set of diseases that are driven by progressive genetic abnormalities that include mutations in tumour @-@ suppressor genes and oncogenes , and chromosomal aberrations . However , it has become apparent that cancer is also driven by epigenetic alterations .
Epigenetic alterations refer to functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence . Examples of such modifications are changes in DNA methylation ( hypermethylation and hypomethylation ) and histone modification , changes in chromosomal architecture ( caused by inappropriate expression of proteins such as HMGA2 or HMGA1 ) and changes caused by microRNAs . Each of these epigenetic alterations serves to regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence . These changes usually remain through cell divisions , last for multiple cell generations , and can be considered to be epimutations ( equivalent to mutations ) .
While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers , the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes , causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins , appear to be particularly important . Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers .
Reduced expression of DNA repair genes causes deficient DNA repair . When DNA repair is deficient DNA damages remain in cells at a higher than usual level and these excess damages cause increased frequencies of mutation or epimutation . Mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair or in homologous recombinational repair ( HRR ) . Chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy also increase in HRR defective cells .
Higher levels of DNA damage not only cause increased mutation , but also cause increased epimutation . During repair of DNA double strand breaks , or repair of other DNA damages , incompletely cleared sites of repair can cause epigenetic gene silencing .
Deficient expression of DNA repair proteins due to an inherited mutation can cause increased risk of cancer . Individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes ( see article DNA repair @-@ deficiency disorder ) have an increased risk of cancer , with some defects causing up to a 100 % lifetime chance of cancer ( e.g. p53 mutations ) . However , such germline mutations ( which cause highly penetrant cancer syndromes ) are the cause of only about 1 percent of cancers .
= = = Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes = = =
Deficiencies in DNA repair enzymes are occasionally caused by a newly arising somatic mutation in a DNA repair gene , but are much more frequently caused by epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes . For example , when 113 colorectal cancers were examined in sequence , only four had a missense mutation in the DNA repair gene MGMT , while the majority had reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region ( an epigenetic alteration ) . Five different studies found that between 40 % and 90 % of colorectal cancers have reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region .
Similarly , out of 119 cases of mismatch repair @-@ deficient colorectal cancers that lacked DNA repair gene PMS2 expression , PMS2 was deficient in 6 due to mutations in the PMS2 gene , while in 103 cases PMS2 expression was deficient because its pairing partner MLH1 was repressed due to promoter methylation ( PMS2 protein is unstable in the absence of MLH1 ) . In the other 10 cases , loss of PMS2 expression was likely due to epigenetic overexpression of the microRNA , miR @-@ 155 , which down @-@ regulates MLH1 .
In further examples ( tabulated in Cancer epigenetics ) , epigenetic defects were found at frequencies of between 13 % -100 % for the DNA repair genes BRCA1 , WRN , FANCB , FANCF , MGMT , MLH1 , MSH2 , MSH4 , ERCC1 , XPF , NEIL1 and ATM . These epigenetic defects occurred in various cancers ( e.g. breast , ovarian , colorectal and head and neck ) . Two or three deficiencies in the expression of ERCC1 , XPF or PMS2 occur simultaneously in the majority of the 49 colon cancers evaluated by Facista et al .
The chart in this section shows some frequent DNA damaging agents , examples of DNA lesions they cause , and the pathways that deal with these DNA damages . At least 169 enzymes are either directly employed in DNA repair or influence DNA repair processes . Of these , 83 are directly employed in the 5 types of DNA repair processes illustrated in the chart . The more well studied genes central to these repair processes are also shown in the chart . As indicated by the DNA repair genes shown in red , many of the genes in these repair pathways are regulated by epigenetic mechanisms , and these are frequently reduced or silent in various cancers ( marked by an asterisk ) . Two review articles , and two broad experimental survey articles document most of these epigenetic DNA repair deficiencies .
It appears that epigenetic repression of DNA repair genes in accurate DNA repair pathways are central to carcinogenesis . However microhomology @-@ mediated end joining ( MMEJ ) is an additional error @-@ prone repair pathway for double @-@ strand breaks . In MMEJ repair of a double @-@ strand break , an homology of 5 - 25 complementary base pairs on both strands is identified and used as a basis to align the strands , but with mismatched ends . MMEJ removes extra nucleotides ( flaps ) where strands are joined , then ligates the strands to create an intact DNA double helix . MMEJ always involves at least a small deletion , so that it is a mutagenic pathway . FEN1 , the flap endonuclease in MMEJ , is epigenetically increased by promoter hypomethylation and is over @-@ expressed in the majority of cancers of the breast , prostate , stomach , neuroblastomas , pancreatic , and lung . Other genes in the MMEJ pathway are also over @-@ expressed in a number of cancers ( see MMEJ for summary ) , and are shown in cyan ( blue ) in the chart in this section .
= = DNA repair and evolution = =
The basic processes of DNA repair are highly conserved among both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and even among bacteriophage ( viruses that infect bacteria ) ; however , more complex organisms with more complex genomes have correspondingly more complex repair mechanisms . The ability of a large number of protein structural motifs to catalyze relevant chemical reactions has played a significant role in the elaboration of repair mechanisms during evolution . For an extremely detailed review of hypotheses relating to the evolution of DNA repair , see .
The fossil record indicates that single @-@ cell life began to proliferate on the planet at some point during the Precambrian period , although exactly when recognizably modern life first emerged is unclear . Nucleic acids became the sole and universal means of encoding genetic information , requiring DNA repair mechanisms that in their basic form have been inherited by all extant life forms from their common ancestor . The emergence of Earth 's oxygen @-@ rich atmosphere ( known as the " oxygen catastrophe " ) due to photosynthetic organisms , as well as the presence of potentially damaging free radicals in the cell due to oxidative phosphorylation , necessitated the evolution of DNA repair mechanisms that act specifically to counter the types of damage induced by oxidative stress .
= = = Rate of evolutionary change = = =
On some occasions , DNA damage is not repaired , or is repaired by an error @-@ prone mechanism that results in a change from the original sequence . When this occurs , mutations may propagate into the genomes of the cell 's progeny . Should such an event occur in a germ line cell that will eventually produce a gamete , the mutation has the potential to be passed on to the organism 's offspring . The rate of evolution in a particular species ( or , in a particular gene ) is a function of the rate of mutation . As a consequence , the rate and accuracy of DNA repair mechanisms have an influence over the process of evolutionary change . Since the normal adaptation of populations of organisms to changing circumstances ( for instance the adaptation of the beaks of a population of finches to the changing presence of hard seeds or insects ) proceeds by gene regulation and the recombination and selection of gene variations – alleles – and not by passing on irreparable DNA damages to the offspring , DNA damage protection and repair does not influence the rate of adaptation by gene regulation and by recombination and selection of alleles . On the other hand , DNA damage repair and protection does influence the rate of accumulation of irreparable , advantageous , code expanding , inheritable mutations , and slows down the evolutionary mechanism for expansion of the genome of organisms with new functionalities . The tension between evolvability and mutation repair and protection needs further investigation .
= = DNA repair technology = =
A technology named clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat shortened to CRISPR @-@ Cas9 was discovered in 2012 . The new technology allows anyone with molecular biology training to alter the genes of any species with precision .
= Vilayet Printing House ( Sarajevo ) =
The Vilayet Printing House ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Вилајетска штампарија , Vilajetska štamparija ) , originally named Sopron 's Printing House ( Сопронова печатња , Sopronova pečatnja ) , was the official printing house of the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia from April 1866 until the occupation of the province by Austria @-@ Hungary in August 1878 . It was the second printing house that operated in the territory of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina , founded in Sarajevo almost 350 years after the Goražde printing house ceased its activity . Its founder was Ignjat Sopron , a publisher and printer from Zemun , who sold the establishment to the Government of the Vilayet of Bosnia in October 1866 . Its foundation happened in the context of modernising and Europeanising Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire . Its principal aim was to issue an official gazette of the vilayet and publish textbooks for the elementary schools of Bosnian Serbs and Croats , thus stopping their import from the Principality of Serbia and the Austrian Empire .
The first newspaper to be published in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Bosanski vjestnik , a political @-@ informative and educational weekly edited by Sopron and printed in Serbian Cyrillic . It had a pro @-@ Serb inclination , though it generally promoted a unitary Bosnian nation , in accordance with the Ottoman policy in the province . The official gazette , the weekly Bosna , was primarily concerned with publishing and explaining laws , orders , and proclamations . Another weekly issued by the printing house was Sarajevski cvjetnik , which fiercely defended the Ottoman regime and polemicised with Serbian and Austrian newspapers that criticised it . Bosna and Sarajevski cvjetnik were bilingual , printed half in Ottoman Turkish and half in Serbo @-@ Croatian in the Cyrillic script . The printing house produced a number of elementary school textbooks , including the second Serbian alphabet book using the reformed Serbian Cyrillic , following Vuk Karadžić 's book published in Vienna in 1827 . Other books include a collection of Bosnian Serb lyric folk poetry , an Ottoman Turkish grammar , and several Jewish religious books . The first printed exemplar of Bosnian Aljamiado literature was also published by the Vilayet Printing House . It produced around 50 books and booklets altogether , most of them being concerned with various Ottoman laws and legislation .
= = Background = =
The Goražde printing house was one of the earliest among the Serbs and the first in the territory of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was founded by Božidar Ljubavić near the town of Goražde in 1519 , in the early period of Ottoman rule over the region . It produced three Orthodox religious books , including the Goražde Psalter , with its last book printed in 1523 . The next printing house would not be opened in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the second half of the 19th century .
In the first half of the 19th century , the Ottoman Empire was swept by a wave of reforms meant to centralise and Europeanise the government of the state . Bosnian Muslim feudal lords rejected the reforms and repeatedly revolted against the Sultan . The Ottoman military intervened in the Eyalet of Bosnia in 1831 and 1850 , crushing the local feudal lords , and the set of modernising reforms known as the Tanzimat began to be implemented in the province . The Christians were underprivileged in the Ottoman Empire , and this was even more so in Bosnia than in the rest of the empire . An improvement in this respect occurred in 1862 , when the Bosnian Christians ( Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats ) were granted more rights , including those to open new churches and to run their own schools . This came after several uprisings by the Christians , especially Serbs , who had the strongest national movement in the province . Ivan Franjo Jukić and other Bosnian Franciscans requested the right to establish a printing house in 1847 , 1850 , 1853 , and 1857 , but each time their requests were denied by the Ottoman government .
The reforms became firmly rooted in Bosnia during the 1860s , when the Ottoman governor ( vali ) of the province was Topal Sherif Osman Pasha , though most of the changes proceeded at a slow pace . According to the recently issued Ottoman constitutional law , each vilayet ( first @-@ order administrative division ) was to have an official printing house and an official gazette . The Constitutional Law for the Vilayet of Bosnia , published in 1865 , promoted the province from the rank of eyalet to that of vilayet , and Article 9 of this law stipulated that there be an official printing house in its capital . Osman Pasha also had other motivations to establish a printing house . At that time , the press in the Principality of Serbia and in South Slavic parts of the Austrian Empire sharply criticised the Ottoman regime in Bosnia . Textbooks imported from Serbia for Serb elementary schools in Bosnia also disseminated nationalist sentiment , which Osman Pasha saw as anti @-@ Ottoman . In his view , the national movement of the Serbs in Bosnia presented a danger for Ottoman state interests . To protect their hold on Bosnia , the Ottomans sought to promote the idea of a unitary Bosnian nation , thus counteracting the particular national identities and political aspirations of Bosnia 's Serbs , Croats , and Muslims .
= = History and publications = =
= = = Under Sopron = = =
Shortly after the Constitutional Law for the Vilayet of Bosnia was issued , Osman Pasha invited publishing magnate Ignjat Sopron to Sarajevo . Sopron was the owner and manager of a publishing and printing house in Zemun ( then part of the Austrian Empire , today one of the municipalities of Belgrade , Serbia ) . An ethnic German , he was born in 1821 in Novi Sad as Ignaz Karl Soppron . Upon his arrival in Sarajevo , Osman Pasha offered him a subsidy to establish and organise a printing house . It was to be headquartered in a building on Sarajevo 's Dugi sokak street that was being rented by the vilayet 's government . Sopron soon came to the city bringing with him printing tools and materials , accompanied by a typesetter from Belgrade , Ilija Tomić . Tomić was in charge of the Cyrillic and Latin letters , and he engaged three graduated students of the Serb secondary school in Sarajevo to be his trainees . Osman Pasha also invited a man named Kadri @-@ effendi from Istanbul to work as the typesetter for Arabic letters . The principal aim of the printing house was to issue an official gazette and to publish elementary school textbooks , thus stopping their import from Serbia and Austria .
Sopronova pečatnja , or Sopron 's Printing House , was officially opened on 19 April [ O.S. 7 April ] 1866 . The Cyrillic orthography that was used in it was consistently in accordance with the linguistic reform of Serbian philologist Vuk Karadžić , which was at that time relatively new and still not universally accepted . The first issue of a political @-@ informative and educational weekly newspaper named Bosanski vjestnik ( Serbian Cyrillic : Босански вјестник , " Bosnian Herald " ) appeared on the same day . This was the first newspaper ever to be published in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Sopron made a deal with the vilayet 's authorities to publish it independently from the official gazette . When Sopron presented the editorial policy of his newspaper to the authorities , he indicated that it would be printed in the Serbian language , much to the Ottomans ' displeasure . The authorities subsequently scratched " Serbian " and replaced it with " Bosnian " . Sopron accepted the revision and went along with Osman Pasha 's idea of promoting a unitary Bosnian nation . Nevertheless , Bosanski vjestnik had " a decidedly Serb orientation " . Sopron did not consider this contradictory , as he apparently identified Bosnian @-@ ness with Serbness . In the newspaper , the language was occasionally referred to as Serbo @-@ Bosnian , while both the Serb and the Croat ethnic designations were expressed .
The first issue of the official gazette , named Bosna ( Ottoman Turkish : بوسنه ; Cyrillic : Босна , " Bosnia " ) , appeared on 28 May [ O.S. 16 May ] 1866 , i.e. , 13 Muharram 1283 AH . It was a bilingual weekly with half of the pages printed in Ottoman Turkish in the Arabic script , and the other half printed in Serbo @-@ Croat in the Cyrillic script . The text in Serbo @-@ Croat was a faithful translation of that in Turkish . The gazette was primarily concerned with publishing and explaining laws , orders , and proclamations , but it also provided news from the political , economic , cultural , and social life of the vilayet . It would be issued without interruption for more than twelve years , and for much of that period it was the only newspaper in the Vilayet of Bosnia . It had different editors over time : Mustafa Refet Imamović , Mehmed Šakir Kurtćehajić , Salih Biogradlija , Javer Baruh , Nuruddin Kurtćehajić , and Kadri @-@ effendi . Most of them were Bosnian Muslims , except Baruh ( a Jew ) and Kadri @-@ effendi ( a Turk ) . A constant in the gazette was its translator from Turkish , Miloš Mandić , a polyglot who had previously worked as a teacher in a Serb elementary school in Prijepolje . Besides Sopron , Mandić was one of the contributors to Bosanski vjestnik , along with Bogoljub Petranović and Salih Sidki Hadžihuseinović . Petranović was the manager of the Serb secondary school in Sarajevo and the leader of the Serb youth movement in the city , while Hadžihuseinović was an official of the Gazi Husrev @-@ beg Mosque . In August 1866 , the printing house published its first book , Lesson on Man and His Duties ( Наравоученије о човеку и његовим дужностима ) , translated from Greek by Georgije Jovanović .
= = = Under the vilayet government = = =
In October 1866 , Sopron sold the establishment to the Government of the Vilayet of Bosnia . It was renamed Vilajetska pečatnja , or the Vilayet Printing House , and from March 1867 onwards it bore the name Vilajetska štamparija ( the same meaning ) . Sopron remained the owner and editor of Bosanski vjestnik , and managed to publish 51 issues . After a year in Sarajevo , Sopron left the city and returned to Zemun . The first director of the printing house was Haim Davičo , a Belgrade Jew , who was offered that position by Osman Pasha . Mehmed Šakir Kurtćehajić , the editor of Bosna since early 1868 , began publishing Sarajevski cvjetnik at the end of that year . It was a bilingual weekly like Bosna , containing commentaries on current politics and articles on various social issues , most of which was written by Kurtćehajić . He fiercely defended the Ottoman regime in Bosnia , polemicising with newspapers from Serbia and Austria which criticised it . In May 1869 , when Osman Pasha ceased to be the governor of the Vilayet of Bosnia , Davičo returned to Belgrade . The new governor installed Kurtćehajić as the director of the printing house . Kurtćehajić died of tuberculosis in September 1872 ; the last issue of Sarajevski cvjetnik had appeared two months earlier .
Kurtćehajić 's death marked the end of a prosperous period for the Vilayet Printing House . Its subsequent directors were less capable , and the establishment 's condition began to deteriorate . In 1877 , the last Ottoman governor of Bosnia installed Kadri @-@ effendi as director , and he significantly improved the condition of the printing house . Austro @-@ Hungarian troops entered Sarajevo on 19 August 1878 , marking the start of 40 years of Austro @-@ Hungarian occupation . Four days later , General Josip Filipović , the Austro @-@ Hungarian commander in Sarajevo , transferred the management of the printing house from Kadri @-@ effendi to an Austrian official . This spelled the end of the Vilayet Printing House , which was renamed Zemaljska štamparija ( National Printing Press ) , and continued its work as the official printing house of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The last , 636th , issue of Bosna appeared shortly before the end of Ottoman rule over Bosnia , on 30 July [ O.S. 18 July ] 1878 .
Apart from the newspapers Bosanski vjestnik , Bosna , and Sarajevski cvjetnik , the Vilayet Printing House published around fifty books and booklets in Serbo @-@ Croatian , Ottoman Turkish , and Hebrew . While most of these publications were concerned with various Ottoman laws and legislation , the printing house also published a number of textbooks . The textbooks for Serb elementary schools in the vilayet were prepared by Miloš Mandić on the basis of those that were used in Serbia . These include an alphabet book ( Буквар ) , a short Biblical history ( Кратка свештена историја ) , a basal reader ( Прва читанка ) , and the First Knowledges ( Прва знања ) ; they were published in 1867 and 1868 . Mandić 's alphabet book , the printing house 's first textbook , was the second Serbian alphabet book using the reformed Serbian Cyrillic . The First Serbian Alphabet Book ( Први Српски Буквар ) , authored by Vuk Karadžić , had been published in Vienna in 1827 . The original plan was to print fifteen textbooks for Serb schools , ranging in subject from grammar , arithmetic , geography and religious teaching , but only four were printed . Although they were based on the textbooks used in Serbia , the vilayet 's authorities made sure that every mention of Serbs and the Serbian language was erased from them .
Bogoljub Petranović collected Bosnian Serb lyric folk poems and published them in 1867 in a separate book ( Српске народне пјесме из Босне ( Женске ) ) . The First Bosnian @-@ Serb Calendar for the Common Year 1869 ( Први босанско @-@ српски календар за просту годину 1869 ) , consisting of 58 pages , was edited by Jovan R. Džinić . In Serbian tradition , calendars contained more than just calendarical data and were also popular literary and educational almanacs . Džinić 's calendar had more of an educational , rather than literary , character .
Catholic school textbooks in the vilayet included a geography book ( Kratka zemljopisna početnica s dodatkom o Bosni , 1869 ) by Franjo Ž . Franjković , an alphabet book with elements of religious education ( Bukvar s napomenkom članakah nauka vjere za katoličku mladež u Bosni , 1869 ) , and another geography book ( Početni zemljopis za katoličke učionice u Bosni , 1871 ) by the Franciscan Grgo Martić . The Catholic bishop of Mostar Paškal Buconjić financed the printing of an Ottoman Turkish grammar in 1871 . The Hebrew books included Meshek Beti ( משק ביתי ) and Appe Zutre ( אפי זוטרי ) , which list religious observances , respectively , on Shabbat and Passover , and a small liturgical book titled Tikkun Moda 'ah . These were composed around 1875 by the Sarajevo Rabbi Eliezer Papo . The printing house also published the first printed work of Bosnian Aljamiado literature , the book Sehletul @-@ Vusul , which contained the principal teachings of Islam . It was composed by Omer Humo , the mufti of Mostar .
= Nathan Walker =
Nathan Walker ( born 7 February 1994 ) is an Australian professional ice hockey player currently playing for the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) and a prospect for the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League . Walker , who was born in Wales , grew up in Australia and first played ice hockey there . He moved to the Czech Republic in 2007 in order to further his career , and joined the junior program of HC Vítkovice , a member of the Czech Extraliga . He first played for the senior team in 2011 , becoming the first Australian ice hockey player to play for a professional senior team in Europe . Along with HC Vítkovice , Walker was loaned to several lower @-@ level Czech teams .
In 2013 Walker signed with the Youngstown Phantoms of the junior United States Hockey League , moving to North America for the first time . He attended the training camp of the Washington Capitals in 2013 and signed with their AHL affiliate Hershey . Walker represents Australia internationally , and first played for them at the 2011 IIHF World Championship Division II tournament , where he helped his team win their group and earn a promotion to Division I for the following year . Passed over in the previous two NHL Entry Drafts , Walker was selected by the Capitals in the third round of the 2014 NHL Entry Draft , the first Australian selected in an NHL draft .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Australia and Czech Republic = = =
Walker began playing hockey at age six and by thirteen he was in a league with players as old as twenty and able to outplay them . During the 2007 season he played in both the under @-@ 14 and under @-@ 16 leagues . During 14 U14 games he recorded 77 goals and 25 assists for 102 points , a record for the league ; the second leading scorer had 70 points in 24 games . Walker had similar numbers in the U16 league ; he scored 69 points in 16 games to again lead the league in scoring , with the second highest total was 53 points in 20 games .
As Walker was dominating the local competition , he began to look for other options . In 2007 his coach Ivan Manco , who came from Slovakia , arranged for Walker to tryout for HC Vítkovice in the Czech Republic , where Manco knew one of the coaches . Walker impressed the team enough to be given a place on their under @-@ 18 junior team . In 2009 – 10 he recorded 42 points in 28 games for the U18 team and earned a chance to play for the U20 team . He also returned to Australia during the Czech offseason and played for the Sydney Ice Dogs of the Australian Ice Hockey League .
On 9 October 2011 , Walker made his debut for the senior HC Vítkovice club in the Czech Extraliga , making him the first Australian to play professionally in Europe ; he was also the youngest player in the Extraliga . HC Vítkovice was invited to the 2011 Spengler Cup and in their first game against Canada Walker scored the only goal for Vítkovice . He became the youngest player to score in Spengler Cup history and was named player of the game for Vítkovice . With the conclusion of the 2011 – 12 Czech Extraliga season , HC Vítkovice loaned Walker to HC Olomouc of the 1 @.@ národní hokejová liga , the second @-@ highest league in the Czech Republic , on 20 February 2012 . Walker played 34 games in his first season in the Extraliga , scoring four goals and five assists
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for nine points . He played a further two games with HC Olomouc , recording an assist .
As a result of his play in the Extraliga , Walker began to be noticed by the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In the NHL Central Scouting Bureau 's January 2012 list of draft prospects , Walker was listed as the 21st best European @-@ based skater for the 2012 NHL Entry Draft , the second highest Czech @-@ based player on the list . Walker was listed as the 25th best European skater in the NHL 's final list of prospects for the 2012 Entry Draft . He was not selected in the Entry Draft , but was invited to participate in the Washington Capitals development camp in July ; however NHL rules required that Walker participate in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft before he was able to sign with any team .
= = = North America = = =
During the 2012 – 13 season Walker appeared in twenty games with HC Vítkovice and recorded one assist ; he was loaned to Hokej Šumperk 2003 for three games , where he also had one assist . After six years in the Czech Republic , Walker signed a contract on 8 January 2013 with the Youngstown Phantoms of the United States Hockey League , a junior ice hockey league in the United States . He made his debut for the team on 11 January against the Chicago Steel , recording a goal . After four games with the Phantoms , in which he recorded six points , Walker was named to the USHL / NHL Top Prospects Game on 23 January 2013 ; he replaced his teammate , who was ill . Walker played 29 games for the Phantoms during the regular season and recorded 27 points ( 7 goals , 20 assists ) . His 20 assists were good enough for fifth on the team , even though Walker only joined the team midway through the season . His season ended early due to an injury suffered in a game on 5 April where Walker broke a bone in his neck as a result of a hit from behind ; as a result he missed all the Phantoms playoff games .
Upon the conclusion of the season Walker returned to the Czech Republic to train , before heading back to Australia . In July he was invited to once again attend the Capitals development camp , scheduled for September . He performed well enough to remain with the team and attend their full training camp as one of 40 players . However , due to an overlooked rule , the Capitals were unable to sign Walker ; as he had started the 2012 – 13 season in Europe and then moved to North America , and was under 20 years old , he would have to enter the 2014 NHL Entry Draft before being allowed to sign an NHL contract . Instead , on 24 September Walker signed a contract with the Capitals ' American Hockey League affiliate , the Hershey Bears . He made his debut for the Bears on 5 October 2013 against the Adirondack Phantoms , becoming the first Australian to play in the AHL . During Walker 's third game with the Bears , on October 27 against the Norfolk Admirals , he scored his first goal and recorded his first professional fight .
The 2014 NHL Entry Draft was the third and final NHL draft that Walker was eligible for , and he was selected in the third round , 89th overall , by the Capitals . In doing so , Walker became the first Australian to be selected in an NHL draft . On 25 July 2014 , Walker was signed to a three @-@ year entry @-@ level contract with the Capitals . Partway through the 2014 – 2015 season Walker was reassigned to the South Carolina Stingrays of the ECHL . After a two @-@ game stint with the Stingrays , where he recorded two points , Walker was brought back to Hersey . Reassigned to South Carolina again in January , Walker was injured in a game on 28 January when he tore his ACL , ending his season . At the time of the injury Walker had appeared in 28 games for the Bears , where he scored 4 points , and a further 6 games for the Stingrays , also recording 4 points .
= = International play = =
Walker first played for the Australian men 's senior team at the 2011 IIHF World Championship Division II Group A tournament which was held in Melbourne , Australia . Australia won the tournament and was promoted to Division I Group B for the 2012 World Championships . Walker finished the tournament with four goals and two assists for six points , tied for third overall . He was also recognised by the tournament coaches as the best player on the Australian team .
Walker represented Australia again at the 2012 World Championships . Playing in Division IB , Australia finished last in the group and was relegated to Division IIA for 2013 . Walker scored two goals during the tournament .
= = Personal life = =
Walker was born in Cardiff , Wales to Wayne and Kerry ; he also has an older brother , Ryan . When Walker was two , his family moved to Sydney , Australia . Wayne played rugby league , leading to Nathan playing for the Cronulla Sharks junior team until the age of 15 . Ryan , his older brother , also played hockey representing Australia in the national under @-@ 18 squad . Ryan had to quit hockey after he was injured during a game in the United States . While in the Czech Republic Walker learned to speak Czech , Slovak , and some Russian .
Walker first played ice hockey in Australia at the age of six , after watching his older brother Ryan play . Due to a lack of ice hockey broadcasting in Australia , Walker was also inspired after watching The Mighty Ducks film series and Mystery , Alaska , all of which are based around ice hockey .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= Tropical Storm Marco ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Marco is the smallest tropical cyclone on record . The thirteenth named storm of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season , Marco developed out of a broad area of low pressure over the northwestern Caribbean during late September 2008 . Influenced by a tropical wave on October 4 , a small low @-@ level circulation center developed over Belize . After crossing the southern end of the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Bay of Campeche , the low was declared Tropical Depression Thirteen early on October 6 . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Marco later that day . Marco reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on October 7 . Around this time , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of the storm , making Marco the smallest tropical cyclone on record . Around 1200 UTC , Marco made landfall near Misantla , Veracruz . The storm rapidly weakened after landfall , dissipating later that day . Due to its small size , Marco caused minimal damage ; however , the storm 's heavy rains led to floods up to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 05 m ) deep that covered highways and damaged homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Marco originated in a broad area of low pressure that persisted over the northwestern Caribbean in late September 2008 . On October 4 , a tropical wave reached the same area , and the system spawned a circulation center over Belize . Development of the low was initially inhibited by its proximity to land . As the system neared the Bay of Campeche , convection quickly developed around the low . At 0000 UTC on October 6 , the low was designated as Tropical Depression Thirteen while located over Laguna de Términos . A mid @-@ level ridge located to the north of the depression led to movement in a general west @-@ northwest direction . Forecasters anticipated intensification up until landfall because of the storm 's well @-@ developed outflow and the low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures in its path . By 1200 UTC , the small cyclone , with a cloud shield no more than 85 miles ( 137 kilometers ) across , was upgraded to Tropical Storm Marco .
Favorable conditions for development allowed Marco to quickly intensify throughout the day on October 6 . Early on October 7 , Marco reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 105 kilometers per hour ) and a minimum pressure of 998 millibar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . This was based on a reconnaissance mission into Marco which recorded flight @-@ level winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , corresponding to a surface wind speed of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) . Following the quick increase in intensity , forecasters noted the possibility of Marco intensifying into a hurricane before making landfall . The storm maintained a small area of deep convection , averaging 9 @.@ 2 miles ( 14 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter , as it continued moving towards the west @-@ northwest . Shortly after reaching peak intensity , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of Marco . At 1200 UTC , the center of Marco made landfall near Misantla , Veracruz , with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Once inland , Marco rapidly weakened , being downgraded to a tropical depression six hours after landfall . The small depression dissipated later that day over the mountains of Mexico .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
Upon the storm 's formation , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for the Gulf of Mexico from Tuxpan to Punta El Lagarto . That afternoon the government issued a hurricane watch between Cabo Rojo and Veracruz , and extended the tropical storm warning northward to Cabo Rojo . Officials closed schools ahead of the storm and opened 200 shelters . An estimated 3 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas along the coast . Soldiers used school buses to transport evacuees to the shelters . Marco formed in the area of Mexico 's main oil @-@ facilities , leading to the evacuation of 33 workers from four platforms . Six oil wells and a natural gas processing plant were also shut down in Veracruz . The Mexican Secretariat of Communications and Transportation also closed the ports of Nautla and Alvarado to small vessels as a precautionary measure .
Upon landfall , heavy rains peaking at 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 201 millimeters ) in El Pujal , San Luis Potosí and falling at rates up to 1 inch per hour ( 25 @.@ 4 mm / h ) , caused some flooding in coastal towns near Veracruz as people evacuated to higher ground . The rains from Marco worsened flood situations in areas of Mexico already suffering from severe flooding . Officials in Veracruz , in their post @-@ storm damage survey , reported that two rivers , the Quilate and Tenoch , overflowed their banks due to rains produced by Marco . One of these rivers left the towns of Minatitlan and Hidalgotitlan under 10 ft ( 3 m ) of water . Highways along the coast of Veracruz were also flooded . Another 250 homes were flooded when a lake and a river overflowed their banks . Thirteen municipalities within Veracruz were affected by Marco . In Vega de Alatorre , 77 people were evacuated to nearby shelters after their homes were inundated with water . Three landslides were also reported in Misantla Colipa ; none of them caused damage . In all , Marco 's impact was light ; minimal damage was recorded , and none of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 people affected by the storm sustained injury .
In the wake of Marco , the General Coordination of Civil Protection of the Ministry of the Interior declared a state of emergency for 48 municipalities in Veracruz . Relief goods were distributed to the affected areas by October 9 . The Government of Mexico reported that 4 @,@ 700 blankets , 2 @,@ 900 mattresses , 5 @,@ 554 bottles of water ( each containing 500 milliliters ) , 260 @,@ 000 boxes of milk , 250 @,@ 000 packages of biscuits , and 12 @,@ 400 boxes of school supplies had been distributed .
At 0052 UTC on October 7 , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of Marco . This made Marco the smallest tropical cyclone ever recorded , surpassing the previous record set on December 24 , 1974 by Cyclone Tracy , whose tropical storm @-@ force winds extended 30 miles ( 48 km ) .
= Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII =
Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII ( クライシス コア -ファイナルファンタジーVII- , Kuraishisu Koa -Fainaru Fantajī Sebun- ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable . First released in 2007 , the game is a prequel to the 1997 video game Final Fantasy VII and is a part of the metaseries Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , which includes other products related to the original game .
The game primarily focuses on Zack Fair , a young member of the paramilitary organization SOLDIER , who is assigned to look for the missing SOLDIER Genesis Rhapsodos . As he searches for Genesis , Zack discovers Genesis ' origin , Project G , and how it is related to two other high @-@ ranking SOLDIERs ; Sephiroth and Angeal Hewley . The game 's storyline takes the player from the war between the megacorporation Shinra and the people of Wutai to the events in Nibelheim , ending just before the beginning of Final Fantasy VII .
The game was directed by Hajime Tabata , with Tetsuya Nomura serving as character designer . Before development , the Square Enix staff initially planned to make a PlayStation Portable port of the mobile phone game Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , but after discussion , they decided to create a new game . The plot is based on a scenario Kazushige Nojima had in mind when working on Final Fantasy VII . Crisis Core enjoyed strong sales , selling over three million units worldwide . Critical reception was generally positive .
= = Gameplay = =
Crisis Core is an action role @-@ playing game in which the player controls Zack Fair . The player moves Zack through and between open areas , allowing him to talk with non @-@ player characters , interact with the environment , and engage monsters in battle . At save points , the player may opt to take one of the available side missions , and if so , Zack is moved to a special area to complete the mission , which usually involves defeating one or more monsters . If the mission is successfully completed , the player is rewarded with beneficial items , and often new missions become available . Whether the player is successful in the side mission or not , upon completion , Zack is returned to the save point in the main game .
Crisis Core uses a real @-@ time combat system in which the player can move Zack around , initiate attacks , special abilities and spells , use items , and block or dodge attacks . Zack 's abilities in battle are set by what materia he currently has equipped . Up to six materia can be equipped at any one time , which can impart special attacks , magic spells , or passive bonuses such as health increases or the ability to display the statistics of the current foe in combat . Materia are gained throughout the game through exploration , as rewards from side missions , as spoils of battle , or from shops . Materia can be fused together to make more powerful versions with improved bonuses ; for example , fusing an attack materia with an elemental magic materia can create a new attack skill materia that inflicts elemental magic damage in addition to physical damage . Special items collected in the game can also be used in materia fusion to further increase the materia 's power .
Crisis Core uses a slot machine @-@ like mechanic to affect the combat system . The " Digital Mind Wave " ( DMW ) features two sets of three spinning wheels ; one set with the numbers one through seven , and another with pictures of characters that Zack befriends during the game . The DMW automatically spins as long as Zack has at least 10 " Soldier Points " , which are awarded to the player by defeating foes . If the DMW stops with the same three pictures lined up , Zack will then perform an appropriate Limit Break attack that can greatly harm an enemy or significantly heal Zack . Additionally , in this case , if the number slots give two or more of the same number , the materia in that slot will power up . Should the numbers line up as " 777 " , Zack will gain an experience level , increasing his health , soldier points , and ability points . If there is no match in the pictures , matching numbers on the slots will grant temporary bonuses , such as limited invincibility or zero @-@ cost use of skills and abilities . The chance of matching pictures is tied to the current Limit level , which is raised by taking damage in battle and reduced upon successful battles , and after certain storyline events . After collecting certain items in the game , the pictures on the DMW may also randomly change to summonable creatures , which have more destructive and beneficial Limit Breaks should the pictures match up .
Following completion of the game , the player will obtain a New Game Plus option . The North American and European releases of Crisis Core also have an added difficulty mode , which increases the power and health of enemies .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Crisis Core begins seven years before the events of Final Fantasy VII , and many characters from that game and other related works appear . However , the primary characters in the game are from either SOLDIER ( the private army of Shinra ) , or from their elite branch of operatives , the Turks .
The main protagonist is Zack Fair , a young and friendly SOLDIER . His mentor and friend is Angeal Hewley , a 1st class SOLDIER who is also friends with fellow SOLDIER members Sephiroth and Genesis , who ultimately becomes the game 's primary antagonist . The SOLDIER operatives work under Director Lazard , the illegitimate son of President Shinra . Zack is also friends with the Turks , particularly their leader Tseng , and one of their female operatives , Cissnei . During the course of the game , Zack encounters and befriends Aerith , a young woman tending flowers from a ruined church in the Midgar slums . He also befriends Cloud , a Shinra infantryman .
= = = Story = = =
SOLDIERs Zack Fair and Angeal Hewley are dispatched to Wutai to support the Shinra war effort . However , during the fighting , Angeal disappears , and Zack is appointed to find both him and an already missing SOLDIER , Genesis . Zack , accompanied by Tseng , finds that Genesis and Angeal have betrayed Shinra , and , as such , Zack and Sephiroth are assigned to kill them . With help from Dr. Hollander , a scientist with a vendetta against Shinra , Genesis creates an army of clones to attack Shinra headquarters . After the forces are defeated , Zack and Sephiroth track down Hollander 's secret laboratory , and learn that Hollander had used both Genesis and Angeal as part of Project G , an attempt to create soldiers infused with Jenova cells . Sephiroth faces off against Genesis , whilst Zack pursues Hollander . However , Angeal is intent on keeping Hollander alive as he wants to find a way to return to normal , and so he prevents Zack from killing the doctor by knocking Zack into the slums of Midgar .
Zack recovers to find Aerith tending to him . After they spend some time together , Zack returns to SOLDIER headquarters which is under attack by Genesis . On his way , Zack allies with Angeal , who has developed doubts about his and Genesis ' actions . As Angeal , Zack and Sephiroth protect the headquarters , Angeal confronts Genesis , but both disappear . Zack is subsequently ordered to investigate Modeoheim , where Genesis has been spotted . En route , Zack meets Shinra infantryman Cloud , and they become friends . Near Modeoheim , Zack encounters and defeats Genesis , who appears to commit suicide by throwing himself into the depths of a reactor . Zack travels on to Modeoheim and finds both Angeal and Hollander . Angeal summons and fuses with his own clones , and mutates into a monster , forcing Zack to kill him . Before he dies , Angeal gives Zack his Buster Sword , telling him to protect his honor .
Whilst Shinra continues the pursuit of Hollander , it emerges that Genesis is still alive and still producing clones , some of which have appeared in Midgar , forcing Zack to return so as to protect Aerith . He leaves her with an Angeal clone that seems to be protecting her , and then travels with Sephiroth and Cloud to investigate a Mako reactor near Nibelheim . While checking the reactor , Sephiroth learns from Genesis that he was an experiment , implanted with cells of Jenova before he was born . Genesis explains that his body is degrading , and he needs Sephiroth 's cells to survive , but Sephiroth refuses . Overcome with the recent revelations regarding his past , Sephiroth locks himself in Nibelheim Mansion , and a week later , sets Nibelheim ablaze and goes to the Mako reactor to take Jenova 's body . When Zack fails to stop him , Cloud throws him into the Lifestream below the reactor . Zack awakes to find that Shinra has covered @-@ up the Nibelheim incident and he and Cloud have become part of Professor Hojo 's experiments on Jenova cells and Mako exposure . However , Zack is able to escape , taking the catatonic Cloud with him . They immediately become high priority targets for Shinra . While fleeing , Zack learns that Genesis and Hollander are still trying to stabilize Genesis ' mutation , and they now plan to use Cloud 's cells , as he is the only one with Sephiroth 's genes .
Hollander tries to get to Cloud , but is killed by Zack . Zack then finds Director Lazard who , now mutated into an Angeal clone , has turned against Shinra . Lazard directs Zack to the remains of Banora to find Genesis . Zack defeats Genesis , but upon returning he discovers that Shinra have located them , and killed Lazard . The Angeal clone that was left guarding Aerith also arrives , but he too is killed . Zack discovers a note he had carried from Aerith , and learns he and Cloud had been subjected to Hojo 's experiments for four years . Zack and Cloud are able to escape , heading towards Midgar , whilst Genesis ' body is collected by two soldiers .
Shinra pursue Zack and Cloud , and catch up with them just outside Midgar . Leaving the still semi @-@ conscious Cloud hidden away , Zack fights off an enormous number of Shinra troops , but is ultimately fatally wounded . Cloud manages to crawl to Zack 's body after Shinra has left , and Zack , in his dying breath , bequeaths the Buster Sword to Cloud , as Angeal had done to him . Cloud then begins to walk to Midgar . The epilogue recreates the opening scenes of Final Fantasy VII , as Cloud , his memories confused , claims to be a former SOLDIER .
= = Development = =
The idea of Crisis Core originated when Hajime Tabata was chosen as director for an upcoming Final Fantasy title for the PlayStation Portable . After discussion with Tetsuya Nomura and Yoshinori Kitase , Tabata decided that the game should be another installment in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , feeling that the pressure of producing a game from a popular series would motivate both the staff and himself . The original idea was to make a PlayStation Portable port of Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , as it had been released for mobile @-@ phones and the staff wanted to expand it . However , after deciding Zack was going to be the protagonist of the new game , the idea of a Before Crisis port was cancelled .
Kitase wanted to make sure the game exceeded fans ' expectations , so he made sure that rather than making it as a " tribute " to Final Fantasy VII , it shared important links with other titles from Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Similarly , Tabata explained that he and the staff were very wary throughout production of altering the " fans ' perception of Final Fantasy VII 's iconic characters . " For example , one of the main background events from Final Fantasy VII , Nibelheim 's destruction , had been changed somewhat in the OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , and due to negative fan reaction to these change , the game staff decided not to make any major changes in Crisis Core . However , they also operated on the principal that this game dealt with those characters ' " younger days , " so that new elements could be added without changing the characters too much .
One of the primary reasons Zack was chosen as protagonist was because his fate was predetermined . Kitase stated that Zack 's story had " been cooking for 10 years " as , despite being a minor character in Final Fantasy VII , Nomura had already developed conceptual artwork , and Kazushige Nojima had already worked out a story . The game was originally meant to have more scenes depicting Zack and Cloud 's flight to Midgar , so as to expand on their friendship and unrealized plans , but these scenes were removed due to UMD limitations , and so the staff focused more on Zack 's background as a formidable warrior . The addition of the character of Genesis to the story came about after discussions between producer Hideki Imaizumi and the character 's Japanese voice actor , Gackt , as Imaizumi had been impressed with the characters ' brief appearance in the secret ending to Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , and felt there was great room to expand the character . Sephiroth 's role was specifically written to give him a " much more human side . " The game 's logo represents various main characters ; the blue sky symbolizes Zack ; the white feather symbolizes Angeal ; and the water symbolizes Aerith .
Crisis Core was first envisioned as an action game , but because almost all of the staff had more experience designing RPGs , they decided to modify it , making battles more similar to the ones found in standard RPGs . However , they also added more action orientated elements to the battles , resulting in the game becoming more of an action RPG than a traditional RPG . The Materia system was designed so that players could choose between " RPG @-@ oriented enhancements " and " action @-@ oriented enhancements , " as well as to help with the game 's balance . Additionally , the Digital Mind Wave system ( DMW ) was added to give gameplay an element of luck , as well as to prevent combat feeling repetitive . Nomura and Kitase wanted to include this in the game because of their enthusiasm for pachinko machines .
The game was first announced at the 2004 E3 , prior to the release of the PlayStation Portable . Its first trailer consisted of clips from Last Order . In an interview for Famitsu , Nomura stated that a playable demo of the game would be ready by the end of 2006 . However , there was no mention of whether the demo would be openly available to PSP owners . By May 2005 , Nomura announced that he had designed the concept art for the game , with the gameplay set to be " interesting " and " previously unseen . " In May 2007 , both Nomura and Tabata revealed that the game was 90 % complete , and that completing its story mode and all side quests would take about 100 hours of gameplay . A playable demo was made available at Jump Festa ' 06 .
= = Audio = =
The game 's soundtrack was released on October 10 , 2007 , containing fifty @-@ five songs on two discs . The music was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto , with a few tracks orchestrated by Kazuhiko Toyama . The soundtrack also included remixes of various music from Final Fantasy VII composed by Nobuo Uematsu and Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , which was also composed by Ishimoto . The game 's ending theme , " Why " , was performed by Ayaka . The addition of " Why " was revealed by Square Enix in May 2007 , with Ayaka stating that she was fascinated by Crisis Core 's story and felt she " would like to deliver " Why " alongside Zack 's fate to the hearts of many people . " The single " Why " was released in Japan on September 5 , 2007 .
= = Release = =
On September 13 , 2007 Square Enix released a special edition bundle for Crisis Core ; a special silver colored PlayStation Portable Slim and Lite with Final Fantasy VII 's 10th Anniversary insignia on the back and on one side . As with many limited edition Final Fantasy VII @-@ related releases by Square Enix , the bundle was limited to 77 @,@ 777 units .
On December 17 , 2007 it was announced that Crisis Core would be released in North America on March 25 , 2008 . If pre @-@ ordered from certain retailers , such as GameStop , the buyer may receive a Shinra UMD case , depending on how long supplies lasted ; if pre @-@ ordered from Best Buy , the buyer may receive Crisis Core with a metallic foil cover . Two versions of the game were released in Europe : a standard edition , and a limited edition , which was only available online , and then only when pre @-@ ordered . This limited edition included special slipcase packaging and a book of promotional CG artwork entitled The Art of Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . In Europe , a bundle containing the game and the limited edition Crisis Core @-@ engraved silver PlayStation Portable was released on June 20 . As with several games from the company , Square released an Ultimania guidebook in Japan , on October 18 , 2007 .
After Crisis Core 's release , Kitase expressed surprised at the quality of the cutscenes , to the point where he felt it could almost be a PlayStation 2 game . He also enjoyed the game 's ending , surprised by how moving Zack 's story became .
= = Reception = =
Crisis Core sold 350 @,@ 000 copies in Japan on its release date , including the 77 @,@ 777 Limited Edition PSP / Crisis Core bundles . In November 2007 , Square Enix announced that Crisis Core was its best @-@ selling game across all regions from April through September , with 710 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan . Selling 790 @,@ 705 units as of August 2008 , it became the third best @-@ selling game for the PSP in Japan . In March 2008 , Crisis Core sold 301 @,@ 600 copies in its first month of release in the United States , behind the sales of God of War : Chains of Olympus , which sold 340 @,@ 500 copies , making Crisis Core the second best @-@ selling game for the PSP during the month of March and the sixth best @-@ selling game overall . As of March 31 , 2009 , Square Enix announced that Crisis Core had sold 3 @.@ 1 million units worldwide , with 830 @,@ 000 of those sales coming from Japan . About 840 @,@ 000 units of the game , including 550 @,@ 000 in Europe , were sold during Square Enix 's 2009 fiscal year . In response to the game 's sales , Square Enix labeled Crisis Core their best PSP game of the year , calling it " an incredible success . " Doug Bone , Square Enix 's UK sales director , called it " the must @-@ have PSP game of 2008 . "
Crisis Core has received generally positive reviews . At Metacritic the score is that of 83 out of 100 . With individual scores of 9 / 9 / 8 / 9 , the game received an overall rating of 35 out of 40 from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . GameSpot awarded it an " Editor 's Choice " label , praising its storyline , the combat system and its presentation , and also stating that " Crisis Core is an exciting and poignant journey that every fan of role @-@ playing games should take . " IGN 's Ryan Clements praised its differences from other RPGs , due to its focus on Zack 's growth and his relationship with the SOLDIERs . He stated " Crisis Core is a great game and , barring a few minor issues here and there , will not disappoint . " It also received a place amongst the " Editor 's Choice " gallery of recommended games for the PSP platform . GameSpy also gave it a good review , stating it " is equal parts tribute and original , marrying classic design choices with refreshingly new techniques , harmoniously bringing together something old with something new . " Gamespy also commented that although some players may dislike Zack , " you 'll have to be pretty jaded for the character not to grow on you as you progress through the adventure . " VideoGamer.com gave an overall score of 9 , finding its fighting system " addictive " , and arguing that its CGI scenes had a similar quality to the ones from Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children . Similarly , GamePro gave it a positive review , calling it the " best looking PSP title , " and praising how it incorporated elements from the Compilation , and at the same time created new aspects . GamesRadar 's AJ Glasser stated that with the DMW system , the gameplay could be easy , causing the " rare gamer " to try to play it in Hard Mode . Glasser also found the game likeable enough so that even gamers who dislike the Final Fantasy VII series may enjoy it . Play 's Samuel Roberts called it the best game of 2008 .
Many reviews also commented on the game 's relationship with Final Fantasy VII . 1UP.com called it one of the best prequels of all time , arguing that it " does a better job of putting players in FFVII 's world than even the original game did . " While GameTrailers stated that Crisis Core " doesn 't take the easy way out and photocopy the source , " they found it , unlike Dirge of Cerberus , to be appealing . Computer and Video Games mentioned that despite the game 's main story only lasting 12 hours , the side @-@ quests helped expand the game 's length . They further praised the battle system , claiming " [ it ] never becomes tiresome , " and the fact that some of the weak points from Final Fantasy VII ( " lengthy wandering , and an overlong center " ) were not issues in this game .
The game did receive some negative reviews , however . Despite calling it the best Final Fantasy VII spin @-@ off , Eurogamer criticized that " for the twenty @-@ six , twenty @-@ eight , thirty @-@ year @-@ olds who it 's aimed at , the game has little to offer beyond polished sentimentality . " Although PALGN called the DMW system a " handy tool " , they also felt it was the game 's weakest point . X @-@ Play gave the game a 2 / 5 , complaining about the unskippable cutscenes , poor dialogue , repetitive gameplay , and a weak plot . On April Fools ' Day , in response to criticism for their original review , they " decided to give the game a second look and give it a re @-@ review , this time with a clear unbiased perspective , " sarcastically dubbing over the original and giving it an impossibly high 6 / 5 .
Crisis Core has also received a number of awards from different publications . It was nominated by GameSpot for the " Best of 2008 " awards , in the " Best Story " , " Best RPG Game " and " Best PSP Game " categories , winning " Best PSP Game " . It was also listed as the tenth best PSP game of all the time by IGN . Four IGN articles concerning the game were in " The Top 10 PSP Stories of 2008 " , with the review article listed at number one . In IGN 's Best of 2008 , Crisis Core won in the categories " Best RPG " and " Best Story for the PSP " . Videogamer.com placed it fifteenth and fourth in their articles " Best Games of 2008 " and " Top 10 PlayStation exclusives of 2008 " , respectively . GamePro featured it as one of the five games PSP gamers should play , one of the 31 best PSP titles in 2009 , and as the seventh best video game prequel . It was also voted to third place in the Dengeki poll of most tear @-@ inducing games of all time . In 2011 , it was voted second place in the Famitsu readers ' poll on the same topic .
= Olympic marmot =
The Olympic marmot ( Marmota olympus ) is a rodent in the squirrel family Sciuridae ; it occurs only in the U.S. state of Washington , on the middle elevations of the Olympic Peninsula . The closest relatives of this species are the hoary marmot and the Vancouver Island marmot . In 2009 , it was declared the official endemic mammal of Washington .
This marmot is about the size of a domestic cat , typically weighing about 8 kg ( 18 lb ) in summer . The species shows the greatest sexual dimorphism found in marmots , with adult males weighing on average 23 % more than females . It can be identified by a wide head , small eyes and ears , stubby legs , and a long , bushy tail . Its sharp , rounded claws aid in digging burrows . The coat color changes with the season and with age , but an adult marmot 's coat is brown all over with small whiter areas for most of the year .
The Olympic marmot has a diet consisting mainly of a variety of meadow flora , including dry grasses , which it also uses as bedding in burrows . It is preyed on by various terrestrial mammals and avian raptors , but its main predator today is the coyote . The Olympic marmot is rated a species of the least concern on the IUCN Red List . It is protected by law in the Olympic National Park , which contains most of its habitat .
The burrows of this marmot are made in colonies , which are found in various mountain locations and differ in size . A colony may contain as few as one marmot family or multiple families with up to 40 marmots . Olympic marmots are very sociable animals which often engage in play fighting and vocalize four different whistles to communicate . During hibernation beginning in September , they are in a deep sleep and do not eat , causing them to lose half their body mass . Adults emerge in May and their young in June . Female marmots reach sexual maturity at three years of age , and produce litters of 1 – 6 every other mating season .
= = Taxonomy = =
American zoologist and ethnographer Clinton Hart Merriam first formally described the Olympic marmot in 1898 , as Arctomys olympus , from a specimen he and Vernon Orlando Bailey collected on the Sol Duc River . The species name olympus ( Olympic in Greek ) was given because this species is native to the Olympic Peninsula . The species now is classified with all other marmots in the genus Marmota . Zoologist R. L. Rausch classified the Olympic marmot as the subspecies olympus of Marmota marmota ( he included all North American marmots in this species , which now only includes the Eurasian Alpine marmot ) in 1953 , but it has usually been treated as a distinct species , a classification supported by taxonomic reviews starting with that of zoologist Robert S. Hoffmann and colleagues in 1979 .
Within Marmota , the Olympic marmot is grouped with species such as the hoary marmot ( M. caligata ) in the subgenus Petromarmota . Among this grouping , mitochondrial DNA analyses suggest that the Olympic marmot could be the most basal species . The Olympic marmot is thought to have originated during the last glacial period as an isolated relict population of the hoary marmot in the Pleistocene ice @-@ free refugia . The Olympic marmot deviates from the typical Petromarmota marmots in the shape and large size of its mandible ( jawbone ) , in differences of the dorsal ( back ) region , and having 40 chromosomes instead of 42 , all of which are characteristics that resemble the subgenus Marmota . Some of the differences of the Olympic marmot 's jawbone from the typical Petramarmota are also evident in the Vancouver Island marmot ( M. vancouverensis ) , which evolved separately , but also occurs in a restricted range with a small population .
= = Description = =
The Olympic marmot 's head is wide with small eyes and ears ; the body is stocky with stubby legs and sharp , rounded claws that facilitate digging ; the tail is bushy and ranges from 18 to 24 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 4 in ) long . The Olympic marmot is about the size of a domestic cat ; adults weigh from 3 @.@ 1 to 11 kg ( 6 @.@ 8 to 24 @.@ 3 lb ) and are from 67 to 75 cm ( 26 to 30 in ) in length , with the average being 71 cm ( 28 in ) . It is the largest marmot , about 7 % longer than the hoary and Vancouver Island marmots . This species has the most pronounced sexual dimorphism found in marmots , with adult males weighing on average 9 @.@ 3 kg ( 21 lb ) and adult females weighing 7 @.@ 1 kg ( 16 lb ) .
The Olympic marmot has a double @-@ layered coat consisting of soft thick underfur
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= = Casting = =
Auditions were held for the part of Sarah , the eldest daughter of the Barnes family and actress Loui Batley secured the role . On 1 July 2009 , Digital Spy reported that Loui Batley had quit the soap and would leave towards the end of the year . Loui 's decision matched co @-@ worker Zoë Lister ( Zoë Carpenter ) . The Hollyoaks website officially announced on 23 July 2009 that both Batley and Lister would leave towards the end of that year . Their final storyline was described as a " A tragic curtain call for one of them " , stating that either Sarah or Zoë would die . Batley wanted to quit the serial in December 2008 when her contract ran out . Kirkwood asked her to stay another six months with the promise of a good exit storyline . The plot also involved Zoe and Lydia Hart ( Lydia Kelly ) . She made it clear to Kirkwood and new executive producer Lucy Allan that she would leave afterward . Allan then came up with the idea of writing Batley out of the serial in its sister show Hollyoaks Later . Upon hearing Kirkwood 's ideas for her exit storyline , Batley said : " I 've been there for quite a while and it was a great ending for the character - I couldn 't have asked for a better way to go ... " Hollyoaks Later producer Bryan Kirkwood said : " Loui 's been brilliant in Hollyoaks and she 's massively underrated . She 's been at the centre of some of the biggest storylines on the main show . She never turned in a performance less than top @-@ notch and I wish she had a little more recognition for that . She 's a very strong actress and it 's been fantastic to work with her - and great to be involved in her exit . "
= = Development = =
= = = Craig 's affair = = =
In 2007 , Sarah discovered fiancé Craig Dean 's ( Guy Burnet ) affair with best friend John Paul McQueen ( James Sutton ) , in the storyline dubbed " McDean " . The storyline reached its climax as the truth is revealed " dramatically " at her engagement party . Sarah walked in on the pair kissing , A Hollyoaks spokesperson stated in an interview with Digital Spy , " John Paul 's sick of all the lies and decides enough is enough . He sends a text from Craig 's phone asking Sarah to come upstairs to see him . Safe in the knowledge that Sarah is on her way , JP sets about seducing Craig . When she walks in , she can 't believe what she 's looking at ... " Sarah tried to recover from this and Batley said : " I don 't think she got over Rhys , either . Craig more so , though . He absolutely destroyed her happiness and belief in men . Her relationship with Craig was going to be her life and she put so much effort into it , emotionally and physically , and it completely destroyed her . " Batley said Sarah could not handle the fact he cheated on her with another man . She opined this was the reason her storyline with Zoe and Lydia worked well . However John Paul 's betrayal also had impact on Sarah 's life because he was one of her best friends . Batley said : " John Paul was her confidante and she thought they were best friends - it 's hard to say which part made more of an impact on her . It was all just one horrible experience . It was the betrayal from both of them . "
= = = Sexuality = = =
Sexuality continued to be a focal point in Sarah 's storyline . The new plot featured Sarah questioning her sexuality after a one @-@ night stand with Zoë . Speaking to Digital Spy , Batley said Sarah and Zoe always been close . Zoe is the best friend she has ever had because in her life people have always let her down , whereas Zoe has been " her rock " ; despite their fall outs . Batley felt this to be the reason why they share a mutual friendly love for one another . In comparison , Sarah 's feeling intensified and Batley commented : " For Sarah it 's something more - she completely relies on her and that turns into love for her as well . " Whilst filming the raunchy scenes , there was a nervous atmosphere on set .
Sarah then embarked on her first full relationship with a woman , with Lydia . The pair have a series of " misunderstandings " until Sarah admits her feelings for Lydia and comes out . Batley spoke of the storyline during an interview with The Sun branding her relationship with Lydia as serious compared to her fling with Zoe . The rocky relationship led to Lydia being jealous of Sarah and Zoë 's friendship , and eventually Sarah 's death within the show .
When asked if she thought Sarah had come to terms with the fact she is a lesbian , Batley said : " I don 't know because from the beginning , Sarah was always boy crazy , so for her , I don 't think it 's about being one way or the other — I think she 's just very clingy . Batley also gave her views on how Sarah should have to developed , opining it would have been good for her to spend more time on her own , be herself and learn who she really is . She felt that Sarah had to often clung on to people and believing that ultimately it would make her happy . Sarah tries this notion with Zoe , describing this Batley added : " I think that 's what happened with Zoe as well because they were such good friends . With Lydia , she brought something to her and she got on with her and was sparky , which is something that Sarah liked . I don 't know if she 'd suddenly turned , though . Maybe she was more bisexual than anything . "
= = = Departure = = =
Alongside Batley 's departure , it was that revealed Lister , who plays Zoe , would also leave the show . The exit storyline was described as a " tragic skydiving death " caused by a jealous Lydia . Prior to transmission of the skydiving , Lister had explained the storyline during an interview with Sky TV . She said Lydia initially severed a parachute to end her own life , later deciding to cut Zoe 's parachute so she could have Sarah to herself . She also explained that viewers were not permitted to know who would have parachute . The parachute mix up was described as the storyline 's " dramatic twist " . Speaking on how Zoe 's friendship with Sarah causes Lydia to commit her actions , Lister stated :
It was revealed that cast members filmed on a number of location settings . One of these included an army barracks . They also filmed scenes at Tatenhill Airfield . The airfield 's staff had been asked to remain secretive regarding details of the storyline . Lister explained that the episodes were fun to film and they had to do " funny " stunts . Lister was the only cast member out of her , Batley and Kelly who performed the aired skydiving for real . A Hollyoaks producer released two pictures of funeral wreaths , one reading ' Zoe ' and the other ' Sarah ' , in order to confuse viewers further as to whom the victim would be . When the episode aired it played out with Sarah dying in the jump . When executive producer Bryan Kirkwood described the exit to Batley , she thought it was a " perfect and amazing " end for Sarah . Further adding that " It really draws a line under the four years " of Sarah 's storylines .
= = Storylines = =
During the character 's original appearance on Hollyoaks , there was no additional information to Sarah 's life beforehand . Mike ( Tony Hirst ) and Kathy Barnes ( Sarah Jane Buckley ) struggled to cope with Kathy 's pregnancy , as the two were still teenagers at the time , and they discussed putting her up for adoption , although Mike then became attached to Sarah after her birth and the couple decided to keep her when Mike realised that he wanted to be a father after all .
Sarah befriends Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) , Rhys and Sarah grow closer , but he is put off by her age . Despite her mother 's high hopes for her to become an Olympic swimmer , Sarah begins dating Rhys . Kathy is horrified and vows to stop Rhys seeing Sarah . Kathy then seduces an intoxicated Rhys and she has a one @-@ night stand with him . When Sarah finds out , she dumps him and starts to despise her mother . Few months after , Sarah regrets dumping Rhys and forgives him . However , he takes nude photographs of her and shows them to his friends . Disgusted , she ends her relationship with Rhys . Sarah grows close to Gilly but decides not to begin a relationship . Sarah and Hannah strike friendships with friends Craig and John Paul . She and Craig start to date and set Hannah up with John Paul . Craig is caught kissing John Paul by Hannah , which leads to John Paul 's coming out . Craig convinces Sarah he is heterosexual and John Paul initiated the kiss . Regardless , Sarah sees John Paul as a friend and encourages him in his first relationship with Spike ( Tom Vaughan ) . Craig is angry to learn the pair had sex , he tries to force himself on Sarah and calls her a whore . They later make up . Sarah does a photoshoot for a fictional magazine named Ripple and she delves further into the world of modelling , in spite of Craig 's feelings . Sarah turns to John Paul for advice over her relationship . Unbeknownst to her , John Paul and Craig are having an affair . They go on holiday to repair their problems . Sarah becomes suspicious of Craig , to avoid her finding out the truth Craig proposes marriage to her , which she accepts . They then plan to move to Dublin and Craig 's mother Frankie Osborne ( Helen Pearson ) decides to host an engagement party at The Dog in the Pond . John Paul is heartbroken . John Paul uses Craig 's mobile phone to text Sarah and tell her to come to Craig 's room , where he and Craig are kissing . Sarah walks into the room and is shocked to find Craig cheating . She then tells everyone at the party about Craig and John Paul 's affair . Sarah later asks Craig to take her back , assuming he is just confused . Craig then admits his love for John Paul and he leaves with him for Dublin .
Sarah begins to grow close to Rhys again and they reunite . However , Rhys is using her to make Beth Clement ( Sinéad Moynihan ) jealous . Beth and Sarah are friends and she convinces Sarah to split with Rhys . Sarah befriends Zoë and asks her to move in . Kathy accuses Zoë and Mike of having an affair and Mike breaks up with Kathy , who leaves him . Mike confesses his feelings for Zoë and they begin a secret relationship . Sarah discovers the truth and moves in with friend , Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) . Sarah finds an odd friend in Elliot Bevan ( Garnon Davies ) , who develops feelings for her . Elliot 's physics lecturer Roger Kiddle ( Quentin Tibble ) meets Sarah and after embarking on a fling , Elliot uncovers the truth . He becomes angry but eventually forgives Sarah . Sarah splits up with Roger when Sarah finds out he has a wife and made a pass at Zoë . Sarah starts to fall in love with Elliot and confesses to him . Elliot reciprocates and the pair become a couple . Soon after , Elliot decides they are too different and dumps her . Sarah is jealous when best friend Hannah dates him .
Sarah makes up with Zoë and moves back into the Barnes home . They , and Nancy , then set off on a holiday to Zoë 's old school so that she could make a speech on careers to current students . While at the school , it becomes apparent that Zoë had been involved in an affair with her teacher while she was fifteen . A drunken Sarah then accuses her of using her dad to fulfil her fantasy of being in a relationship with an older man . The pair end up in a fight . Sarah and Zoë make up as they are left alone in the hotel room . The pair drunkenly share a kiss before sleeping together . After this , Sarah feels more guilty and cannot look at Zoë , who tells her it was a drunken mistake and urges her to put it behind her . Arriving back in Hollyoaks , Sarah makes Zoë leave for a trip to give them space . Zoë returns and Sarah threatens to tell Mike , however Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) overhears and tells Nancy and Mike , who throws both Sarah and Zoë out . A guilty Sarah begins to have random sex with teenagers . First Archie Carpenter ( Stephen Beard ) , who turns out to be Zoë 's brother when she catches them in a passionate state . Sarah is then shocked when it turns out Archie is rating her against other girls . She later has sex with Warren Fox ( Jamie Lomas ) .
Sarah moves back home when she reconciles with Mike . Whilst working at a dance class Persephone Hart ( Elizabeth Hadley ) claims that Sarah has assaulted her . The girl 's older sister , Lydia manages to get her fired . Sarah and Lydia then become good friends . Lydia later reveals herself to be a lesbian . The pair then share a kiss which leaves Sarah confused . She becomes attracted to Lydia , she thinks is bisexual and that her experience with Zoë had started her sexuality crisis . Sarah eventually admits to having feelings for Lydia , and the pair begin a relationship . Lydia later accuses Sarah of cheating with Zoë . Mike begins to accept Sarah 's sexuality . Sarah discovers she was nearly given up for adoption by Mike and Kathy as a baby , after Zoë steals a script from Mike and uses it in her film for college . Sarah is angry at Zoë for using her but they later make up . Sarah breaks up with Lydia when she catches her kissing ex @-@ girlfriend Charlotte Lau ( Amy Yamazaki ) . Lydia grows increasingly jealous of Sarah and Zoë 's friendship . Lydia trouble between Sarah and Charlotte , so Sarah and Zoe go on an adventure trip . Lydia follows them as they get drunk and Sarah tells Zoe she loves her . Lydia over hears and is further fuels her jealousy . As they prepare for a skydive Lydia cuts Zoe 's parachute , however the become mixed up . Sarah falls to her death with her faulty parachute . Lydia frames Zoe but is eventually convicted .
= = Reception = =
Kris Green of Digital Spy described the skydive as one of the best stunts he had seen in a long time , adding that the reaction to Sarah 's death made him shed a tear and that the episode on a whole was " amazing " . The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . At the 2010 Inside Soap Awards the storyline gained nominations for Batley in the categories of " Best Exit " and " Best Stunt " .
Virgin Media profiled some of Hollyoaks ' " hottest females " in their opinion , of Sarah they stated : " Sarah Barnes ' sex appeal stretched so far she even had to experiment with the ladies . Turns out that wasn 't the brightest idea she 'd ever had - her jealous girlfriend Lydia finally polished her off good and proper . " Olly Riachards men 's lifestyle magazine FHM commented on Sarah stating : " the one who fell out of a plane and splatted all across the ground , leading to a really drawn out and really boring plotline " Holy Soap opined that Batley " livened up screens as lesbian temptress Sarah Barnes . " and that she had many " major storylines " . Digital Spy brand Sarah as , just a " wannabe model " . The Daily Mail have favoured Sarah 's storyline with Zoe . They opined that Sarah has had a " string of bad relationships with men " , that Zoe and Sarah 's kiss was an " interesting turn " and call it a scandal , that " heats and spices up " Hollyoaks . Nadia Sam @-@ Daliri of The Sun disagreed with Batley 's comments on the lesbian scenes being weird and said " They 've been far from weird to watch ... "
The Bristol Evening Post branded Sarah 's coming out as an " amazing storyline " , said Sarah is a " leggy brunette " and opined her attraction to Lydia developed into " full @-@ blown obsession " . Asian News International included Sarah and Zoe second on their top ten " girl @-@ on @-@ girl kisses on TV " list . The Liverpool Daily Post ran a quiz focused on style , one of their result trends read " You like to put your own stamp on trends and tend to mix designer and high street clothes to create the look you want . You are an " urban aspirant " like Sarah Barnes , from Hollyoaks . " When Sarah dated males to convince herself she is straight , Lesbian culture website AfterEllen.com stated that " Sarah will surely find out de @-@ gaying is just not possible " . They also branded her storyline " scandalous " and said she " has had her fair share of failed relationships - with men , that is " .
= Richard Cantillon =
Richard Cantillon ( French : [ kɑ ̃ tijɔ ̃ ] ; 1680s – May 1734 ) was an Irish @-@ French economist and author of Essai sur la Nature du Commerce en Général ( Essay on the Nature of Trade in General ) , a book considered by William Stanley Jevons to be the " cradle of political economy " . Although little information exists on Cantillon 's life , it is known that he became a successful banker and merchant at an early age . His success was largely derived from the political and business connections he made through his family and through an early employer , James Brydges . During the late 1710s and early 1720s , Cantillon speculated in , and later helped fund , John Law 's Mississippi Company , from which he acquired great wealth . However , his success came at a cost to his debtors , who pursued him with lawsuits , criminal charges , and even murder plots until his death in 1734 .
Essai remains Cantillon 's only surviving contribution to economics . It was written around 1730 and circulated widely in manuscript form , but was not published until 1755 . His work was translated into Spanish by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , probably in the late 1770s , and considered essential reading for political economy . Despite having much influence on the early development of the physiocrat and classical schools of thought , Essai was largely forgotten until its rediscovery by Jevons in the late 19th century . Cantillon was influenced by his experiences as a banker , and especially by the speculative bubble of John Law 's Mississippi Company . He was also heavily influenced by prior economists , especially William Petty .
Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economics , with numerous contributions to the science . These contributions include : his cause and effect methodology , monetary theories , his conception of the entrepreneur as a risk @-@ bearer , and the development of spatial economics . Cantillon 's Essai had significant influence on the early development of political economy , including the works of Adam Smith , Anne Turgot , Jean @-@ Baptiste Say , Frédéric Bastiat and François Quesnay .
= = Biography = =
While details regarding Richard Cantillon 's life are scarce , it is thought that he was born sometime during the 1680s in County Kerry , Ireland . He was son to land @-@ owner Richard Cantillon of Ballyheigue . Sometime in the middle of the first decade of the 18th century Cantillon moved to France , where he attained French citizenship . By 1711 , Cantillon found himself in the employment of British Paymaster General James Brydges , in Spain , where he organised payments to British prisoners of war during the War of Spanish Succession . Cantillon remained in Spain until 1714 , cultivating a number of business and political connections , before returning to Paris . Cantillon then became involved in the banking industry working for a cousin , who at that time was lead @-@ correspondent of the Parisian branch of a family bank . Two years later , thanks in large part to financial backing by James Brydges , Cantillon bought his cousin out and attained ownership of the bank . Given the financial and political connections Cantillon was able to attain both through his family and through James Brydges , Cantillon proved a fairly successful banker , specialising in money transfers between Paris and London .
At this time , Cantillon became involved with British mercantilist John Law through the Mississippi Company . Based on the monetary theory proposed by William Potter in his 1650 tract The Key of Wealth , John Law posited that increases in the money supply would lead to the employment of unused land and labour , leading to higher productivity . In 1716 , the French government granted him both permission to found the Banque Générale and virtual monopoly over the right to develop French territories in North America , named the Mississippi Company . In return , Law promised the French government to finance their debt at low rates of interest . Law began a financial speculative bubble by selling shares of the Mississippi Company , using the Banque Générale 's virtual monopoly on the issue of bank notes to finance his investors .
Richard Cantillon amassed a great fortune from his speculation , buying Mississippi Company shares early and selling them at inflated prices . Cantillon 's financial success and growing influence caused friction in his relationship with John Law , and sometime thereafter Law threatened to imprison Cantillon if the latter did not leave France within twenty @-@ four hours . Cantillon replied : " I shall not go away ; but I will make your system succeed . " To that end , in 1718 Law , Cantillon , and wealthy speculator Joseph Gage formed a private company centred on financing further speculation in North American real estate .
In 1719 , Cantillon left Paris for Amsterdam , returning briefly in early 1720 . Lending in Paris , Cantillon had outlying debt repaid to him in London and Amsterdam . With the collapse of the " Mississippi bubble " , Cantillon was able to collect on debt accruing high rates of interest . Most of his debtors had suffered financial damage in the bubble collapse and blamed Cantillon — until his death , Cantillon was involved in countless lawsuits filed by his debtors , leading to a number of murder plots and criminal accusations .
On 16 February 1722 , Cantillon married Mary Mahony , daughter of Count Daniel O 'Mahony — a wealthy merchant and former Irish general — spending much of the remainder of the 1720s travelling throughout Europe with his wife . Cantillon and Mary had two children , a son who died at an early age and a daughter , Henrietta , who would go on to marry William Howard Earl of Stafford in 1743 . Although he frequently returned to Paris between 1729 and 1733 , his permanent residence was in London . In May 1734 , his residence in London was burned to the ground , and it is generally assumed that Cantillon died in the fire . While the fire 's causes are unclear , the most widely accepted theory is that Cantillon was murdered . One of Cantillon 's biographers , Antoine Murphy , has advanced the alternative theory that Cantillon staged his own death to escape the harassment of his debtors , appearing in Suriname under the name Chevalier de Louvigny .
= = Contributions to economics = =
Although there is evidence that Richard Cantillon wrote a wide variety of manuscripts , only his Essai Sur La Nature Du Commerce En Général ( abbreviated Essai ) survives . Written in 1730 , it was published in French in 1755 , and was translated into English by Henry Higgs in 1932 . Evidence suggests that Essai had tremendous influence on the early development of economic science , Cantillon 's treatise was largely neglected during the 19th century . In the late 19th century and it was " rediscovered " by William Stanley Jevons , who considered it the " cradle of political economy " . Since then , Cantillon 's Essai has received growing attention . Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economic theory , and Cantillon has been called the " father of enterprise economics " .
One of the greatest influences on Cantillon 's writing was English economist William Petty and his 1662 tract Treatise on Taxes . Although Petty provided much of the groundwork for Cantillon 's Essai , Anthony Brewer argues that Petty 's influence has been overstated . Apart from Petty , other possible influences on Cantillon include John Locke , Cicero , Livy , Pliny the Elder , Pliny the Younger , Charles Davenant , Edmond Halley , Isaac Newton , Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban , and Jean Boisard . Cantillon 's involvement in John Law 's speculative bubble proved invaluable and likely heavily influenced his insight on the relationship between increases in the supply of money , price , and production .
= = = Methodology = = =
Cantillon 's Essai is written using a distinctive causal methodology , separating Cantillon from his mercantilist predecessors . Essai is peppered with the word " natural " , which in the case of Cantillon 's treatise is meant to imply a cause and effect relationship between economic actions and phenomena . Economist Murray Rothbard credits Cantillon with being one of the first theorists to isolate economic phenomena with simple models , where otherwise uncontrollable variables can be fixed . Cantillon made frequent use of the concept of ceteris paribus throughout Essai in an attempt to neutralise independent variables . Furthermore , he is credited with employing a methodology similar to Carl Menger 's methodological individualism , by deducing complex phenomena from simple observations .
A cause and effect methodology led to a relatively value @-@ free approach to economic science , in which Cantillon was uninterested in the merit of any particular economic action or phenomenon , focusing rather on the explanation of relationships . This led Cantillon to separate economic science from politics and ethics to a greater degree than previous mercantilist writers . This has led to disputes on whether Cantillon can justly be considered a mercantilist or one of the first anti @-@ mercantilists , given that Cantillon often cited government @-@ manipulated trade surpluses and specie accumulation as positive economic stimuli . Others argue that in instances where Cantillon is thought to have supported certain mercantilist policies , he actually provided a more neutral analysis by explicitly stating possible limitations of mercantilist policies .
= = = Monetary theory = = =
Differences between prior mercantilists and Cantillon arise early in Essai , regarding the origins of wealth and price formation on the market . Cantillon distinguishes between wealth and money , considering wealth in itself " nothing but the food , conveniences , and pleasures of life . " While Cantillon advocated an " intrinsic " theory of value , based on the input of land and labour ( cost of production ) , he is considered to have touched upon a subjective theory of value . Cantillon held that market prices are not immediately decided by intrinsic value , but are derived from supply and demand . He considered market prices to be derived by comparing supply , the quantity of a particular good in a particular market , to demand , the quantity of money brought to be exchanged . Believing market prices to tend towards the intrinsic value of a good , Cantillon may have also originated the uniformity @-@ of @-@ profit principle — changes in the market price of a good may lead to changes in supply , reflecting a rise or fall in profit .
In Essai , Cantillon provided an advanced version of John Locke 's quantity theory of money , focusing on relative inflation and the velocity of money . Cantillon suggested that inflation occurs gradually and that the new supply of money has a localised effect on inflation , effectively originating the concept of non @-@ neutral money . Furthermore , he posited that the original recipients of new money enjoy higher standards of living at the expense of later recipients . The concept of relative inflation , or a disproportionate rise in prices among different goods in an economy , is now known as the Cantillon effect . Cantillon also considered changes in the velocity of money ( quantity of exchanges made within a specific amount of time ) influential on prices , although not to the same degree as changes in the quantity of money . While he believed that the money supply consisted only of specie , he conceded that increases in money substitutes — or bank notes — could affect prices by effectively increasing the velocity of circulating of deposited specie . Apart from distinguishing money from money substitute , he also distinguished between bank notes offered as receipts for specie deposits and bank notes circulating beyond the quantity of specie — or fiduciary media — suggesting that the volume of fiduciary media is strictly limited by people 's confidence in its redeemability . He considered fiduciary media a useful tool to abate the downward pressure that hoarding of specie has on the velocity of money .
Addressing the mercantilist belief that monetary intervention could cause a perpetually favourable balance of trade , Cantillon developed a specie @-@ flow mechanism foreshadowing future international monetary equilibrium theories . He suggested that in countries with a high quantity of money in circulation , prices will increase and therefore become less competitive in relation to countries where there is a relative scarcity of money . Thus , Cantillon also held that increases in the supply of money , regardless of the source , cause increases in the price level and therefore reduce the competitiveness of a particular nation 's industry in relation to a nation with lower prices . However , Cantillon did not believe that international markets tended toward equilibrium , and instead suggested that government hoard specie to avoid rising prices and falling competitiveness . Furthermore , he suggested that a favourable balance of trade can be maintained by offering a better product and retaining qualitative competitiveness . Cantillon 's preference towards a favourable balance of trade possibly stemmed from the mercantilist belief in exchange being a zero @-@ sum game , in which one party gains at the expense of another .
A relatively advanced theory of interest is also presented . Cantillon believed that interest originates from the need of borrowers for capital and from the fear of loss of the lenders , meaning that borrowers have to recompense lenders for the risk of the possible insolvency of the debtor . In turn , interest is paid out of earned profits originating from the return on invested capital . While previously it was believed that the rate of interest varied inversely to the quantity of money , Cantillon posited that the rate of interest was determined by the supply and demand on the loanable funds market — an insight usually attributed to Scottish philosopher David Hume . As such , while saved money impacts the rate of interest , new money that is instead used for consumption does not ; Cantillon 's theory of interest is therefore similar to John Maynard Keynes 's liquidity preference theory .
= = = Other contributions = = =
Traditionally it is Jean @-@ Baptiste Say who is credited for coining the word and advancing the concept of the entrepreneur , but in fact it was Cantillon who first introduced the term in Essai . Cantillon divided society into two principal classes — fixed income wage @-@ earners and non @-@ fixed income earners . Entrepreneurs , according to Cantillon , are non @-@ fixed income earners who pay known costs of production but earn uncertain incomes , due to the speculative nature of pandering to an unknown demand for their product . Cantillon , while providing the foundations , did not develop a dedicated theory of uncertainty — the topic was not revisited until the 20th century , by Ludwig von Mises , Frank Knight , and John Maynard Keynes , among others . Furthermore , unlike later theories of entrepreneurship which saw the entrepreneur as a disruptive force , Cantillon anticipated the belief that the entrepreneur brought equilibrium to a market by correctly predicting consumer preferences .
Spatial economics deal with distance and area , and how these may affect a market through transportation costs and geographical limitations . The development of spatial economics is usually ascribed to German economist Johann Heinrich von Thünen ; however , Cantillon addressed spatial economics nearly a century earlier . Cantillon integrated his advancements in spatial economic theory into his microeconomic analysis of the market , describing how transportation costs influence the location of factories , markets and population centres — that is , individuals strive to lower transportation costs . Conclusions on spatial economics were derived from three premises : cost of raw materials of equal quality will always be higher near the capital , due to transportation costs ; transportation costs vary on transportation type ( for example , water transportation was considered cheaper than land @-@ based transportation ) ; and larger goods that are more difficult to transport will always be cheaper closer to their area of production . For example , Cantillon believed markets were designed as they were to decrease costs to both merchants and villagers in terms of time and transportation . Similarly , Cantillon posited that the locations of cities were the result in large part of the wealth of inhabiting property owners and their ability to afford transportation costs — wealthier property owners tended to live farther from their property , because they could afford the transportation costs . In Essai , spatial economic theory was used to derive why markets occupied the geographical area they did and why costs varied across different markets .
Apart from originating theories on the entrepreneur and spatial economics , Cantillon also provided a dedicated theory on population growth . Unlike William Petty , who believed there always existed a considerable amount of unused land and economic opportunity to support economic growth , Cantillon theorised that population grows only as long as there are economic opportunities present . Specifically , Cantillon cited three determining variables for population size : natural resources , technology , and culture . Therefore , populations grow only as far as the three aforementioned variables allowed . Furthermore , Cantillon 's population theory was more modern than that of Malthus in the sense that Cantillon recognised a much broader category of factors which affect population growth , including the tendency for population growth to fall to zero as a society becomes more industrialised .
= = Influence = =
While Essai was not published until 1755 as a result of heavy censorship in France , it did widely circulate in the form of an unpublished manuscript between its completion and its publication . It notably influenced many direct forerunners of the classical school of thought , including Turgot and other physiocrats . Cantillon was a major influence on physiocrat François Quesnay , who may have learned of Cantillon 's work through Marquis of Mirabeau . While it is evident that Essai influenced Quesnay , to what degree remains controversial . There is evidence that Quesnay did not fully understand , or was not completely aware of , Cantillon 's theories . Many of Quesnay 's economic beliefs were elucidated previously in Essai , but Quesnay did reject a number of Cantillon 's premises , including the scarcity of land and Cantillon 's population theory . Also , Quesnay recognised the scarcity of capital and capital accumulation as a prerequisite for investment . Nevertheless , Cantillon was considered the " father of physiocracy " by Henry Higgs , due to his influence on Quesnay . It is also possible that Cantillon influenced Scottish economist James Steuart , both directly and indirectly .
Cantillon is one of the few economists cited by Adam Smith , who directly borrows Cantillon 's sustenance theory of wages . Large sections of Smith 's economic theory were possibly directly influenced by Cantillon , although in many respects Adam Smith advanced well beyond the scope of Cantillon . Some economic historians have stated that Adam Smith provided little of value from his own intellect , notably Schumpeter and Rothbard . In any case , through his influence on Adam Smith and the physiocrats , Cantillon was quite possibly the pre @-@ classical economist who contributed most to the ideas of the classical school . Illustrative of this was Cantillon 's influence on Say , which is noticeable in the methodology employed in the latter 's Treatise on Political Economy .
= Hasta Que Te Conocí =
" Hasta Que Te Conocí " ( " Until I Met You " ) is a song written , produced , and performed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel . It was released in 1986 as the third single from his studio album Pensamientos . In the song , the protagonist learns the meaning of suffering after meeting a lover who mistreats him . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Song chart . A live version of the song was included on his album En el Palacio de Bellas Artes ( 1990 ) which peaked at number ten on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
The song has been recorded by several artists including Roberto del Castillo , Ana Gabriel , Marc Anthony , Raúl di Blasio , and Maná . Anthony covered the song on his debut studio album Otra Nota ( 1993 ) after hearing it on the radio during a taxi ride. di Blasio 's version features Gabriel performing the vocals on the song . Maná 's recording peaked at number one on the Hot Latin Songs and earned a nomination for Record of the Year at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards . Gabriel received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Latin award in 1994 and in 2013 for Anthony 's and Maná 's covers of the song .
= = Background = =
" Hasta Que Te Conocí " is a song written , produced , and performed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel as the final track on Juan Gabriel 's studio album Pensamientos ( 1986 ) . It was released as the second single from the album by RCA Latin . The song is in the key of D minor . In the lyrics , the protagonist has not known the feeling of suffering until he meets a lover who mistreats him . The song has been featured in some of Gabriel 's compilation albums including 14 Exitos Originales : Para Ti ( 1988 ) , La Historia del Divo ( 2006 ) , and Lo Esencial de Juan Gabriel ( 2008 ) . A live version of the song was included on the live album En el Palacio de Bellas Artes ( 1990 ) as a potpourri which features the National Symphony Orchestra . He also performed the song live during the 10th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony where he received the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year award . In 2015 , Gabriel recorded the song as a duet featuring Mexican singer Joy Huerta ( of Jesse & Joy ) for his album Los Dúo .
= = Reception = =
Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic called the song a " classic " on the review of La Historia del Divo . On the week of December 26 , 1986 , " Hasta Que Te Conocí " debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The song climbed to the top ten on the week of March 21 , 1987 and peaked at number two six weeks later with the number one position being held off by Braulio 's song " En Bancarrota " . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " ended 1987 as the fourth best @-@ performing Latin single of the year in the United States . The live version of the song peaked at number ten on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Charts = =
= = Marc Anthony version = =
In 1993 , American recording artist Marc Anthony covered " Hasta Que Te Conocí " on his debut studio album Otra Nota . According to Anthony , he originally had no desire to record in Spanish and turned down an offer by RMM manager Ralph Mercado to record an album in salsa . During a taxi ride , Anthony heard Gabriel 's " Hasta Que Te Conocí " on the radio and was compelled to perform the song in salsa . This led to an agreement between Mercado and Anthony to record an album in salsa with a cover of " Hasta Que Te Conocí " included .
A curtailed version of the song appears on Anthony 's compilation album Desde un Principio : From the Beginning ( 1999 ) while the full version appears on his 2003 compilation album Éxitos Eternos . Anthony performed a live version of the song at the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards . The song has been included in his tour setlist including his Nada Personal Tour and the Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony en Concierto tour .
= = = Reception = = =
On the review of the album , Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic cited Anthony 's cover as one of the tracks that " showcased well " with his " edgy improvisation and wide vocal range " . Anthony 's cover received a nomination for Tropical Song of the Year at the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards , but lost to " El Baile del Perrito " by Wilfrido Vargas y su Orquesta . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Latin Awards of 1994 , Juan Gabriel received an award in the Tropical / Salsa Category for " Hasta Que Te Conocí " . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = = Music video = = =
A music video for the song was produced to promote the single which was filmed in New York City . In the video , Anthony and a woman are shown having a happy relationship until she breaks up with him by leaving a note for him leaving Anthony in bitterness . It was included on the video compilation album Mejores Videos de India y Marc Anthony ( 1996 ) .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Maná version = =
In 2012 , Mexican rock band Maná covered the song for their greatest hits album Exiliados en la Bahía : Lo Mejor de Maná . The song was released as a single on June 26 , 2012 . It is the second time that the band covered a song by Juan Gabriel after " Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez " in 1999 . According to lead vocalist Fher Olvera , they heard the song while in Venezuela and the band decided to cover the song in ballad with swing music .
= = = Reception = = =
David Jeffires of Allmusic called Mana 's cover of the song " an excellent , heartfelt take " . Carlos Quintana of About.com labeled it as " one of the very best songs of this production . " At the 13th Latin Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Record of the Year which was awarded to Jesse & Joy for " ¡ Corre ! " . In 2013 , it was nominated Rock / Alternative Song of the Year at the 25th Lo Nuestro Awards , which went to Maná 's other song " El Verdadero Amor Perdona " . The success of Maná 's cover led to Gabriel receiving an ASCAP Latin award in the pop category .
In the United States , the song reached number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs becoming their ninth number @-@ one song on the chart . It also peaked at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In Mexico , the peaked at number three on the Mexican Airplay Chart chart .
= = = Music video = = =
A music video for Maná 's version was released on August 27 , 2012 . It was directed by Pablo Croce and filmed in the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , Mexico . In the video , a man recounts his sorrows with depression and alcohol in a bar regretting his love for a woman .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
In 1987 , Dominican musician Roberto del Castillo covered " Hasta Que Te Conocí " in merengue on his album Justo a Tiempo . His version peaked at number eleven on the Hot Latin Songs chart . Mexican singer Ana Gabriel performed a live cover of the song on her album En Vivo ( 1990 ) . Her version peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Hot Latin Songs chart . In 1994 , Argentine pianist Raúl di Blasio covered the song on his album Piano de America , Vol . 2 @.@ di Blasio 's cover was released to radio stations on May 10 , 1994 . It features Gabriel performing the vocals which was omitted on the Anglo version of the song. di Blasio 's version peaked at number thirty @-@ six on the Hot Latin Songs . It has been featured on his compilation albums Entre Amigos y Exitos ( 2003 ) and La Historia del Piano de América ... Los Éxitos ( 2006 ) and on Gabriel 's album Mis Canciones , Mis Amigos ( 2009 ) . A music video for the Anglo version was released by BMG and was included on the DVD set for La Historia del Piano de América ... Los Éxitos ( 2006 ) . Mexican singer Pilar Montenegro included a version of the track featuring rapper Voltio on her album South Beach in 2005 . In 2009 , Mexican recording artist Anahí sampled the record on her song " Hasta Que Me Conociste " ( " Until You Met Me " ) from her album Mi Delirio , in which the song is written as a " response " to the original composition .
= Scattered disc =
The scattered disc ( or scattered disk ) is a distant circumstellar disc in the Solar System that is sparsely populated by icy minor planets , a subset of the broader family of trans @-@ Neptunian objects . The scattered @-@ disc objects ( SDOs ) have orbital eccentricities ranging as high as 0 @.@ 8 , inclinations as high as 40 ° , and perihelia greater than 30 astronomical units ( 4 @.@ 5 × 109 km ; 2 @.@ 8 × 109 mi ) . These extreme orbits are thought to be the result of gravitational " scattering " by the gas giants , and the objects continue to be subject to perturbation by the planet Neptune .
Although the closest scattered @-@ disc objects approach the Sun at about 30 – 35 AU , their orbits can extend well beyond 100 AU . This makes scattered objects among the most distant and coldest objects in the Solar System . The innermost portion of the scattered disc overlaps with a torus @-@ shaped region of orbiting objects traditionally called the Kuiper belt , but its outer limits reach much further away from the Sun and further above and below the ecliptic than the Kuiper belt proper .
Because of its unstable nature , astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most periodic comets in the Solar System , with the centaurs , a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune , being the intermediate stage in an object 's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System . Eventually , perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun , transforming them into periodic comets . Many Oort cloud objects are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc . Detached objects are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects , and some such as Sedna have sometimes been considered to be included in this group .
= = Discovery = =
Traditionally , devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System , because these objects would move between two exposures — this involved time @-@ consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films , and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects . During the 1980s , the use of CCD @-@ based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images . Because the CCD captured more light than film ( about 90 % versus 10 % of incoming light ) and the blinking could now be done at an adjustable computer screen , the surveys allowed for higher throughput . A flood of new discoveries was the result : over a thousand trans @-@ Neptunian objects were detected between 1992 and 2006 .
The first scattered @-@ disc object ( SDO ) to be recognised as such was 1996 TL66 , originally identified in 1996 by astronomers based at Mauna Kea in Hawaii . Three more were identified by the same survey in 1999 : 1999 CV118 , 1999 CY118 , and 1999 CF119 . The first object presently classified as an SDO to be discovered was 1995 TL8 , found in 1995 by Spacewatch .
As of 2011 , over 200 SDOs have been identified , including 2007 UK126 ( discovered by Schwamb , Brown , and Rabinowitz ) , 2002 TC302 ( NEAT ) , Eris ( Brown , Trujillo , and Rabinowitz ) , Sedna ( Brown , Trujillo , and Rabinowitz ) and 2004 VN112 ( Deep Ecliptic Survey ) . Although the numbers of objects in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc are hypothesized to be roughly equal , observational bias due to their greater distance means that far fewer SDOs have been observed to date .
= = Subdivisions of trans @-@ Neptunian space = =
Known trans @-@ Neptunian objects are often divided into two subpopulations : the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc . A third reservoir of trans @-@ Neptunian objects , the Oort cloud , has been hypothesized , although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made . Some researchers further suggest a transitional space between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud , populated with " detached objects " .
= = = Scattered disc versus Kuiper belt = = =
The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick torus ( or " doughnut " ) of space , extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) : the classical Kuiper @-@ belt objects ( or " cubewanos " ) , which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune , and the resonant Kuiper @-@ belt objects ; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 3 : 2 ( the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits ) and 2 : 1 ( the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits ) . These ratios , called orbital resonances , allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune 's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System , since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity . Those in 3 : 2 resonances are known as " plutinos " , because Pluto is the largest member of their group , whereas those in 2 : 1 resonances are known as " twotinos " .
In contrast to the Kuiper belt , the scattered @-@ disc population can be disturbed by Neptune . Scattered @-@ disc objects come within gravitational range of Neptune at their closest approaches ( ~ 30 AU ) but their farthest distances reach many times that . Ongoing research suggests that the centaurs , a class of icy planetoids that orbit between Jupiter and Neptune , may simply be SDOs thrown into the inner reaches of the Solar System by Neptune , making them " cis @-@ Neptunian " rather than trans @-@ Neptunian scattered objects . Some objects , like ( 29981 ) 1999 TD10 , blur the distinction and the Minor Planet Center ( MPC ) , which officially catalogues all trans @-@ Neptunian objects , now lists centaurs and SDOs together .
The MPC also makes a clear distinction between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc ; separating
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part because it applied to the current Congress . [ e ] Many legislators who supported the bill lost their congressional seats as a result , including Johnson 's colleague Solomon P. Sharp from Kentucky . Johnson 's popularity in other matters helped him retain his seat . Two days into the next session , he recanted his support for the law . It was repealed in that session , and in its place , legislators passed an increase in the per diem salary .
President James Monroe 's first choice for Secretary of War was Henry Clay , who declined the office . When Johnson also declined to serve , the post ultimately went to John C. Calhoun . The result was that Johnson became chair of the Committee on Expenditures where he wielded considerable influence over defense policy in the Department of War during the Fifteenth Congress . In 1817 , Congress investigated General Andrew Jackson 's execution of two British subjects during the First Seminole War . Johnson chaired the inquiry committee . The majority of the committee favored a negative report and a censure for Jackson . Johnson , a Jackson supporter , drafted a counter report that was more favorable to Jackson and opposed the censure . The ensuing debate pitted Johnson against fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay . Johnson 's report prevailed , and Jackson was spared censure . This disagreement between Johnson and Clay , however , marked the beginning of a political separation between the two that lasted for the duration of their careers .
In 1818 , Calhoun approved an expedition to build a military outpost near the present site of Bismarck , North Dakota on the Yellowstone River ; Johnson awarded the contract to his brother James . Although the Yellowstone Expedition was an ultimate failure and expensive to the U.S. Treasury , the Johnsons escaped political ill will in their home district because the venture was seen as a peacekeeping endeavor on the frontier .
= = = Senator = = =
Johnson announced his intent to retire from the House in early 1818 . In December 1818 , the state legislature was to elect a replacement for outgoing senator Isham Talbot . Johnson lost the election by twelve votes to William Logan despite the fact that he never officially declared his candidacy . It was reported in the local newspapers that Johnson 's friends intended to nominate him for governor in the 1820 election .
Johnson 's term in the House expired March 3 , 1819 , but by August , he had returned to the state legislature where he helped secure passage of a law that abolished imprisonment for debtors in Kentucky . In December 1819 , he resigned his post in the state legislature to fill the Senate seat vacated by the resignation of John J. Crittenden . He was re @-@ elected to a full term in 1822 , so that in total , his Senate tenure ran from December 10 , 1819 to March 4 , 1829 . In 1821 , he introduced legislation chartering Columbian College ( later The George Washington University ) in Washington , D.C.
There had been inflation after the War of 1812 , and the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States . In these times , when paper currency was privatized , this took the form of wildcat banks . Johnson , like many other Kentuckians , was caught in the ensuing financial collapse , the Panic of 1819 . He took a strong part in the politically popular struggle for debt relief , and some form of bankruptcy legislation , called the Relief War , which would help his own problems and those of his neighbors .
Part of Johnson 's campaign for relief was the abolition of the practice of debt imprisonment nationwide . It would take him nearly ten years to see this goal accomplished . He first spoke to the issue in the Senate on December 14 , 1822 , introducing a bill to end the practice , and pointing to the positive effects its cessation had effected in his home state . The bill failed , but Johnson persisted in re @-@ introducing it every year . In 1824 , it passed the Senate , but was too late to be acted upon by the House . It passed the Senate a second time in 1828 , but again , the House failed to act on it , and the measure died for some years , owing to Johnson 's exit from the Senate the next year .
Already known for securing government contracts for himself , as well as his brothers and friends , he offered land to establish the Choctaw Academy , a school devoted to the European @-@ American education of Indians from the Southeast tribes . It was built on his farm in Scott County in 1825 . Although he never ran afoul of the conflict of interest standards of his day , some of his colleagues considered his actions ethically questionable . Johnson was paid well for the school by the federal government , which gave him a portion of the annuities for the Choctaw . It was promoted by the Baptist Missionary Society as well . Some European @-@ American students also attended the Academy , including his nephew Robert Ward Johnson from Arkansas .
Another pet project Johnson supported was prompted by his friendship with John Cleves Symmes , Jr . , who proposed that the Earth was hollow . In 1823 , Johnson proposed in the Senate that the government fund an expedition to the center of the Earth . The proposal was soundly defeated , receiving only twenty @-@ five votes in the House and Senate combined .
Johnson served as chairman of the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Congresses . Near the end of his term in the Senate , petitioners asked Congress to prevent the handling and delivery of mail on Sunday because it violated biblical principles about not working on the Sabbath . These petitions were referred to Johnson 's committee . In response , Johnson , a practicing Baptist , drafted a report now commonly referred to as The Sunday Mail Report In the report , presented to Congress on January 19 , 1829 , Johnson argued that government was " a civil , and not a religious institution " , and as such could not legislate the tenets of any particular denomination . The report was applauded as an elegant defense of the doctrine of separation of church and state . But , Johnson was criticized for conflict of interest in his defense , as he had friends who were contracted to haul mail , and who would have suffered financially from banning of Sunday deliveries .
In 1828 , Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for re @-@ election , owing in part to his relationship with the octaroon slave Julia Chinn , with whom he lived in a common @-@ law marriage . Although members of his own district seemed little bothered by the arrangement , slaveholders elsewhere in the state were not so forgiving . In his own defense , Johnson said , " Unlike Jefferson , Clay , Poindexter and others I married my wife under the eyes of God , and apparently He has found no objections . " ( Note : The named men were suspected or known to have similar relationships with slave women . ) According to Henry Robert Burke , what people objected to was Johnson trying to introduce his daughters to " polite society " . People were used to planters and overseers having relationships with slave women , but they were expected to deny them .
= = = Return to the House = = =
After his failed Senatorial re @-@ election bid , Johnson returned to the House , representing Kentucky 's Fifth District from 1829 to 1833 , and Thirteenth District from 1833 to 1837 . During the Twenty @-@ first and Twenty @-@ second Congresses , he again served as chairman of the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads . In this capacity , he was again asked to address the question of Sunday mail delivery . He drew up a second report , largely similar in content to the first , arguing against legislation preventing mail delivery on Sunday . The report , commonly called " Col. Johnson 's second Sunday mail report " , was delivered to Congress in March 1830 .
Some contemporaries doubted Johnson 's authorship of this second report . Many claimed it was instead written by Amos Kendall . Kendall claimed he had seen the report only after it had been drafted and said he had only altered " one or two words . " Kendall speculated that the author could be Reverend O.B. Brown , but historian Leland Meyer concludes that there is no reason to doubt that Johnson authored the report himself .
Johnson chaired the Committee on Military Affairs during the Twenty @-@ second , Twenty @-@ third , and Twenty @-@ fourth Congresses . Beginning in 1830 , there arose a groundswell of public support for Johnson 's " pet project " of ending debt imprisonment . The subject began to appear more frequently in President Jackson 's addresses to the legislature . Johnson chaired a House committee to report on the subject , and delivered the committee 's report on January 17 , 1832 . Later that year , a bill abolishing the practice of debt imprisonment passed both houses of Congress , and was signed into law on July 14 .
Johnson 's stands won him widespread popularity and endorsement by George H. Evans , Robert Dale Owen , and Theophilus Fisk for the presidency in 1832 , but Johnson abandoned his campaign when Andrew Jackson announced he would seek a second term . He then began campaigning to become Jackson 's running mate , but Jackson favored Martin Van Buren instead . At the Democratic National Convention , Johnson finished a distant third in the vice @-@ presidential balloting , receiving only the votes of the Kentucky , Indiana , and Illinois delegations ; William B. Lewis had to persuade him to withdraw
= = = Election of 1836 = = =
After the election of 1832 , Johnson continued to campaign for the Vice Presidency which would be available in 1836 ; he was endorsed by the New York labor leader Ely Moore on March 13 , 1833 , nine days after Jackson and Van Buren were inaugurated . Moore praised his devotion to freedom of religion and his opposition to imprisonment for debt . [ f ]
William Emmons , the Boston printer , published a biography of Johnson in New York dated July 1833 . Richard Emmons , from Great Crossing , Kentucky , followed this up with a play entitled Tecumseh , of the Battle of the Thames and a poem in honor of Johnson . Many of Johnson 's friends and supporters – Davy Crockett and John Bell among them – encouraged him to run for president . Jackson , however , supported Vice @-@ President Van Buren for the office . Johnson accepted this choice , and worked to gain the nomination for vice @-@ president .
Emmons ' poem provided the line that became Johnson 's campaign slogan : " Rumpsey Dumpsey , Rumpsey Dumpsey , Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh . " Jackson supported Johnson for vice @-@ president , thinking that the war hero would balance the ticket with Van Buren , who had not served in the War of 1812 . Jackson made his decision based on Johnson 's loyalty but also the president 's anger at the primary rival , William Cabell Rives .
Despite Jackson 's support , the party was far from united behind Johnson . Van Buren preferred Rives as a running mate . In a letter to Jackson , Tennessee Supreme Court justice John Catron doubted that " a lucky random shot , even if it did hit Tecumseh , qualifies a man for the vice presidency " . Although Johnson was a " widower " , after Chinn 's death in 1833 , there was still dissension related to Johnson 's open relationship with a slave . The 1835 Democratic National Convention , in Baltimore , in May 1835 , was held under the two @-@ thirds rule , largely to demonstrate Van Buren 's wide popularity . Although Van Buren was nominated unanimously , Johnson barely obtained the necessary two thirds of the vote . ( A motion was made to change the rule , but it obtained only a bare majority , not two thirds . )
Tennessee 's delegation did not attend the convention . Edward Rucker , a Tennessean who happened to be in Baltimore , was picked to cast its 15 votes , so that all the states would endorse Van Buren . Senator Silas Wright , of New York , prevailed upon Rucker to vote for Johnson , giving him just more than twice the votes cast for Rives , and the nomination .
Jackson 's faith in Johnson to balance the ticket proved misplaced . In the general election , Johnson cost the Democrats votes in the South , where his relationship with Chinn was particularly unpopular . He also failed to garner much support from the West , where he was supposed to be strong due to his reputation as an Indian fighter and war hero . He even failed to deliver his home state of Kentucky for the Democrats . Regardless , the Democrats still won the popular vote .
When the electoral vote was counted in Congress on February 8 , 1837 , Van Buren was found to have received 170 votes for president , but Johnson had received only 147 for vice @-@ president . Although Virginia had elected electors pledged to both Van Buren and Johnson , the state 's 23 " faithless electors " refused to vote for Johnson , leaving him one electoral vote short of a majority . For the only time , the Senate was charged with electing the Vice President under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment . The vote divided strictly along party lines , with Johnson becoming vice @-@ president by a vote of 36 , as opposed to 16 for Whig Francis Granger , with three senators absent .
= = = Vice Presidency = = =
Johnson served as Vice President from March 4 , 1837 , to March 4 , 1841 . His term was largely unremarkable , and he enjoyed little influence with President Van Buren . His penchant for wielding his power for his own interests did not abate . He lobbied the Senate to promote Samuel Milroy , whom he owed a favor , to the position of Indian agent . When Lewis Tappan requested presentation of an abolitionist petition to the Senate , Johnson , who was still a slaveholder , declined the request .
As presiding officer of the Senate , Johnson was called on to cast a tie @-@ breaking vote fourteen times , more than all of his predecessors save John Adams and John Calhoun . Despite the precedent set by some of his predecessors , Johnson never addressed the Senate on the occasion of a tie @-@ breaking vote ; he did once explain his vote via an article in the Kentucky Gazette .
After the financial Panic of 1837 , Johnson took a nine @-@ month leave of absence , during which he returned home to Kentucky and opened a tavern and spa on his farm to offset his continued financial problems . Upon visiting the establishment , Amos Kendall wrote to President Van Buren that he found Johnson " happy in the inglorious pursuit of tavern keeping – even giving his personal superintendence to the chicken and egg purchasing and water @-@ melon selling department " .
In his later political career , he became known for wearing a bright red vest and tie . He adopted this dress during his term as vice @-@ president when he and James Reeside , a mail contractor known for his drab dress , passed a tailor 's shop that displayed a bright red cloth in the window . Johnson suggested that Reeside should wear a red vest because the mail coaches he owned and operated were red . Reeside agreed to do so if Johnson would also . Both men ordered red vests and neckties , and were known for donning this attire for the rest of their lives .
= = = Election of 1840 = = =
By 1840 , it had become clear that Johnson was a liability to the Democratic ticket . Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was " dead weight " , and threw his support to James K. Polk . President Van Buren stood for re @-@ election , and the Whigs once again countered with William Henry Harrison . Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson from the ticket , fearing that dropping the Democrats ' own war hero would split the party and cost him votes to Harrison . A unique compromise ensued , with the Democratic National Convention refusing to nominate Johnson , or any other candidate , for vice @-@ president . The idea was to allow the states to choose their own candidates , or perhaps return the question to the Senate should Van Buren be elected with no clear winner in the vice @-@ presidential race .
Undaunted by this lack of confidence from his peers , Johnson continued to campaign to retain his office . Although his campaign was more vigorous than that of Van Buren , his behavior on the campaign trail raised concern among voters . He made rambling , incoherent speeches . During one speech in Ohio , he raised his shirt in order to display to the crowd the wounds he received during the Battle of the Thames . Charges he leveled against Harrison in Cleveland were so poorly received that they touched off a riot in the city .
In the end , Johnson received only forty @-@ eight electoral votes . One elector from Virginia and all eleven from South Carolina voted for Van Buren for president but selected someone other than Johnson for vice @-@ president . Johnson lost his home state of Kentucky again and added to the embarrassment by losing his home district as well .
= = Later life and death = =
After his term as vice @-@ president , Johnson returned to Kentucky to tend to his farm and oversee his tavern . He again represented Scott County in the Kentucky House from 1841 to 1843 . In 1845 , he served as a pallbearer when Daniel Boone was re @-@ interred in Frankfort Cemetery .
Johnson never gave up on a return to public service . He ran an unsuccessful campaign for the U.S. Senate against John J. Crittenden in 1842 . He briefly and futilely sought his party 's nomination for president in 1844 . He also ran as an independent candidate for Governor of Kentucky in 1848 , but after talking with the Democratic candidate , Lazarus W. Powell , who had replaced Linn Boyd on the ticket , Johnson decided to drop out and back Powell . Some speculated that the real object of this campaign was to secure another nomination to the vice @-@ presidency , but this hope was denied .
Johnson finally returned to elected office in 1850 , when he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives . By this time , however , his physical and mental health was already failing . On November 9 , the Louisville Daily Journal reported that " Col. R. M. Johnson is laboring under an attack of dementia , which renders him totally unfit for business . It is painful to see him on the floor attempting to discharge the duties of a member . He is incapable of properly exercising his physical or mental powers . "
He died of a stroke on November 19 , just two weeks into his term . He was interred in the Frankfort Cemetery , in Frankfort , Kentucky . Ruling that his surviving daughter Imogene was illegitimate , the Frankfort County Court split his estate between his brothers John and Henry .
= = Legacy = =
The counties of five U.S. states bear Johnson 's name , namely in Illinois , Iowa , Kentucky , Missouri , and Nebraska . Richard Mentor Johnson is also the namesake of Dick Johnson Township , Indiana .
His political prominence led to a family dynasty : his brothers James and John Telemachus Johnson , and his nephew Robert Ward Johnson were all elected to the House of Representatives , the first two from Kentucky , and Robert from Arkansas . Robert was later elected as a Senator before the Civil War .
= = Representation in other media = =
Johnson , Julia Chinn , and their daughters are featured as characters in Eric Flint 's alternate history novels , 1812 : The Rivers of War and 1824 : The Arkansas War .
= Camak House =
Camak House , at 279 Meigs Street , Athens , Georgia , was built in about 1834 by James Camak and featured in Georgia 's early railroad history . An example of Federal architecture , it has a number of features unusual for its period , including a kitchen within the raised basement and closets . Both main floors have four rooms ; the stairwell has a mahogany railing , and moldings and trim were made using a Greek key pattern . After long service as a family home , it was used as a Masonic Lodge before being bought by Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises . In 1975 Camak House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , but the building had by then fallen into disrepair . It was restored and used as the offices of a law firm . As of December 2011 , it is for sale .
= = Architecture and early history = =
Built atop a hill , Camak House was the first dwelling constructed on Prince Avenue ; Meigs Street was added later , cutting off a portion of the original property . The architecture is Federal style , " relatively unusual in Athens " , with locally produced ironwork in the front . The fanlight of the central doorway and the white @-@ washed brick construction are typical elements of the style . The house has two stories , with a " four @-@ over @-@ four room , central hall plan " – a style " based on the standard Greek Revival floor plan " with a " raised basement , a low @-@ hipped roof , and two @-@ story pilasters " . The basement originally housed slave quarters and the kitchen ; the hazard of fire made it unusual for houses of the period to include a kitchen , but because of Camak House 's brick construction the risk was thought to be low .
The floors were constructed using " knot @-@ free heart @-@ pine " , and solid mahogany was used for the railing of the stairwell . Details include silver @-@ plated doorknobs , " hand @-@ forged locks and latches " , and " a simple but visually striking Greek key pattern " for moldings and trim . Camak House was built with closets – a very unusual feature for the time .
Camak House was the location for a meeting to organize what became " the first successful railroad company in Georgia and only the third such company in the United States " . James Camak was named president of the company , and later served as the first president of Georgia Railroad Bank .
Five generations of Camaks lived in the house until 1947 . In her book Historic Houses of Athens , Charlotte Thomas Marshall notes that " It was not until 1904 , eleven years after Dr. Camak 's [ son of the James Camak who built the house ] death , that the first deed relating to the Camak house lot was recorded . At that time his sons , Louis and James Wellborn Camak , executed a quitclaim deed to their mother , Mary Wellborn Camak , acknowledging that the lot has been given to her by their father without a deed being made . " In 1949 , the house was purchased to serve as the Mount Vernon Lodge No. 22 , F. & A. M ( Masonic lodge ) ; then in 1979 by the Athens Coca @-@ Cola Bottling Company .
= = Restoration and current use = =
Albert Sams was president of the Athens Coca @-@ Cola Bottling Company when it acquired Camak House . He " was an active member of the Athens @-@ Clarke Heritage Foundation and a generous philanthropist , particularly with regard to historic houses " , and he planned to renovate Camak House for administrative offices ; corporate mergers ( ultimately with Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises ) in the 1980s ended those plans . However , it was the Sams family that sought Camak House 's listing on the National Register of Historic Places .
The house and grounds had fallen into decay by 1993 , when the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation and the law firm of Winburn , Lewis and Barrow formed a partnership to purchase Camak House from Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises . The trust added protective covenants before selling the property on to the law firm , one of whose partners was John Barrow , who served as the " prime mover in these negotiations " . A local company , S & W Development Corp , whose owner , Smith Wilson had been working in historic preservation for 18 years , was contracted to carry out the restoration work . The original floor plans , which had been altered during the Masons ' tenure , were reinstated ; Wilson was able to use drawings made of Camak House during the 1930s as part of the Works Progress Administration 's documentation of historic buildings .
The house 's restoration for use as law offices has been described by Elizabeth Dalton of the Athens @-@ Clarke Heritage Foundation as " an excellent example of adaptive use " . As of 2011 , Camak House is owned by the law firm of Lewis , Frierson and Grayson , LLP .
= = Historic status = =
Camak House was listed as a " point of interest " in the WPA Guide to Georgia ( which characterized the architecture as Georgian Colonial ) . The Athens Historical Society dedicated a historical marker on the grounds in 1963 . The Historic American Buildings Survey documented Camak House ( GA @-@ 14 @-@ 67 ) ; on July 7 , 1975 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places ; on March 6 , 1990 , it was locally designated a Historic Landmark ; and recognized by the Georgia Historical Marker Program ( 029 – 10 ) .
= The Jakarta Post =
The Jakarta Post is a daily English language newspaper in Indonesia . The paper is owned by PT Bina Media Tenggara , and the head office is in the nation 's capital , Jakarta .
The Jakarta Post was started as a collaboration between four Indonesian media under the urging of Information Minister Ali Murtopo and politician Jusuf Wanandi . After the first issue was printed on 25 April 1983 , it spent several years with minimal advertisements and increasing circulation . After a change in chief editors in 1991 , it began to take a more vocal pro @-@ democracy point of view . The paper was one of the few Indonesian English @-@ language dailies to survive the 1997 Asian financial crisis and currently has a circulation of about 40 @,@ 000 .
The Jakarta Post also features both a Sunday and Online edition , which go into detail not possible in the daily print edition . It is targeted at foreigners and educated Indonesians , although the middle @-@ class Indonesian readership has increased . Noted for being a training ground for local and international reporters , The Jakarta Post has won several awards and been described as being " Indonesia 's leading English @-@ language daily " . The Jakarta Post is a member of Asia News Network .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and development = = =
The Jakarta Post was the brainchild of Information Minister Ali Murtopo and politician Jusuf Wanandi . Murtopo and Wanandi were disappointed at the perceived bias against Indonesia in foreign news sources . At the time , there were two English @-@ language dailies , the Indonesia Times and Indonesian Observer . However , due to negative public perception regarding the existing papers they decided to create a new one . In order to ensure credibility , the two agreed to convince a group of competing newspapers ( the Golkar @-@ backed Suara Karya , the Catholic @-@ owned Kompas , the Protestant @-@ owned Sinar Harapan , and the weekly Tempo ) to back the nascent paper . It was hoped to become a quality English @-@ language paper , similar to The Straits Times in Singapore , the Bangkok Post in Thailand , and the New Straits Times in Malaysia .
After founding PT Bina Media Tenggara to back the paper , Wanandi spent several months contacting influential figures at the targeted newspapers . To receive their cooperation , Kompas requested a 25 percent share in the new newspaper , for which it would handle the daily business operations , such as printing , circulation , and advertising . Tempo offered to assist with management in return for a 15 percent share , while Sabam Siagian of Sinar Harapan was hired as the first chief editor , for which Sinar Harapan received stock . The establishment of the paper was further aided by incoming Information Minister Harmoko , who received 5 percent interest for his role in acquiring a license . In total , the start @-@ up cost Rp . 500 million ( US $ 700 @,@ 000 at the time ) . Muhammad Chudori , a co @-@ founder of The Jakarta Post who formerly reported for Antara , became the newspaper 's first general manager .
Further details , including the matter of Sinar Harapan 's share of stock and the publisher , were decided at a meeting at Wanandi 's office in March 1983 . The next month , on 25 April , the first edition — totalling eight pages — was published . The first newsroom of the new paper were located in Kompas 's former laundry room , a one story warehouse ; the first employees had to do the layout by hand , using pica poles as straight edges . During the first few months , the writers translated and recycled previously published stories from Indonesian media , which were later picked up by foreign wire services . Original reporting was rare as the editors at first did not want to deal with the censorship of Suharto 's New Order government .
During the early years of publication , The Jakarta Post had difficulty attracting advertisers , to the point that some editions ran without ads . However , circulation increased dramatically , from 8 @,@ 657 in 1983 to 17 @,@ 480 in 1988 . Although it was originally hoped that the paper would begin to turn a profit within the first three years , the recession in the early 1980s led to the start @-@ up funds being depleted . Eventually , in 1985 the paper took out an interest @-@ free loan and received Rp . 700 million from its owners . After advertising increased , The Jakarta Post was able to turn a profit by 1988 , and was considered " one of the most credible newspapers " in Indonesia .
= = = Activism = = =
Susanto Pudjomartono , former chief editor of Tempo , became The Jakarta Post 's second chief editor on 1 August 1991 , after Siagian was chosen to be Indonesia 's ambassador to Australia . Under Pudjomartono 's leadership , the paper began publishing more original work and doing less translation ; reporters were also asked to take a more active role in the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the paper . The paper also became more vocal regarding politics , taking a pro @-@ democracy stance like Tempo . It soon converted its offices into a new , two @-@ story building built using the Kompas pension fund and expanded to 12 pages .
In 1994 , The Jakarta Post signed a distribution agreement with the British news service Reuters and the American Dialog Information Services , allowing its stories to be more easily promoted overseas . By the mid @-@ 1990s , it had established a workshop to assist its new , foreign @-@ born staff in learning the local culture . By December 1998 , The Jakarta Post had a circulation of 41 @,@ 049 , and was one of the few English @-@ language dailies in Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis ; six other English @-@ language dailies had failed . That year it also became a founding member of the Asia News Network .
In November 2008 , The Jakarta Post began to feel competition , dubbed " a wake up call " , from the Jakarta Globe , which is backed by billionaire James Riady . Several reporters from The Jakarta Post left the paper to join the Jakarta Globe , and the initial print run of the latter was 40 @,@ 000 . As of 2011 , the chief editor is Meidyatama Suryodiningrat .
= = Editions and other publications = =
= = = Sunday edition = = =
The Jakarta Post 's Sunday edition was launched on 18 September 1994 . The Sunday edition includes more in @-@ depth stories , as well as entertainment and fiction that would not be published in the weekday editions .
= = = Online edition = = =
The Jakarta Post features an online edition , which includes both print and internet exclusive stories that are free to access . There are also news flashes that are developed as they happen . The paper hopes to digitise the entirety of its printed stories , with at least 50 @,@ 000 articles dating to June 1994 already digitised .
= = = Bali Daily = = =
On 9 April 2012 the Jakarta Post launched Bali Daily , a four pages daily newspaper produced in Bali , after noting that 4 @,@ 900 of their subscribers lived on the island .
= = Market = =
The Jakarta Post is targeted at Indonesian businesspeople , well @-@ educated Indonesians , and foreigners . In 1991 , 62 percent of the paper 's readers were expatriates . Under Pudjomartono 's leadership , it began targeting more Indonesian readers . As of 2009 , approximately half of its 40 @,@ 000 readers are middle class Indonesians .
= = Layout and style = =
The Jakarta Post follows a broadsheet format . In the beginning , it featured an index on the front page , as well as short offbeat stories under the title " This Odd World " . The lifestyle section had eight comic strips , and it used more photographs and graphics than was normal for Indonesian publications at that time . The editorials tended to be shorter than their Indonesian counterparts .
The Jakarta Post uses the inverted pyramid style of reporting , with the most important information at the beginning of the article ; during the 1980s , many Indonesian papers put the lede further down . Bill Tarrant attributes this to the different writing styles in English and Indonesian , with English favouring the active voice and direct statements , while respectful Indonesian favours the passive voice and a circuitous approach . Regarding this topic , Wanandi has said that " You cannot bullshit in English , like the Javanese way . "
= = Public opinion = =
Peter Gelling , of The New York Times , notes that The Jakarta Post has been considered a " training ground " for local reporters , and offers apprenticeship programs . In 2009 , six former The Jakarta Post reporters worked for Bloomberg . In 2014 the Jakarta Post was behind Kompas in terms of online visits .
= = Awards and recognition = =
In 2006 , the Reporters Union of Indonesia recognised The Jakarta Post as being one of the Indonesian newspapers that best followed the journalism ethics and standards ; other papers so recognised were Kompas and Indo Pos . The paper received the Adam Malik Award in January 2009 for their reporting on foreign politics ; the coverage was considered accurate and educated , with good analysis . The following year three reporters received the Adiwarta Award from Sampoerna for excellent photography in the fields of culture , law , and politics . Another journalist received the Adam Malik Award in 2014 for his writings which assisted the ministry to distribute information regarding foreign policy implementation .
= Aberdeen F.C. =
Aberdeen Football Club ( also known as The Dons or The Reds ) are a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen , Scotland . They compete in the Scottish Premiership and have never been relegated from the top division of the Scottish football league system since they were promoted in 1905 . Aberdeen have won four Scottish league titles , seven Scottish Cups and six Scottish League Cups . They are also the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies , having won the European Cup Winners ' Cup and the European Super Cup in 1983 .
Formed in 1903 as a result of the amalgamation of three clubs from Aberdeen , they rarely challenged for honours until the post war decade , when they won each of the major Scottish trophies under manager Dave Halliday . This level of success was surpassed in the 1980s , when , under the management of Alex Ferguson , they won three league titles , four Scottish Cups and a Scottish League Cup , alongside the two European trophies . Aberdeen were the last club outside of the Old Firm to win a league title , in 1984 – 85 , and also the last Scottish team to win a European trophy . The team has enjoyed less success since this golden era , but a 19 @-@ year wait for a major trophy was ended by winning the 2013 – 14 Scottish League Cup .
Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium since their inception . The ground currently has a capacity of 20 @,@ 961 and was the first all @-@ seated and all @-@ covered stadium in the United Kingdom . Pittodrie was also the first football stadium to feature a dugout , an invention of player and coach Donald Colman . The club 's colours have been primarily red and white since 1939 ; before this , they played in black and gold vertical stripes . Aberdeen attract support from the city and surrounding areas , as they are the only senior team within a wide area . Aberdeen have no geographically close rivals ; their nearest neighbours at the same level are in the city of Dundee .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1903 – 1939 ) = = =
The current Aberdeen F.C. was formed following the merger of three clubs based in the city — Aberdeen , Victoria United and Orion — in 1903 . The new club played its first match on 15 August 1903 , a 1 – 1 draw with Stenhousemuir . That first season produced a win in the Aberdeenshire Cup , but only a third @-@ place finish in the Northern League . The club applied for membership of the Scottish League for the following season , and were elected to the Second Division , rather than the First .
In 1904 , the club were managed by Jimmy Philip . At the end of its first season , despite having finished seventh out of twelve teams , Aberdeen were elected to the new , expanded First Division . They have remained in the top tier of Scottish football ever since , a record shared only with Celtic . From 1906 , the club made steady progress , with a Scottish Cup semi @-@ final appearance in 1908 and another in 1911 . In that season of 1910 – 11 , Aberdeen recorded their first victories over the Old Firm , and led the league for a time , but finished the season in second place .
Wartime affected the club as much as any other ; despite spending cuts and other economies , by 1917 the situation became untenable . Aberdeen dropped out of competitive football , along with Dundee and Raith Rovers . Senior football returned on 16 August 1919 , and Aberdeen resumed with a fixture against Albion Rovers . Philip was still in charge , and continued to oversee a team capable of isolated good results , but never quite able to sustain a challenge long enough to win a trophy . In 1923 , Aberdeen were drawn against Peterhead in the Scottish Cup , and posted their record score — a 13 – 0 victory . Philip retired a year later , and was replaced as manager by Paddy Travers . He presided over the team 's first Scottish Cup final in 1937 .
Travers ' " trainer " — first team coach in modern parlance — was former player Donald Colman . Colman was regarded as a brilliant and innovative thinker about football , and conceived the dug @-@ out , a covered area set slightly below the level of the playing surface to better aid his observations . Everton visited Pittodrie soon after its introduction , and exported the idea to the English leagues , from where it spread throughout the football @-@ playing world . Travers left to become manager of Clyde in 1939 .
= = = Halliday to McNeill ( 1939 – 1978 ) = = =
Travers was replaced by Dave Halliday . Halliday went to his ex club Queen of the South to sign inside forward George Hamilton . This would be as shrewd a signing as Halliday would ever make . However Halliday had barely begun his work when the Second World War halted competitive football in the United Kingdom .
Halliday 's place in the Aberdeen Hall of Fame was secured after the war when he became the first manager to bring national trophies to Pittodrie . Aberdeen , now playing in red , won the Southern League Cup in the 1945 – 46 season , defeating Rangers 3 – 2 at Hampden . They then reached the 1947 Scottish Cup final , defeating Hibernian 2 – 1 with the inspirational Hamilton scoring to gain the club 's first major trophy . From this early success , Halliday 's side reached two more Scottish Cup finals , in 1953 and 1954 , although both were lost . Halliday 's team were not to be denied , however , and the following season , 1954 – 55 , Aberdeen won their first Scottish League title . Though league winners , the club did not participate in the first European Cup competition — Scotland 's place was awarded to Hibernian , who took part by special invitation .
Halliday and Hamilton left at the end of that championship @-@ winning season , Halliday replaced by Davie Shaw . Aberdeen won the League Cup under his guidance , beating St Mirren in 1955 – 56 , and reached another Scottish Cup final in 1959 . However , Shaw stepped aside for another former favourite player , Tommy Pearson , in 1959 . Pearson 's time in charge coincided with a high turnover of players , and yielded no trophies . He retired in 1965 , making way for Eddie Turnbull . Turnbull led Aberdeen to two Scottish Cup finals against Celtic , the first a loss in 1967 .
Aberdeen first played in Europe in the 1967 – 68 Cup Winner 's Cup , qualifying as runners @-@ up to Celtic in the Scottish Cup final . Their first tie was a 14 – 1 aggregate victory over KR Reykjavik , although they lost the second round tie with Standard Liège 3 – 2 on aggregate . Two years later , Derek " Cup @-@ tie " McKay recorded the only four goals of his Aberdeen career to help his team to the 1969 – 70 Scottish Cup , scoring the winning goals in the quarter- and semi final , and two in the final itself . As Scottish Cup holders , Aberdeen once again qualified for the same competition , but were eliminated in the first round following a 4 – 4 aggregate tie with Honvéd . This tie , level after extra time and also level on away goals , was decided by the first penalty shoot @-@ out in UEFA competition history , Honvéd winning the shootout 5 – 4 in Budapest .
The Aberdeen side of the 1970s regularly challenged for domestic honours . However , they rarely won trophies , with the exception of the Drybrough Cup in 1971 under Jimmy Bonthrone and the League Cup in 1976 , under Ally MacLeod . During this decade , Aberdeen had five managers : Eddie Turnbull , Jimmy Bonthrone , Ally MacLeod , Billy McNeill and Alex Ferguson . They reached two more national cup finals — the Scottish Cup in 1978 under Billy McNeill and the League Cup in the following season under the new manager Alex Ferguson .
= = = Alex Ferguson era ( 1978 – 1986 ) = = =
Under Ferguson 's guidance , the club won three league championships , four Scottish Cups , the European Cup Winner 's Cup , the European Super Cup , a League Cup , and a Drybrough Cup — all in the space of seven years . Players such as Jim Leighton , Willie Miller , Alex McLeish and Gordon Strachan became the backbone of the team . Aberdeen 's second League title was won in 1979 – 80 , and this initial success was built on , with Scottish Cup wins in three successive seasons from 1982 to 1984 , and two more league titles in 1983 – 84 and 1984 – 85 .
In the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1983 Aberdeen beat FC Sion , Dinamo Tirana and Lech Poznań to face the German Cup winners Bayern Munich . This game was won 3 – 2 at Pittodrie after a goalless draw in Germany , John Hewitt with the winning goal . They then faced now defunct Belgian club Waterschei in the semi @-@ final . Aberdeen beat them 5 – 1 at home , and lost for the first time in the tournament , 1 – 0 away , resulting in an aggregate victory which sent Aberdeen to the final . On 11 May 1983 , Aberdeen beat Real Madrid 2 – 1 after extra time to win the cup and become only the third Scottish side to win a European trophy . The club released a song , " European Song " , to coincide with the appearance in the final . This was followed up with the capture of the European Super Cup in December , when Hamburger SV were beaten over two legs .
Aberdeen reached the semi @-@ finals of the 1983 – 84 European Cup Winners ' Cup , before losing to Porto 2 – 0 on aggregate . In the first round of the 1984 – 85 European Champion Club 's Cup Aberdeen lost to East Berlin side BFC Dynamo in a penalty shoot @-@ out 4 – 5 , following a 3 – 3 on aggregate in regular times . Today , both clubs enjoy friendly relations .
= = = Post @-@ Ferguson ( 1987 – 1999 ) = = =
After Ferguson moved south of the border to manage Manchester United in November 1986 , Aberdeen struggled to compete with Celtic and a resurgent Rangers .
Aberdeen signed new co @-@ managers in 1989 , pairing Alex Smith and Jocky Scott . A number of foreign players were signed , including Dutch internationals Theo Snelders and Hans Gillhaus . In the 1989 – 90 the club won both the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup . In the 1990 – 91 they lost the last game of the season , and the league title , to Rangers . Former player Willie Miller took over in 1992 and presided over two seasons where Aberdeen came close to winning the title . However , he was sacked in 1995 after a bad season , and the club had to rely on a play @-@ off victory over Dunfermline Athletic to retain their Premier League status . Aberdeen replaced him with Roy Aitken . Despite a Scottish League Cup success beating Dundee in 1995 , the club continued to struggle . Alex Miller and Paul Hegarty had spells in charge in the late 1990s , but with the financial burden of a new stand putting the club into debt for the first time in its history , the directors turned to Stewart Milne , a local businessman whose firm had built the stand , to bring business acumen to the running of the club .
= = = Skovdahl to Brown ( 1999 – 2013 ) = = =
Aberdeen 's first ( and only to date ) non @-@ Scottish manager , Ebbe Skovdahl , was appointed in 1999 and his time in charge coincided with some of the heaviest defeats in the club 's history . The low point of the club 's history came in the 1999 – 2000 season , when they finished last in the Premier division . As the SPL was being expanded to 12 teams , there was then a three team play @-@ off . However , as Falkirk 's stadium did not meet SPL requirements , Aberdeen retained their status in the top flight . Subsequent to this , and with the club in debt for the first time following the construction of a new stand at one end of the ground , a policy of trying to live within their means has meant that the club has not approached the heights of the 1980s .
Steve Paterson was appointed to replace Skovdahl but lasted only two seasons . Paterson 's tenure with Aberdeen was marred by his abuse of alcohol . In March 2003 he failed to attend a home game against Dundee due to being too hungover after a night of binge drinking prior to the match .
Jimmy Calderwood took over in 2004 and Aberdeen posted more consistent results than in previous seasons . In the 2006 – 07 season , the club finished in third place in the league and entered the final qualifying round for the 2007 – 08 UEFA Cup . Aberdeen defeated Dnipro on the away goals rule to progress ( the first time Aberdeen had won on away goals in European football for 40 years ) . They went on to beat F.C. Copenhagen 4 – 0 , which was the biggest margin of victory and one of Pittodrie 's biggest crowds since the 1980s . This set up a meeting with German giants Bayern Munich , which they lost 7 – 3 on aggregate after a 2 – 2 draw which saw Aberdeen lead twice in the first leg . Calderwood was sacked by Aberdeen on 24 May 2009 , hours after he took the club to a fourth @-@ place finish and back into Europe . Poor domestic cup performances were thought to be the reason for Calderwood 's dismissal .
Mark McGhee of Motherwell was appointed as Calderwood 's replacement on 12 June 2009 . McGhee controversially dismissed Aberdeen legend and goalkeeping coach Jim Leighton in August 2009 and replaced him with Colin Meldrum . Aberdeen suffered a 9 – 0 defeat to Celtic on 6 November 2010 , their heaviest ever defeat . McGhee and his assistants were eventually sacked on 1 December 2010 .
Aberdeen approached Craig Brown , who was working without a contract at Motherwell , to replace McGhee . Brown initially rebuffed an offer made on 8 December 2010 ; but after further discussions with the club Brown resigned as manager at Motherwell to be announced as the next manager at Aberdeen on 10 December 2010 . The first act of the new management team of Brown and Archie Knox was to re @-@ instate Jim Leighton . Aberdeen failed to produce better results under Craig Brown 's tenure , and in March 2013 announced his retirement to take up a non @-@ executive director role on the club 's board .
= = = Recent years ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Derek McInnes was announced as the successor to Craig Brown in March 2013 . In McInnes ' first season as manager , Aberdeen won the 2013 – 14 Scottish League Cup after defeating Inverness 4 – 2 on penalties , their first trophy in 19 years . Aberdeen finished third in the Scottish Premiership , and began the next season by coming through the early rounds of the Europa League , beating Dutch club FC Groningen before eventually being eliminated by Spanish side Real Sociedad . The club ended the season in second place , their best league position since 1993 – 94 . In the following season 's Europa League , they were again defeated in the third round , this time by FC Kairat . Following a title challenge against Celtic , the team finished the league as runners @-@ up for the second year running .
= = Colours and crest = =
For the first season of the club 's existence , the team played in a predominantly white strip . This is variously reported as all @-@ white , or as white shirts with blue shorts and socks . This colour scheme was the direct descendant of the colours worn by the precursor Aberdeen club , but lasted only one season before being replaced .
For the 1904 – 05 season , Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt , which led to the team being nicknamed " Wasps " . This strip , with only minor variations , was worn until just before the start of the Second World War . The blue shorts lasted until 1911 , and then were replaced with white ones . Socks were black with gold trim , either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown .
In March 1939 , Aberdeen changed the black and gold colours to red and white , reflecting the silver and red colours of the official City of Aberdeen arms . The first red strips were worn with white shorts , with either red or white socks from 1939 until the 1965 – 66 season . In 1966 , Aberdeen adopted red shorts , making the official kit all @-@ red , similar to that of Liverpool , who made a similar change at around the same time . This arrangement has continued to the present day , with several variations in design , in common with most senior clubs as the replica shirt market has expanded . In the late 1970s an Admiral strip featured five vertical white stripes on the left side of the shirt and shorts , and the early 1980s shirts — as worn at the 1983 European Cup Winners Cup final — featured white vertical pinstripes . Later design changes included significant amounts of blue , and a one season reversion to white shorts , although the all @-@ red scheme returned in 1997 . For the 2012 – 13 season , Aberdeen once again reverted to wearing white shorts . In 2013 – 14 , the all @-@ red kit was reintroduced .
Shirt sponsorship began in 1987 , and the initial shirt sponsor was JVC . Since then , with the club making fewer appearances on the international stage , shirt sponsors have tended to be local to Aberdeen — they have included one of the local commercial radio stations , Northsound , as well as several Aberdeen @-@ based oil service companies . The current shirt sponsor is Saltire Energy .
Away colours have tended to be either white — often with black shorts — or a combination of yellow and black , referring back to the black and gold strips of the pre @-@ war era , although for a time in the 1970s , Aberdeen sported an all @-@ blue change strip with white socks . For the 2007 – 08 season , the change strip was all @-@ white , with a third kit of yellow and black halves available if needed for European games , or in the event of a clash involving both red and white .
The club did not have an official crest before 1972 , but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt , usually in some kind of cursive font . In November 1972 , the club unveiled an official crest or logo , designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison . The design represented a capital letter A as the side view of a football goal , with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter . This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net , signifying the scoring of a goal . The logo was completed by the letters FC in smaller type at a level with the ball element . This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978 , with no significant alterations until the mid @-@ 1980s when the words " Aberdeen Football Club " were added in a circular border , and the date of the club 's founding , 1903 , was added under the goal element . The current version of the crest , which retains these elements in a unified design , was introduced at the start of the 1997 – 98 season . Two stars signifying the winning of the two European trophies in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005 – 06 season .
= = = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = = =
= = Stadium = =
Aberdeen have played throughout their existence at Pittodrie Stadium , the name of which comes from the Pictish for " place of manure " . The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899 , in a 7 – 1 win over Dumbarton ; when they merged with two other teams in 1903 , the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground . On 15 August 1903 , 8 @,@ 000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1 – 1 against Stenhousemuir , the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants . The club initially rented the ground , but subsequently bought it in 1920 . The stadium currently seats 20 @,@ 961 . The record attendance is 45 @,@ 061 , during a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts on 13 March 1954 .
The stadium consists of four stands : the Main Stand , which also houses the club offices and players facilities ; the Merkland Road Family Stand ; the South Stand , which is opposite the main stand and holds the largest amount of spectators ; and the Richard
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Miller proved unable to break into Ipswich 's first team and was permitted to undertake a trial with Southend United in August 2000 . He played for the Essex club 's reserve team , which led to him being offered a professional contract , but Alan Little was dismissed as the club 's manager shortly afterwards , and the offer of a contract was withdrawn . In October 2000 , Miller was released from his contract at Ipswich and dropped into non @-@ league football , joining Canvey Island of the Isthmian League . In the 2000 – 01 season he made 36 appearances for the " Gulls " and helped the team reach the final of the FA Trophy , although he was an unused substitute for Canvey 's victory over Forest Green Rovers in the final . The following season he was a key member of the team that finished second in the Isthmian League Premier Division , playing 48 times in total .
In August 2002 , after two final games for Canvey , he moved to Grays Athletic in a swap deal which saw Jeff Minton go in the opposite direction . Although he played 26 times for Grays in the 2002 – 03 season , scoring six goals , he was made available for transfer at the end of the season . He joined Gravesend & Northfleet in September 2003 , but played just four games for the club before moving on to Aldershot Town a month later . His form at Aldershot won him The Non @-@ League Paper 's Young Player of the Year award for the 2003 – 04 season , and also led to a call @-@ up to the England National Game XI in February 2004 , although it was to be his only cap for the semi @-@ professional national team .
In November 2004 , Miller played for Aldershot against the reserve team of Queens Park Rangers , the team he had supported since childhood . Rangers manager Ian Holloway , who had received promising reports about Miller from scouts , was sufficiently impressed to sign the player after watching him in person . Although the exact amount was undisclosed , the transfer fee was the highest ever received by Aldershot Town . Miller made his Football League debut on 4 December 2004 in a 2 – 1 defeat to Nottingham Forest , and played in more than half of the team 's remaining league matches that season . By late September 2005 , he had made just one league appearances since the start of the season , and was sent to Peterborough United on what was originally intended to be a three @-@ month loan . A month later he was recalled to Loftus Road , but he was not to feature again in the Rangers team . In January 2006 , he had a brief trial with Oxford United but the following week he joined Stevenage Borough of the Conference National , initially on an 18 @-@ month contract .
Miller featured regularly for Stevenage , and was in the starting line @-@ up for the 2007 FA Trophy final , the first competitive match at the new Wembley Stadium , in which Borough came back from two goals down to beat Kidderminster Harriers and win the Trophy .
Stevenage manager , Mark Stimson , was appointed as the new manager of Gillingham in November 2007 , and quickly moved to sign Miller and his team @-@ mate John Nutter on loan . Miller made his debut for the Kent club in the 2 – 1 home win over Hartlepool United on 24 November 2007 , and signed a permanent contract in January 2008 , set to keep him at the club until 2010 . During the team 's ultimately unsuccessful struggle to avoid relegation from League One in the 2007 – 08 season , Miller was identified as a key player and singled out for praise by Stimson , who said " If eight players play like Adam Miller we won 't be in this position but if we 've only got one or two we will be " . The following season he remained a regular selection in Stimson 's team , acting as captain in Barry Fuller 's absence , but injury kept him out of the team at the end of the season as Gillingham clinched a place in , and ultimately promotion through , the play @-@ offs . In the 2009 – 10 season , however , he failed to hold down a regular place in the team , and in November 2009 went to Dagenham & Redbridge on a one @-@ month loan . Miller 's debut for Dagenham came on 14 November in a 1 – 0 away win against Accrington Stanley . He returned to Gillingham at the end of his loan spell , but Stimson announced that the club was considering paying off the remainder of the player 's contract . Despite this , Miller played regularly during the remainder of the 2009 – 10 season . At the end of the season he left Gillingham and joined Cambridge United . Miller played several times at the start of the 2010 – 11 campaign , but was seriously injured in early September against Eastbourne Borough . Two years later , he announced his retirement from football as a result of the injury . He subsequently set up a company leasing luxury cars to other footballers .
= = Honours = =
FA Trophy : 2001 , 2007
= Changi Murals =
The Changi Murals are a set of five paintings of biblical theme painted by Stanley Warren , a British bombardier and prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) interned at the Changi Prison , during the Japanese occupation of Singapore in World War II ( WWII ) . His murals were completed under difficult conditions of sickness , limited materials and hardships . With a message of universal love and forgiveness , they helped to uplift the spirits of the POWs and sick when they sought refuge in the prison chapel .
After the war , the walls of the chapel were distempered over , hiding the murals from view . They were forgotten until its rediscovery in 1958 . Due to their historical significance , an international search was conducted to locate the original painter in helping to restore the damaged and faded murals . Stanley was eventually found in 1959 and , after much persuasion , agreed to assist in the restoration project . He made three trips to Singapore between 1963 and 1988 to restore his former paintings . Due to Stanley 's advanced age , only four of the original murals were fully restored . In the 1990s , the former site of the murals was gazetted as a Heritage Site by the National Heritage Board of Singapore .
= = History = =
Stanley Warren was born in England in 1917 . He was talented in art from young and was a religious man . Stanley was employed as a commercial designer producing poster ads with the Grenada organisation before the war . In January 1940 , he enlisted in the army to join the fight against Nazi Germany and was posted to the Royal Regiment of Artillery as an Observation Post Assistant . His responsibilities included having to make quick drawings of panoramas used to plot targets for the guns .
= = = Changi = = =
In early 1942 , he was posted overseas to Malaya ( former name for Malaysia ) with the 15th Field Regiment Royal Artillery after the Japanese had invaded Malaya and Thailand , and Pearl Harbor had been bombed . Upon their arrival , their fight against the Japanese was brutal and short @-@ lived , and soon his battalion began retreating to Singapore . The Changi Garrison , a heavily fortified coastal defence where most of the British forces were based , consisted of three army barracks ; the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders in the Selarang Barracks , the Royal Engineers in Kitchener Barracks , and the 9th Coastal Artillery Regiment of the Royal Artillery in Roberts Barracks . By 12 February , the situation in Singapore was desperate and Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Ernest Percival , General Officer Commanding of HQ Malaya Command , ordered the Changi Garrison to withdraw to Singapore Town . After the British surrender of Singapore on 15 February 1942 , Stanley and Allied POWs were ordered to march to Changi for internment ; the 15 @,@ 000 Australians went into Selarang Barracks and the British to Roberts and Kitchener Barracks . Stanley was interned at Roberts Barracks and later joined other POWs to work around Singapore , repairing damage inflicted by the Japanese attacks and getting essential services back to working order . Percival was held in Roberts Barracks until , with all senior officers above the rank of Lieutenant Colonel , he was sent to Formosa ( now Taiwan ) by the Japanese . The food given to the prisoners was of poor quality and inadequate for men working as slave labour . As a result of this and the harsh treatment meted out by the Japanese guards such as the beatings and executions of escaped prisoners , the men 's health and morale began to suffer in the long run .
= = = St Luke 's Chapel = = =
During one of the work parties , Stanley was sent to build a road and stairs leading to a memorial to the Japanese dead on Bukit Batok Hill ( Marked with a Bukit Batok Memorial plaque today , only the stairs and road called Lorong Sesuai are still there to be seen ) . The chaplain of the regiment , well aware of Stanley 's religious conviction and artistic background , requested him to decorate the asbestos walls at the altar area of a small open attap @-@ roofed chapel at Bukit Batok . With charcoal salvaged from around the camp , he drew two murals : Nativity , which featured a Malay Madonna and Descent from the Cross in which he included soldiers in uniforms , using his comrades as models . By then , he was becoming ill and was suffering from a severe renal disorder complicated by amoebic dysentery . On 23 May 1942 , Stanley was lying comatose and was sent to Roberts Barracks in Changi which was converted for use as a hospital for POWs to recuperate .
By mid @-@ August 1942 , Stanley had recovered enough to be moved to the dysentery wing at Block 151 of Roberts Barracks . Padres Chambers and Payne had heard that Stanley had decorated the prisoners ' chapel at Bukit Batok . So they asked him if he would do some paintings for St Luke 's Chapel , which was recently converted from the ground floor of Block 151 , near the area where Stanley was recuperating . The Chapel was dedicated to St Luke the Physician . Stanley agreed , and sought inspiration for the proposed paintings in the Gospels .
= = = The five murals = = =
On 30 August 1942 , at the time when Stanley was preparing the draft drawings of the murals , the Japanese began an action which would become known as the Selarang Barracks Incident . It was an incident concerning seventeen thousand Anglo @-@ Australian POWs , who were forced to vacate their buildings and be exposed for nearly five days in the open without water or sanitation for refusing to sign a " No Escape Pledge " . Against this backdrop , Stanley began to paint the murals . No one had asked the Japanese for permission to draw and at no stage did they interfere with his work . Considering the purpose of the murals , Stanley felt that the Chapel was basically dedicated to peace and reconciliation , and so he choose universal themes for the murals which would embrace all mankind . Paint was not readily available in the camp , but with the aid of the other prisoners , who unquestionably put themselves at great risk , materials to make the paint were gradually acquired — brown camouflage paint , a small amount of crimson paint , white oil paint and billiard chalk were found and brought for Stanley use . Despite still being very ill , Stanley set to work on the murals in early September 1942 . His illness meant that he could only paint for a limited period each day , for perhaps 15 minutes at a time followed by a rest . To compensate as much as he could for the lack of coloured paint , Stanley resorted to using large brush strokes and big areas of solid colour when painting . In September 1942 , a few weeks after Stanley began painting the murals , he was informed that his work party was to be sent north to Thailand to work on the Thai @-@ Burma Railway . A colonel in charge of the hospital , who knew of his work @-@ in @-@ progress murals , intervened to have Stanley transferred back to the hospital so that he could continue on his work in the Chapel . Most of Stanley 's unit who went to the Thai @-@ Burma Railway never returned . Stanley recounted : " Had I gone with them , most certainly , I would have died . So the murals very directly saved my life in the way I could never have foreseen ... It 's a terrible sense of debt ... that one feels to the chapel . "
By Christmas 1942 , he completed his first mural , the Nativity . Altogether , Stanley managed to produce five large murals on the walls of the Chapel , each mural being about three metres long , in the following order :
Nativity
Ascension
Crucifixion
Last Supper
St Luke in Prison
All of them were subjects which are at the very heart of Christian belief . The completed murals uplifted the spirits of the POWs and sick when they seek refuge in the Chapel . Stanley never put his name on any of his paintings as he considered them " a gift to God " . In May 1944 , Block 151 with the St Luke Chapel 's inspiring murals was designated to become a store for an airfield nearby . The lower portion of St Luke in Prison mural was almost completely destroyed when it was demolished to make a link to an adjoining room . The walls of the Chapel was distempered over , hiding the murals from view . Stanley was later sent to Kranji in the north of Singapore , not far from the Causeway to Malaya , and remained there till the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 . After the war , Stanley returned to England believing that his murals had been destroyed by Allied bombing towards the end of the war . He married and became an art teacher at the Sir William Collins School , later South Camden Community School and currently Regent High School in Somers Town , London .
= = = Rediscovery = = =
Forgotten for nearly 13 years , the Changi Murals were accidentally rediscovered in 1958 by servicemen of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) occupying the Roberts Barracks . The Chapel was again used as a store , and later as accommodation by the RAF . Once rediscovered , the distemper coating covering the murals was carefully removed – four complete murals and the top @-@ quarter of a fifth were revealed . As there was no signature on any of the murals , a search for the artist was undertaken but failed after initial investigations . By a stroke of luck , the artist 's name came to light in the RAF Changi Education Library of all places . A reader came across a book titled The Churches of the Captivity in Malaya , mentioning about the Chapel of St Luke in Roberts Barracks and the artist 's name – Bombardier Stanley Warren . The Daily Mirror was notified and again went to work looking for the known artist . In February 1959 , he was found living in London with his wife and son . He was shocked when he saw the photo of his mural of the Crucifixion , when a keen @-@ eyed colleague of his showed him the papers .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1960 , the RAF contacted Stanley and the idea of restoring the murals was brought up . He was initially reluctant to return to restore his works due to the painful memories of war and captivity the murals would bring back to him : " I didn 't immediately want to come . I felt that there would be some sort of ... trauma . I 'm trying to forget this , you know , I tried so hard ... It took years really to eliminate the memories and fears ... the long drawn out experience and really waiting for death over three and a half years , it 's long time to expect death . And I really tried to forget ... But of course I was never able to do that . "
After much persuasion , he overcame his fear and eventually made three trips to Singapore to restore his murals in December 1963 , July 1982 and May 1988 . The 1982 restoration was more intensive and the invaluable assistance given to Warren by the officers and boys of the SAF Boys ' School enabled the bulk of the work to be completed . Of the original five murals , only one was not fully restored ; the mural of St Luke in Prison . Stanley 's original tracing of the drawing was missing , and he could not remember the details of the missing portion . In 1985 , Stanley 's original drawing was discovered in the memorabilia of Wally Hammond who had been a fellow prisoner with Stanley . These original sketches were subsequently donated to the National Archives of Singapore . From the original , Stanley painted a small picture , which was placed below the remaining piece of the mural in 1988 . He was , by then , not fit enough to restore the actual mural .
On 20 February 1992 , Stanley died in his home in Bridport , England at the age of 75 .
= = = Parliamentary discussions = = =
Stanley 's murals were discussed in the British Parliament in October 1968 . Charles Morris , minister of parliament for Openshaw , asked the Defence Ministry , Denis Healy , to consider moving the murals to England . His proposal was unsuccessful when the Singapore Ministry of Defence decided to take responsibility of the murals and to keep them in good condition for display in 1969 . ( Singapore gained independence from Britain in August 1965 ) . In addition , a copy of one of the murals painted by Stanley had been brought to England and installed in the Garrison Church at Larkhill in Wiltshire .
= = The murals today = =
The three @-@ storey Block 151 of Roberts Barracks ( off Martlesham Road ) still stands today , but is now part of the Ministry of Defence 's Changi Airbase Camp . Most of the buildings surrounding Block 151 were demolished in July 2003 . Inside the Chapel , there is a photo of Stanley and some narrative about him and the murals but access to the Chapel is restricted . However , for public interest , a replica of Stanley Warren 's murals is also on display at the Changi Chapel and Museum , along with an audio @-@ visual theatre that screens videos about POW life , display of POW belongings and collection of books about Singapore during WWII .
Since 1993 , the Changi Murals , Changi Prison and other WWII sites in Singapore , is part of a Battlefield Tour organised by the National Institute of Education and the Ministry of Defence , a bi @-@ annual five @-@ day residential National Awareness programme to create greater awareness of national and security issues among trainee teachers .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In November 1994 , a two @-@ man British team was in Singapore to film the Changi Murals and Kranji War Memorial for a BBC documentary , for the Commonwealth War Graves Commission which marked the 50th Anniversary of the end of World War II .
On 15 February 2002 , more than 250 former POWs and their families from Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom came over to Singapore for a reunion @-@ cum @-@ memorial service that was held at the Changi Chapel and Museum , and a tour of the Changi Murals and the Selarang Camp . The event was organised by the Singapore Tourism Board to mark the 60th anniversary of the fall of Singapore .
= Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " is a song by the rock band U2 . It is the fifth track on their 1993 album , Zooropa , and was released as the album 's third single on 22 November 1993 . The song was a top ten hit in Ireland , Australia , the United Kingdom , and several other countries . The music video was shot in Berlin , Germany . The earliest incarnation of the song developed during sessions for the group 's 1991 album Achtung Baby . It was written for and inspired by Frank Sinatra and bore his surname as the original working title . An alternate recording was used in the Wim Wenders film Faraway , So Close ! .
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was well received by critics and nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song . The song made its live debut on the Zoo TV Tour but has only been performed intermittently in an acoustic version over subsequent tours . Members of U2 consider it to be one of their favourite songs ; guitarist The Edge named it the best track on the album , while lead singer Bono stated that it was one of their best creations .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The earliest incarnation of " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was developed during the recording sessions for Achtung Baby . While working in Hansa Ton Studios in Berlin , guitarist The Edge and lead singer Bono created the verse . The track was given the working title " Sinatra " in reference to the artist whose music inspired it . The group reworked it in preparation of Zooropa . The Edge noted " it came to us in installments " . Bassist Adam Clayton said " it was hard to figure out how we would do it . I mean , no one is going to mistake us for Frank Sinatra 's backing band . A very humble little combo sound is what we ended up with and that really worked . " The Edge added " I was playing around on piano with some old @-@ school chord progressions trying to summon up the spirit of Frank Sinatra . It 's definitely not from a rock and roll tradition . " He worked out a chord progression based on old Tin Pan Alley songs .
As the recording sessions progressed , Wim Wenders approached the band and asked them for a song for his next film , Faraway , So Close ! . The Edge said " we heard Wim Wenders was looking for a song ... so I had a go at finishing it . " U2 watched the film , Faraway , So Close ! , for inspiration on how to craft the song . Bono said " the film was about angels who want to be human and who want to be on Earth . But to do so they have to become mortal . That was a great image to play with - the impossibility of wanting something like this , and then the cost of having it . " Two versions of the song were crafted ; the first was released on Zooropa , and the second , almost two minutes longer and featuring " an edgier guitar and drum performance , " was included on the Faraway , So Close ! soundtrack . Close to the completion of the recording Bono renamed the song " Stay . " Wanting to further reference the Wenders film he then changed it once more , to " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " .
= = Composition and theme = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " runs for 4 : 58 ( 4 minutes , 58 seconds ) . According to Universal Music Publishing Group 's sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , it is played in common time at a tempo of 86 beats per minute in the key of E ♭ major . The vocals extend from a low note of B3 to a high of D ♯ 7 .
Third Way contributor Graham Cray wrote that the song " [ describes ] more directly a culture which consists of a cacophony of voices and images but which has neither soul nor direction . " Hot Press editor Niall Stokes noted that the lyrics were ambiguous in whether they took place in reality or fantasy , which he likened to the overarching theme of the album . Author David Kootnikoff believed that " the pop melody conceals the lyric 's dark theme about a victim of physical abuse who reasons her pain away with the line ' When he hurts you , you feel alive . ' " Mark Brown of The Orange County Register described it as " the desperate tale of an abused woman with nowhere to go but back to her home . " He compared it to U2 's 1987 song " Running to Stand Still " , saying " That same sort of descriptive but distanced narrative is what made [ it ] so powerful . "
= = Release = =
Promotional singles were released in the fall of 1993 . The 12 @-@ inch vinyl and CD versions contained the album version of the song . The 7 @-@ inch vinyl promo also included a cover of " I 've Got You Under My Skin " . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was released internationally as the third single from Zooropa on 22 November 1993 , following the releases of " Numb " and " Lemon " earlier in the year . It was available in 7 @-@ inch vinyl , cassette , and CD formats in four versions . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was included on U2 's 2002 compilation album The Best of 1990 – 2000 , and its accompanying video release . The alternate recording of the song was released on the soundtrack to Faraway , So Close ! . Craig Armstrong covered it on his 2002 album As If to Nothing ; Bono recorded a new vocal take for the track . The song also features in the 1993 Only Fools and Horses episode " Fatal Extraction . "
= = = B @-@ sides = = =
Six B @-@ sides were included across the four versions . " I 've Got You Under My Skin " was the sole B @-@ side on the 7 " and cassette formats . It was also available on the version dubbed " The Swing Format , " which contained two remixes of " Lemon . " " I 've Got You Under My Skin " is a cover of the 1936 Cole Porter song , recorded as a duet by Bono and Frank Sinatra . It was also released on Sinatra 's 1993 album Duets . " Lemon ( Perfecto Mix ) " was remixed by Paul Oakenfold and Steve Osborne . " Lemon ( Bad Yard Club Edit ) " was mixed by David Morales , who added his own percussion to the track .
" The Live Format " included the first studio release of " Slow Dancing " and live versions of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Love Is Blindness " from the Zoo TV Tour . " Slow Dancing " is an acoustic song by Bono and was written for Willie Nelson . It debuted in concert on 1 December 1989 in Osaka , Japan , on the Lovetown Tour , almost four years before it was released , and has been performed infrequently since then . While recording elements of " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , Bono picked up a guitar and began to play the song . When finished he asked Flood if he wanted to record it ; unbeknownst to him , the microphone was on and the take had been recorded . A second take was then done . It was considered for inclusion on Zooropa ; although producer Brian Eno liked it , the song was not selected for the album . A second version , recorded with Nelson , was later released as a B @-@ side on U2 's 1997 single " If God Will Send His Angels . " " Bullet the Blue Sky " was recorded on 28 August 1993 in Dublin . " Love Is Blindness " was taken from U2 's concert on 30 August 1992 in New York City .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was directed by Wim Wenders , produced by Debbie Mason , and edited by Jerry Chater . The video was filmed in Berlin over the course of three days , primarily in black @-@ and @-@ white but with some sequences in colour . It contains cameos of some of the actors who appeared in Faraway , So Close ! , including Otto Sander , as well as Wenders ' nephew . Several scenes are taken directly from Faraway , So Close ! and Wenders ' 1987 film Wings of Desire , which also served as the principal inspiration for the video 's premise . Wenders noted that " making a video is really a very different ballgame . You have the script , so to speak , because you have the song , and everything you do is in order to help the song shine ... You want to make that song look as good as possible and sound as good as possible and as interesting as possible . " Several shots depict the band members standing on the statue of Victoria , a monument at the top of the Berlin Victory Column ; a model of the angel was created for those scenes . Leftover military equipment from the Cold War , including the Soviet MiG , were included in the background .
The video depicts a band playing " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " . U2 were cast in the role of the band 's guardian angels , watching over the position that corresponds to their instrument in U2 . Meret Becker is the lead actress of the video , cast as the band 's lead singer . Wenders stated that they " liked the idea that Bono 's voice would be sung by a girl in this video . " Throughout the video U2 help the musicians play the track ; drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. is shown assisting in the beat , while The Edge tunes the guitar , which Wenders noted is " what you 'd do if you were guardian angel to a lead guitarist . " The video alternates between the band playing , the members of U2 standing on Victoria , and scenes from both Wenders films . At the conclusion of the video , Bono leaves the band on their own . The final shot shows him falling to earth , personifying the final lyric " Just the bang and the clatter as an angel hits the ground . "
= = Live performances = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " debuted on 31 July 1993 in Stockholm , Sweden , on the fourth leg of the Zoo TV Tour . It was performed at all remaining concerts on the tour . It was not played on the PopMart Tour . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " returned to the live setting on 20 April 2001 in San Jose , California , on the first leg of the Elevation Tour , making it the first song from Zooropa to be played in North America . It was performed as an acoustic duet by Bono and The Edge . The rendition was impromptu and not on the setlist , with Bono reading the lyrics from a sheet . The song continued to be performed sporadically through the rest of the tour , appearing at 48 of 113 concerts . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was not played during the Vertigo Tour , but U2 revived it on the U2 360 ° Tour . It was played sporadically on the first and second leg of the tour , and was a mainstay feature of the fifth leg . It was the only song from Zooropa performed by U2 at the Glastonbury Festival in 2011 .
Live performances of the song appear on Zoo TV : Live from Sydney ( 1994 ) , Elevation 2001 : Live from Boston ( 2001 ) , the " Walk On " and " Stuck in a Moment You Can 't Get Out Of " singles ( 2001 ) , Zoo TV Live ( 2006 ) , and the live album U22 ( 2012 ) . The Zoo TV Live performance is an audio rip of the performance from Zoo TV : Live from Sydney . The version on the " Walk On " and " Stuck in a Moment You Can 't Get Out Of " singles was recorded in Toronto , Ontario , on 25 May 2001 .
= = Reception = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was critically acclaimed . Music journalist Sam Richards rated the song four stars out of five , calling it " a twinkling ' 90s alt. rock ballad - a cousin of Radiohead 's " High and Dry " and Smashing Pumpkins ' " 1979 " - that just about manages to keep a lid on its impulse to seek out the nearest clifftop . " Hot Press editor Niall Stokes said " the performance is full of languorous beauty , a gentle understated kind of emotion that seems at odds with the disorientation in the lyrics . " Billboard contributor Fred Bronson joked that it was an example of how songs named " Stay " reach the Hot 100 , following similarly named hits by Big Mountain , The Four Seasons , Shakespears Sister , and Jodeci . Robert Levine of Spin called it one of their best songs , saying " They 're still obsessed with transcendence , whether it 's the kind you find on a Joshua Tree bluff or a " Miami " dance floor . And [ " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " ] framed that search in the most intimate of terms , even when they were too jaded to crawl out from under their lemon and look us in the eye . "
Writing for Time , Josh Tyrangiel compared it to U2 's earlier hits " Where the Streets Have No Name " and " One " , saying " ' Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) ' ... [ achieves ] the impossible — becoming meaningful to millions of people — precisely because [ it is ] beautifully vague . " David Bauder of the Associated Press called it " the album 's most beautiful song . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star said that it was " the most conventional U2 song on the album . " The Orange County Register 's Mark Brown noted " The casual guitar lines on ' Stay ' infuse the song with a tension that perfectly suits the subject " . The Bergen Record reviewer Barbara Jaeger called it an " achingly beautiful ballad . " Writing for The Dallas Morning News , Manuel Mendoza said it was " absolutely gorgeous , with Bono 's husky moaning evoking a warm yearning . "
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was nominated in the category Best Original Song at the 51st Golden Globe Awards . In 2005 , Bono said " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was " perhaps the greatest U2 song , " saying it has the " most extraordinary contour of a melody . It 's really quite sophisticated . The lyric never misses , " and noting that they had " never turned ' Stay ' into the single it deserved to be . " He named it as one of his two favourite U2 songs , along with " Please . " The Edge called it " the stand @-@ out track on the record . " Wenders described it as one of his favourite U2 songs .
= = Track listings = =
All tracks written by U2 and performed by U2 except " I 've Got You Under My Skin , " written by Cole Porter and performed by Frank Sinatra with Bono .
= = Charts = =
= = Sales and Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy is an autobiography written by Nancy Cartwright . First published in September 2000 by Hyperion , it details Cartwright 's career , particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart Simpson on The Simpsons and contains insights on the show , diary entries and anecdotes about her encounters with various guest stars .
Critics commented that the book seemed to be aimed at fans of The Simpsons rather than a more general audience . Other criticisms included the simplicity of the writing and a lack of interesting stories . In 2004 , Cartwright adapted the book into a one @-@ woman show , which she has performed all over the world , including at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe .
= = Background = =
In the opening chapter , Cartwright writes " About five years ago I decided I wanted to write this book . I knew that The Simpsons would end some day . [ ... ] I decided that I wanted to write it while the show was still on the air . " In an interview with Scotland on Sunday , she added " I wanted to tell my story and I needed to because I get so much fan mail . People are so interested in the whole process , how it all comes together . This book does that . " In a 1995 interview , five years before writing the book , Cartwright remarked that she wanted to write a book and that if she did , it would be titled " My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy . "
The book contains excerpts from date books and journals that Cartwright had kept over the years . The book was officially announced in January 2000 and Cartwright had originally intended that it be released on October 31 .
= = Content = =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy opens with a dedication to Daws Butler , a list of acknowledgements and a foreword from Cartwright 's The Simpsons co @-@ star Dan Castellaneta . The first chapter of the book details Cartwright 's life and career prior to 1987 . In the second chapter , Cartwright recalls the day she went to audition for a role in a series of animated shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show . The shorts were about a dysfunctional family and Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa Simpson , the eldest daughter . Upon arriving at the audition , she found the role of her brother Bart to be much more interesting . Matt Groening , creator of the shorts , allowed her to audition for Bart , and gave her the job on the spot after hearing her reading . From there , the book contains her experiences as the voice of Bart. After three seasons of shorts , a half @-@ hour spinoff called The Simpsons debuted in 1989 . In the following chapters , she recalls the early days of The Simpsons , commenting on the recording process and her co @-@ stars and revealing how she got the roles of some of the other characters she voices , including Nelson Muntz and Ralph Wiggum . In the 15th chapter , she discusses her experiences of voicing a famous character , but rarely being recognized .
Several chapters are devoted to a detailed " behind the scenes " look at how an episode of The Simpsons is made , including the writing , recording and animation . My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy contains multiple excerpts from Cartwright 's diary detailing various events , mostly encounters with The Simpsons guest stars . Guest stars she talks about include Ernest Borgnine , Danny DeVito , Kirk Douglas , Mel Gibson , Kelsey Grammer , Tom Jones , Michael Jackson , Mickey Rooney , Meryl Streep and Elizabeth Taylor . One chapter describes the day she found out that Phil Hartman , a frequent guest star on The Simpsons , was murdered . The final chapter is a retrospective in which she answers the question " what is it like to be the voice behind the star ? "
= = Reception = =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy 's original print of 25 @,@ 000 copies were sold on pre @-@ order in the United Kingdom , with 38 @,@ 000 copies being sold . Cartwright began a publicity tour in late October 2000 , starting in her hometown of Dayton , Ohio , where the book became the top selling non @-@ fiction in the town in the first week of November 2000 .
Laura A. Bischoff of the Dayton Daily News commented that the book was the " ultimate insider 's guide to The Simpsons . " However , several critics commented that the book was straightforward and presented few interesting stories . Susan Shapiro of The New York Times wrote that " Although the paradoxes of being ' a celebrity nobody knows ' are interesting , the photographs , diary entries and overly cute commentaries make this book feel like a personal scrapbook . " Rosellen Brewer of the Library Journal commented that " Cartwright 's own life notwithstanding , there is nothing really new or exciting here . She knew what she wanted to do and was able to do it ; end of story . " Lee Bacchus of The Province wrote that " This little book by the voice of Bart Simpson reads as if it were written by a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Not that that 's all bad . Cartwright , who voices Bart along with Ralph Wiggum and a few others on The Simpsons , gives a very unchallenging tour behind the scenes of the phenomenally successful series . It 's kind of fun to discover how the show is put together and how an adult woman snagged one of the coolest jobs in the world [ ... ] If only it wasn 't all so relentlessly perky . "
Another common criticism was that the book was aimed at fans of The Simpsons and not a general audience . A preview in People said the bottom line was that the book is " for die @-@ hard fans only . " Bacchus concurred , saying " Cartwright writes as if she were speaking to devotees of The Simpsons Fan Club , too often providing bland tidbits of background that only obsessives would ever really care about . " Rob Sheridan of the National Post also believes that the book is " aimed squarely at rabid Simpsons fans " , and criticized the writing , commenting that " the chronology of her story is sometimes muddled , and a lot of sentences have that first @-@ draft feeling [ ... ] But none of this is anything to have a cow about . "
= = Stage adaptation = =
In 2004 , My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy was adapted into a one @-@ woman play . Described as " a romp through Springfield through [ Cartwright 's ] eyes " , the first portion of the play is scripted and includes anecdotes from Cartwright , dialogue performed in her characters ' voices and video clips from The Simpsons . At the end , she does a question and answer session and occasionally plays a game to allow for audience participation . Cartwright 's friend Rose Goss co @-@ wrote the play , and serves as director . Cartwright has performed the show at various locations , including the Big Laugh Comedy Festival in Parramatta , Australia , in March 2004 , a three @-@ week run at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in Edinburgh , Scotland in August 2004 , at the " Simpsons Mania " convention in Toronto , Canada , ( the North American debut of the play ) in October 2004 and at Riverside Studios in London , England , in May 2005 .
The play has received modest reviews . Julian Hall of The Independent criticized it for a lack of inside stories about The Simpsons , writing that " Cartwright never allows you to become bored but that means some issues are skirted over faster than American closing credits on television . You never really get a feel what it is like recording the show . " Brian Logan of The Guardian described Cartwright as " a lively host [ ... ] eager to please " , but found the play to be " an overweeningly upbeat collection of Simpsons chitchat . " David Chatterton of British Theatre Guide described it as " interesting and entertaining , but not really a ' must see ' even for Simpsons fans . " Clive Davis of The Times wrote that " In contrast to The Simpsons itself , where not a line , not a syllable , goes to waste , Cartwright has a habit of losing herself in anecdotes that stumble into dead @-@ ends . [ ... ] The half @-@ hearted trivia quiz involving volunteers from the audience soon dies a death too . The performance really cries out for a hard @-@ headed director . The video clips of Cartwright at large are fun , however . "
= Beholder ( horse ) =
Beholder ( foaled May 9 , 2010 ) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse . She was purchased as a yearling by B. Wayne Hughes of Spendthrift Farm . With an early reputation for being difficult to handle , trainer Richard Mandella worked extensively with the fractious young horse , gradually developing her from a temperamental front @-@ runner into a seasoned veteran who could be placed in a strategic position to best beat her competition .
As a two @-@ year @-@ old in 2012 , she won three of her five races including the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and was voted American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . In the following season she won five of her seven races , including the Breeders ' Cup Distaff . With the Breeders ' Cup win , she became the first horse to win both the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and the Distaff in consecutive years , and concluded her three @-@ year old season by being named American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . After a four @-@ year @-@ old season plagued by injuries and illness , with a single graded stakes win in three attempts , she returned to form as a five @-@ year @-@ old , with multiple stakes wins and becoming the first filly or mare to win the Pacific Classic and was voted American Champion Older Dirt Female Horse . In doing so , she became the first horse since 1976 , male or female , to win Grade 1 stakes races at age 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 . In 2016 , she extended this achievement by winning the Grade 1 Vanity Stakes .
= = Background = =
Beholder is a bay mare with no white markings , bred by the Clarkland Farm in Lexington , Kentucky . She was sired by Henny Hughes , a sprinter whose biggest wins came in the King 's Bishop Stakes and Vosburgh Stakes in 2006 . Beholder 's dam , Leslie 's Lady , was a descendant of the broodmare Last Bird , making her a distant relative of the Kentucky Derby winner I 'll Have Another . Leslie 's Lady won five races out of 28 starts , including the listed Hoosier Debutante Stakes in 1998 . Beholder 's older half @-@ brother , Into Mischief ( sired by Harlan 's Holiday ) , won the 2007 CashCall Futurity and the 2008 Damascus Stakes .
As a yearling , Beholder was consigned by the Clarkland Farm to the sale at Keeneland in September 2011 , where she was bought for $ 180 @,@ 000 by B. Wayne Hughes ' Spendthrift Farm . At age two , the filly was sent into training with the California @-@ based trainer Richard Mandella .
Beholder initially developed a reputation as a " temperamental diva . " As a young filly , she was prone to rearing when she got upset , but later turned to bucking . But the people who worked with her every day viewed her differently ; her exercise rider in 2013 , David Nuesch , described her as " straightforward " , explaining , " she kind of likes it to be her idea and doesn 't want to be told too much what to do . " Her groom , Ruben Mercado , said she was a " little angel " in the stables , but " all business " on the track . Mandella used earplugs and a hood with ear coverings ( colloquially called " earmuffs " ) to help keep her focused . At one point , he even tried giving her ear buds , but the sound upset her even more . Mandella was described as the " perfect " trainer for her , as he was willing to try different training techniques to keep her from getting in her own way , took the time to figure out her quirks , and learned to anticipate her behavior . The bond and depth of communication between trainer and horse was noted in the press . Mandella 's son Gary described Beholder as having an " Alpha Male perspective , " explaining " She ’ s actually dominant , bullyish and head strong . She ’ s not quirky because she ’ s worried that something is lurking around the corner . The things that she does that are hard to manage are because she ’ s tougher than you . ”
As she aged , her behavior improved and she began to behave like a seasoned veteran . Mandella himself gave credit to the horse : " I ’ d say she brought me along . I haven ‘ t brought her along . I ’ ve just been along for the ride . " By her six @-@ year @-@ old season , following her 17th career win , which was also her sixth consecutive victory , Mandella said of Beholder , " “ Good horses come along , and there are a few great ones , but to be great and stay great , it really is special . ”
= = Racing career = =
= = = 2012 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder was ridden in all her two @-@ year @-@ old races by Garrett Gomez . She began her racing career by finishing fourth behind Executiveprivilege in a maiden race on the Cushion Track at Hollywood Park Racetrack on June 28 . A month later she recorded her first win in a maiden race at Del Mar racetrack , beating Fanticola by 3 1 ⁄ 4 lengths . On September 2 she was moved up to Grade I class for the Del Mar Debutante Stakes over seven furlongs . Starting at odds of 8 @.@ 1 – 1 she hit the starting gate but took an early lead , leading by 2 1 ⁄ 2 lengths in homestretch but was caught by Executiveprivilege at the finish line and was beaten a nose . Beholder moved to Santa Anita Park in October . Because she remained keyed up after the previous race and upset by the stress from shipping , Mandella chose to put her in an easier race than a Grade I to see if she would settle down enough to contest the Breeders ' Cup later in the year . She was entered into a six furlong allowance race and won by eleven lengths despite being eased in the closing stages . On November 2 at Santa Anita , Beholder was one of eight fillies to contest the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies over one mile . She was the 9 – 2 joint second choice in the betting behind Executiveprivilege , who was made the 13 – 8 favourite . Beholder took the lead from the start and broke clear of the field to open up a three length advantage on the final turn . She held off the late challenge of Executiveprivilege to win by a length .
= = = 2013 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder began her three @-@ year @-@ old season in the Grade II Santa Ynez Stakes over seven furlongs at Santa Anita on January 21 . She started the 1 – 5 favorite but was beaten three @-@ quarters of a length by Renee 's Titan . An explanation for her poor performance emerged a week later when an examination revealed an ulcer in the filly 's throat . At the same course on March 2 , Beholder started 4 – 5 favorite for the Grade I Las Virgenes Stakes over one mile . She led from the start and was never seriously challenged , winning by 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths from Fiftyshadesofhay . Beholder 's next race was the Grade I Santa Anita Oaks on April 6 , for which she started the 3 – 10 favorite . Despite an unfavorable draw , she quickly went into the lead and went clear of the field in the straight to win by 2 3 ⁄ 4 lengths from Iotapa . Mandella described the winner as having " the heart of a warrior " . Throughout her spring campaign , she continued to be ridden by Gomez .
In the Kentucky Oaks on May 3 at Churchill Downs , Beholder started at odds of 9 – 1 in a field of ten fillies , with the Gulfstream Oaks winner Dreaming of Julia being made the 6 – 4 favorite . It was the first time she had been shipped outside of California . Beholder tracked the leader Midnight Lucky before moving into the lead in the homestretch but was overtaken in the closing stages by the 39 – 1 outsider Princess of Sylmar and finished second , beaten by half a length . Her loss was attributed in part to her behavior in the post parade . Without her training earmuffs , she was anxious and upset by the crowd noise , fought to get away from the track pony that was leading her to the gate , and partially fell down , forcing Gomez to jump off . Sportswriters described her as " angry " and adrenaline @-@ filled , while Mandella described her as " rattled . " After the race , Gomez speculated that if Princess of Sylmar had been closer as she passed , instead of well to the outside , Beholder 's fighting instincts still might have been enough to have held out for the victory . However , he also commented at the time that she relied on speed to win , and if she was slowed down , she had difficulty regaining momentum .
After a break of almost four months , Beholder returned in the Torrey Pines Stakes over one mile at Del Mar on September 1 , where she was ridden for the first time by Gary Stevens . She started the 1 – 10 favorite and led all the way , winning easily from second @-@ place finisher Wittgenstein . Four weeks later , Beholder was matched against older fillies and mares in the Grade I Zenyatta Stakes over eight and a half furlongs at Santa Anita . She led from the start and won easily , with the six @-@ year @-@ old veteran Authenticity in second . Mandella called the winner " a filly that really likes the fight " while Stevens said that " I haven 't gotten close to the bottom of her yet " . On November 1 , Beholder contested the Breeders ' Cup Distaff over nine furlongs at Santa Anita . The field was a very strong one , including Royal Delta who had won the race for the last two years , Princess of Sylmar , Authenticity and Close Hatches . Although Beholder showed some anxiety in the starting gate , she had a clean start . Mandella had been training Beholder so that instead of always being a front @-@ runner , she could be rated behind other horses and conserve energy . His strategy was a success as Beholder tracked the leaders before moving up into second place half a mile from the finish . She took the lead two furlongs out and went clear of the field to win easily by 4 1 ⁄ 4 lengths over Close Hatches , with Royal Delta fourth and Princess of Sylmar last of the six runners . After the race Mandella said " I ’ ve been lucky enough to have many good mares in my years of training , but this mare might have to be the best of all " . With her Distaff win , she became the first horse to win both the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and the Distaff in consecutive years .
= = = 2014 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder ran only three races in 2014 . She began her third season in the Santa Lucia Stakes at Santa Anita on April 21 . Conceding six pounds to her opponents , she started at odds of 1 – 10 and won by more than five lengths over Legacy . The filly returned to Grade I competition at the Ogden Phipps Stakes at Belmont on June 7 . It was only the second time she had been shipped to race outside California , the only prior trip having been the Kentucky Oaks . Beholder went off as the favorite ahead of Princess of Sylmar and Close Hatches . She raced on the outside and moved up to third on the final turn but could make no further progress and finished fourth behind winner , Close Hatches . | She had sustained an injury during that race , and after returning to training , split the wound site open again during a workout , requiring stitches and missing additional training time . Nonetheless , on September 27 , with Mike Smith riding her for the first time , she won the Zenyatta Stakes for a second time , winning by 3 ⁄ 4 of a length over Tiz Midnight and Iotapa . She was viewed as not at her peak fitness , but progressing well in spite of the delays in training linked to her injury .
Beholder was prepared to defend her Breeders ' Cup Distaff title , and was also consigned to be sold at the 2014 Fasig @-@ Tipton fall sale immediately after . Plans changed when she was found to be running a 104 ° F fever after exercising on October 19 . She was scratched from both the race and the sale , and owner Hughes decided that after she recovered from her illness , she would not be sold , but instead would stay in training and return to racing in 2015 .
= = = 2015 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
For the second year in a row , Beholder took the Santa Lucia Stakes , run at a distance of 1 1 ⁄ 16 miles ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) on April 10 , 2015 . With Stevens returning as her rider , she tracked Uzziel until pulling easily away for a 3 3 ⁄ 4 length win . " The game was pretty much over going into the first turn and it was sort of a glorified workout , which is something you hope for in a race like this , " Stevens said . " She 's the best filly I 've ever sat on and I 'm not sure she 's not the best horse I 've ever ridden . "
After missing the Grade 1 Vanity Stakes and an anticipated match @-@ up with improving Warren 's Veneda in May due to a fever similar to that which prevented her from competing in the 2014 Breeders ' Cup Distaff , Beholder was given time off . She returned in the Grade III Adoration Stakes on June 13 , where she defeated Warren 's Veneda by a comfortable 1 1 ⁄ 4 lengths in 1 : 41 @.@ 67 . Beholder followed up with an easy win in the Grade I Clement L. Hirsch Stakes , winning by 7 lengths , without being touched with the whip . Her behavior had markedly improved as she matured , with Stevens commenting , " she went from being a cantankerous kid to a laid @-@ back grandma . " With that victory , she became the first horse since 1976 , male or female , to win Grade I stakes races at ages 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 . While other horses had won Grade I stakes four years in a row , she was notable for being the only horse to have done so beginning at age two .
On August 22 , 2015 , Beholder became the first filly or mare to win the Grade I Pacific Classic against males . She won by 8 1 ⁄ 4 lengths with a final time of 1 : 59 @.@ 77 , against an otherwise all @-@ male field of nine other horses , including 2014 Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Bayern . She won in the third @-@ fastest winning time in the history of the race , and with the second @-@ largest margin of victory , behind the 2013 win of Game On Dude . Hughes said : “ She ’ s the first horse who has made me feel lucky to be her owner . ” Mandella quipped , " We didn ’ t think she would do it quite like that . We thought it was the girls she was picking on . ” and added later , " I think the boys pissed her off . I think they were telling sexist jokes on the backside . " After the race , her connections announced that she would train with the goal of running in the Breeders ' Cup Classic . They also suggested that she might race again in 2016 and that upon retirement , Hughes would be likely to keep her at his Spendthrift Farm and not offer her for sale .
In her last race of 2015 , she won the Zenyatta Stakes for the third time , stalking the pace until taking the lead in the homestretch , easily winning in a field of eight by 3 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . As she prepared for her next race , the 2015 Breeders ' Cup Classic , the biggest challenge was anticipated to be her reaction to travel ; she had only raced twice outside of California , losing both times , and was known to be a poor shipper . With the 2015 Breeders ' Cup races held at Keeneland , and weather causing difficulties for shipping horses by air , Mandella nonetheless declared , " We plan to run in the big one . ” She shipped to Keeneland on October 19 and developed a slight fever shortly after arrival , thought due to shipping stress , but the fever dropped following treatment and she continued to prep for the race . But on the morning of 29 October , Beholder was sent out for a gallop at the Keeneland training track , and examination after the race revealed that she had bled . She was scratched from the Classic . Mandella explained , " there 's obviously some irritated lung tissue there . She will be fine , but if I put her under the pressure of a race situation , it could cause some real damage . This was obviously due to the fever she had when she arrived " .
= = = 2016 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
In her 2016 debut , Stevens was once again in the saddle , and Beholder won the Adoration Stakes for the second time in succession at Santa Anita Park on May 8th , the day after the 2016 Kentucky Derby . This was her seventh straight victory in 16 wins overall ; 14 of her wins have been stakes wins . On 4 June Beholder appeared to be facing a much sterner task when she took on the 2015 American Champion three @-@ year @-@ old filly Stellar Wind in the Grade I Vanity Mile at Santa Anita . In a slowly @-@ run race Stevens tracked the early leader Lost Bus before taking the lead on the turn and winning " effortlessly " by one and a half lengths from Stellar Wind .
= = Assessment and honors = =
Beholder was named American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly at the Eclipse awards for 2012 , gaining 225 of the available 254 votes . She repeated the following year , winning American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly with 207 votes against 42 for runner @-@ up Princess of Sylmar . In the awards for 2014 , in spite of her abbreviated season , she still received five votes for American Champion Older Female , though the award that year went to Close Hatches by a wide margin . Beholder won her third Eclipse Award in January 2016 when she was named American Champion Older Dirt Female Horse , taking 256 of the 261 votes .
In the 2013 World 's Best Racehorse Rankings , Beholder was rated the second @-@ best three @-@ year @-@ old filly in the world behind the French @-@ trained Treve , and the thirty @-@ eighth best horse in the world of any age or either sex . In September 2015 , following her Pacific Classic win , she was ranked eighteenth , the sixth @-@ highest rated American horse and again second only to Treve as the highest @-@ rated filly or mare .
= = Statistics = =
= = Pedigree = =
= The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 film ) =
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a 2011 Swedish @-@ American psychological thriller film based on the novel of the same name by Stieg Larsson . This film adaptation was directed by David Fincher and written by Steven Zaillian . Starring Daniel Craig and Rooney Mara , it tells the story of journalist Mikael Blomkvist ( Daniel Craig ) ' s investigation to find out what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared 40 years prior . He
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Travers , who concluded : " Fincher 's Girl is gloriously rendered but too impersonal to leave a mark . " A. O. Scott , writing for The New York Times , admired the moments of " brilliantly orchestrated " anxiety and confusion , but felt that The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was vulnerable to the " lumbering proceduralism " that he saw in its literary counterpart , as evident with the " long stretches of drab , hackneyed exposition that flatten the atmosphere " . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern praised Cronenweth 's cinematography , which he thought provided for glossy alterations in the film 's darkness ; " Stockholm glitters in nighttime exteriors , and its subway shines in a spectacular spasm of action involving a backpack . " Rex Reed of The New York Observer professed that despite its occasional incomprehensibility , the movie was " technically superb " and " superbly acted " . In contrast , Kyle Smith of New York Post censured the film , calling it " rubbish " and further commenting that it " demonstrates merely that masses will thrill to an unaffecting , badly written , psychologically shallow and deeply unlikely pulp story so long as you allow them to feel sanctified by the occasional meaningless reference to feminism or Nazis . "
The performances were a frequent topic in the critiques . Mara 's performance , in particular , was admired by commentators . In comparing the performances between Mara and Noomi Rapace , who played Salander in the 2009 film , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that Rapace felt more self @-@ conscious in the role . A revelation in the eyes of Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman , he proclaimed that her character was more important than " her ability to solve a crime " . Her " hypnotic " portrayal was noted by Justin Chang of Variety , as well as Salon critic Andrew O 'Hehir , who wrote , " Rooney Mara is a revelation as Lisbeth Salander , the damaged , aggressive computer geek and feminist revenge angel , playing the character as far more feral and vulnerable than Noomi Rapace ’ s borderline @-@ stereotype sexpot Goth girl . " Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club enjoyed the chemistry between Mara and Craig , as did David Germain of the Associated Press ; " Mara and Craig make an indomitable screen pair , he nominally leading their intense search into decades @-@ old serial killings , she surging ahead , plowing through obstacles with flashes of phenomenal intellect and eruptions of physical fury . " Although Puig found Mara inferior to Rapace in playing Salander , with regard to Craig 's performance , he said that the actor shone . This was supported by Morgenstern who avouched that Craig " nonetheless finds welcome humor in Mikael 's impassive affect " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In addition to numerous awards , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was included on several year @-@ end lists by film commentators and publications . It was named the best film of 2011 by MTV and James Berardinelli of ReelViews . The former wrote , " The director follows up the excellent Social Network with another tour de force , injecting the murder mystery that introduces us to outcast hacker Lisbeth Salander [ ... ] and embattled journalist [ ... ] with style , intensity and relentless suspense . Mara is a revelation , and the film 's daunting 160 @-@ minute runtime breezes by thanks to one heart @-@ racing scene after the next . Dark and tough to watch at times , but a triumph all around . " The film came second in indieWire 's list of " Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 " , while reaching the top ten of seven other publications , including the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch , San Francisco Chronicle , and the New Orleans Times @-@ Picayune . The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was declared one of the best films of the year by the American Film Institute , as well as the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
= = Possible sequels = =
In December 2011 , Fincher stated that he wanted to film the sequels , The Girl Who Played with Fire and The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest , " back to back . " There was an announced release date of 2013 for a film version of The Girl Who Played with Fire , although by August 2012 it was delayed due to difficulties with the script , being written by Zaillian . In July 2013 , Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to re @-@ write the script .
In September 2014 , Fincher stated that a script for Played with Fire had been written that was " extremely different from the book , " and that , despite the long delay , he was confident that the film would be made because Sony " already has spent millions of dollars on the rights and the script " . Mara , however , has been less optimistic about the project , saying in interviews in both May 2014 and February 2015 that sequels looked unlikely , despite her desire to appear in them .
In November 2015 , TheWrap reported that Sony was rebooting the franchise with an adaptation of The Girl in the Spider 's Web , a 2015 novel by David Lagercrantz that was a continuation of the original Millennium trilogy . According to the report , neither Mara , Craig nor Fincher were likely to return for the film ; Alicia Vikander was discussed as possibly taking over the role of Salander . However , while promoting Carol , Mara stated that she is still signed for the sequel : " As far as I know I 'm doing it until someone tells me otherwise [ ... ] I 'm doing it unless someone tells me that I 'm not — and then I still might do it , " she joked . Steven Knight will serve as screenwriter .
= 2005 UEFA Super Cup =
The 2005 UEFA Super Cup was an association football match between Liverpool of England and CSKA Moscow of Russia on 26 August 2005 at Stade Louis II , Monaco , the annual UEFA Super Cup contested between the winners of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in the Super Cup for the fifth time , having won the competition in 1977 and 2001 . CSKA Moscow were appearing in the Super Cup for the first time , the first Russian team to appear in the competition .
The teams had qualified for the competition by winning the two seasonal European competitions . Liverpool won the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , defeating Italian team A.C. Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . CSKA Moscow won the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup , beating Portuguese team Sporting CP 3 – 1 .
Watched by a crowd of 17 @,@ 042 , CSKA took the lead in the first half when Daniel Carvalho scored . Liverpool did not respond until the 82nd minute when substitute Djibril Cissé scored . The score remained 1 – 1 until the end of the 90 minutes to send the match into extra @-@ time . Cissé scored again in the 103rd minute to give Liverpool the lead , which was later extended by Luis García . Liverpool held out until the end of extra @-@ time to win the match 3 – 1 , their third Super Cup win .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Super Cup as the reigning UEFA Champions League winners . They had won the Champions League beating Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . It would be Liverpool 's fifth appearance in the Super Cup . They had previously won the competition in 1977 and 2001 , beating Hamburger SV and Bayern Munich respectively . The two other appearances in 1978 and 1984 had resulted in losses to Anderlecht and Juventus respectively .
CSKA Moscow had qualified for the Super Cup as a result of winning the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup . They had beaten Sporting CP 3 – 1 to become the first Russian team to win a European trophy . Therefore , they were making their first appearance in the competition and were the first Russian team to compete in the Super Cup .
Both sides had played several matches already , which was unusual as the Super Cup would normally have been the first significant match the two teams had played . Liverpool had been forced to enter the first qualifying round of the 2005 – 06 UEFA Champions League , despite being champions . They had failed to finish in the top four during the 2004 – 05 FA Premier League , which would ensure Champions League qualification . UEFA granted them special dispensation to enter the competition as holders . Meanwhile , CSKA Moscow were in the middle of their domestic season . At the time of this match they were second in the 2005 Russian Premier League , seven points behind leaders Lokomotiv Moscow .
Both teams valued the competition , despite some commentators being dismissive of the match 's importance . CSKA captain Sergei Ignashevich underlined his team 's determined mood : " We know their players are very strong because they won the Champions League . But we are not thinking about individuals . We will only worry about ourselves and not them . " Likewise Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard was equally determined to be successful : " This is the opportunity to win another trophy . When you play against good teams you have to do your best . I am not thinking about the past and that we won the Champions League . "
CSKA and Liverpool had injury concerns ahead of the match . CSKA striker Ivica Olić , the top scorer in Russia at the time , was sidelined with a serious knee injury . However , fellow CSKA striker Vágner Love was said by manager Valery Gazzaev to have " no problems " over his leg injury . Liverpool were without injured duo Djimi Traoré and Peter Crouch . There was also doubt over whether their captain Steven Gerrard would play . The decision over whether his calf injury had healed sufficiently for the match was left to the last moment . However , Gerrard was not deemed fit enough to play and was left out of the squad . The lead up to the match had been changed from the previous year . The UEFA Club Football Awards were incorporated into the draw for the group stage of the 2005 – 06 UEFA Champions League on the day before the match .
= = = Summary = = =
CSKA kicked @-@ off , but Liverpool had the first chance of the match . Dietmar Hamann shot from 20 yards ( 18 m ) but his shot was saved by CSKA goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev . 11 minutes after the start of the match Luis García was put through on goal from a pass by Hamann , but before he could shoot , Akinfeev had smothered the ball . García was put through on goal again moments later from a Boudewijn Zenden pass but his shot went over the crossbar . Midway through the first @-@ half , García found Fernando Morientes 25 yards ( 23 m ) from goal with a pass , but Morientes ' subsequent shot was saved by Akinfeev . At this point in the match , Liverpool were dominating possession but were unable to convert this into goals . With Liverpool dominate for the majority of the half , CSKA scored against the run of play . Midfielder Daniel Carvalho took the ball past Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina and put the ball into an open goal to give CSKA a 1 – 0 lead . It was not until the 36th minute that Liverpool created another goalscoring opportunity , however García and Steve Finnan both failed to score . Towards the end of the half , Zenden was shown a yellow card for a late tackle on Chidi Odiah .
Liverpool kicked @-@ off the second half and five minutes into the half Liverpool defender Josemi was shown a yellow card for fouling Miloš Krasić . Liverpool 's poor play in front of goal continued after the restart ; Josemi had a chance to score , but his shot from the edge of the penalty area went over the crossbar . After the attack , Liverpool made the first substitution of the match ; Florent Sinama Pongolle replaced Finnan . After just over an hour 's play , a mix @-@ up between Reina and Sami Hyypiä nearly contrived to present a goal to CSKA , before Hyypiä intervened to clear the ball . CSKA made their first substitution in the 66th minute with Deividas Šemberas replacing Yuri Zhirkov . Liverpool followed this by replacing Xabi Alonso with Mohamed Sissoko . Vágner Love had a chance to extend CSKA 's lead in the 77th minute , but he was unable to control the ball after a high pass and lost possession . Despite their lead CSKA were negative in their play ; they were punished when Liverpool replaced John Arne Riise with striker Djibril Cissé . Cissé made an immediate impact ; he ran onto to a pass from García . The pass was cleared by CSKA defender Sergei Ignashevich but it ricocheted off Cissé and left him with an open goal after Akinfeev had come off his line in an attempt to clear the ball . Cissé 's goal meant the match was now drawn at 1 – 1 and with no further goals the match went into extra @-@ time .
CSKA kicked @-@ off the first half of extra @-@ time . Five minutes into the half , Liverpool substitute Sinama Pongolle was booked . With two minutes of the half remaining , the ball was played into the centre of the CSKA half ; Ignashevich misjudged the flight of the ball , which went over his head and fell to Cissé . His subsequent shot was saved by Akinfeev , but the ball rebounded to Cissé who scored to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead . The half was brought to an end with Liverpool leading for the first time in the match . Liverpool kicked @-@ off the second half of extra @-@ time . CSKA had the first chance of the half , but Vágner Love 's effort was easily saved by Reina . Liverpool responded midway through the half ; Cissé 's cross from the right side of the pitch was met by García , who scored . No further goals were scored and the referee blew for full @-@ time with the final score 3 – 1 to Liverpool .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez was happy with his players after they had come from behind to win the match : " It was a difficult game . We were controlling the game , passing the ball around and then we made a mistake and had to work really hard to get back . They played well , but I think we controlled the game . To score three goals is not easy . I can say that we are very happy now with this trophy . Now is the time to enjoy our victory . " With five days of the transfer window left , Benítez refused to speculate on whether Liverpool would sign Michael Owen , stating , " I like good players , we have a lot of them here . "
CSKA manager Valery Gazzaev praised his players despite their loss and hinted that injuries may have been a factor in the loss : " The game was satisfactory – we had followed the plan we set out , but still we made two mistakes . On the whole I think our team played very well but of course it is a shame we didn 't win . We had a lot of good opportunities but we couldn 't do it . Liverpool played as we expected – they played quite aggressively . We didn 't feel uncomfortable but we made a couple of mistakes . " Gazzaev rued the injuries his team suffered indicating there might have been a different outcome had certain players been fit .
Despite Cissé 's two goals , there had been speculation linking Liverpool with re @-@ signing Michael Owen , who had left the club for Real Madrid a year earlier . Liverpool fans had even chanted Owen 's name during the match , singing , " There 's only one Michael Owen . " Cissé underlined the importance of scoring twice with speculation rife : " It is clear scoring two goals in the Super Cup is important for me , because there has been a lot of speculation about me of late and about my position within the club . " Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher stated the importance of the two goals for Cissé : " Cissé wanted to prove a point – he wanted to show everyone what he can do and great credit to him . We 're the players – it 's up to us to play and the management decides which players we have . " Carragher confirmed that Liverpool missed their captain Gerrard , but was delighted to win the match despite this .
= Cars ( film ) =
Cars is a 2006 American computer @-@ animated comedy @-@ adventure produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed and co @-@ written by John Lasseter , it is Pixar 's final independently @-@ produced motion picture before its purchase by Disney . Set in a world populated entirely by anthropomorphic cars and other vehicles , it features the voices of Owen Wilson , Paul Newman ( in his final non @-@ documentary feature ) , Larry the Cable Guy , Bonnie Hunt , Tony Shalhoub , Cheech Marin , Michael Wallis , George Carlin , Paul Dooley , Jenifer Lewis , Guido Quaroni , Michael Keaton , Katherine Helmond , and John Ratzenberger . Real life race car drivers Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Mario Andretti and Michael Schumacher , and car enthusiast Jay Leno ( as " Jay Limo " ) voice themselves . It is also the second Pixar film — after A Bug 's Life — to have an entirely non @-@ human cast . The film was accompanied by the short One Man Band for its theatrical and home media releases .
Cars premiered on May 26 , 2006 at Lowe 's Motor Speedway in Concord , North Carolina and was theatrically released on June 9 , 2006 , to positive reviews . It was nominated for two Academy Awards , including Best Animated Feature , and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film . The film was released on DVD on November 7 , 2006 and to Blu @-@ ray in late 2007 . Related merchandise , including scale models of several of the cars , broke records for retail sales of merchandise based on a Disney · Pixar film , bringing an estimated $ 10 billion in 5 years since the film 's release . The film was dedicated to Joe Ranft , who was killed in a car accident during the film 's production .
A sequel , Cars 2 , was released on June 24 , 2011 , and a spin @-@ off , Planes , produced by DisneyToon Studios , was released on August 9 , 2013 . A series of short animated films entitled Cars Toons has been airing since 2008 . Cars 3 is scheduled for release on June 16 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In a world populated by anthropomorphic vehicles , the last race of the Piston Cup championship ends in a three @-@ way tie between retiring veteran Strip " The King " Weathers , infamous runner @-@ up Chick Hicks , and rookie Lightning McQueen . The tiebreaker race is scheduled for one week later at the ( fictional ) Los Angeles International Speedway in California . Lightning is desperate to win the race , since it would not only make him the first rookie to win a championship , but also allow him to leave the unglamorous sponsorship of Rust @-@ Eze and allow him to take The King 's place as the sponsored car of the lucrative Dinoco team . Eager to start practice in California as soon as possible , he pushes his big rig , Mack , to travel all night long . While McQueen is sleeping , the exhausted Mack drifts off and is startled by a gang of four reckless street racers , causing McQueen to fall out the back of the trailer and onto the road . McQueen wakes in the middle of traffic and speeds off the highway to find Mack , only to end up in the run @-@ down desert town of Radiator Springs , while inadvertently ruining the pavement of its main road .
After being arrested and impounded overnight ( while guarded by a rusty , but friendly , tow truck named Mater ) , McQueen is ordered by the town judge , Doc Hudson , to leave town immediately . The local lawyer Sally Carrera requests that McQueen should instead be given community service to repave the road , to which Doc reluctantly agrees . McQueen tries to repave it in a single day , but it turns out to be shoddy and he is ordered to repave the road again , which takes several days to complete . During this time , he becomes friends with several of the cars , and learns that Radiator Springs used to be a popular stopover along the old U.S. Route 66 , but with the construction of Interstate 40 bypassing it , the town literally vanished from the map . McQueen also discovers that Doc is really the " Fabulous Hudson Hornet " , a three @-@ time Piston Cup winner who was forced out of racing after an accident in 1954 and quickly forgotten by the sport . McQueen finishes the road , which has invigorated the cars to improve their town , and spends an extra day in town with his new friends , before Mack and the media descend on the town , led by a tip to McQueen 's location . McQueen reluctantly leaves with the media to get to California in time for the race , while Sally chastises Doc after discovering that he had tipped off the media to McQueen 's whereabouts , not wanting to be discovered by them instead .
At the speedway , McQueen 's mind is not fully set on the race , and he soon falls into last place . He is surprised to discover that Doc Hudson , who is decked out in his old racing colors , has taken over as his crew chief , along with several other friends from Radiator Springs to help in the pit . Inspired and recalling tricks he learned from Doc and his friends , McQueen quickly emerges to lead the race into the final laps . Refusing to lose , Hicks sideswipes Weathers and sends him into a dangerous spin , causing him to have an accident . Seeing this and recalling Doc 's fate , McQueen stops just short of the finish line , allowing Hicks to win , and drives back to push Weathers over the finish line . The crowd and media condemn Hicks ' victory and give praise to McQueen 's sportsmanship . Though offered the Dinoco sponsorship deal , McQueen declines , insisting on staying with his current sponsors as an appreciation of their past support . Later , back at Radiator Springs , McQueen returns and announces that he will be setting up his headquarters there , helping to put Radiator Springs back on the map .
= = Cast = =
Owen Wilson as Lightning McQueen , described by John Lasseter in the LA Times as " A hybrid between a stock car and a more curvaceous Le Mans endurance racer . "
Paul Newman as Doc Hudson , a 1951 Hudson Hornet who is later revealed to be the Fabulous Hudson Hornet .
Bonnie Hunt as Sally Carrera , a 2002 996 @-@ series Porsche 911 Carrera .
Larry the Cable Guy as Mater , a 1951 International Harvester L @-@ 170 " boom " truck with elements of a mid @-@ 1950s Chevrolet . One @-@ Ton Wrecker Tow Truck .
Tony Shalhoub as Luigi , a 1959 Fiat 500 .
Cheech Marin as Ramone , a 1959 Chevrolet Impala Lowrider .
Michael Wallis as Sheriff , a 1949 Mercury Club Coupe ( police package ) .
George Carlin as Fillmore , a 1960 VW Bus .
Paul Dooley as Sarge , a 1941 Willys model jeep , in the style used by the US Military .
Jenifer Lewis as Flo , a 1957 Motorama show car .
Guido Quaroni as Guido , a custom forklift , resembling an Isetta at the front .
Richard Petty as Strip " The King " Weathers . The car 's design was based on Richard Petty 's 1970 Plymouth Superbird
Michael Keaton as Chick Hicks , described by Pixar as a generic 1980s stock car . Strongly resembles a 1978 – 88 General Motors G @-@ Body such as a Buick Regal or Chevrolet Monte Carlo .
Katherine Helmond as Lizzie , a 1923 Ford Model T.
John Ratzenberger as Mack , a 1985 Mack Super @-@ Liner .
Joe Ranft as Red , a 1960s style fire truck ( most closely resembles a mid @-@ 1960s ) and Peterbilt , this was Ranft 's last voice role before his death in August 2005 .
Tom Hanks , Tim Allen , Billy Crystal , John Goodman , and Dave Foley reprise their vocal roles from previous Pixar films during an end @-@ credits sequence featuring automobile spoofs of Toy Story , Monsters , Inc . , and A Bug 's Life .
= = Production = =
Cars is the last film worked on by Joe Ranft , who died in a car accident in August 2005 . The film was the second to be dedicated to his memory , after Corpse Bride ( that showed the roles he 'd done in the other films directed by John Lasseter during the credits ) . This is also the last ( non @-@ documentary ) movie for Paul Newman before his retirement in 2007 and his death in 2008 . It turned out to be the highest @-@ grossing film of his career .
= = = Development = = =
The genesis of the project came in 1998 as Pixar was finishing work on A Bug 's Life . At that time Jorgen Klubien began writing a new script . . called ( called The Yellow Car , about an electric car living in a gas @-@ guzzling world ) , some of the original drawings and characters were produced in 1998 and the producers agreed that Cars could be the next movie after A Bug 's Life and would be released in early 1999 , particularly around June 4 . However , the movie was eventually scrapped in favor of Toy Story 2 . Later , production resumed with major script changes , like giving Mater , Doc , and a few other characters a bigger part .
Meanwhile , John Lasseter has said that the idea for Cars was born after he took a cross @-@ country road trip with his wife and five sons in 2000 . When he returned to the studio after vacation , he contacted Michael Wallis , a Route 66 historian . Wallis then led eleven Pixar animators in rented white Cadillacs on two different road trips across the route to research the film . In 2001 , the movie 's working title was Route 66 ( after U.S. Route 66 ) , but in 2002 , the title was changed to prevent people from thinking it was related to the 1960 television show with the same name . In addition , Lightning McQueen 's number was originally going to be 57 ( Lasseter 's birth year ) , but was changed to 95 ( the year Toy Story was released ) .
In 2006 , John Lasseter spoke about the inspiration for the film , saying : " I have always loved cars . In one vein , I have Disney blood , and in the other , there 's motor oil . The notion of combining these two great passions in my life — cars and animation — was irresistible . When Joe ( Ranft ) and I first started talking about this film in 1998 , we knew we wanted to do something with cars as characters . Around that same time , we watched a documentary called ' Divided Highways , ' which dealt with the interstate highway and how it affected the small towns along the way . We were so moved by it and began thinking about what it must have been like in these small towns that got bypassed . That 's when we started really researching Route 66 , but we still hadn 't quite figured out what the story for the film was going to be . I used to travel that highway with my family as a child when we visited our family in St. Louis . "
Jorgen Klubien said the movie was both his best and most bitter experience because he was fired before the movie premiered and because he feels John Lasseter wrote him out of the story of how the film got made .
= = = Animation = = =
For the cars themselves , Lasseter also visited the design studios of the Big Three Detroit automakers , particularly J Mays of Ford Motor Company . Lasseter learned how real cars were designed .
In 2006 , John Lasseter spoke about how they worked hard to make the animation believable , saying : " It took many months of trial and error , and practicing test animation , to figure out how each car moves and how their world works . Our supervising animators , Doug Sweetland and Scott Clark , and the directing animators , Bobby Podesta and James Ford Murphy , did an amazing job working with the animation team to determine the unique movements for each character based on its age and the type of car it was . Some cars are like sports cars and they 're much tighter in their suspension . Others are older ' 50s cars that are a lot looser and have more bounce to them . We wanted to get that authenticity in there but also to make sure each car had a unique personality . We also wanted each animator to be able to put some of themself in the character and give it their own spin . Every day in dailies , it was so much fun because we would see things that we had never seen in our lives . The world of cars came alive in a believable and unexpected way . "
Unlike most anthropomorphic cars , the eyes of the cars in this film were placed on the windshield ( which resembles the Tonka Talking Trucks , and the characters from Tex Avery 's One Cab 's Family short and Disney 's own Susie the Little Blue Coupe ) , rather than within the headlights . According to production designer Bob Pauley , " From the very beginning of this project , John Lasseter had it in his mind to have the eyes be in the windshield . For one thing , it separates our characters from the more common approach where you have little cartoon eyes in the headlights . For another , he thought that having the eyes down near the mouth at the front end of the car feels more like a snake . With the eyes set in the windshield , the point of view is more human @-@ like , and made it feel like the whole car could be involved in the animation of the character . This decision was heavily criticized by automotive blog Jalopnik .
In 2006 , supervising animator on the film Scott Clark , spoke about the challenges of animating car characters , saying : " Getting a full range of performance and emotion from these characters and making them still seem like cars was a tough assignment , but that 's what animation does best . You use your imagination , and you make the movements and gestures fit with the design . Our car characters may not have arms and legs , but we can lean the tires in or out to suggest hands opening up or closing in . We can use steering to point a certain direction . We also designed a special eyelid and an eyebrow for the windshield that lets us communicate an expressiveness that cars don 't have . " Doug Sweetland , who also served as supervising animator , also spoke about the challenges , saying : " It took a different kind of animator to really be able to interpret the Cars models , than it did to interpret something like The Incredibles models . With The Incredibles , the animator could get reference for the characters by shooting himself and watching the footage . But with Cars , it departs completely from any reference . Yes they 're cars , but no car can do what our characters do . It 's pure fantasy . It took a lot of trial and error to get them to look right . "
Lasseter also explained that the film started with pencil and paper designs , saying : " Truth to materials . Starting with pencil @-@ and @-@ paper designs from production designer Bob Pauley , and continuing through the modeling , articulation , and shading of the characters , and finally into animation , the production team worked hard to have the car characters remain true to their origins . " Character department manager Jay Ward also explained how they wanted the cars to look as realistic as possible , saying : " John didn 't want the cars to seem clay @-@ like or mushy . He insisted on truth to materials . This was a huge thing for him . He told us that steel needs to feel like steel . Glass should feel like glass . These cars need to feel heavy . They weigh three or four thousand pounds . When they move around , they need to have that feel . They shouldn 't appear light or overly bouncy to the point where the audience might see them as rubber toys . " According to directing animator James Ford Murphy , " Originally , the car models were built so they could basically do anything . John kept reminding us that these characters are made of metal and they weigh several thousand pounds . They can 't stretch . He showed us examples of very loose animation to illustrate what not to do . "
Character shading supervisor on the film Thomas Jordan explained that chrome and car paint were the main challenges on the film , saying : " Chrome and car paint were our two main challenges on this film . We started out by learning as much as we could . At the local body shop , we watched them paint a car , and we saw the way they mixed the paint and applied the various coats . We tried to dissect what goes into the real paint and recreated it in the computer . We figured out that we needed a base paint , which is where the color comes from , and the clearcoat , which provides the reflection . We were then able to add in things like metallic flake to give it a glittery sparkle , a pearlescent quality the might change color depending on the angle , and even a layer of pin @-@ striping for characters like Ramone . " Supervising technical director on the film Eben Ostby explained that the biggest challenge for the technical team was creating the metallic and painted surfaces of the car characters , and the reflections that those surfaces generate , saying : " Given that the stars of our film are made of metal , John had a real desire to see realistic reflections , and more beautiful lighting than we ’ ve seen in any of our previous films . In the past , we ’ ve mostly used environment maps and other matte @-@ based technology to cheat reflections , but for Cars we added a ray @-@ tracing capability to our existing Renderman program to raise the bar for Pixar . "
Rendering lead Jessica McMackin spoke about the use of ray tracing on the film , saying : " In addition to creating accurate reflections , we used ray tracing to achieve other effects . We were able to use this approach to create accurate shadows , like when there are multiple light sources and you want to get a feathering of shadows at the edges . Or occlusion , which is the absence of ambient light between two surfaces , like a crease in a shirt . A fourth use is irradiance . An example of this would be if you had a piece of red paper and held it up to a white wall , the light would be colored by the paper and cast a red glow on the wall . " Character supervisor Tim Milliron explained that the film uses a ground – locking system that kept the cars firmly planted on the road , saying : " The ground @-@ locking system is one of the things I ’ m most proud of on this film . In the past , characters have never known about their environment in any way . A simulation pass was required if you wanted to make something like that happen . On Cars , this system is built into the models themselves , and as you move the car around , the vehicle sticks to the ground . It was one of those things that we do at Pixar where we knew going in that it had to be done , but we had no idea how to do it . "
Technical director Lisa Forsell explained that to enhance the richness and beauty of the desert landscapes surrounding Radiator Springs , the filmmakers created a department responsible for matte paintings and sky flats , saying : " Digital matte paintings are a way to get a lot of visual complexity without necessarily having to build complex geometry , and write complex shaders . We spent a lot time working on the clouds and their different formations . They tend to be on several layers and they move relative to each other . The clouds do in fact have some character and personality . The notion was that just as people see themselves in the clouds , cars see various car @-@ shaped clouds . It ’ s subtle , but there are definitely some that are shaped like a sedan . And if you look closely , you ’ ll see some that look like tire treads . The fact that so much attention is put on the skies speaks to the visual level of the film . Is there a story point ? Not really . There is no pixel on the screen that does not have an extraordinary level of scrutiny and care applied to it . There is nothing that is just throw @-@ away . "
Computers used in the development of the film were four times faster than those used in The Incredibles and 1 @,@ 000 times faster than those used in Toy Story . To build the cars , the animators used computer platforms similar to those used in the design of real @-@ world automobiles .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Cars soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on June 6 , 2006 . Nine tracks on the soundtrack are by popular artists , while the remaining eleven are score cues by Randy Newman . It has two versions of the classic Bobby Troup jazz standard " Route 66 " ( popularized by Nat King Cole ) , one by Chuck Berry and a new version recorded specifically for the film 's credits performed by John Mayer . Brad Paisley contributed two of the nine tracks to the album , one being " Find Yourself " used for the end credits .
= = Release = =
Cars was originally going to be released on November 4 , 2005 , but on December 7 , 2004 , the movie 's release date was changed to June 9 , 2006 . Analysts looked at the release date change as a sign from Pixar that they were preparing for the pending end of the Disney distribution contract by either preparing non @-@ Disney materials to present to other studios , or they were buying time to see what happened with Michael Eisner 's situation at Disney . When Pixar 's chief executive Steve Jobs made the release date announcement , he stated that the reasoning was due to wanting to put all Pixar films on a Summer release schedule , with DVD sales occurring during the holiday shopping season .
= = = Home media = = =
Cars was released on DVD , in wide- and full @-@ screen editions , on November 7 , 2006 in the United States and Canada . This DVD was also released on October 25 in Australia and New Zealand and on November 27 in the United Kingdom . The release includes the DVD @-@ exclusive short film Mater and the Ghostlight and the film 's theatrical short One Man Band as well as a 16 @-@ minute @-@ long documentary about the film entitled Inspiration for Cars , which features director John Lasseter . It also featured the Pixar short Boundin ' .
According to the Walt Disney Company , five million copies of the DVD were sold the first two days it was available . The first week , it sold 6 @,@ 250 @,@ 856 units and 15 @,@ 370 @,@ 791 in total ( $ 246 @,@ 198 @,@ 859 ) . Unlike previous Pixar DVD releases , there is no two @-@ disc special edition , and no plans to release one in the future . According to Sara Maher , DVD Production Manager at Pixar , John Lasseter and Pixar were preoccupied with productions like Ratatouille .
In the US and Canada , there were bonus discs available with the purchase of the film at Wal @-@ Mart and at Target . The former featured a Geared @-@ Up Bonus DVD Disc that focused on the music of the film , including the music video to " Life Is A Highway " , The Making of " Life Is A Highway " , Cars : The Making of the Music , and Under The Hood , a special that originally aired on the ABC Family cable channel . The latter 's bonus was a Rev 'd Up DVD Disc that featured material mostly already released as part of the official Cars podcast and focused on the inspiration and production of the movie .
Cars was also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on November 6 , 2007 , one year after the DVD release . It was the first Pixar film to be released on Blu @-@ ray ( alongside Ratatouille and Pixar Short Films Collection , Volume 1 ) , and was re @-@ released as a Blu @-@ Ray Disc and DVD combo pack and DVD only edition in April 2011 . The film was released for the first time in 3D on October 29 , 2013 , as part of Cars : Ultimate Collector 's Edition , which included the releases on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and DVD .
= = = Video game = = =
A video game of the same name was released on June 6 , 2006 , for Game Boy Advance , Microsoft Windows , Nintendo DS , Nintendo GameCube , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable and Xbox . It was also released on October 23 , 2006 , for Xbox 360 and November 16 , 2006 , for Wii . The video game got mainly positive reviews . GameSpot gave 7 @.@ 0 out of 10 for Xbox 360 and Wii versions , for PlayStation 2 , 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 for the GameCube and Xbox versions , and 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 for the PSP version . Metacritic gave 65 out of 100 for the Wii version , 54 out of 100 for the DS version , 73 out of 100 for the PC version , 71 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version , and 70 out of 100 for the PSP version .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Cars was met with positive reviews . Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 74 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 196 reviews . The site 's consensus reads " Cars offers visual treats that more than compensate for its somewhat thinly written story , adding up to a satisfying diversion for younger viewers . " Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 73 out of 100 based on 39 reviews .
William Arnold of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer praised it as " one of Pixar 's most imaginative and thoroughly appealing movies ever " and Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly called it " a work of American art as classic as it is modern . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three out of four stars , saying that the movie " is great to look at and a lot of fun , but somehow lacks the extra push of the other Pixar films . Maybe that 's because there 's less at stake here , and no child @-@ surrogate to identify with . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Fueled with plenty of humor , action , heartfelt drama , and amazing new technical feats , Cars is a high octane delight for moviegoers of all ages . " Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " Existing both in turbo @-@ charged today and the gentler ' 50s , straddling the realms of Pixar styling and old Disney heart , this new @-@ model Cars is an instant classic . " Brian Lowry of Variety gave the film a negative review , saying " Despite representing another impressive technical achievement , it 's the least visually interesting of the computer @-@ animation boutique 's movies , and -- in an ironic twist for a story about auto racing -- drifts slowly through its semi @-@ arid midsection . " Robert Wilonsky of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review , saying " What ultimately redeems Cars from turning out a total lemon is its soul . Lasseter loves these animated inanimate objects as though they were kin , and it shows in every beautifully rendered frame . " Ella Taylor of L.A. Weekly gave the film a positive review , saying " Cars cheerfully hitches cutting @-@ edge animation to a folksy narrative plugging friendship , community and a Luddite mistrust of high tech . "
Gene Seymour of Newsday gave the film three out of four stars , saying " And as pop flies go , Cars is pretty to watch , even as it loops , drifts and , at times , looks as if it 's just hanging in midair . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film a positive review , saying " It takes everything that 's made Pixar shorthand for animation excellence -- strong characters , tight pacing , spot @-@ on voice casting , a warm sense of humor and visuals that are pure , pixilated bliss -- and carries them to the next stage . " Bill Muller of The Arizona Republic gave the film four out of five stars , saying " The truest measure of the movie is that eventually we forget we 're watching a bunch of vehicles with faces and start to think of them as individual characters . It 's quite an accomplishment , and perhaps one only possible by Pixar . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars , saying " What 's surprising about this supremely engaging film is the source of its curb appeal : It has heart . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , saying " It 's the latest concoction from the geniuses at Pixar , probably the most inventive of the Computer Generated Imagery shop -- and the film 's great fun , if well under the level of the first Toy Story . " Jessica Reaves of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " While it 's a technically perfect movie , its tone is too manic , its characters too jaded and , in the end , its story too empty to stand up to expectations . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars , saying " While Cars may cross the finish line ahead of any of 2006 's other animated films , it 's several laps behind its Pixar siblings . "
Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch gave the film an A- , saying " It 's powered by a human heart through a roadway of natural wonders and cultural signposts en route to the checkered flag . " Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Cars idles at times . And it 's not until its final laps that the movie gains the emotional traction we 've come to expect from the Toy Story and Nemo crews . " Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a B + , saying " It 's touching , it 's funny , it offers cautions about the modern pace of life , and it depends on a sense of rural Americana for its soul . " Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , saying " For parents out there whose future holds the certain prospect of the DVD version blaring repeatedly from family @-@ room screens , let this be your advisory . Warning : Cars comes unequipped with two essential options -- charm and a good muffler . " Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars , saying " It thunders ahead with breezy abandon , scoring big grins on its way . " Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars , saying " It achieves the near impossible , turning cars , trucks , tractors , and farm harvesters into cute Disney characters whose fates you 'll care about . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Cars somewhat self @-@ indulgently runs nearly two hours -- but overall , it 's well worth the trip . " Lisa Rose of the Newark Star @-@ Ledger gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " It 's another innovative piece of entertainment from the animation studio , taking the audience on a kinetic trip into a world populated only by automobiles . "
Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film a positive review , saying " The animation is stunningly rendered . But the story is always the critical element in Pixar movies , and Cars ' story is heartfelt with a clear and unabashed moral . " David Edelstein of New York Magazine gave the film a positive review , saying " Like the Toy Story films , Cars is a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ computer @-@ art plea on behalf of outmoded , wholesome fifties technology , with a dash of Zen by way of George Lucas . " Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film three out of five stars , saying " It 's beautiful to look at . The talking cars feel more alive than talking cars should . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Cars made me want to hop in my jalopy and to head out to Route 66 , bypassing the boring interstate highways that made the Mother Road redundant . " Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Though the central idea of nostalgia for a quieter , small @-@ town life may well be lost on this movie 's young audience -- Cars finds a pleasant and often sparkling groove . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film two out of five stars , saying " Cars might get us into car world as a gimmick , but it doesn 't get us into car world as a state of mind . Thus , the animation , rather than seeming like an expression of the movie 's deeper truth , becomes an impediment to it . " Derek Adams of Time Out gave the film a positive review , saying " There are many other brilliant scenes , some just as funny but there are just as many occasions where you feel the film 's struggling to fire on all cylinders . Still , it 's a Pixar film , right ? And they 're always worth a gander no matter what anyone says . "
= = = Box office = = =
In its opening weekend , Cars earned $ 60 @,@ 119 @,@ 509 in 3 @,@ 985 theaters in the United States , ranking number one at the box office . In the United States , the film held onto the number one spot for two weeks before being surpassed by Click and then by Superman Returns the following weekend . It went on to gross $ 461 @,@ 983 @,@ 149 worldwide ( ranking number six in 2006 films ) and $ 244 @,@ 082 @,@ 982 in the United States ( the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2006 in the country , behind Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest and Night at the Museum ) . It was the second highest grossing film released by Walt Disney Pictures , behind Dead Man 's Chest and was the highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2006 in the United States , but lost to Ice Age : The Meltdown with $ 655 @,@ 388 @,@ 158 in worldwide totals .
= = = Accolades = = =
Cars had a highly successful run during the 2006 awards season . Many film critic associations such as the Broadcast Film Critics Association and the National Board of Review named it the best Animated Feature Film of 2006 . Cars also received the title of Best Reviewed Animated Feature of 2006 from Rotten Tomatoes . Randy Newman and James Taylor received a Grammy Award for the song " Our Town , " which later went on to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song ( an award it lost to " I Need to Wake Up " from An Inconvenient Truth ) . The film also earned an Oscar nomination for Best Animated Feature , but it lost to Happy Feet . Cars was also selected as the Favorite Family Movie at the 33rd People 's Choice Awards . The most prestigious award that Cars received was the inaugural Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film . Cars also won the highest award for animation in 2006 , the Best Animated Feature Annie Award . The film was also nominated for AFI 's 10 Top 10 in the " Animation " genre .
= = Similar films = =
Marcus Aurelius Canônico of Folha de S.Paulo described The Little Cars series ( Os Carrinhos in Portuguese ) , a Brazilian computer graphics film series , as a derivative of Cars . Canônico discussed whether lawsuits from Pixar would appear . The Brazilian Ministry of Culture posted Marcus Aurelius Canônico 's article on its website .
It has also been noted that the plot of Cars bears a striking resemblance to that of Doc Hollywood , the 1991 romantic comedy which stars Michael J. Fox as a hotshot young doctor , who , after causing a traffic accident in a small town , is sentenced to work at the town hospital , falls in love with a local law student and eventually acquires an appreciation for small town values . Some have gone so far as to say that the makers of Cars plagiarized the script of Doc Hollywood .
= = Sequels = =
A sequel to the film , titled Cars 2 , was released on June 24 , 2011 . It was directed again by John Lasseter , who was inspired for the film while traveling around the world promoting the first film . In the sequel , Lightning McQueen and Mater head to Japan and Europe to compete in the World Grand Prix , but Mater becomes sidetracked with international espionage . The film failed to meet or exceed the critical success of its predecessor .
Michael Wallis , the voice of Sheriff and a Route 66 consultant for the first two films , said in August 2013 in an interview with WGBZ radio that Pixar will make a third film in the series , which will go back to Route 66 and will also include Route 99 .
= Gamal Abdel Nasser =
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein ( Arabic : جمال عبد الناصر حسين , IPA : [ ɡæˈmæːl ʕæbdenˈnɑːsˤeɾ ħeˈseːn ] ; 15 January 1918 – 28 September 1970 ) was the second President of Egypt , serving from 1956 until his death . Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far @-@ reaching land reforms the following year . Following a 1954 attempt on his life by a Muslim Brotherhood member acting on his own , he cracked down on the organization , put President Muhammad Naguib under house arrest , and assumed executive office , officially becoming president in June 1956 .
Nasser 's popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis . Calls for pan @-@ Arab unity under his leadership increased , culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria ( 1958 – 1961 ) . In 1962 , Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt . Despite setbacks to his pan @-@ Arabist cause , by 1963 Nasser 's supporters gained power in several Arab countries , but he became embroiled in the North Yemen Civil War . He began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running . Following Egypt 's defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , Nasser resigned , but he returned to office after popular demonstrations called for his reinstatement . By 1968 , Nasser had appointed himself prime minister , launched the War of Attrition to regain lost territory , began a process of depoliticizing the military , and issued a set of political liberalization reforms . After the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit , Nasser suffered a heart attack and died . His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world .
Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world , particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity , modernization policies , and anti @-@ imperialist efforts . His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom , and launched large industrial projects , including the Aswan Dam and Helwan City . Nasser 's detractors criticize his authoritarianism , his government 's human rights violations , his populist relationship with the citizenry , and his failure to establish civil institutions , blaming his legacy for future dictatorial governance in Egypt .
= = Early life = =
Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 1
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, his brigade was surrounded by the Israeli Army . Appeals for help from Jordan 's Arab Legion went unheeded , but the brigade refused to surrender . Negotiations between Israel and Egypt finally resulted in the ceding of Faluja to Israel . According to veteran journalist Eric Margolis , the defenders of Faluja , " including young army officer Gamal Abdel Nasser , became national heroes " for enduring Israeli bombardment while isolated from their command .
The Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum hosted a public celebration for the officers ' return despite reservations from the royal government , which had been pressured by the British to prevent the reception . The apparent difference in attitude between the government and the general public increased Nasser 's determination to topple the monarchy . Nasser had also felt bitter that his brigade had not been relieved despite the resilience it displayed . He started writing his book Philosophy of the Revolution during the siege .
After the war , Nasser returned to his role as an instructor at the Royal Military Academy . He sent emissaries to forge an alliance with the Muslim Brotherhood in October 1948 , but soon concluded that the religious agenda of the Brotherhood was not compatible with his nationalism . From then on , Nasser prevented the Brotherhood 's influence over his cadres ' activities without severing ties with the organization . Nasser was sent as a member of the Egyptian delegation to Rhodes in February 1949 to negotiate a formal armistice with Israel , and reportedly considered the terms to be humiliating , particularly because the Israelis were able to easily occupy the Eilat region while negotiating with the Arabs in March .
= = Revolution = =
= = = Free Officers = = =
Nasser 's return to Egypt coincided with Husni al @-@ Za 'im 's Syrian coup d 'état . Its success and evident popular support among the Syrian people encouraged Nasser 's revolutionary pursuits . Soon after his return , he was summoned and interrogated by Prime Minister Ibrahim Abdel Hadi regarding suspicions that he was forming a secret group of dissenting officers . According to secondhand reports , Nasser convincingly denied the allegations . Abdel Hadi was also hesitant to take drastic measures against the army , especially in front of its chief of staff , who was present during the interrogation , and subsequently released Nasser . The interrogation pushed Nasser to speed up his group 's activities .
After 1949 , the group adopted the name " Association of Free Officers " and advocated " little else but freedom and the restoration of their country ’ s dignity " . Nasser organized the Free Officers ' founding committee , which eventually comprised fourteen men from different social and political backgrounds , including representation from Young Egypt , the Muslim Brotherhood , the Egyptian Communist Party , and the aristocracy . Nasser was unanimously elected chairman of the organization .
In the 1950 parliamentary elections , the Wafd Party of el @-@ Nahhas gained a victory — mostly due to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood , which boycotted the elections — and was perceived as a threat by the Free Officers as the Wafd had campaigned on demands similar to their own . Accusations of corruption against Wafd politicians began to surface , however , breeding an atmosphere of rumor and suspicion that consequently brought the Free Officers to the forefront of Egyptian politics . By then , the organization had expanded to around ninety members ; according to Khaled Mohieddin , " nobody knew all of them and where they belonged in the hierarchy except Nasser " . Nasser felt that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the government and , for nearly two years , he did little beyond officer recruitment and underground news bulletins .
On 11 October 1951 , the Wafd government abrogated the 1936 Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty , which had given the British control over the Suez Canal until 1956 . The popularity of this move , as well as that of government @-@ sponsored guerrilla attacks against the British , put pressure on Nasser to act . According to Sadat , Nasser decided to wage " a large scale assassination campaign " . In January 1952 , he and Hassan Ibrahim attempted to kill the royalist general Hussein Sirri Amer by firing their submachine guns at his car as he drove through the streets of Cairo . Instead of killing the general , the attackers wounded an innocent female passerby . Nasser recalled that her wails " haunted " him and firmly dissuaded him from undertaking similar actions in the future .
Sirri Amer was close to King Farouk , and was nominated for the presidency of the Officer 's Club — normally a ceremonial office — with the king 's backing . Nasser was determined to establish the independence of the army from the monarchy , and with Amer as the intercessor , resolved to field a nominee for the Free Officers . They selected Muhammad Naguib , a popular general who had offered his resignation to Farouk in 1942 over British high @-@ handedness and was wounded three times in the Palestine War . Naguib won overwhelmingly and the Free Officers , through their connection with a leading Egyptian daily , al @-@ Misri , publicized his victory while praising the nationalistic spirit of the army .
= = = Revolution of 1952 = = =
On 25 January 1952 , a confrontation between British forces and police at Ismailia resulted in the deaths of 40 Egyptian policemen , provoking riots in Cairo the next day which left 76 people dead . Afterwards , Nasser published a simple six @-@ point program in Rose al @-@ Yūsuf to dismantle feudalism and British influence in Egypt . In May , Nasser received word that Farouk knew the names of the Free Officers and intended to arrest them ; he immediately entrusted Free Officer Zakaria Mohieddin with the task of planning the government takeover by army units loyal to the association .
The Free Officers ' intention was not to install themselves in government , but to re @-@ establish a parliamentary democracy . Nasser did not believe that a low @-@ ranking officer like himself ( a lieutenant colonel ) would be accepted by the Egyptian people , and so selected General Naguib to be his " boss " and lead the coup in name . The revolution they had long sought was launched on 22 July and was declared a success the next day . The Free Officers seized control of all government buildings , radio stations , and police stations , as well as army headquarters in Cairo . While many of the rebel officers were leading their units , Nasser donned civilian clothing to avoid detection by royalists and moved around Cairo monitoring the situation . In a move to stave off foreign intervention two days before the revolution , Nasser had notified the American and British governments of his intentions , and both had agreed not to aid Farouk . Under pressure from the Americans , Nasser had agreed to exile the deposed king with an honorary ceremony .
On 18 June 1953 , the monarchy was abolished and the Republic of Egypt declared , with Naguib as its first president . According to Aburish , after assuming power , Nasser and the Free Officers expected to become the " guardians of the people 's interests " against the monarchy and the pasha class while leaving the day @-@ to @-@ day tasks of government to civilians . They asked former prime minister Ali Maher to accept reappointment to his previous position , and to form an all @-@ civilian cabinet . The Free Officers then governed as the Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) with Naguib as chairman and Nasser as vice @-@ chairman . Relations between the RCC and Maher grew tense , however , as the latter viewed many of Nasser 's schemes — agrarian reform , abolition of the monarchy , reorganization of political parties — as too radical , culminating in Maher 's resignation on 7 September . Naguib assumed the additional role of prime minister , and Nasser that of deputy prime minister . In September , the Agrarian Reform Law was put into effect . In Nasser 's eyes , this law gave the RCC its own identity and transformed the coup into a revolution .
Preceding the reform law , in August 1952 , communist @-@ led riots broke out at textile factories in Kafr el @-@ Dawwar , leading to a clash with the army that left nine people dead . While most of the RCC insisted on executing the riot 's two ringleaders , Nasser opposed this . Nonetheless , the sentences were carried out . The Muslim Brotherhood supported the RCC , and after Naguib 's assumption of power , demanded four ministerial portfolios in the new cabinet . Nasser turned down their demands and instead hoped to co @-@ opt the Brotherhood by giving two of its members , who were willing to serve officially as independents , minor ministerial posts .
= = Road to presidency = =
= = = Disputes with Naguib = = =
In January 1953 , Nasser overcame opposition from Naguib and banned all political parties , creating a one @-@ party system under the Liberation Rally , a loosely structured movement whose chief task was to organize pro @-@ RCC rallies and lectures , with Nasser its secretary @-@ general . Despite the dissolution order , Nasser was the only RCC member who still favored holding parliamentary elections , according to his fellow officer Abdel Latif Boghdadi . Although outvoted , he still advocated holding elections by 1956 . In March 1953 , Nasser led the Egyptian delegation negotiating a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal .
When Naguib began showing signs of independence from Nasser by distancing himself from the RCC 's land reform decrees and drawing closer to Egypt 's established political forces , namely the Wafd and the Brotherhood , Nasser resolved to depose him . In June , Nasser took control of the interior ministry post from Naguib loyalist Sulayman Hafez , and pressured Naguib to conclude the abolition of the monarchy .
On 25 February 1954 , Naguib announced his resignation after the RCC held an official meeting without his presence two days prior . On 26 February , Nasser accepted the resignation , put Naguib under house arrest , and the RCC proclaimed Nasser as both RCC chairman and prime minister . As Naguib intended , a mutiny immediately followed , demanding Naguib 's reinstatement and the RCC 's dissolution . While visiting the striking officers at Military Headquarters ( GHQ ) to call for the mutiny 's end , Nasser was initially intimidated into accepting their demands . However , on 27 February , Nasser 's supporters in the army launched a raid on the GHQ , ending the mutiny . Later that day , hundreds of thousands of protesters , mainly belonging to the Brotherhood , called for Naguib 's return and Nasser 's imprisonment . In response , a sizable group within the RCC , led by Khaled Mohieddin , demanded Naguib 's release and return to the presidency . Nasser acquiesced , but delayed Naguib 's reinstatement until 4 March , allowing him to promote Amer to Commander of the Armed Forces — a position formerly occupied by Naguib .
On 5 March , Nasser 's security coterie arrested thousands of participants in the uprising . As a ruse to rally opposition against a return to the pre @-@ 1952 order , the RCC decreed an end to restrictions on monarchy @-@ era parties and the Free Officers ' withdrawal from politics . The RCC succeeded in provoking the beneficiaries of the revolution , namely the workers , peasants , and petty bourgeois , to oppose the decrees , with one million transport workers launching a strike and thousands of peasants entering Cairo in protest in late March . Naguib sought to crack down on the protesters , but his requests were rebuffed by the heads of the security forces . On 29 March , Nasser announced the decrees ' revocation in response to the " impulse of the street " . Between April and June , hundreds of Naguib 's supporters in the military were either arrested or dismissed , and Mohieddin was informally exiled to Switzerland to represent the RCC abroad . King Saud of Saudi Arabia attempted to mend relations between Nasser and Naguib , but to no avail .
= = = Assuming chairmanship of RCC = = =
On 26 October 1954 , Muslim Brotherhood member Mohammed Abdel Latif attempted to assassinate Nasser while he was delivering a speech in Alexandria to celebrate the British military withdrawal . The speech was broadcast to the Arab world via radio . The gunman was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) away from him and fired eight shots , but all missed Nasser . Panic broke out in the mass audience , but Nasser maintained his posture and raised his voice to appeal for calm . With great emotion he exclaimed the following :
My countrymen , my blood spills for you and for Egypt . I will live for your sake and die for the sake of your freedom and honor . Let them kill me ; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride , honor , and freedom in you . If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die , each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser ... Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to sacrifice his life for the nation .
The crowd roared in approval and Arab audiences were electrified . The assassination attempt backfired , quickly playing into Nasser 's hands . Upon returning to Cairo , he ordered one of the largest political crackdowns in the modern history of Egypt , with the arrests of thousands of dissenters , mostly members of the Brotherhood , but also communists , and the dismissal of 140 officers loyal to Naguib . Eight Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death , although the sentence of its chief ideologue , Sayyid Qutb , was commuted to a 15 @-@ year imprisonment . Naguib was removed from the presidency and put under house arrest , but was never tried or sentenced , and no one in the army rose to defend him . With his rivals neutralized , Nasser became the undisputed leader of Egypt .
Nasser 's street following was still too small to sustain his plans for reform and to secure him in office . To promote himself and the Liberation Rally , he gave speeches in a cross @-@ country tour , and imposed controls over the country 's press by decreeing that all publications had to be approved by the party to prevent " sedition " . Both Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez , the leading Arab singers of the era , performed songs praising Nasser 's nationalism . Others produced plays denigrating his political opponents . According to his associates , Nasser orchestrated the campaign himself . Arab nationalist terms such " Arab homeland " and " Arab nation " frequently began appearing in his speeches in 1954 – 55 , whereas prior he would refer to the Arab " peoples " or the " Arab region " . In January 1955 , the RCC appointed him as their president , pending national elections .
Nasser made secret contacts with Israel in 1954 – 55 , but determined that peace with Israel would be impossible , considering it an " expansionist state that viewed the Arabs with disdain " . On 28 February 1955 , Israeli troops attacked the Egyptian @-@ held Gaza Strip with the stated aim of suppressing Palestinian fedayeen raids . Nasser did not feel that the Egyptian Army was ready for a confrontation and did not retaliate militarily . His failure to respond to Israeli military action demonstrated the ineffectiveness of his armed forces and constituted a blow to his growing popularity . Nasser subsequently ordered the tightening of the blockade on Israeli shipping through the Straits of Tiran and restricted the use of airspace over the Gulf of Aqaba by Israeli aircraft in early September . The Israelis re @-@ militarized the al @-@ Auja Demilitarized Zone on the Egyptian border on 21 September .
Simultaneous with Israel 's February raid , the Baghdad Pact was formed between some regional allies of the UK . Nasser considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in the Middle East , and a mechanism to undermine the Arab League and " perpetuate [ Arab ] subservience to Zionism and [ Western ] imperialism " . Nasser felt that if he was to maintain Egypt 's regional leadership position he needed to acquire modern weaponry to arm his military . When it became apparent to him that Western countries would not supply Egypt under acceptable financial and military terms , Nasser turned to the Eastern Bloc and concluded a US $ 320 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 armaments agreement with Czechoslovakia on 27 September . Through the Czechoslovakian arms deal , the balance of power between Egypt and Israel was more or less equalized and Nasser 's role as the Arab leader defying the West was enhanced .
= = = Adoption of neutralism = = =
At the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in late April 1955 , Nasser was treated as the leading representative of the Arab countries and was one of the most popular figures at the summit . He had paid earlier visits to Pakistan ( April 9 ) , India ( April 14 ) , Burma , and Afghanistan on the way to Bandung , and previously cemented a treaty of friendship with India in Cairo on 6 April , strengthening Egyptian – Indian relations on the international policy and economic development fronts .
Nasser mediated discussions between the pro @-@ Western , pro @-@ Soviet , and neutralist conference factions over the composition of the " Final Communique " addressing colonialism in Africa and Asia and the fostering of global peace amid the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union . At Bandung Nasser sought a proclamation for the avoidance of international defense alliances , support for the independence of Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco from French rule , support for the Palestinian right of return , and the implementation of UN resolutions regarding the Arab – Israeli conflict . He succeeded in lobbying the attendees to pass resolutions on each of these issues , notably securing the strong support of China and India .
Following Bandung , Nasser officially adopted the " positive neutralism " of Yugoslavian president Josip Broz Tito and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as a principal theme of Egyptian foreign policy regarding the Cold War . Nasser was welcomed by large crowds of people lining the streets of Cairo on his return to Egypt on 2 May and was widely heralded in the press for his achievements and leadership in the conference . Consequently , Nasser 's prestige was greatly boosted as was his self @-@ confidence and image .
= = = 1956 constitution and presidency = = =
With his domestic position considerably strengthened , Nasser was able to secure primacy over his RCC colleagues and gained relatively unchallenged decision @-@ making authority , particularly over foreign policy .
In January 1956 , the new Constitution of Egypt was drafted , entailing the establishment of a single @-@ party system under the National Union ( NU ) , a movement Nasser described as the " cadre through which we will realize our revolution " . The NU was a reconfiguration of the Liberation Rally , which Nasser determined had failed in generating mass public participation . In the new movement , Nasser attempted to incorporate more citizens , approved by local @-@ level party committees , in order to solidify popular backing for his government . The NU would select a nominee for the presidential election whose name would be provided for public approval .
Nasser 's nomination for the post and the new constitution were put to public referendum on 23 June and each was approved by an overwhelming majority . A 350 @-@ member National Assembly was established , elections for which were held in July 1957 . Nasser had ultimate approval over all the candidates . The constitution granted women 's suffrage , prohibited gender @-@ based discrimination , and entailed special protection for women in the workplace . Coinciding with the new constitution and Nasser 's presidency , the RCC dissolved itself and its members resigned their military commissions as part of the transition to civilian rule . During the deliberations surrounding the establishment of a new government , Nasser began a process of sidelining his rivals among the original Free Officers , while elevating his closest allies to high @-@ ranking positions in the cabinet .
= = Nationalization of the Suez Canal = =
After the three @-@ year transition period ended with Nasser 's official assumption of power , his domestic and independent foreign policies increasingly collided with the regional interests of the UK and France . The latter condemned his strong support for Algerian independence , and the UK 's Eden government was agitated by Nasser 's campaign against the Baghdad Pact . In addition , Nasser 's adherence to neutralism regarding the Cold War , recognition of communist China , and arms deal with the Eastern bloc alienated the United States . On 19 July 1956 , the US and UK abruptly withdrew their offer to finance construction of the Aswan Dam , citing concerns that Egypt 's economy would be overwhelmed by the project .
Nasser was informed of the British – American withdrawal via a news statement while aboard a plane returning to Cairo from Belgrade , and took great offense . Although ideas for nationalizing the Suez Canal were in the offing after the UK agreed to withdraw its military from Egypt in 1954 ( the last British troops left on 13 June 1956 ) , journalist Mohamed Hassanein Heikal asserts that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the waterway between 19 and 20 July . Nasser himself would later state that he decided on 23 July , after studying the issue and deliberating with some of his advisers from the dissolved RCC , namely Boghdadi and technical specialist Mahmoud Younis , beginning on 21 July . The rest of the RCC 's former members were informed of the decision on 24 July , while the bulk of the cabinet was unaware of the nationalization scheme until hours before Nasser publicly announced it . According to Ramadan , Nasser 's decision to nationalize the canal was a solitary decision , taken without consultation .
On 26 July 1956 , Nasser gave a speech in Alexandria announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company as a means to fund the Aswan Dam project in light of the British – American withdrawal . In the speech , he denounced British imperialism in Egypt and British control over the canal company 's profits , and upheld that the Egyptian people had a right to sovereignty over the waterway , especially since " 120 @,@ 000 Egyptians had died ( sic ) " building it . The motion was technically in breach of the international agreement he had signed with the UK on 19 October 1954 , although he ensured that all existing stockholders would be paid off .
The nationalization announcement was greeted very emotionally by the audience and , throughout the Arab world , thousands entered the streets shouting slogans of support . US ambassador Henry A. Byroade stated , " I cannot overemphasize [ the ] popularity of the Canal Company nationalization within Egypt , even among Nasser 's enemies . " Egyptian political scientist Mahmoud Hamad wrote that , prior to 1956 , Nasser had consolidated control over Egypt 's military and civilian bureaucracies , but it was only after the canal 's nationalization that he gained near @-@ total popular legitimacy and firmly established himself as the " charismatic leader " and " spokesman for the masses not only in Egypt , but all over the Third World " . According to Aburish , this was Nasser 's largest pan @-@ Arab triumph at the time and " soon his pictures were to be found in the tents of Yemen , the souks of Marrakesh , and the posh villas of Syria " . The official reason given for the nationalization was that funds from the canal would be used for the construction of the dam in Aswan . That same day , Egypt closed the canal to Israeli shipping .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
France and the UK , the largest shareholders in the Suez Canal Company , saw its nationalization as yet another hostile measure aimed at them by the Egyptian government . Nasser was aware that the canal 's nationalization would instigate an international crisis and believed the prospect of military intervention by the two countries was 80 per cent likely . He believed , however , that the UK would not be able to intervene militarily for at least two months after the announcement , and dismissed Israeli action as " impossible " . In early October , the UN Security Council met on the matter of the canal 's nationalization and adopted a resolution recognizing Egypt 's right to control the canal as long as it continued to allow passage through it for foreign ships . According to Heikal , after this agreement , " Nasser estimated that the danger of invasion had dropped to 10 per cent " . Shortly thereafter , however , the UK , France , and Israel made a secret agreement to take over the Suez Canal , occupy the Suez Canal zone , and topple Nasser .
On 29 October 1956 , Israeli forces crossed the Sinai Peninsula , overwhelmed Egyptian army posts , and quickly advanced to their objectives . Two days later , British and French planes bombarded Egyptian airfields in the canal zone . Nasser ordered the military 's high command to withdraw the Egyptian Army from Sinai to bolster the canal 's defenses . Moreover , he feared that if the armored corps was dispatched to confront the Israeli invading force and the British and French subsequently landed in the canal city of Port Said , Egyptian armor in the Sinai would be cut off from the canal and destroyed by the combined tripartite forces . Amer strongly disagreed , insisting that Egyptian tanks meet the Israelis in battle . The two had a heated exchange on 3 November , and Amer conceded . Nasser also ordered blockage of the canal by sinking or otherwise disabling forty @-@ nine ships at its entrance .
Despite the commanded withdrawal of Egyptian troops , about 2 @,@ 000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during engagement with Israeli forces , and some 5 @,@ 000 Egyptian soldiers were captured by the Israeli Army . Amer and Salah Salem proposed requesting a ceasefire , with Salem further recommending that Nasser surrender himself to British forces . Nasser berated Amer and Salem , and vowed , " Nobody is going to surrender . " Nasser assumed military command . Despite the relative ease in which Sinai was occupied , Nasser 's prestige at home and among Arabs was undamaged . To counterbalance the Egyptian Army 's dismal performance , Nasser authorized the distribution of about 400 @,@ 000 rifles to civilian volunteers and hundreds of militias were formed throughout Egypt , many led by Nasser 's political opponents .
It was at Port Said that Nasser saw a confrontation with the invading forces as being the strategic and psychological focal point of Egypt 's defense . A third infantry battalion and hundreds of national guardsmen were sent to the city as reinforcements , while two regular companies were dispatched to organize popular resistance . Nasser and Boghdadi traveled to the canal zone to boost the morale of the armed volunteers . According to Boghdadi 's memoirs , Nasser described the Egyptian Army as " shattered " as he saw the wreckage of Egyptian military equipment en route . When British and French forces landed in Port Said on 5 – 6 November , its local militia put up a stiff resistance , resulting in street @-@ to @-@ street fighting . The Egyptian Army commander in the city was preparing to request terms for a ceasefire , but Nasser ordered him to desist . The British @-@ French forces managed to largely secure the city by 7 November . Between 750 and 1 @,@ 000 Egyptians were killed in the battle for Port Said .
The US Eisenhower administration condemned the tripartite invasion , and supported UN resolutions demanding withdrawal and a United Nations Emergency Force ( UNEF ) to be stationed in Sinai . Nasser commended Eisenhower , stating he played the " greatest and most decisive role " in stopping the " tripartite conspiracy " . By the end of December , British and French forces had totally withdrawn from Egyptian territory , while Israel completed its withdrawal in March 1957 and released all Egyptian prisoners of war . As a result of the Suez Crisis , Nasser brought in a set of regulations imposing rigorous requirements for residency and citizenship as well as forced expulsions , mostly affecting British and French nationals and Jews with foreign nationality , as well as some Egyptian Jews .
After the fighting ended , Amer accused Nasser of provoking an unnecessary war and then blaming the military for the result . On 8 April , the canal was reopened , and Nasser 's political position was enormously enhanced by the widely perceived failure of the invasion and attempt to topple him . British diplomat Anthony Nutting claimed the crisis " established Nasser finally and completely " as the rayyes ( president ) of Egypt .
= = Pan @-@ Arabism and socialism = =
By 1957 , pan @-@ Arabism had become the dominant ideology in the Arab world , and the average Arab citizen considered Nasser his undisputed leader . Historian Adeed Dawisha credited Nasser 's status to his " charisma , bolstered by his perceived victory in the Suez Crisis " . The Cairo @-@ based Voice of the Arabs radio station spread Nasser 's ideas of united Arab action throughout the Arabic @-@ speaking world , so much so that historian Eugene Rogan wrote , " Nasser conquered the Arab world by radio . " Lebanese sympathizers of Nasser and the Egyptian embassy in Beirut — the press center of the Arab world — bought out Lebanese media outlets to further disseminate Nasser 's ideals . Nasser also enjoyed the support of Arab nationalist civilian and paramilitary organizations throughout the region . His followers were numerous and well @-@ funded , but lacked any permanent structure and organization . They called themselves " Nasserites " , despite Nasser 's objection to the label ( he preferred the term " Arab nationalists " ) .
In January 1957 , the US adopted the Eisenhower Doctrine and pledged to prevent the spread of communism and its perceived agents in the Middle East . Although Nasser was an opponent of communism in the region , his promotion of pan @-@ Arabism was viewed as a threat by pro @-@ Western states in the region . Eisenhower tried to isolate Nasser and reduce his regional influence by attempting to transform King Saud into a counterweight . Also in January , the elected Jordanian prime minister and Nasser supporter Sulayman al @-@ Nabulsi brought Jordan into a military pact with Egypt , Syria , and Saudi Arabia .
Relations between Nasser and King Hussein deteriorated in April when Hussein implicated Nasser in two coup attempts against him — although Nasser 's involvement was never established — and dissolved al @-@ Nabulsi 's cabinet . Nasser subsequently slammed Hussein on Cairo radio as being " a tool of the imperialists " . Relations with King Saud also became antagonistic as the latter began to fear that Nasser 's increasing popularity in Saudi Arabia was a genuine threat to the royal family 's survival . Despite opposition from the governments of Jordan , Saudi Arabia , Iraq , and Lebanon , Nasser maintained his prestige among their citizens and those of other Arab countries .
By the end of 1957 , Nasser nationalized all remaining British and French assets in Egypt , including the tobacco , cement , pharmaceutical , and phosphate industries . When efforts to offer tax incentives and attract outside investments yielded no tangible results , he nationalized more companies and made them a part of his economic development organization . He stopped short of total government control : two @-@ thirds of the economy was still in private hands . This effort achieved a measure of success , with increased agricultural production and investment in industrialization . Nasser initiated the Helwan steelworks , which subsequently became Egypt 's largest enterprise , providing the country with product and tens of thousands of jobs . Nasser also decided to cooperate with the Soviet Union in the construction of the Aswan Dam to replace the withdrawal of US funds .
= = = United Arab Republic = = =
Despite his popularity with the people of the Arab world , by mid @-@ 1957 his only regional ally was Syria . In September , Turkish troops massed along the Syrian border , giving credence to rumors that the Baghdad Pact countries were attempting to topple Syria 's leftist government . Nasser sent a contingent force to Syria as a symbolic display of solidarity , further elevating his prestige in the Arab world , and particularly among Syrians .
As political instability grew in Syria , delegations from the country were sent to Nasser demanding immediate unification with Egypt . Nasser initially turned down the request , citing the two countries ' incompatible political and economic systems , lack of contiguity , the Syrian military 's record of intervention in politics , and the deep factionalism among Syria 's political forces . However , in January 1958 , a second Syrian delegation managed to convince Nasser of an impending communist takeover and a consequent slide to civil strife . Nasser subsequently opted for union , albeit on the condition that it would be a total political merger with him as its president , to which the delegates and Syrian president Shukri al @-@ Quwatli agreed . On 1 February , the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) was proclaimed and , according to Dawisha , the Arab world reacted in " stunned amazement , which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria . " Nasser ordered a crackdown against Syrian communists , dismissing many of them from their governmental posts .
On a surprise visit to Damascus to celebrate the union on 24 February , Nasser was welcomed by crowds in the hundreds of thousands . Crown Prince Imam Badr of North Yemen was dispatched to Damascus with proposals to include his country in the new republic . Nasser agreed to establish a loose federal union with Yemen — the United Arab States — in place of total integration . While Nasser was in Syria , King Saud planned to have him assassinated on his return flight to Cairo . On 4 March , Nasser addressed the masses in Damascus and waved before them the Saudi check given to Syrian security chief and , unbeknownst to the Saudis , ardent Nasser supporter Abdel Hamid Sarraj to shoot down Nasser 's plane . As a consequence of Saud 's plot , he was forced by senior members of the Saudi royal family to informally cede most of his powers to his brother , King Faisal , a major Nasser opponent who advocated pan @-@ Islamic unity over pan @-@ Arabism .
A day after announcing the attempt on his life , Nasser established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600 @-@ member National Assembly ( 400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria ) and the dissolution of all political parties . Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice @-@ presidents : Boghdadi and Amer in Egypt , and Sabri al @-@ Asali and Akram al @-@ Hawrani in Syria . Nasser then left for Moscow to meet with Nikita Khrushchev . At the meeting , Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party , but Nasser refused , stating it was an internal matter which was not a subject of discussion with outside powers . Khrushchev was reportedly taken aback and denied he had meant to interfere in the UAR 's affairs . The matter was settled as both leaders sought to prevent a rift between their two countries .
= = = Influence on the Arab world = = =
In Lebanon , clashes between pro @-@ Nasser factions and supporters of staunch Nasser opponent , then @-@ President Camille Chamoun , culminated in civil strife by May . The former sought to unite with the UAR , while the latter sought Lebanon 's continued independence . Nasser delegated oversight of the issue to Sarraj , who provided limited aid to Nasser 's Lebanese supporters through money , light arms , and officer training — short of the large @-@ scale support that Chamoun alleged . Nasser did not covet Lebanon , seeing it as a " special case " , but sought to prevent Chamoun from a second presidential term .
On 14 July , Iraqi army officers Abdel Karim Qasim and Abdel Salam Aref overthrew the Iraqi monarchy and , the next day , Iraqi prime minister and Nasser 's chief Arab antagonist , Nuri al @-@ Said , was killed . Nasser recognized the new government and stated that " any attack on Iraq was tantamount to an attack on the UAR " . On 15 July , US marines landed in Lebanon , and British special forces in Jordan , upon the request of those countries ' governments to prevent them from falling to pro @-@ Nasser forces . Nasser felt that the revolution in Iraq left the road for pan @-@ Arab unity unblocked . On 19 July , for the first time , he declared that he was opting for full Arab union , although he had no plan to merge Iraq with the UAR . While most members of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) favored Iraqi @-@ UAR unity , Qasim sought to keep Iraq independent and resented Nasser 's large popular base in the country .
In the fall of 1958 , Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin , al @-@ Hawrani , and Salah Bitar to oversee developments in Syria . By moving the latter two , who were Ba 'athists , to Cairo , he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run . He put Syria under Sarraj , who effectively reduced the province to a police state by imprisoning and exiling landholders who objected to the introduction of Egyptian agricultural reform in Syria , as well as communists . Following the Lebanese election of Fuad Chehab in September 1958 , relations between Lebanon and the UAR improved considerably . On 25 March 1959 , Chehab and Nasser met at the Lebanese – Syrian border and compromised on an end to the Lebanese crisis .
Relations between Nasser and Qasim grew increasingly bitter on 9 March , after Qasim 's forces suppressed a rebellion in Mosul , launched a day earlier by a pro @-@ Nasser Iraqi RCC officer backed by UAR authorities . Nasser had considered dispatching troops to aid his Iraqi sympathizers , but decided against it . He clamped down on Egyptian communist activity due to the key backing Iraqi communists provided Qasim . Several influential communists were arrested , including Nasser 's old comrade Khaled Mohieddin , who had been allowed to re @-@ enter Egypt in 1956 .
By December , the political situation in Syria was faltering and Nasser responded by appointing Amer as governor @-@ general alongside Sarraj . Syria 's leaders opposed the appointment and many resigned from their government posts . Nasser later met with the opposition leaders and in a heated moment , exclaimed that he was the " elected " president of the UAR and those who did not accept his authority could " walk away " .
= = = Collapse of the union and aftermath = = =
Opposition to the union mounted among some of Syria 's key elements , namely the socioeconomic , political , and military elites . In response to Syria 's worsening economy , which Nasser attributed to its control by the bourgeoisie , in July 1961 , Nasser decreed socialist measures that nationalized wide @-@ ranging sectors of the Syrian economy . He also dismissed Sarraj in September to curb the growing political crisis . Aburish states that Nasser was not fully capable of addressing Syrian problems because they were " foreign to him " . In Egypt , the economic situation was more positive , with a GNP growth of 4 @.@ 5 percent and a rapid growth of industry . In 1960 , Nasser nationalized the Egyptian press , which had already been cooperating with his government , in order to steer coverage towards the country 's socioeconomic issues and galvanize public support for his socialist measures .
On 28 September 1961 , secessionist army units launched a coup in Damascus , declaring Syria 's secession from the UAR . In response , pro @-@ union army units in northern Syria revolted and pro @-@ Nasser protests occurred in major Syrian cities . Nasser sent Egyptian special forces to Latakia to bolster his allies , but withdrew them two days later , citing a refusal to allow inter @-@ Arab fighting . Addressing the UAR 's breakup on 5 October , Nasser accepted personal responsibility and declared that Egypt would recognize an elected Syrian government . He privately blamed interference by hostile Arab governments . According to Heikal , Nasser suffered something resembling a nervous breakdown after the dissolution of the union ; he began to smoke more heavily and his health began to deteriorate .
= = = Revival on regional stage = = =
Nasser 's regional position changed unexpectedly when Yemeni officers led by Nasser supporter Abdullah al @-@ Sallal overthrew Imam Badr of North Yemen on 27 September 1962 . Al @-@ Badr and his tribal partisans began receiving increasing support from Saudi Arabia to help reinstate the kingdom , while Nasser subsequently accepted a request by Sallal to militarily aid the new government on 30 September . Consequently , Egypt became increasingly embroiled in the drawn @-@ out civil war until it withdrew its forces in 1967 . Most of Nasser 's old colleagues had questioned the wisdom of continuing the war , but Amer reassured Nasser of their coming victory . Nasser later remarked in 1968 that intervention in Yemen was a " miscalculation " .
In July 1962 , Algeria became independent of France . As a staunch political and financial supporter of the Algerian independence movement , Nasser considered the country 's independence to be a personal victory . Amid these developments , a pro @-@ Nasser clique in the Saudi royal family led by Prince Talal defected to Egypt , along with the Jordanian chief of staff , in early 1963 .
On 8 February 1963 , a military coup in Iraq led by a Ba 'athist – Nasserist alliance toppled Qasim , who was subsequently shot dead . Abdel Salam Aref , a Nasserist , was chosen to be the new president . A similar alliance toppled the Syrian government on 8 March . On 14 March , the new Iraqi and Syrian governments sent Nasser delegations to push for a new Arab union . At the meeting , Nasser lambasted the Ba 'athists for " facilitating " Syria 's split from the UAR , and asserted that he was the " leader of the Arabs " . A transitional unity agreement stipulating a federal system was signed by the parties on 17 April and the new union was set to be established in May 1965 . However , the agreement fell apart weeks later when Syria 's Ba 'athists purged Nasser 's supporters from the officers corps . A failed counter @-@ coup by a Nasserist colonel followed , after which Nasser condemned the Ba 'athists as " fascists " .
In January 1964 , Nasser called for an Arab League summit in Cairo to establish a unified Arab response against Israel 's plans to divert the Jordan River 's waters for economic purposes , which Syria and Jordan deemed an act of war . Nasser blamed Arab divisions for what he deemed " the disastrous situation " . He discouraged Syria and Palestinian guerrillas from provoking the Israelis , conceding that he had no plans for war with Israel . During the summit , Nasser developed cordial relations with King Hussein , and ties were mended with the rulers of Saudi Arabia , Syria , and Morocco . In May , Nasser moved to formally share his leadership position over the Palestine issue by initiating the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . In practice , Nasser used the PLO to wield control over the Palestinian fedayeen . Its head was to be Ahmad Shukeiri , Nasser 's personal nominee .
After years of foreign policy coordination and developing ties , Nasser , President Sukarno of Indonesia , President Tito of Yugoslavia , and Prime Minister Nehru of India founded the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) in 1961 . Its declared purpose was to solidify international non @-@ alignment and promote world peace amid the Cold War , end colonization , and increase economic cooperation among developing countries . In 1964 , Nasser was made president of the NAM and held the second conference of the organization in Cairo .
Nasser played a significant part in the strengthening of African solidarity in the late 1950s and early 1960s , although his continental leadership role had increasingly passed to Algeria since 1962 . During this period , Nasser made Egypt a refuge for anti @-@ colonial leaders from several African countries and allowed the broadcast of anti @-@ colonial propaganda from Cairo . Beginning in 1958 , Nasser had a key role in the discussions among African leaders that led to the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) in 1963 .
= = Modernization efforts and internal dissent = =
= = = Al @-@ Azhar = = =
In 1961 , Nasser sought to firmly establish Egypt as the leader of the Arab world and to promote a second revolution in Egypt with the purpose of merging Islamic and socialist thinking . To achieve this , he initiated several reforms to modernize al @-@ Azhar , which serves as the de facto leading authority in Sunni Islam , and to ensure its prominence over the Muslim Brotherhood and the more conservative Wahhabism promoted by Saudi Arabia . Nasser had used al @-@ Azhar 's most willing ulema ( scholars ) as a counterweight to the Brotherhood 's Islamic influence , starting in 1953 .
Nasser instructed al @-@ Azhar to create changes in its syllabus that trickled to the lower levels of Egyptian education , consequently allowing the establishment of coeducational schools and the introduction of evolution into school curriculum . The reforms also included the merger of religious and civil courts . Moreover , Nasser forced al @-@ Azhar to issue a fatwā admitting Shia Muslims , Alawites , and Druze into mainstream Islam ; for centuries prior , al @-@ Azhar deemed them to be " heretics " .
= = = Rivalry with Amer = = =
Following Syria 's secession , Nasser grew concerned with Amer 's inability to train and modernize the army , and with the state within a state Amer had created in the military command and intelligence apparatus . In late 1961 , Nasser established the Presidential Council and decreed it the authority to approve all senior military appointments , instead of leaving this responsibility solely to Amer . Moreover , he instructed that the primary criterion for promotion should be merit and not personal loyalties . Nasser retracted the initiative after Amer 's allies in the officers corps threatened to mobilize against him .
In early 1962 Nasser again attempted to wrest control of the military command from Amer . Amer responded by directly confronting Nasser for the first time and secretly rallying his loyalist officers . Nasser ultimately backed down , wary of a possible violent confrontation between the military and his civilian government . According to Boghdadi , the stress caused by the UAR 's collapse and Amer 's increasing autonomy forced Nasser , who already had diabetes , to practically live on painkillers from then on .
= = = National Charter and second term = = =
In October 1961 , Nasser embarked on a major nationalization program for Egypt , believing the total adoption of socialism was the answer to his country 's problems and would have prevented Syria 's secession . In order to organize and solidify his popular base with Egypt 's citizens and counter the army 's influence , Nasser introduced the National Charter in 1962 and a new constitution . The charter called for universal health care , affordable housing , vocational schools , greater women 's rights and a family planning program , as well as widening the Suez Canal .
Nasser also attempted to maintain oversight of the country 's civil service to prevent it from inflating and consequently becoming a burden to the state . New laws provided workers with a minimum wage , profit shares , free education , free health care , reduced working hours , and encouragement to participate in management . Land reforms guaranteed the security of tenant farmers , promoted agricultural growth , and reduced rural poverty . As a result of the 1962 measures , government ownership of Egyptian business reached 51 percent , and the National Union was renamed the Arab Socialist Union ( ASU ) . With these measures came more domestic repression , as thousands of Islamists were imprisoned , including dozens of military officers . Nasser 's tilt toward a Soviet @-@ style system led his aides Boghdadi and Hussein el @-@ Shafei to submit their resignations in protest .
During the presidential referendum in Egypt , Nasser was re @-@ elected to a second term as UAR president and took his oath on 25 March 1965 . He was the only candidate for the position , with virtually all of his political opponents forbidden by law from running for office , and his fellow party members reduced to mere followers . That same year , Nasser had the Muslim Brotherhood chief ideologue Sayyed Qutb imprisoned . Qutb was charged and found guilty by the court of plotting to assassinate Nasser , and was executed in 1966 . Beginning in 1966 , as Egypt 's economy slowed and government debt became increasingly burdensome , Nasser began to ease state control over the private sector , encouraging state @-@ owned bank loans to private business and introducing incentives to increase exports . During the 60 's , the Egyptian economy went from sluggishness to the verge of collapse , the society became less free , and Nasser 's appeal waned considerably .
= = Six @-@ Day War = =
In mid May 1967 , the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria , although Chief of Staff Mohamed Fawzi considered the warnings to be " baseless " . According to Kandil , without Nasser 's authorization , Amer used the Soviet warnings as a pretext to dispatch troops to Sinai on 14 May , and Nasser subsequently demanded UNEF 's withdrawal . Earlier that day , Nasser received a warning from King Hussein of Israeli @-@ American collusion to drag Egypt into war . The message had been originally received by Amer on 2 May , but was withheld from Nasser until the Sinai deployment on 14 May . Although in the preceding months , Hussein and Nasser had been accusing each other of avoiding a fight with Israel , Hussein was nonetheless wary that an Egyptian @-@ Israeli war would risk the West Bank 's occupation by Israel . Nasser still felt that the US would restrain Israel from attacking due to assurances that he received from the US and Soviet Union . In turn , he also reassured both powers that Egypt would only act defensively .
On 21 May , Amer asked Nasser to order the Straits of Tiran blockaded , a move Nasser believed Israel would use as a casus belli . Amer reassured him that the army was prepared for confrontation , but Nasser doubted Amer 's assessment of the military 's readiness . According to Nasser 's vice president Zakaria Mohieddin , although " Amer had absolute authority over the armed forces , Nasser had his ways of knowing what was really going on " . Moreover , Amer anticipated an impending Israeli attack and advocated a preemptive strike . Nasser refused the call upon determination that the air force lacked pilots and Amer 's handpicked officers were incompetent . Still , Nasser concluded that if Israel attacked , Egypt 's quantitative advantage in manpower and arms could stave off Israeli forces for at least two weeks , allowing for diplomacy towards a ceasefire . Towards the end of May , Nasser increasingly exchanged his positions of deterrence for deference to the inevitability of war , under increased pressure to act by both the general Arab populace and various Arab governments . On 26 May Nasser declared , " our basic objective will be to destroy Israel " . On 30 May , King Hussein committed Jordan in an alliance with Egypt and Syria .
On the morning of 5 June , the Israeli Air Force struck Egyptian air fields , destroying much of the Egyptian Air Force . Before the day ended , Israeli armored units had cut through Egyptian defense lines and captured the town of el @-@ Arish . The next day , Amer ordered the immediate withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Sinai — causing the majority of Egyptian casualties during the war . Israel quickly captured Sinai and the Gaza Strip from Egypt , the West Bank from Jordan , and the Golan Heights from Syria .
According to Sadat , it was only when the Israelis cut off the Egyptian garrison at Sharm el @-@ Sheikh that Nasser became aware of the situation 's gravity . After hearing of the attack , he rushed to army headquarters to inquire about the military situation . The simmering conflict between Nasser and Amer subsequently came to the fore , and officers present reported the pair burst into " a nonstop shouting match " . The Supreme Executive Committee , set up by Nasser to oversee the conduct of the war , attributed the repeated Egyptian defeats to the Nasser – Amer rivalry and Amer 's overall incompetence . According to Egyptian diplomat Ismail Fahmi , who became foreign minister during Sadat 's presidency , the Israeli invasion and Egypt 's consequent defeat was a result of Nasser 's dismissal of all rational analysis of the situation and his undertaking of a series of irrational decisions .
= = = Resignation and aftermath = = =
During the first four days of the war , the general population of the Arab world believed Arab radio station fabrications of imminent Arab victory . On 9 June , Nasser appeared on television to inform Egypt 's citizens of their country 's defeat . He announced his resignation on television later that day , and ceded all presidential powers to his then @-@ Vice President Zakaria Mohieddin , who had no prior information of this decision and refused to accept the post . Hundreds of thousands of sympathizers poured into the streets in mass demonstrations throughout Egypt and across the Arab world rejecting his resignation , chanting , " We are your soldiers , Gamal ! " Nasser retracted his decision the next day .
On 11 July , Nasser replaced Amer with Mohamed Fawzi as general commander , over the protestations of Amer 's loyalists in the military , 600 of whom marched on army headquarters and demanded Amer 's reinstatement . After Nasser sacked thirty of the loyalists in response , Amer and his allies devised a plan to topple him on 27 August . Nasser was tipped off about their activities and , after several invitations , he convinced Amer to meet him at his home on 24 August . Nasser confronted Amer about the coup plot , which he denied before being arrested by Mohieddin . Amer committed suicide on 14 September . Despite his souring relationship with Amer , Nasser spoke of losing " the person closest to [ him ] " . Thereafter , Nasser began a process of depoliticizing the armed forces , arresting dozens of leading military and intelligence figures loyal to Amer .
At the 29 August Arab League summit in Khartoum , Nasser 's usual commanding position had receded as the attending heads of state expected Saudi King Faisal to lead . A ceasefire in the Yemen War was declared and the summit concluded with the Khartoum Resolution . The Soviet Union soon resupplied the Egyptian military with about half of its former arsenals and broke diplomatic relations with Israel . Nasser cut relations with the US following the war , and , according to Aburish , his policy of " playing the superpowers against each other " ended . In November , Nasser accepted UN Resolution 242 , which called for Israel 's withdrawal from territories acquired in the war . His supporters claimed Nasser 's move was meant to buy time to prepare for another confrontation with Israel , while his detractors believed his acceptance of the resolution signaled a waning interest in Palestinian independence .
= = Final years of presidency = =
= = = Domestic reforms and governmental changes = = =
Nasser appointed himself the additional roles of prime minister and supreme commander of the armed forces on 19 June 1967 . Angry at the military court 's perceived leniency with air force officers charged with negligence during the 1967 war , workers and students launched protests calling for major political reforms in late February 1968 . Nasser responded to the demonstrations , the most significant public challenge to his rule since workers ' protests in March 1954 , by removing most military figures from his cabinet and appointing eight civilians in place of several high @-@ ranking members of the Arab Socialist Union ( ASU ) . By 3 March , Nasser directed Egypt 's intelligence apparatus to focus on external rather than domestic espionage , and declared the " fall of the mukhabarat state " .
On 30 March , Nasser proclaimed a manifesto stipulating the restoration of civil liberties , greater parliamentary independence from the executive , major structural changes to the ASU , and a campaign to rid the government of corrupt elements . A public referendum approved the proposed measures in May , and held subsequent elections for the Supreme Executive Committee , the ASU 's highest decision @-@ making body . Observers noted that the declaration signaled an important shift from political repression to liberalization , although its promises would largely go unfulfilled .
Nasser appointed Sadat and Hussein el @-@ Shafei as his vice presidents in December 1969 . By then , relations with his other original military comrades , namely Khaled and Zakaria Mohieddin and former vice president Sabri , had become strained . By mid @-@ 1970 , Nasser pondered replacing Sadat with Boghdadi after reconciling with the latter .
= = = War of Attrition and regional diplomatic initiatives = = =
Meanwhile , in January 1968 , Nasser commenced the War of Attrition to reclaim territory captured by Israel , ordering attacks against Israeli positions east of the then @-@ blockaded Suez Canal . In March , Nasser offered Yasser Arafat 's Fatah movement arms and funds after their performance against Israeli forces in the Battle of Karameh that month . He also advised Arafat to think of peace with Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian state comprising the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Nasser effectively ceded his leadership of the " Palestine issue " to Arafat .
Israel retaliated against Egyptian shelling with commando raids , artillery shelling and air strikes . This resulted in an exodus of civilians from Egyptian cities along the Suez Canal 's western bank . Nasser ceased all military activities and began a program to build a network of internal defenses , while receiving the financial backing of various Arab states . The war resumed in March 1969 . In November , Nasser brokered an agreement between the PLO and the Lebanese military that granted Palestinian guerrillas the right to use Lebanese territory to attack Israel .
In June 1970 , Nasser accepted the US @-@ sponsored Rogers Plan , which called for an end to hostilities and an Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory , but it was rejected by Israel , the PLO , and most Arab states except Jordan . Nasser had initially rejected the plan , but conceded under pressure from the Soviet Union , which feared that escalating regional conflict could drag it into a war with the US . He also determined that a ceasefire could serve as a tactical step toward the strategic goal of recapturing the Suez Canal . Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel . In dozens of speeches and statements , Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender . Following Nasser 's acceptance , Israel agreed to a ceasefire and Nasser used the lull in fighting to move SAM missiles towards the canal zone .
Meanwhile , tensions in Jordan between an increasingly autonomous PLO and King Hussein 's government had been simmering ; following the Dawson 's Field hijackings , a military campaign was launched to rout out PLO forces . The offensive elevated risks of a regional war and prompted Nasser to hold an emergency Arab League summit on 27 September in Cairo , where he forged a ceasefire .
= = Death and funeral = =
As the summit closed on 28 September 1970 , hours after escorting the last Arab leader to leave , Nasser suffered a heart attack . He was immediately transported to his house , where his physicians tended to him . Nasser died several hours later , around 6 : 00 p.m. Heikal , Sadat , and Nasser 's wife Tahia were at his deathbed . According to his doctor , al @-@ Sawi Habibi , Nasser 's likely cause of death was arteriosclerosis , varicose veins , and complications from long @-@ standing diabetes . Nasser was a heavy smoker with a family history of heart disease — two of his brothers died in their fifties from the same condition . The state of Nasser 's health was not known to the public prior to his death . He had previously suffered heart attacks in 1966 and September 1969 .
Following the announcement of Nasser 's death , Egypt and the Arab world were in a state of shock . Nasser 's funeral procession through Cairo on 1 October was attended by at least five million mourners . The 10 @-@ kilometer ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) procession to his burial site began at the old RCC headquarters with a flyover by MiG @-@ 21 jets . His flag @-@ draped coffin was attached to a gun carriage pulled by six horses and led by a column of cavalrymen . All Arab heads of state attended , with the exception of Saudi King Faisal . King Hussein and Arafat cried openly , and Muammar Gaddafi of Libya fainted from emotional distress twice . A few major non @-@ Arab dignitaries were present , including Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin and French Prime Minister Jacques Chaban @-@ Delmas .
Almost immediately after the procession began , mourners engulfed Nasser 's coffin chanting , " There is no God but Allah , and Nasser is God 's beloved … Each of us is Nasser . " Police unsuccessfully attempted to quell the crowds and , as a result , most of the foreign dignitaries were evacuated . The final destination was the Nasr Mosque , which was afterwards renamed Abdel Nasser Mosque , where Nasser was buried .
Because of his ability to motivate nationalistic passions , " men , women , and children wept and wailed in the streets " after hearing of his death , according to Nutting . The general Arab reaction was one of mourning , with thousands of people pouring onto the streets of major cities throughout the Arab world . Over a dozen people were killed in Beirut as a result of the chaos , and in Jerusalem , roughly 75 @,@ 000 Arabs marched through the Old City chanting , " Nasser will never die . " As a testament to his unchallenged leadership of the Arab people , following his death , the headline of the Lebanese Le Jour read , " One hundred million human beings — the Arabs — are orphans . " Sherif Hetata , a former political prisoner and later member Nasser 's ASU , said that " Nasser 's greatest achievement was his funeral . The world will never again see five million people crying together . "
= = Legacy = =
Nasser made Egypt fully independent of British influence , and the country became a major power in the developing world under his leadership . One of Nasser 's main domestic efforts was to establish social justice , which he deemed a prerequisite to liberal democracy . During his presidency , ordinary citizens enjoyed unprecedented access to housing , education , jobs , health services and nourishment , as well as other forms of social welfare , while feudalistic influence waned . By the end of his presidency , employment and working conditions improved considerably , although poverty was still high in the country and substantial resources allocated for social welfare had been diverted to the war effort .
The national economy grew significantly through agrarian reform , major modernization projects such as the Helwan steel works and the Aswan Dam , and nationalization schemes such as that of the Suez Canal . However , the marked economic growth of the early 1960s took a downturn for the remainder of the decade , only recovering in 1970 . Egypt experienced a " golden age " of culture during Nasser 's presidency , according to historian Joel Gordon , particularly in film , television , theater , radio , literature , fine arts , comedy , poetry , and music . Egypt under Nasser dominated the Arab world in these fields , producing cultural icons .
During Mubarak 's presidency , Nasserist political parties began to emerge in Egypt , the first being the Arab Democratic Nasserist Party ( ADNP ) . The party carried minor political influence , and splits between its members beginning in 1995 resulted in the gradual establishment of splinter parties , including Hamdeen Sabahi 's 1997 founding of Al @-@ Karama . Sabahi came in third place during the 2012 presidential election . Nasserist activists were among the founders of Kefaya , a major opposition force during Mubarak 's rule . On 19 September 2012 , four Nasserist parties ( the ADNP , Karama , the National Conciliation Party , and the Popular Nasserist Congress Party ) merged to form the United Nasserist Party .
= = = Image = = =
Nasser was known for his intimate relationship with ordinary Egyptians . His availability to the public , despite assassination attempts against him , was unparalleled among his successors . A skilled orator , Nasser gave 1 @,@ 359 speeches between 1953 and 1970 , a record for any Egyptian head of state . Historian Elie Podeh wrote that a constant theme of Nasser 's image was " his ability to represent Egyptian authenticity , in triumph or defeat " . The national press also helped to foster his popularity and profile — more so after the nationalization of state media . Historian Tarek Osman wrote :
The interplay in the Nasser ' phenomenon ' between genuine expression of popular feeling and state @-@ sponsored propaganda may sometimes be hard to disentangle . But behind it lies a vital historical fact : that Gamal Abdel Nasser signifies the only truly Egyptian developmental project in the country 's history since the fall of the Pharoanic [ sic ] state . There had been other projects ... But this was different — in origin , meaning and impact . For Nasser was a man of the Egyptian soil who had overthrown the Middle East 's most established and sophisticated monarchy in a swift and bloodless move — to the acclaim of millions of poor , oppressed Egyptians — and ushered in a programme of ' social justice ' , ' progress and development ' , and ' dignity ' .
While Nasser was increasingly criticized by Egyptian intellectuals following the Six @-@ Day War and his death in 1970 , the general public was persistently sympathetic both during and after Nasser 's life . According to political scientist Mahmoud Hamad , writing in 2008 , " nostalgia for Nasser is easily sensed in Egypt and all Arab countries today " . General malaise in Egyptian society , particularly during the Mubarak era , augmented nostalgia for Nasser 's presidency , which increasingly became associated with the ideals of national purpose , hope , social cohesion , and vibrant culture .
Until the present day , Nasser serves as an iconic figure throughout the Arab world , a symbol of Arab unity and dignity , and a towering figure in modern Middle Eastern history . He is also considered a champion of social justice in Egypt . Time writes that despite his mistakes and shortcomings , Nasser " imparted a sense of personal worth and national pride that [ Egypt and the Arabs ] had not known for 400 years . This alone may have been enough to balance his flaws and failures . "
Historian Steven A. Cook wrote in July 2013 , " Nasser 's heyday still represents , for many , the last time that Egypt felt united under leaders whose espoused principles met the needs of ordinary Egyptians . " During the Arab Spring , which resulted in a revolution in Egypt , photographs of Nasser were raised in Cairo and Arab capitals during anti @-@ government demonstrations . According to journalist Lamis Andoni , Nasser had become a " symbol of Arab dignity " during the mass demonstrations .
= = = Criticism = = =
Sadat declared his intention to " continue the path of Nasser " in his 7 October 1970 presidential inauguration speech , but began to depart from Nasserist policies as his domestic position improved following the 1973 October War . President Sadat 's Infitah policy sought to open Egypt 's economy for private investment . According to Heikal , ensuing anti @-@ Nasser developments until the present day led to an Egypt " [ half ] at war with Abdel @-@ Nasser , half [ at war ] with Anwar El @-@ Sadat " .
Nasser 's Egyptian detractors considered him a dictator who thwarted democratic progress , imprisoned thousands of dissidents , and
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led a repressive administration responsible for numerous human rights violations . Islamists in Egypt , particularly members of the politically persecuted Brotherhood , viewed Nasser as oppressive , tyrannical , and demonic . Liberal writer Tawfiq al @-@ Hakim described Nasser as a " confused Sultan " who employed stirring rhetoric , but had no actual plan to achieve his stated goals .
Some of Nasser 's liberal and Islamist critics in Egypt , including the founding members of the New Wafd Party and writer Jamal Badawi , dismissed Nasser 's popular appeal with the Egyptian masses during his presidency as being the product of successful manipulation and demagoguery . Egyptian political scientist Alaa al @-@ Din Desouki blamed the 1952 revolution 's shortcomings on Nasser 's concentration of power , and Egypt 's lack of democracy on Nasser 's political style and his government 's limitations on freedom of expression and political participation .
American political scientist Mark Cooper asserted that Nasser 's charisma and his direct relationship with the Egyptian people " rendered intermediaries ( organizations and individuals ) unnecessary " . He opined that Nasser 's legacy was a " guarantee of instability " due to Nasser 's reliance on personal power and the absence of strong political institutions under his rule . Historian Abd al @-@ Azim Ramadan wrote that Nasser was an irrational and irresponsible leader , blaming his inclination to solitary decision @-@ making for Egypt 's losses during the Suez War , among other events . Miles Copeland , Jr . , once described as Nasser 's closest Western adviser , said that the barriers between Nasser and the outside world have grown so thick that all but the information that attest to his infallibility , indispensability , and immortality has been filtered out .
Zakaria Mohieddin , who was Nasser 's vice president , said that Nasser gradually changed during his reign . He ceased consulting his colleagues and made more and more of the decisions himself . Although Nasser repeatedly said that a war with Israel will start at a time of his , or Arab , choosing , in 1967 he started a bluffing game " but a successful bluff means your opponent must not know which cards you are holding . In this case Nasser 's opponent could see his hand in the mirror and knew he was only holding a pair of deuces " and Nasser knew that his army is not prepared yet . " All of this was out of character ... His tendencies in this regard may have been accentuated by diabetes ... That was the only rational explanation for his actions in 1967 " .
Nasser told an East German newspaper in 1964 that " no person , not even the most simple one , takes seriously the lie of the six million Jews that were murdered [ in the Holocaust ] . " However he is not known to have ever again publicly called the figure of six million into question , perhaps because his advisors and East German contacts had corrected him on the subject .
= = = Regional leadership = = =
Through his actions and speeches , and because he was able to symbolize the popular Arab will , Nasser inspired several nationalist revolutions in the Arab world . He defined the politics of his generation and communicated directly with the public masses of the Arab world , bypassing the various heads of states of those countries — an accomplishment not repeated by other Arab leaders . The extent of Nasser 's centrality in the region made it a priority for incoming Arab nationalist heads of state to seek good relations with Egypt , in order to gain popular legitimacy from their own citizens .
To varying degrees , Nasser 's statist system of government was continued in Egypt and emulated by virtually all Arab republics , namely Algeria , Syria , Iraq , Tunisia , Yemen , Sudan , and Libya . Ahmed Ben Bella , Algeria 's first president , was a staunch Nasserist . Abdullah al @-@ Sallal drove out the king of North Yemen in the name of Nasser 's pan @-@ Arabism . Other coups influenced by Nasser included those that occurred in Iraq in July 1958 and Syria in 1963 . Muammar Gaddafi , who overthrew the Libyan monarchy in 1969 , considered Nasser his hero and sought to succeed him as " leader of the Arabs " . Also in 1969 , Colonel Gaafar Nimeiry , a supporter of Nasser , took power in Sudan . The Arab Nationalist Movement ( ANM ) helped spread Nasser 's pan @-@ Arabist ideas throughout the Arab world , particularly among the Palestinians , Syrians , and Lebanese , and in South Yemen , the Persian Gulf , and Iraq . While many regional heads of state tried to emulate Nasser , Podeh opined that the " parochialism " of successive Arab leaders " transformed imitation [ of Nasser ] into parody " .
= = = Portrayal in film = = =
In 1963 , Egyptian director Youssef Chahine produced the film El Nasser Salah El Dine ( " Saladin The Victorious " ) , which intentionally drew parallels between Saladin , considered a hero in the Arab world , and Nasser and his pan @-@ Arabist policies . Nasser is played by Ahmed Zaki in Mohamed Fadel 's 1996 Nasser 56 . The film set the Egyptian box office record at the time , and focused on Nasser during the Suez Crisis . It is also considered a milestone in Egyptian and Arab cinema as the first film to dramatize the role of a modern @-@ day Arab leader . Together with the 1999 Syrian biopic Gamal Abdel Nasser , the films marked the first biographical movies about contemporary public figures produced in the Arab world .
= = Personal life = =
In 1944 , Nasser married Tahia Kazem , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a wealthy Iranian father and an Egyptian mother , both of whom died when she was young . She was introduced to Nasser through her brother , Abdel Hamid Kazim , a merchant friend of Nasser 's , in 1943 . After their wedding , the couple moved into a house in Manshiyat al @-@ Bakri , a suburb of Cairo , where they would live for the rest of their lives . Nasser 's entry into the officer corps in 1937 secured him relatively well @-@ paid employment in a society where most people lived in poverty .
Nasser and Tahia would sometimes discuss politics at home , but for the most part , Nasser kept his career separate from his family life . He preferred to spend most of his free time with his children . Nasser and Tahia had two daughters and three sons : Hoda , Mona , Khaled , Abdel Hamid , and Abdel Hakim .
Although he was a proponent of secular politics , Nasser was an observant Muslim who made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 1954 and 1965 . He was known to be personally incorruptible , a characteristic which further enhanced his reputation among the citizens of Egypt and the Arab world . Nasser 's personal hobbies included playing chess , American films , reading Arabic , English , and French magazines , and listening to classical music .
Nasser had few personal vices other than chain smoking . He maintained 18 @-@ hour workdays and rarely took time off for vacations . The combination of smoking and working long hours contributed to his poor health . He was diagnosed with diabetes in the early 1960s and by the time of his death in 1970 , he also had arteriosclerosis , heart disease , and high blood pressure . He suffered two major heart attacks ( in 1966 and 1969 ) , and was on bed rest for six weeks after the second episode . State media reported that Nasser 's absence from the public view at that time was a result of influenza .
= = Writings = =
Nasser wrote the following books , published during his lifetime :
Memoirs of the First Palestine War ( Arabic : يوميات الرئيس جمال عبد الناصر عن حرب فلسطين ) ( 1955 ; Akher Sa 'a )
" Memoirs of the First Palestine War " , in 2 , no . 2 ( Win . 73 ) : 3 – 32 ( First English translation , 1973 , pdf @-@ file from Journal of Palestine Studies )
Egypt 's Liberation : The Philosophy of the Revolution ( Arabic : فلسفة الثورة ) ( 1955 ; Dar al @-@ Maaref )
Towards Freedom ( Arabic : في سبيل الحرية ) ( 1959 ; Cairo @-@ Arabian Company )
= = Honour = =
= = = Foreign honour = = =
Malaysia : Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm ( 1965 )
= Progress M1 @-@ 5 =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 was the Progress spacecraft which was launched by Russia in 2001 to deorbit the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Mir space station before it naturally fell from orbit , potentially landing in a populated area . The Russian Aviation and Space Agency , Rosaviakosmos , was responsible for the mission .
Launched in January 2001 after a short delay due to a problem with Mir , on 27 January Progress M1 @-@ 5 became the last spacecraft to dock with the station . It spent two months attached to the Kvant @-@ 1 module before deorbiting the station on 23 March 2001 . Mir re @-@ entered the atmosphere with Progress M1 @-@ 5 still docked , disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean , with debris falling into the ocean at around 06 : 00 GMT . During the early stages of the unmanned Progress M1 @-@ 5 mission , a manned Soyuz was placed on standby to launch in order to complete the mission if a problem occurred . The decision to deorbit Mir attracted both praise and criticism for Rosaviakosmos , while several campaigns to save the station were conducted .
= = Background = =
Mir was the seventh and last manned space station to be launched as part of the Soviet space programme , and was the first true modular space station to be launched . The first component , the Core Module , was launched by a Proton @-@ K rocket on 19 February 1986 . This had been followed by six more modules , launched between 1987 and 1996 , all using Proton @-@ K rockets , except one which was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Mir became the property of the Russian government , and the newly established Russian Aviation and Space Agency . It supported 28 long duration crews , visited by 40 manned Soyuz and Shuttle missions , whilst 64 unmanned Progress spacecraft were launched to support it . It was visited by 125 cosmonauts and astronauts , who performed 75 spacewalks .
During the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme , a series of American Space Shuttle missions visited Mir between 1995 and 1998 in preparation for the construction of the International Space Station . After the construction of the International Space Station began in 1998 , Russian resources were split between the two stations . In 2000 , Rosaviakosmos signed an agreement with MirCorp to lease the station for commercial use , with the Soyuz TM @-@ 30 mission , intended to prepare the station for future use and conduct some commercial research , being flown in later that year . This was to have been followed by more missions , including flights with space tourists , however due to the Russian government being concerned about MirCorp 's ability to fund these missions , Rosaviakosmos decided against funding the continued operation of Mir .
In November 2000 , Rosaviakosmos decided to deorbit Mir , and the next month Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov signed an order to do so . By this stage Mir was well past the end of its design life , and Rosaviakosmos General Director Yuri Koptev believed that " any of its systems could well fail at any time " . Therefore , it was decided to deorbit it whilst it was still functioning , rather than risk it falling back to Earth out of control , like Skylab in 1979 and Salyut 7 in 1991 , potentially dropping debris over a populated area . At the time , Mir was the largest spacecraft ever to reenter the Earth 's atmosphere , and there were concerns that sizeable pieces of debris , particularly from the docking assemblies , gyrodynes and external structure , could survive reentry .
Progress M1 @-@ 5 , which had originally been built to resupply and refuel either Mir or the International Space Station , was selected to perform the deorbit manoeuvre . Its mission earned it the nickname Hearse . It was a Progress @-@ M1 11F615A55 spacecraft , with the serial number 254 . An uninhabited area of the southern Pacific ocean was selected for the station to be deorbited into , as had been done with five earlier Salyut spacecraft .
= = Launch and docking = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 was launched by a Soyuz @-@ U carrier rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome , Kazakhstan . It was originally scheduled for launch on 16 January 2001 , but by the first week of January , it was targeting 18 January . It was rolled out to the launch pad on 16 January , with the rocket departing the MIK assembly facility at Site 2 of the cosmodrome at 02 : 00 GMT , and was erected at the launch pad , Site 1 / 5 , within two hours of the start of rollout . Launch was set for 06 : 56 : 26 GMT on 18 January .
On 18 January , a problem with the computers aboard Mir developed shortly before fuelling of the Soyuz @-@ U rocket was scheduled to commence , about five and a half hours before the launch was due to occur . The launch attempt was scrubbed , or cancelled , and the launch was expected to be delayed by four or five days . On 19 January , the launch was rescheduled for 24 January , giving controllers time to restart the computer and the station 's gyroscopes , which had shut down when the computer failed .
Preparations for the launch resumed on 22 January , and the launch occurred successfully at 04 : 28 : 42 GMT on 24 January . Following the launch , Progress M1 @-@ 5 spent three days in free flight before docking with the rear port of the Kvant @-@ 1 module of Mir at 05 : 33 : 31 GMT on 27 January . The docking port had previously been occupied by Progress M @-@ 43 , which departed at 05 : 19 : 49 on 25 January , and subsequently remained in orbit until Progress M1 @-@ 5 had docked with Mir . Progress M @-@ 43 , which had originally been launched to carry supplies and raise Mir 's orbit , in anticipation of manned flights which were never launched , was subsequently deorbited at 02 : 12 GMT on 29 January , burning up during re @-@ entry at 02 : 58 .
Free @-@ flights of Progress spacecraft typically lasted two days from launch to docking with Mir , however Progress M1 @-@ 5 took three days to reach Mir in order to conserve fuel for the deorbit burn . If it had launched on 18 January it would have spent four days in free flight .
= = After docking = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 spent two months docked to Mir before the deorbit burn occurred . The gap between docking and deorbit was in order to allow the spacecraft to dock whilst Mir was still in a stable orbit , but then to allow some natural decay , or decrease in altitude , to occur in order to conserve the Progress ' fuel . Controllers determined that they should wait for the station 's orbital altitude to reach 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) before deorbiting it . In addition , RKK Energia wanted to wait until after the fifteenth anniversary of the launch of the Core Module , on 19 February .
Following the docking , Mir 's attitude control system was used to spin the station , to provide spin @-@ stabilisation in order to further conserve the fuel , as the station had descended to an altitude at which its gyroscopes could not be used for attitude control . The station would remain in this spin until the deorbit manoeuvres began .
On 20 February , Mir was predicted to descend to 250 kilometres within five days of 9 March . By 1 March , it was at an altitude of 265 kilometres ( 165 mi ) , and descending at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) per day . On 7 March , the Russian space agency opted to delay the deorbit burn until the station reached 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) as a result of natural decay , in order to allow more fuel for the burn , giving a greater range of options in the event of an anomaly during the deorbit manoeuvre . It was predicted that without intervention , the station would have naturally entered the atmosphere on 28 March .
On 12 March computers aboard Mir were reactivated ahead of deorbiting , along with the control system on 13 March . On 14 March it was announced that the procedure would be conducted on 22 March . On 19 March it was delayed one day further due to a lower than expected descent rate , with the start of the first deorbit burn being set for 00 : 31 GMT .
= = Deorbit = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 carried 2 @,@ 678 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 904 lb ) of fuel with which to perform the manoeuvres to deorbit Mir . These were completed on 23 March , when three deorbit burns were made ; the first two using just docking and attitude control thrusters , and the third using the main engine as well as the thrusters . The first burn began at 00 : 32 : 28 GMT , and lasted 21 @.@ 5 minutes , leaving Mir in an orbit with a perigee of 188 kilometres ( 117 mi ) and an apogee of 219 kilometres ( 136 mi ) . The second burn , which began at 02 : 24 GMT and lasted 24 minutes , placed Mir into a 158 @-@ kilometre ( 98 mi ) by 216 @-@ kilometre ( 134 mi ) orbit . The final deorbit burn began at 05 : 07 : 36 . It was scheduled to last 20 minutes , however flight controllers decided to let the Progress burn to depletion to ensure that the station re @-@ entered as expected . The last signals from Mir were received at 05 : 30 GMT , as it passed out of range of its ground station .
Mir re @-@ entered the atmosphere over the southern Pacific with Progress M1 @-@ 5 still docked at 05 : 44 GMT . It began to disintegrate at 05 : 52 , beginning with the detachment of solar panels , followed by other peripheral structures . The modules then buckled , before detaching completely . Debris came down in the ocean at around 06 : 00 GMT . Debris was intended to fall at around 47 ° S 140 ° W. An official statement announced that Mir " ceased to exist " at 05 : 59 : 24 GMT . The final tracking of Mir was conducted by a United States Army site on Kwajalein Atoll . The European Space Agency , German Federal Ministry of Defence and US National Aeronautics and Space Administration also assisted with tracking Mir during its final orbit and reentry . Former cosmonaut Vladimir Solovyov , who had been a member of the first crew to visit Mir , led the mission control team which was on station during the deorbit .
= = Contingency planning = =
Like all Progress spacecraft , M1 @-@ 5 carried two docking systems , Kurs and TORU . The automated Kurs system was the primary docking system , with TORU , which required manual input , as the backup . Because Mir was unmanned at the time of its docking , and a cosmonaut aboard the station would have been required to perform a TORU docking , or to troubleshoot any other problems during the docking , the Soyuz TM @-@ 32 spacecraft was made ready for a flight to Mir should human intervention be required . The Soyuz may also have been launched if the flight control system aboard Mir failed . Cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov were originally scheduled to have been on standby for this mission , with Talgat Musabayev and Yuri Baturin , the crew who eventually flew TM @-@ 32 to the International Space Station , as the backup crew . However , in December 2000 , they were replaced by Gennady Padalka and Nikolai Budarin , a crew which became known as Expedition Zero . These cosmonauts were chosen because of their training for a similar emergency mission to the International Space Station the previous year , which would have been launched if the Zvezda module had failed to dock . If a manned flight had been launched , controllers would have waited until after it had landed to begin the deorbit of Mir .
Progress M @-@ 43 , which had been launched in 2000 , undocked from Mir the day after Progress M1 @-@ 5 launched , and was kept in orbit until Progress M1 @-@ 5 docked . In the event that Progress M1 @-@ 5 had been unable to dock , Progress M @-@ 43 would have returned to the station and provide supplies of food and oxygen for the Soyuz crew . Progress M @-@ 43 was deorbited after Progress M1 @-@ 5 docked successfully .
If Progress M1 @-@ 5 had launched on 16 January , the Soyuz launch would have occurred on 10 February if it had been required . It was stood down around 22 February , after the decaying altitude of Mir made it too dangerous to send a crew to it .
If Mir 's main computer had failed after Progress M1 @-@ 5 had docked , then the flight plan would have been modified to use either the station 's BUPO rendezvous system , or the Progress for control . Under this plan , the third deorbit burn would have been conducted 24 hours after the first two burns , with the station being spin @-@ stabilised again between the second and third burns . Controllers also planned for a failure of Mir 's power system , which would have resulted in the deorbit being delayed one day , with all guidance and control functions being handled by the Progress spacecraft .
It was reported that Rosaviakosmos had taken out an insurance policy worth 200 million US dollars to cover damage caused by falling debris . The risk of debris from the station reaching land was estimated to be 3 % . Countries located near the target zone monitored events surrounding the deorbit to determine whether precautions should be taken . In New Zealand the Satellite Reentry Committee was responsible for this , whilst Emergency Management Australia handled preparations in Australia . The head of the Japanese Defense Agency , Toshitsugu Saito , postponed a trip to the United States in case any debris fell on Japan , as the station was scheduled to pass over several Japanese islands on its final orbit . Residents of Okinawa were warned to stay indoors as the station passed overhead . Members of the South Pacific Forum requested assurance from Russia that they would not be hit by falling debris . Chan Sek Keong , the attorney general of Singapore , called for greater regulation of space debris .
= = Reaction = =
The reaction to Russia 's announcement and subsequent execution of its plan to deorbit Mir was mixed . Several cosmonauts expressed regrets at the loss of the station , but support for the decision to end the programme ; Vladimir Titov described the station as " a good ship " , but said that he agreed with the decision to prioritise the International Space Station , while Vladimir Dezhurov said that he felt " sad about Mir but we have to look into the future . "
In November 2000 , shortly after plans to deorbit Mir were announced , members of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia passed a resolution in the Duma , the lower house of the Russian parliament , aimed at preventing it . On 8 February 2001 , a protest against the deorbiting of the station was held in Moscow , and a petition was subsequently sent to Russian president Vladimir Putin . Gennady Zyuganov , the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , described deorbiting the station to be " incorrect and harmful " , and the act of a " helpless , weak @-@ willed , inefficient and not very responsible " government . Iran attempted to buy the space station , with president Mohammad Khatami offering to fund it for two to three years in return for Russian assistance with cosmonaut training , however by this stage it was too late for such a transaction to be completed .
The major Russian ORT TV station organised a national televised debate as to what should be done with the station . Former cosmonaut Georgi Grechko suggested that it should be kept in orbit long enough to salvage any useful equipment from it , for transfer to the International Space Station or other spacecraft , however Konstantin Feoktistov argued that it would cost more to retrieve the equipment than to replace it . Anatoly Artsebarsky argued that Mir should be kept because he believed that once it had been deorbited , the US would try to marginalise Russian involvement in the ISS . An online opinion poll showed 67 % support worldwide for keeping it in orbit .
Rosaviakosmos and RKK Energia responded to criticism of the decision in an open letter in mid February , which explained that the " actual condition of the onboard systems ... [ does ] not make possible the safe and reliable operation of Mir " , and that attempts to prolong its life " may lead to the loss of control of Mir .. and , as a result , to catastrophic consequences not only for Russia but for the whole world . "
The US Government welcomed the decision to deorbit Mir , as it freed up Russian resources for the International Space Station programme . The Space Frontier Foundation , however criticised the Russian government for yielding to what it claimed was pressure from the American government . SFF co @-@ founder Rick Tumlinson claimed that " Mir was bulldozed to make way for [ the ] International Space Station " . It had previously run a campaign called " Keep Mir Alive " , which aimed to either secure the continued operation of Mir , or to have it placed into a higher orbit , allowing it to be stored until its operation became viable .
In anticipation of the reentry of Mir , the owners of Taco Bell towed a target , measuring 12 by 12 metres ( 40 ft × 40 ft ) out into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Australia . If the target was hit by a falling piece of Mir , every person in the continental United States would be entitled to a free Taco Bell taco . The company bought a sizeable insurance policy for this " gamble . " No piece of the station struck the target . A group of enthusiasts from the United States , led by Bob Citron , chartered an aircraft to fly over the Pacific and view the reentry .
= Babe Siebert =
Charles Albert " Babe " Siebert ( January 14 , 1904 – August 25 , 1939 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger and defenceman who played 14 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Montreal Maroons , New York Rangers , Boston Bruins and Montreal Canadiens . He won the 1926 Stanley Cup championship with the Maroons , and was a member of the famous " S Line " , and another with the Rangers in 1933 .
A physical forward known for his fighting ability while with the Maroons and Rangers , an apparent decline in his play was reversed when he switched to defence after he was traded to the Bruins . Siebert was named an all @-@ star three times after the switch and won the Hart Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player in 1937 as a member of the Canadiens .
Siebert was named the head coach of the Canadiens upon his retirement as a player in 1939 . He never coached a game as he drowned in Lake Huron prior to the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The league organized an all @-@ star benefit game that raised $ 15 @,@ 000 for Siebert 's family . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Plattsville , Ontario , Siebert grew up in the nearby community of Zurich , located on the eastern shores of Lake Huron . He became obsessed with hockey at an early age , playing the game nearly every day . He played intermediate hockey in Zurich and Exeter before moving to Kitchener to play junior hockey . Though his elder brothers mocked his simple playing style — he used his size and strength to push his way through opponents — Siebert was invited to join the Kitchener Greenshirts in 1922 . He won the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) and eastern Canadian junior championships with Kitchener in 1922 – 23 , but lost the Memorial Cup final to the University of Manitoba . After a year of senior hockey in Kitchener , he moved on to the Niagara Falls Cataracts , winning the OHA senior championship in 1924 – 25 .
= = Professional career = =
Siebert was signed by the Montreal Maroons in 1925 and made his professional debut that same year . He finished second on the team with 16 goals as the Maroons finished second in the NHL standings . Montreal defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates and Ottawa Senators in the playoffs to win the NHL championship . Siebert scored three points in the 1926 Stanley Cup Final as the Maroons defeated the Western Hockey League champion Victoria Cougars to win the Stanley Cup .
When Hooley Smith arrived in Montreal in 1926 – 27 , Siebert was paired with Smith and Nels Stewart . The trio were known as the " S Line " and emerged as one of the top scoring lines in the NHL . Stewart was the goal scorer on the line while Smith set him up with his passing game , but it was Siebert who used his strength and speed to move the puck out of their defensive zone and to create space for his line mates . His physical style of play occasionally resulted in Siebert being brought in front of league president Frank Calder for supplementary discipline , as in December 1927 when he was suspended for a time following a violent melee with Billy Boucher of the New York Americans . When Boucher responded to an elbow by slashing Siebert over the head , the latter player responded with repeated wild swings of his own stick at Boucher , injuring him .
Siebert 's best offensive season came in 1931 – 32 when he finished eighth in league scoring with 39 points . It proved to be his last season with the Maroons , as the team was struggling financially and chose to sell him to the New York Rangers for cash . He went on to win his second Stanley Cup that year . He struggled offensively for much of the season , however , and it was rumoured he would be traded . The trade finally happened early in the 1933 – 34 season as he was sent to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Vic Ripley and Roy Burmeister . The deal reunited Siebert with former S Line member Nels Stewart .
After Eddie Shore was suspended for his assault on Ace Bailey , Bruins coach Art Ross shifted Siebert from left wing to defence . The switch rejuvenated his career ; he enjoyed a comeback season in 1934 – 35 . Frequently remaining on the ice for entire games as one of Boston 's key players , Siebert earned five votes in a 1935 Associated Press poll naming the top comeback player in sport for that year . He later scoffed at the legend of his comeback in Boston , stating that he never lost his ability to play at the same level he did with the Maroons , instead blaming Lester Patrick for improperly utilizing him in New York .
While Shore and Siebert were an effective pairing on defence , tensions between the two were evident . They shared a violent feud when they were opponents , and never spoke a word to the other as teammates . Though he was named a first team all @-@ star in 1935 – 36 , the Bruins decided Siebert 's career was in decline and chose to trade him to the Montreal Canadiens along with Roger Jenkins in exchange for Leroy Goldsworthy , Sammy McManus and cash following the season . He was immediately named the team 's captain , a position he retained until his retirement . In his first season with the Canadiens , Siebert earned his second all @-@ star selection and won the Hart Trophy as the most valuable player in the NHL . He earned his third consecutive all @-@ star selection in 1937 – 38 . Plagued by injuries in his final season , Siebert announced his retirement in 1939 to become the head coach of the Canadiens .
= = Death and family = =
Siebert never had the opportunity to take up his new post . On August 25 , 1939 , while vacationing with his family and swimming with his daughters at Lake Huron , he drowned attempting to retrieve an inflatable tire they were playing with . Shocked by the news , Siebert 's peers lauded his character and play , indicating that his death was a considerable loss to the game of hockey . Among them , his former manager with the Maroons , Tommy Gorman , remarked that Siebert was popular with his fellow players and was a great defenceman who " lost fairly and won modestly " .
At the time of his death , Siebert was visiting his cottage to celebrate the 80th birthday of his father , William . He cherished the time he had with his two daughters Judy and Joan , who were 11 and 10 years old respectively , when they witnessed his drowning . His loss represented a significant financial burden for his family as he spent nearly all of his income paying for his paraplegic wife 's medical costs .
The league organized an all @-@ star benefit game to aid Siebert 's widow with the goal of raising $ 15 @,@ 000 . It was the third such benefit game in NHL history . The Montreal Canadiens faced an all @-@ star team composed of the best players from the remaining teams . The all @-@ stars defeated the Canadiens 5 – 2 in the game held on October 29 , 1939 . Though organizers were disappointed with the attendance of just 6 @,@ 000 fans , they met their $ 15 @,@ 000 target .
A physical player and fighter on the ice , Siebert was a soft spoken family man off it . He was especially faithful to his wife , Bernice , who was left a paraplegic following complications during the birth of their second child . Fans at the Montreal Forum routinely saw him carry his wife to her seat before every home game , and then carry her out after . At home , he did the housework that his wife was unable to do . As a result , he was immensely popular with his peers and fans .
Siebert was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 , and is an honoured member of the Waterloo Region Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= Henry Edwards ( entomologist ) =
Henry Edwards ( August 27 , 1827 – June 9 , 1891 ) , known as " Harry " , was an English stage actor , writer and entomologist who gained fame in Australia , San Francisco and New York City for his theater work .
Edwards was drawn to the theater early in life , and he appeared in amateur productions in London . After sailing to Australia , Edwards appeared professionally in Shakespearean plays and light comedies primarily in Melbourne and Sydney . Throughout his childhood in England and his acting career in Australia , he was greatly interested in collecting insects , and the National Museum of Victoria used the results of his Australian fieldwork as part of the genesis of their collection .
In San Francisco , Edwards was a founding member of the Bohemian Club , and a gathering in Edwards ' honor was the spark which began the club 's traditional summer encampment at the Bohemian Grove . As well , Edwards cemented his reputation as a preeminent stage actor and theater manager . After writing a series of influential studies on Pacific Coast butterflies and moths he was elected life member of the California Academy of Sciences . Relocating to the East Coast , Edwards spent a brief time in Boston theater . This led to a connection to Wallack 's Theatre and further renown in New York City . There , Edwards edited three volumes of the journal Papilio and published a major work about the life of the butterfly . His large collection of insect specimens served as the foundation of the American Museum of Natural History 's butterfly and moth studies .
Edwards ' wide @-@ ranging studies and observations of insects brought him into contact with specimens not yet classified . Upon discovering previously unknown insects he would give them names , which led to a number of butterfly , moth and beetle species bearing " Hy . Edw . " ( for Henry Edwards ) as an attribution . From his theater interests to entomology , Edwards carried forward an appreciation of Shakespeare — in the designation of new insect species he favored female character names from Shakespeare 's plays .
= = Early career = =
Henry Edwards was born to Hannah and Thomas Edwards ( c . 1794 – 1857 ) at Brook House in Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , Herefordshire , England , on August 27 , 1827 , and was christened on September 14 . From his older brother William , he picked up an interest in examining insects . He collected butterflies as a hobby , and studied them under the tutelage of Edward Doubleday . His solicitor father intended a law career for his son , but after a brief period of unsuccessful study , Edwards took a position at a counting house in London , and began acting in amateur theater . He then journeyed to join his brother William who had settled in Australia , nine miles ( 14 km ) north @-@ west of Melbourne along the bank of Merri Creek , a location then called Merrivale . Aboard the sailing ship Ganges from March to June 1853 , he wrote descriptions of creatures such as the albatross that he encountered for the first time . After arriving in Melbourne , Edwards began collecting and cataloging the insects he found on his brother 's land , and further afield . Within two years , he had gathered 1 @,@ 676 species of insects , shot and mounted 200 birds , and pressed some 200 botanical specimens . This collection and that of William Kershaw were purchased by Frederick McCoy to form the nucleus of the new National Museum of Victoria .
The first Australian stage appearance by Edwards was with George Selth Coppin 's company at the Queen 's Theatre in Melbourne . Later , he joined Gustavus Vaughan Brooke 's theatrical group . The part of Petruchio , the male lead in Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew , was filled by Edwards at the Princess 's Theatre in Sydney in November , 1859 , playing opposite tragedian Avonia Jones as Katharine . In December that year Brooke retired from management , yielding the reins of his company to the team of Edwards and George Fawcett Rowe , English actor and playwright . Brooke continued to act under Edwards and Rowe : his starring performance in April 1860 as Louis XI in Dion Boucicault 's play of the same name was a stirring portrayal that Edwards , playing Jacques d 'Armagnac , Duke of Nemours , recalled vividly for the rest of his life . Sharing the stage again in August , Brooke and Edwards were well received in their portrayal of twin brothers in a production of Shakespeare 's The Comedy of Errors in Melbourne , the first Australian mounting of that work . As a twist to pique public interest , Edwards and Brooke exchanged roles after two weeks ' run . However , not all of Edwards ' performances were successful : his turn at Angelo in Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure was called " invertebrate " by drama critic William John Lawrence ; in Lawrence 's estimation , Edwards and his fellow actors paled against the powerful performance of Avonia Jones as Isabella .
The renowned entomologist and collector William Sharp Macleay was sought out by Edwards whenever his stage appearances took him to Sydney . Beginning in 1858 , Macleay mentored Edwards and encouraged him to search for more insect specimens when his theater obligations allowed . Robust and adventuresome , Edwards occasionally trekked out into the wilds of Australia on the hunt for insects . While in Sydney , Edwards went up two times in a hot air balloon as a favor to George Coppin , narrowly avoiding severe injury or death in the first ascent . Edwards ' further travels included New Zealand , Peru , Panama and Mexico in pursuit of insects and dramatic roles .
= = San Francisco = =
In 1865 , Edwards began a 12 @-@ year residence in San Francisco , California . At the 1870 United States Census , Edwards reported himself as a non @-@ voting foreign @-@ born resident , a comedian by trade , living in a home worth $ 1 @,@ 000 . Edwards lived in San Francisco with a white woman listed in the census as " Mariana " , born in England , age 40 , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Chinese servant named Heng Gim . The woman Mariana was likely Edwards 's wife , the former Marianne Elizabeth Woolcott Bray who was born about 1822 – 1823 in New Street , Birmingham . In 1851 at the age of 28 , Bray married Gustavus Vaughan Brooke , and the two went to Australia to manage Brooke 's then @-@ new theater company . It was there that Edwards met Brooke and his wife , but after several years of the two men working together , Brooke remarried in February 1863 , taking Avonia Jones ( 1836 – 1867 ) as his second wife . Brooke died in an accident at sea in January 1866 , and Avonia Jones Brooke died in New York City the next year . Later reports spoke of Edwards marrying Brooke 's widow , without naming her .
In 1868 – 1869 Edwards leased and managed the Metropolitan Theater , and he was a founding member of the acting company of the California Theatre , which opened in January 1869 . The theater was directed and managed by actor John McCullough , and among the more notable productions was As You Like It in May 1872 , with McCullough playing Orlando and Edwards the banished Duke Senior . Walter M. Leman , who carried the part of Adam , opined in 1886 that " never since time was has Shakespeare 's charming idyl been better put upon the stage . "
Edwards was one of the founders and the first vice president of the Bohemian Club , and served two terms as president , 1873 – 1875 . He hosted Shakespeare celebrations at the club in April 1873 , 1875 and 1877 , and a Bohemian Christmas celebration in December 1877 : " The Feast of Reason and Flow of Soul " . Edwards became a director of the San Francisco Art Association , and spoke for Lotta Crabtree at the dedication of Lotta 's Fountain in September , 1875 .
Still very much interested in insects , Edwards spent his spare time at the California Academy of Sciences studying butterflies under Hans Hermann Behr , the academy 's curator for Lepidoptera , the scientific order of moths and butterflies . Elected a member of the academy in 1867 , he concentrated on describing the structure and habits of moths and butterflies on the Pacific coast from British Columbia to Baja California . He went to visit John Muir in Yosemite Valley in June 1871 , with a letter of introduction from Jeanne Carr , the wife of California 's chief geologist Ezra S. Carr . The letter described Edwards as " one of Nature 's truest and most devoted disciples " , a sojourner who " has the keys to the Kingdom " . After the visit , Muir occasionally sent specimens from the Sierras to add to Edwards ' collection , carried to San Francisco by men such as geologist and artist Clarence King who were returning from Yosemite field study . Edwards presented a series of papers to the academy entitled Pacific Coast Lepidoptera , and classified two species as new to science . He named one Gyros muiri for Muir , with " Hy . Edw . " as the attribution . In 1872 , Muir sent Edwards a letter , writing " You are now in constant remembrance , because every flying flower is branded with your name . " In 1873 , Edwards became the curator of entomology at the academy , and began to serve on the Publications Committee which produced the journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences . Beginning early that year , he befriended George Robert Crotch . Although it is sometimes claimed that he accompanied Crotch on his insect collecting tour of California , Oregon and British Columbia , Edwards was only aware of Crotch 's travels as a correspondent . Edwards independently visited British Columbia in 1873 , missing Crotch by several days at Vancouver Island . In 1874 , Edwards began to serve as one of the academy 's vice presidents , and for the academy in late 1874 after Crotch 's death from tuberculosis , he published a memorial tribute to the man . Edwards also wrote one of many tributes to academician Louis Agassiz at his death in late 1873 . At the academy on January 2 , 1877 , Edwards was elected member for life .
Though successful in San Francisco , Edwards decided to head for Boston and New York City to see if his career as an actor could benefit from appearances in the eastern United States . On June 29 , 1878 , somewhat fewer than 100 of his Bohemian friends gathered in the woods near Taylorville , California ( present @-@ day Samuel P. Taylor State Park ) , for a night @-@ time send @-@ off party in Edwards ' honor . Bohemian Club historian Porter Garnett later wrote that the men at the " nocturnal picnic " were " provided with blankets to keep them warm and a generous supply of liquor for the same purpose " . Japanese lanterns were used for illumination and decoration . This festive gathering was repeated without Edwards by club members the next year , and every year thereafter , eventually evolving and expanding into the club 's annual summer encampment at the Bohemian Grove , famous ( or infamous ) for the casual commingling of top politicians and powerful captains of industry in attendance .
= = Boston to New York = =
In late 1878 , Edwards joined a theater company in Boston , replacing another actor as " Schelm , Chief of Police " at a revival of the spectacle The Exiles at the Boston Theatre on Washington Street . After a four @-@ week run , he performed in other productions at the theater through the 1879 – 1880 season . In June , Edwards answered the 1880 census to report himself an England @-@ born actor living with his English wife " Marian " and his Chinese servant , Gim Hing .
From Boston , Edwards moved to New York to stay for some ten years , performing on stage and participating in insect studies . He was active in the Brooklyn and New York Entomological Societies . In 1881 , he co @-@ founded and edited a butterfly enthusiast 's periodical entitled Papilio , named for the genus Papilio in the swallowtail butterfly family , Papilionidae . Edwards served as editor until January 1884 when he gave the reins to his friend Eugene Murray @-@ Aaron of Philadelphia . Papilio was published until 1885 when its subscription base was merged into the more general Entomologia Americana , published by the Brooklyn Entomological Society .
Beginning in December 1880 under Lester Wallack , the charismatic son of the theater 's founder , Edwards was associated with Wallack 's Theatre in New York , called the " finest theatre company in America " . Now in his 50s , the entomologist and actor appeared in such representative British dramatic roles as Prince Malleotti in Forget Me Not , Max Harkaway in London Assurance , Baron Stein in Diplomacy , and Master Walter in The Hunchback , reprising James Sheridan Knowles 's earlier portrayal . Edwards used Wallack 's Theatre as his professional mailing address , and helped manage it upon occasion . Wallack , already head " Shepherd " of the Lambs Club , a modest meetinghouse of professional stage actors , invited Edwards to join . Once a Lamb , Edwards threw his energies in with those of Wallack and other club members to aid newspaper editor Harrison Grey Fiske in the organization of a charitable fund to support destitute actors or their widows . Wallack was made president of the resulting Actors ' Fund . A year after its first meeting on July 15 , 1882 at Wallack 's Theatre , Edwards was made secretary , a position he held for one year . His wife joined the Women 's Executive Committee of the Fund .
Edwards appeared in early 1882 at Palmer 's Theatre on Broadway and West 30th Street in a production of the English comedy The School for Scandal . Wallack stalwart John Gibbs Gilbert reached the height of his fame in the production , playing Sir Peter Teazle . As Sir Oliver Surface , Edwards , too , was lauded — Gilbert and Edwards shared the stage with Stella Boniface , Osmond Tearle , Gerald Eyre , Madame Ponisi and Rose Coghlan .
Gathering together under one cover his various short subjects , essays , and elegies to fallen friends , Edwards published in 1883 a wryly humorous book entitled A Mingled Yarn , including tales of travels and stories of his time in the Bohemian Club . Dedicated to the Bohemians , " with grateful memories , and feelings of affectionate regard , " the book was favorably reviewed in the New York Tribune . This review was reprinted in the Literary News : " Mr. Edwards — remarkable for attainments in science no less than for versatile proficiency in the art of acting — presents a rare type of the union of talents greatly divergent and seldom found in one and the same person . "
In 1886 , Edwards was interviewed for The Theatre , a weekly magazine published in New York . Edwards was described as " unusually popular and genial " , with a " charming English " wife and a Chinese servant named Charlie who " adores his employers " and had served them for 17 years . The Edwards ' home was observed to be comfortable but decorated with an astonishing collection of wonders from around the globe . Displayed amid the biological specimens , rugs , china , furniture , and valuable photographs were paintings executed by other actors , including ones by Edward Askew Sothern and Joseph Jefferson . Edwards showed letters he had received from a wide array of notables such as writers William Makepeace Thackeray , Charles Dickens , Anthony Trollope and naturalists Charles Darwin , Louis Agassiz and John Lubbock , 1st Baron Avebury . One floor of the residence was seen to be wholly devoted to the entomologist 's collection of specimens , which Edwards said was insured for $ 17 @,@ 000 , $ 448 @,@ 000 in current value . Surrounded by his exotic possessions and " in the most perfect congeniality with his wife " , Edwards was reported to be the host of a " cultivated home " .
= = Last years = =
Two years after Alfred , Lord Tennyson , completed his Idylls of the King , a poetic telling of the King Arthur legend , Edwards and George Parsons Lathrop adapted it to the stage as a drama in four acts . The result was Elaine , a story of young love between Elaine of Astolat and Lancelot , fashioned with " flower @-@ like fragility " and " winning touches of tenderness " . Its first public presentation was a staged " author 's reading " at Madison Square Theatre on April 28 , 1887 , at which Edwards played the part of Elaine 's father , Lord Astolat . Months later it was presented by the company of A. M. Palmer , without Edwards in the cast , opening on December 6 , 1887 , at the same venue . The production proved both popular and profitable for Lathrop and Edwards . Annie Russell 's Elaine was admired for her " sweet simplicity and pathos which captured nearly every heart " . After a successful six @-@ week New York run , Palmer took Elaine on the road .
Actors associated with Wallack 's Theatre announced to the public that beginning in February 1888 a final series of old comedies would be revived , after which the company would be disbanded . Edwards served as stage manager for the run , and reprised several of his earlier roles including those of Max Harkaway in London Assurance and Colonel Rockett in Old Heads and Young Hearts . Taking part once again in The School for Scandal , the sixth and final play of the nostalgic series , Edwards received high praise for his depiction of a wealthy Englishman recently returned from India : " there is probably no better Sir Oliver on our stage than Mr. Edwards . " " Justly esteemed " in the role , he was called a " sterling player " , representative " of a school which is fast disappearing " .
A testimonial production of Hamlet was mounted at the Metropolitan Opera House on May 21 , 1888 , to celebrate the life and accomplishments of an aging Lester Wallack , and to raise money to ease the chronic sciatica that arrested his career . " One of the greatest casts ever assembled " was formed into a company composed of Edwards as the priest , Edwin Booth as Hamlet , Lawrence Barrett as the ghost , Frank Mayo as the king , John Gibbs Gilbert as Polonius , Rose Coghlan as the player queen and Helena Modjeska as Ophelia . Other stars made cameo appearances , and Wallack was assisted up onto the stage to address the standing room crowd at intermission . Notables such as Mayor Hewitt and General Sherman were in attendance . More than $ 10 @,@ 000 was raised for Wallack 's care . In the following months , Edwards teamed with other actors and Wallack 's wife to help him write his memoir ; Wallack died in September .
The next year , Edwards published a significant treatise entitled Bibliographic Catalogue of the Described Transformation of North American Lepidoptera . In response to an invitation and after arranging a business contract , he traveled back to Australia to accept a position as stage manager of a theatrical company in Melbourne . Frustrated with the experience , Edwards sailed back to New York the next year with the intention of returning to acting , but poor health kept him from full enjoyment of the limelight . In March , Edwards appeared as Holofernes in Love 's Labour 's Lost at Augustin Daly 's Daly Theatre , but was often short of breath and unable to keep pace with the run — his part was given to a young Tyrone Power who also covered Edwards ' old role of Sir Oliver Surface for Daly 's road show of The School for Scandal .
To regain his strength , Edwards and his wife took a carriage to a rustic cottage refuge in Arkville in the Catskill Mountains but isolation , plain food and rest yielded little improvement . A physician was called and he informed Mrs. Edwards that there would be no recovery for her husband from the advanced Bright 's disease with complications from chronic pneumonia so she brought him back to New York City . Edwards died at home at 185 East 116th Street in East Harlem late on June 9 , 1891 , just hours after returning .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Edwards ' collection of 300 @,@ 000 insect specimens , one of the largest in the United States , was bought by his friends for $ 15 @,@ 000 for the financial benefit of his widow , and donated to the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) as the cornerstone of their collection . Mrs. Harry Edwards also donated some of his other specimens , including two eggs of the order Rajiformes , the true rays . Museum trustees purchased the 500 volumes of entomology texts and 1 @,@ 200 pamphlets owned by Edwards to form the " Harry Edwards Entomological Library " , one of the handful of important book acquisitions made by the AMNH to expand their library in its early years . William Schaus , a student that Edwards guided and encouraged , but never met in person , went on to further define moth and butterfly characteristics in a large body of published work .
The " Hy . Edw . " designation appended to some butterfly species names indicates first description by Henry Edwards . This is not to be confused with the " Edw . " designation which stands for William Henry Edwards , an unrelated contemporary and correspondent of Edwards ' . At least two specimens were designated " Mrs. Hy . Edwards . " because they were collected and identified by his wife . Edwards named many butterflies in the families Theclinae , Nymphalidae , Papilionidae and Lycaenidae , but his largest contribution was in the description of moth species in North America including Mexico : Arctiidae , Bombycidae , Hepialidae , Sesiidae , Noctuidae , Sphingidae , Lasiocampidae , Dalcer
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= Wild Eagle =
Wild Eagle is a steel Wing Coaster built by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Dollywood amusement park in Pigeon Forge , Tennessee . It is the first of its kind in the United States and opened to the media on March 23 , 2012 before opening to the public on March 24 , 2012 . The roller coaster reaches a height of 210 feet ( 64 m ) and reaches speeds of 61 miles per hour ( 98 km / h ) . In September 2012 , the ride was voted as the best new ride of 2012 in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
= = History = =
Speculation of Wild Eagle began in March 2011 when plans to discuss Dollywood 's 2012 attraction were submitted to the Pigeon Forge Planning Commission . On March 24 , 2011 , those plans were approved and though city officials could not tell exactly what the plans were , some believed it looked to be a roller coaster . On September 4 , 2011 , Wild Eagle was officially announced to the public as the first wing coaster to open in the United States . On October 7 , 2011 , the lift hill was completed , and by the end of October 2011 , the track layout was complete . On February 28 , 2012 , Dollywood unveiled a steel sculpture of an eagle with a wing span of 42 feet ( 13 m ) and a total weight of 8 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) that would be placed near the entrance of the ride . The ride soft opened to the media on March 23 , 2012 , before officially opening to the public on March 24 , 2012 .
= = Experience = =
After departing from the station , the train makes a left turn leading into the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) , reaching a top speed of 61 miles per hour ( 98 km / h ) . The train enters a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) vertical loop followed by a slight left then a zero @-@ gravity roll where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness . Upon exiting the roll , the train immediately enters an immelmann loop . The train then goes through a trim brake , before entering a corkscrew , then a camelback hill which is a common way of achieving air @-@ time on roller coasters . The train then makes a sharp left turn before making a sharp right turn which leads into the brake run . The train then makes a left turn into another set of brakes before entering the station where the next riders board the train . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 22 seconds .
= = = Trains = = =
Wild Eagle operates with two open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains , each with seven cars which have four seats each , with two on each side of the track for a total of 28 riders per train . Riders are restrained by flexible over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts . Also , because the seats are on the side of the track , a cantilevered steel arm is used to support the wings . The front of each of the seven train cars is shaped to resemble an eagle with outstretched wings adding to the theme of the ride .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is 3 @,@ 127 feet ( 953 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 210 feet ( 64 m ) . The track is painted blue and the supports are painted tan . Both friction and magnetic brakes are used on the roller coaster to control the trains speed .
= = Reception = =
Joel Bullock from The Coaster Critic gave Wild Eagle a nine out of ten for its unique experience . He also stated that , " It ’ s smooth , has some fun inversions , and is meant to be a wide @-@ reaching crowd pleaser and it fully delivered " but mentions that the restraints can become uncomfortable from time to time .
In Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards , the roller coaster was voted as the best new attraction for 2012 and 15th best roller steel roller coaster in the world . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the ride placed 87th .
= Antibody =
An antibody ( Ab ) , also known as an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) , is a large , Y @-@ shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses . The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent , called an antigen , via the variable region . Each tip of the " Y " of an antibody contains a paratope ( analogous to a lock ) that is specific for one particular epitope ( similarly analogous to a key ) on an antigen , allowing these two structures to bind together with precision . Using this binding mechanism , an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system , or can neutralize its target directly ( for example , by blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival ) . Depending on the antigen , the binding may impede the biological process causing the disease or may recruit macrophages to destroy the foreign substance . The ability of an antibody to communicate with the other components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region ( located at the base of the " Y " ) , which contains a conserved glycosylation site involved in these interactions . The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system .
Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the adaptive immune system , mostly by differentiated B cells called plasma cells . Antibodies can occur in two physical forms , a soluble form that is secreted from the cell to be free in the blood plasma , and a membrane @-@ bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B @-@ cell receptor ( BCR ) . The BCR is found only on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure . In most cases , interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and , therefore , antibody generation following antigen binding . Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids , as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms .
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily . They constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins . They are typically made of basic structural units — each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains . There are several different types of antibody heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments ( Fc ) that may be attached to the antigen @-@ binding fragments . The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes . Each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor ( except for IgD , which is essentially the BCR ) , thus allowing the antigen @-@ antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds . The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the glycan ( s ) present at conserved sites within its Fc region . The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter . For example , IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation and histamine release . IgE 's Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen , for example house dust mite particles , while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε . The allergen @-@ IgE @-@ FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma .
Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar , a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable , allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures , or antigen @-@ binding sites , to exist . This region is known as the hypervariable region . Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen . This enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen @-@ binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens . The large and diverse population of antibody paratope is generated by random recombination events of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen @-@ binding sites ( or paratopes ) , followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene , which create further diversity . This recombinational process that produces clonal antibody paratope diversity is called V ( D ) J or VJ recombination . Basically , the antibody paratope is polygenic , made up of three genes , V , D , and J. Each paratope locus is also polymorphic , such that during antibody production , one allele of V , one of D , and one of J is chosen . These gene segments are then joined together using random genetic recombination to produce the paratope . The regions where the genes are randomly recombined together is the hyper variable region used to recognise different antigens on a clonal basis .
Antibody genes also re @-@ organize in a process called class switching that changes the one type of heavy chain Fc fragment to another , creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen @-@ specific variable region . This allows a single antibody to be used by different types of Fc receptors , expressed on different parts of the immune system .
= = Forms = =
The membrane @-@ bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin ( sIg ) or a membrane immunoglobulin ( mIg ) . It is part of the B cell receptor ( BCR ) , which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation . The BCR is composed of surface @-@ bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig @-@ α and Ig @-@ β heterodimers , which are capable of signal transduction . A typical human B cell will have 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 antibodies bound to its surface . Upon antigen binding , they cluster in large patches , which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter , on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors . These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response . In humans , the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers , which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences .
= = Antibody – antigen interactions = =
The antibody 's paratope interacts with the antigen 's epitope . An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously , and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants .
Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity ( lock and key ) . The molecular forces involved in the Fab @-@ epitope interaction are weak and non @-@ specific – for example electrostatic forces , hydrogen bonds , hydrophobic interactions , and van der Waals forces . This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible , and the antibody 's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute . Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross @-@ react with different antigens of different relative affinities .
Often , once an antibody and antigen bind , they become an immune complex , which functions as a unitary object and can act as an antigen in its own right , being countered by other antibodies . Similarly , haptens are small molecules that provoke no immune response by themselves , but once they bind to proteins , the resulting complex or hapten @-@ carrier adduct is antigenic .
= = Isotypes = =
Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes . In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM . They are each named with an " Ig " prefix that stands for immunoglobulin , a name sometimes used interchangeably with antibody , and differ in their biological properties , functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens , as depicted in the table . The different suffixes of the antibody isotypes denote the different types of heavy chains the antibody contains , with each heavy chain class named alphabetically : α , γ , δ , ε , and μ . This gives rise to IgA , IgG , IgD , IgE , and IgM , respectively .
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation . Immature B cells , which have never been exposed to an antigen , express only the IgM + isotype in a cell surface bound form . The B lymphocyte , in this ready @-@ to @-@ respond form , is known as a " naive B lymphocyte . " The naive B lymphocyte expresses both surface IgM + and IgD + . The co @-@ expression of both of these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell ready to respond to antigen . B cell activation follows engagement of the cell @-@ bound antibody molecule with an antigen , causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody @-@ producing cell called a plasma cell . In this activated form , the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane @-@ bound form . Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching , a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes , IgE , IgA , or IgG , that have defined roles in the immune system .
= = Structure = =
Antibodies are heavy ( ~ 150 kDa ) globular plasma proteins . They have sugar chains ( glycans ) added to conserved amino acid residues . In other words , antibodies are glycoproteins . The attached glycans are critically important to the structure and function of the antibody . Among other things the expressed glycans can modulate an antibody 's affinity for its corresponding FcR ( s ) .
The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) monomer ( containing only one Ig unit ) ; secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA , tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM , or pentameric with five Ig units , like mammalian IgM .
The variable parts of an antibody are its V regions , and the constant part is its C region .
= = = Immunoglobulin domains = = =
The Ig monomer is a " Y " -shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains ; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds . Each chain is composed of structural domains called immunoglobulin domains . These domains contain about 70 – 110 amino acids and are classified into different categories ( for example , variable or IgV , and constant or IgC ) according to their size and function . They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a " sandwich " shape , held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids .
= = = Heavy chain = = =
There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters : α , δ , ε , γ , and μ . The type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody ; these chains are found in IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM antibodies , respectively . Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition ; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids , whereas μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids .
Each heavy chain has two regions , the constant region and the variable region . The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype , but differs in antibodies of different isotypes . Heavy chains γ , α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem ( in a line ) Ig domains , and a hinge region for added flexibility ; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains . The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells , but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone . The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain .
= = = Light chain = = =
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain , which are called lambda ( λ ) and kappa ( κ ) . A light chain has two successive domains : one constant domain and one variable domain . The approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids . Each antibody contains two light chains that are always identical ; only one type of light chain , κ or λ , is present per antibody in mammals . Other types of light chains , such as the iota ( ι ) chain , are found in other vertebrates like sharks ( Chondrichthyes ) and bony fishes ( Teleostei ) .
= = = CDRs , Fv , Fab and Fc regions = = =
Some parts of an antibody have the same functions . The arms of the Y , for example , contain the sites that can bind to antigens ( in general , identical ) and , therefore , recognize specific foreign objects . This region of the antibody is called the Fab ( fragment , antigen @-@ binding ) region . It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody . The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains . The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and is the most important region for binding to antigens . To be specific , variable loops of β @-@ strands , three each on the light ( VL ) and heavy ( VH ) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen . These loops are referred to as the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) . The structures of these CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al. and more recently by North et al. and Nikoloudis et al . In the framework of the immune network theory , CDRs are also called idiotypes . According to immune network theory , the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes .
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity . This region is called the Fc ( Fragment , crystallizable ) region , and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody . Thus , the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen , by binding to a specific class of Fc receptors , and other immune molecules , such as complement proteins . By doing this , it mediates different physiological effects including recognition of opsonized particles ( binding to FcγR ) , lysis of cells ( binding to complement ) , and degranulation of mast cells , basophils , and eosinophils ( binding to FcεR ) .
In summary , the Fab region of the antibody determines antigen specificity while the Fc region of the antibody determines the antibody 's class effect . Since only the constant domains of the heavy chains make up the Fc region of an antibody , the classes of heavy chain in antibodies determine their class effects . Possible classes of heavy chains in antibodies include alpha , gamma , delta , epsilon , and mu , and they define the antibody 's isotypes IgA , G , D , E , and M , respectively . This infers different isotypes of antibodies have different class effects due to their different Fc regions binding and activating different types of receptors . Possible class effects of antibodies include : Opsonisation , agglutination , haemolysis , complement activation , mast cell degranulation , and neutralisation ( though this class effect may be mediated by the Fab region rather than the Fc region ) . It also implies that Fab @-@ mediated effects are directed at microbes or toxins , whilst Fc mediated effects are directed at effector cells or effector molecules ( see below ) .
= = Function = =
The main categories of antibody action include the following :
Neutralisation , in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective
Agglutination , in which antibodies " glue together " foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Precipitation , in which antibodies " glue together " serum @-@ soluble antigens , forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Complement activation ( fixation ) , in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex , which leads to the following :
Lysis of the foreign cell
Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody @-@ producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures .
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life , the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother . Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies , and usually appear within the first years of life . Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream , they are said to be part of the humoral immune system . Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen ( an example is a virus capsid protein fragment ) . Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways : They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them ; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen ; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway . Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens ( helminths , allergens ) .
= = = Activation of complement = = =
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens ( for example , on bacteria ) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the " classical " complement system . This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways . First , the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization ; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade . Second , some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly ( bacteriolysis ) .
= = = Activation of effector cells = = =
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells , antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together , causing them to agglutinate . Since an antibody has at least two paratopes , it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens . By coating the pathogen , antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region .
Those cells that recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors , which , as the name suggests , interact with the Fc region of IgA , IgG , and IgE antibodies . The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell ; phagocytes will phagocytose , mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate , natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules ; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe . The activation of natural killer cells by antibodies initiates a cytotoxic mechanism known as antibody @-@ dependent cell @-@ mediated cytotoxicity ( ADCC ) – this process may explain the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies used in biological therapies against cancer . The Fc receptors are isotype @-@ specific , which gives greater flexibility to the immune system , invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens .
= = = Natural antibodies = = =
Humans and higher primates also produce " natural antibodies " that are present in serum before viral infection . Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection , vaccination , other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization . These antibodies can activate the classical complement pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated . Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α ( 1 @,@ 3 ) -galactose ( α @-@ Gal ) , which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins , and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria contained in the human gut . Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be , in part , the result of natural antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α @-@ Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue .
= = Immunoglobulin diversity = =
Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response . Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies ; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens . It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies , each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen . Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual , the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome . Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes .
= = = Domain variability = = =
The chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody — the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes ( IGH @ ) is found on chromosome 14 , and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes ( IGL @ and IGK @ ) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans . One of these domains is called the variable domain , which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody , but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells . Differences , between the variable domains , are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions ( HV @-@ 1 , HV @-@ 2 and HV @-@ 3 ) or complementarity determining regions ( CDR1 , CDR2 and CDR3 ) . CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions . The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs . Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability . This combination is called V ( D ) J recombination discussed below .
= = = V ( D ) J recombination = = =
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins , also known as V ( D ) J recombination , involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region . The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces — known as gene segments ( subgenes ) . These segments are called variable ( V ) , diversity ( D ) and joining ( J ) segments . V , D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains , but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains . Multiple copies of the V , D and J gene segments exist , and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals . In the bone marrow , each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V , one D and one J gene segment ( or one V and one J segment in the light chain ) . As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment , and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region , this process generates a huge number of antibodies , each with different paratopes , and thus different antigen specificities . Interestingly , the rearrangement of several subgenes ( i.e. V2 family ) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR @-@ 650 , which further influences biology of B @-@ cells .
RAG proteins play an important role with V ( D ) J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region . Without the presence of these proteins , V ( D ) J recombination would not occur .
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V ( D ) J recombination , it cannot express any other variable region ( a process known as allelic exclusion ) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain .
= = = Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation = = =
Following activation with antigen , B cells begin to proliferate rapidly . In these rapidly dividing cells , the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation , by a process called somatic hypermutation ( SHM ) . SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene , per cell division . As a consequence , any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains .
This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody 's antigen @-@ binding affinity . Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction ( low affinity ) with their antigen than the original antibody , and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction ( high affinity ) . B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells , whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not , and will die by apoptosis . Thus , B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival . The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation . Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V ( D ) J recombination , and is dependent on help from helper T cells .
= = = Class switching = = =
Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell , which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody ( IgA , IgE , or IgG ) . The different classes of antibody , and thus effector functions , are defined by the constant ( C ) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain . Initially , naive B cells express only cell @-@ surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions . Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function ; therefore , after activation , an antibody with an IgG , IgA , or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen . Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes . Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching ; the variable regions , and therefore antigen specificity , remain unchanged . Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies , all specific for the same antigen , but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge . Class switching is triggered by cytokines ; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment .
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination ( CSR ) . This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs , called switch ( S ) regions , found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene ( except in the δ @-@ chain ) . The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S @-@ regions . The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) to the desired constant region ( γ , α or ε ) . This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype .
= = = Affinity designations = = =
A group of antibodies can be called monovalent ( or specific ) if they have affinity for the same epitope , or for the same antigen ( but potentially different epitopes on the molecule ) , or for the same strain of microorganism ( but potentially different antigens on or in it ) . In contrast , a group of antibodies can be called polyvalent ( or unspecific ) if they have affinity for various antigens or microorganisms . Intravenous immunoglobulin , if not otherwise noted , consists of polyvalent IgG . In contrast , monoclonal antibodies are monovalent for the same epitope .
= = = Asymmetrical antibodies = = =
Heterodimeric antibodies , which are also asymmetrical and antibodies , allow for greater flexibility and new formats for attaching a variety of drugs to the antibody arms . One of the general formats for a heterodimeric antibody is the “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format . This format is specific to the heavy chain part of the constant region in antibodies . The “ knobs ” part is engineered by replacing a small amino acid with a larger one . It fits into the “ hole ” , which is engineered by replacing a large amino acid with a smaller one . What connects the “ knobs ” to the “ holes ” are the disulfide bonds between each chain . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” shape facilitates antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity . Single chain variable fragments ( scFv ) are connected to the variable domain of the heavy and light chain via a short linker peptide . The linker is rich in glycine , which gives it more flexibility , and serine / threonine , which gives it specificity . Two different scFv fragments can be connected together , via a hinge region , to the constant domain of the heavy chain or the constant domain of the light chain . This gives the antibody bispecificity , allowing for the binding specificities of two different antigens . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format enhances heterodimer formation but doesn ’ t suppress homodimer formation .
To further improve the function of heterodimeric antibodies , many scientists are looking towards artificial constructs . Artificial antibodies are largely diverse protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule , but aren ’ t limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody . Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three @-@ dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachment of different combinations of drugs to the arms .
Heterodimeric antibodies have a greater range in shapes they can take and the drugs that are attached to the arms don ’ t have to be the same on each arm , allowing for different combinations of drugs to be used in cancer treatment . Pharmaceuticals are able to produce highly functional bispecific , and even multispecific , antibodies . The degree to which they can function is impressive given that such a change shape from the natural form should lead to decreased functionality .
= = Medical applications = =
= = = Disease diagnosis = = =
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics , and applications such as serology depend on these methods . For example , in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis , a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein @-@ Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood . If those antibodies are not present , either the person is not infected or the infection occurred a very long time ago , and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed .
In clinical immunology , levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry ( or turbidimetry ) to characterize the antibody profile of patient . Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients for whom the diagnosis is unclear . For example , elevated IgA indicates alcoholic cirrhosis , elevated IgM indicates viral hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis , while IgG is elevated in viral hepatitis , autoimmune hepatitis and cirrhosis .
Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body 's own epitopes ; many can be detected through blood tests . Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test . The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women .
Practically , several immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen @-@ antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases , for example ELISA , immunofluorescence , Western blot , immunodiffusion , immunoelectrophoresis , and magnetic immunoassay . Antibodies raised against human chorionic gonadotropin are used in over the counter pregnancy tests .
= = = Disease therapy = = =
Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis , multiple sclerosis , psoriasis , and many forms of cancer including non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , colorectal cancer , head and neck cancer and breast cancer .
Some immune deficiencies , such as X @-@ linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia , result in partial or complete lack of antibodies . These diseases are often treated by inducing a short term form of immunity called passive immunity . Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready @-@ made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum , pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies , into the affected individual .
= = = Prenatal therapy = = =
Rhesus factor , also known as Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen , is an antigen found on red blood cells ; individuals that are Rhesus @-@ positive ( Rh + ) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rhesus @-@ negative ( Rh – ) do not . During normal childbirth , delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy , blood from a fetus can enter the mother 's system . In the case of an Rh @-@ incompatible mother and child , consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh + child , putting the remainder of the pregnancy , and any subsequent pregnancies , at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn .
Rho ( D ) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen . Anti @-@ RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rhesus @-@ negative mother has a Rhesus @-@ positive fetus . Treatment of a mother with Anti @-@ RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother 's system from the fetus . It is important to note that this occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to " remember " Rh antigen by generating memory B cells . Therefore , her humoral immune system will not make anti @-@ Rh antibodies , and will not attack the Rhesus antigens of the current or subsequent babies . Rho ( D ) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease , but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself .
= = Research applications = =
Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal , such as a mouse , rat , rabbit , goat , sheep , or horse for large quantities of antibody . Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies — multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen — in the serum , which can now be called antiserum . Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk . To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen , antibody @-@ secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line . The fused cells are called hybridomas , and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture . Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody ; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies . Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A / G or antigen @-@ affinity chromatography .
In research , purified antibodies are used in many applications . Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers , or through use of a specialist search engine . Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins . Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express ; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface , and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins . They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them ( co @-@ immunoprecipitation ) from other molecules in a cell lysate , in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis , and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope . Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies , using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques .
Researchers using antibodies in their work need to record them correctly in order to allow their research to be reproducible ( and therefore tested , and qualified by other researchers ) . Less than half of research antibodies referenced in academic papers can be easily identified . A paper published in F1000 in 2014 provided researchers with a guide for reporting research antibody use .
= = Regulatory validation of monoclonal antibody products for human use = =
Production and testing :
Traditionally , most antibodies are produced by hybridoma cell lines through immortalization of antibody @-@ producing cells by chemically @-@ induced fusion with myeloma cells . In some cases , additional fusions with other lines have created " triomas " and " quadromas " . The manufacturing process should be appropriately described and validated . Validation studies should at least include :
The demonstration that the process is able to produce in good quality ( the process should be validated )
The efficiency of the antibody
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purification ( all impurities and virus must be eliminated )
The characterization of purified antibody ( physicochemical characterization , immunological properties , biological activities , contaminants , ... )
Determination of the virus clearance studies
Before clinical trials , studies of product safety and feasibility have to be performed :
Product safety testing : Sterility ( bacteria and fungi ) , In vitro and in vivo testing for adventitious viruses , Murine retrovirus testing ... Product safety data needed before the initiation of feasibility trials in serious or immediately life @-@ threatening conditions , it serves to evaluate dangerous potential of the product .
Feasibility testing : These are pilot studies whose objectives include , among others , early characterization of safety and initial proof of concept in a small specific patient population ( in vito or in vivo testing ) .
Preclinical studies :
Testing cross @-@ reactivity of antibody : to highlight unwanted interactions ( toxicity ) of antibodies with previously characterized tissues . This study can be performed in vitro ( Reactivity of the antibody or immunoconjugate should be determined with a quick @-@ frozen adult tissues ) or in vivo ( with appropriates animal models ) . More informations about in vitro cross @-@ reactivity testing .
Preclinical pharmacology and toxicity testing : Preclinical safety testing of antibody is designed to identify possible toxicities in humans , to estimate the likelihood and severity of potential adverse events in humans , and to identify a safe starting dose and dose escalation , when possible .
Animal toxicity studies : Acute toxicity testing , Repeat @-@ dose toxicity testing , Long @-@ term toxicity testing http : / / www.animalresearch.info / en / drug @-@ development / safety @-@ testing /
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics testing : Use for determinate clinical dosages , antibody activities ( AUC , pharmacodynamics , biodistribution , ... ) , evaluation of the potential clinical effects
= = Structure prediction = =
The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution . This information is used for protein engineering , modifying the antigen binding affinity , and identifying an epitope , of a given antibody . X @-@ ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures . However , crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time @-@ consuming . Computational approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography , but their results are more equivocal , since they do not produce empirical structures . Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling ( WAM ) and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure ( PIGS ) enables computational modeling of antibody variable regions . Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody FV region structure prediction server , which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains , as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen .
The ability to describe the antibody through binding affinity to the antigen is supplemented by information on antibody structure and amino acid sequences for the purpose of patent claims .
= = History = =
The first use of the term " antibody " occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich . The term Antikörper ( the German word for antibody ) appears in the conclusion of his article " Experimental Studies on Immunity " , published in October 1891 , which states that , " if two substances give rise to two different antikörper , then they themselves must be different " . However , the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed ; these included Immunkörper , Amboceptor , Zwischenkörper , substance sensibilisatrice , copula , Desmon , philocytase , fixateur , and Immunisin . The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to Immunkörper ( immune body in English ) . As such , the original construction of the word contains a logical flaw ; the antitoxin is something directed against a toxin , while the antibody is a body directed against something .
The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Kitasato Shibasaburō described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins . Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity , proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen . His idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side @-@ chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897 , when he hypothesized that receptors ( described as " side @-@ chains " ) on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins – in a " lock @-@ and @-@ key " interaction – and that this binding reaction is the trigger for the production of antibodies . Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and , in 1904 , Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing ; a process that he named opsoninization .
In the 1920s , Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies are made of protein . The biochemical properties of antigen @-@ antibody @-@ binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack . The next major advance was in the 1940s , when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock @-@ and @-@ key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depend more on their shape than their chemical composition . In 1948 , Astrid Fagreaus discovered that B cells , in the form of plasma cells , were responsible for generating antibodies .
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins . A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain , and their realization that this protein is the same as the Bence @-@ Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones . Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond @-@ linked heavy and light chains . Around the same time , antibody @-@ binding ( Fab ) and antibody tail ( Fc ) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter . Together , these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG , a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The Fv fragment was prepared and characterized by David Givol . While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG , other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s : Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody ( IgA ) ; David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey discovered IgD ; and Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka discovered IgE and showed it was a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions . In a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976 , Susumu Tonegawa showed that genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies .
= = Antibody mimetic = =
Antibody mimetics are organic compounds that , like antibodies , can specifically bind antigens . They are usually artificial peptides or proteins with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa . Nucleic acids and small molecules are sometimes considered antibody mimetics , but not artificial antibodies , antibody fragments and fusion proteins are composed from these . Common advantages over antibodies are better solubility , tissue penetration , stability towards heat and enzymes , and comparatively low production costs . Antibody mimetics such as the Affimer and the DARPin have being developed and commercialised as research , diagnostic and therapeutic agents .
= Man on the Moon : The End of Day =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Kid Cudi , released on September 14 , 2009 , by Dream On , GOOD Music and Universal Motown . A concept album , narrated by fellow American rapper Common , it follows the release of his first mixtape A Kid Named Cudi ( 2008 ) . Production for the album took place during 2007 to 2009 and was handled by several record producers , including Cudi , Kanye West , Emile Haynie , Plain Pat , No I.D. , Dot da Genius and Jeff Bhasker , among others .
Man on the Moon : The End of Day spawned three singles – " Day ' n ' Nite " , " Make Her Say " and " Pursuit of Happiness " – that attained chart success , the former of which became a US platinum @-@ certified hit single . To further promote the album , he toured with Asher Roth and Lady Gaga . Man on the Moon : The End of Day received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised it for its music composition and different approach to being a hip @-@ hop record . Aside from being included on music critics list of the best albums of the year , Man on the Moon : The End of Day received three Grammy Awards nominations .
The album debuted at number four on both the US Billboard 200 and Billboard Top Rap Albums chart , selling 104 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the United States . It later became certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Outside of the US , the album was less commercially successful , generally peaking outside of the top fifty positions of album charts .
= = Writing and development = =
According to AllMusic , soon after it was announced that Cudi would release this album it became " deep in the category of ' much anticipated ' " . Prior to the album being picked up by the likes of Universal Motown and GOOD Music , he had previously worked with mentor and fellow rapper Kanye West on his 2008 record 808s & Heartbreak , co @-@ writing four hits for it . He said that without those song successes Man on the Moon : The End of Day would not have been picked up by any major labels . Cudi , who became West 's protege and collaborator , hoped Man on the Moon : The End of Day would show people that he had his own voice and set him apart . The record was originally titled Man on the Moon : The Guardians , but its subtitle was later changed to The End of Day . Performance artist Andy Kaufman partly inspired the new title . He planned for this record to be the first in a trilogy , with the next edition being entitled The Ghost and the Machine .
Before the success of " Day ' n ' Nite " , the rapper had said that he would never try to mix politics or jocular things in with his lyrical content . After realizing the power of his voice he then decided to make important and unique songs , focusing on the message , rather than just creating inane music . He said his mode of operation at that time " was just , ' Hey , I ’ m making these cool sounding songs and I have little messages in them ' " , but still had himself in it . Although Cudi had a message in every track , he chose to avoid using dense lyrics , explaining that he did not want to write material that he would not actually say or use in real life , adding that being true to yourself entirely was meaningful to him . " I don ’ t speak like a fucking nerdy guy ; I speak like a regular dude " , he remarked .
He wrote " Day ' n ' Nite " after the death of his uncle . The two were not on speaking terms after his uncle forced him out of his home before Cudi could find another living situation . A bitter Cudi never apologized to him before his death , which he now regrets . Other songs on the album expand upon themes discussed in that single . Back in 2007 , Drake , who was one of Cudi 's first supporters , had shown interest in doing an official remix of the song with him . However , Cudi chose against it since he was not interested in working with people who are in the " same creative realm " as him and because he was in the midst of creating his own works . Beginning in the fourth grade , and getting more tense after his father 's death when he was 11 , Cudi began dreaming of his own death ( which usually was an automobile accident ) . He channeled these things into his material . Speaking to BlackBook in May 2009 , Cudi said of the album and its content ,
" Each song is a message . All the hooks are stadium @-@ worthy , crowd sing @-@ along , powerful joints that I can ’ t wait for people to hear in stadium magnitude . My album definitely needs to be heard loudly , but it ’ s also a great album if you ’ re smoking and you need to go to sleep . So far I have the lineup of how I want the first seven tracks on my album and if I play the first seven from the beginning to the end , I ’ m zoned out and it ’ s the best trip ever . You need to be high to appreciate the instrumentation and how everything is put together on the album — but you don ’ t have to be high just to enjoy it in general . "
= = Composition = =
A concept album , Man on the Moon : The End of Day is an autobiographical track series of moody dark material that is separated into five acts that all surround " Day ' n ' Nite " with an arcane account . One reviewer summed up the story to be : " [ a ] lonely guy sits in his room and dreams of success . He uses drugs to calm his fears and fend off night terrors . He eventually gets recognized as the star he always knew he was , and lives the superstar life … or maybe he ’ s still dreaming about that stage of his life , and we ’ re just witnessing what his dreams sound like . " According to Cudi , more lively songs had to be added so that listeners did not feel like they were listening to a " slit @-@ your @-@ wrists album " . It was observed by a reviewer that on Man on the Moon : The End of Day , Cudi neither raps nor sings , instead he goes " puzzling through some third way : a sort of loose , hazily melodic talking . " Musical collaborators included Kanye West , Ratatat and MGMT , among others , and the record is narrated by Common . Lyrically , he raps about anxiety and his frequent nightmares .
The album 's first two songs are a one @-@ two introduction to the rapper and what he is up to . There is a gloomy interior monologue about success , the lack of it , and Cudi 's inner conflicts , where he welcomes listeners by saying they are in his dreams . " Soundtrack 2 My Life " is a more courageous theme song where he proclaims , " This is the soundtrack to my life " . In it he states that his family did not see the sadness in him and that he has not been right since his father 's death . The third track , which is part of the second half of the introduction , has an outer @-@ space style , which is due in part to the Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark group sample , and showcases the rapper 's readiness to experiment .
Following the opening three @-@ track introduction , there is another three @-@ song section of Man on the Moon : The End of Day where Cudi is confined in his solitary world . Like his current state , the music is appropriately obscure . This chapter of the album is the marijuana section , while in next part the rapper is on psychedelics . References to both drugs are abundant throughout the record , but the latter 's part carry " the blind @-@ to @-@ the @-@ world quality of the former . " They are internal tracks , where Cudi 's mind 's state of being is the subject at hand .
" Day ' n ' Nite " is the album 's turning point , where it transitions from the drab theme of loneliness to vitality . Among the brighter songs are " Enter Galactic ( LoveConnection Part 1 ) " , a " trippy disco anthem " that is inspired by when he and a female friend ate shrooms and listened to music by The Postal Service together . " Make Her Say " includes a sample of pop singers Lady Gaga 's 2009 smash hit " Poker Face " and features verses from West and Common . It takes Gaga 's naughty , mischievous central hook and turns it around to be an unrefined oral sex reference that makes it a " hyper @-@ catchy , forward @-@ looking single . " He channels André 3000 in " Cudi Zone " . Man on the Moon : The End of Day 's closer is " Up Up and Away " , an escapist drug anthem single . Unlike other music 's common theme of drugs being used as an escape from the unpleasant realities , this however , is about breaking free from the rough reality of someone 's own mind and heart .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
The first track from the album to be released as a single was " Day ' n ' Nite " which was a commercial success , when it debuted at number 88 and peaked at number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Cudi 's highest charting song on that chart . Reaching its highest peak at number 2 on both the United Kingdom and Belgium charts , " Day ' n ' Nite " also found its peak positions within the top ten on the French singles charts , as well as charting in the top twenty positions on Irish , German and Australian charts . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for paid digital downloads of more than one million copies in the United States in July 2009 . Although Cudi was grateful for the opportunity to make a video for " Day ' n ' Nite " and enjoyed the overall concept for it , he was disappointed that a majority of his ideas were ignored and cut out of the video . When he saw the video for the first time , he claims he provided feedback for it , but was ignored . The rapper than decided to make another video for the track , which was directed by French artist and director So Me .
Despite Cudi announcing plans to release " Sky Might Fall " as Man on the Moon : The End of Day 's second single , " Make Her Say " was instead chosen . Compared to its previous single , " Make Her Say " was less successful on the music charts , with its highest peak position being at number 18 on the Belgium Singles Chart . The music video for the track was directed by Nez Khammal and utilizes a split screen effect to create the illusion that the three artists ( Cudi , Kanye West and Common ) were all filmed in the same location . In reality , they had shot their individual scenes on opposite coasts of the United States ; Common and Cudi were filmed in New York City while West was filmed in Los Angeles . The third and last single to be released from Man on the Moon : The End of Day was " Pursuit of Happiness " on January 25 , 2010 . " Pursuit of Happiness " managed to chart at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 , with its highest peak position being at number 41 on the Australian Singles Chart .
= = = Touring = = =
Initially Cudi stated that he would " lay low until his album drops to avoid unnecessary hype . " Despite this statement , he went on a tour with rapper Asher Roth between July and August 2009 . He performed all of the albums singles at Maryland 's The Ulalume Music Festival in October 2009 . In 2009 , the rapper also toured with singer Lady Gaga as an opening act during the first leg of her The Monster Ball Tour in North America , where he performed the track " Make Her Say " . Less than a month later , and after an altercation with an audience member in Vancouver , it was announced that due to time conflicts , Cudi chose to leave the tour . An official statement from him read , " Kid Cudi has decided to take an early leave of absence from Lady Gaga 's Monster Ball tour , in order to balance his schedule surrounding the recording of his next album and acting commitments . Cudi does not want to disappoint his fans and will move forward with his individual show dates in December and throughout the month of January . " However , in Complex 's October / November issue the rapper claimed that he was kicked off of the tour , commenting " she 's going to kick me off the tour because she didn 't want that type of negative energy at her shows ? Word ? I never did nothing to that girl " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the week ending on September 23 , 2009 , the album debuted at number 4 on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 104 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , charting behind Jay Z 's The Blueprint 3 , Whitney Houston 's I Look to You and Muse 's The Resistance . On the 2009 year @-@ end chart for Billboard 200 , Man on the Moon : The End of Day was listed at number 157 . The album also charted and peaked at the same position on Billboard 's Top Rap Albums chart . It failed to rise above its positions on those charts and would later be outperformed by his next studio album , Man on the Moon II : The Legend of Mr. Rager ( 2010 ) . Man on the Moon : The End of Day also peaked within Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums top ten positions .
In November 2010 , Man on the Moon : The End of Day was certified gold for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , which is its only certification . As of April 22 , 2016 , the album has sold 860 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In the UK Albums Chart , it charted at number 119 , and again did not rise above this position and had a better chart performance on its R & B Albums Charts , where it peaked at number 8 . In the French Album Charts , it debuted at number 56 , and again did not rise above this position . After charting on the chart for five consecutive weeks , it fell out of the top two @-@ hundred positions by October 2009 . Man on the Moon : The End of Day also found its peak at number fifty @-@ six again on the Swiss Album Charts . In Australia , on the week commencing September 28 , 2009 , the album reached its peak of 85 on the ARIA Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 15 reviews . The Boston Globe praised the experimental quality of the album : " It 's spacey , adventurous , and ridiculously intriguing if only because it 's so different " . Complimenting Cudi 's " introspective persona , ear for melody , and eclectic taste in beats , " Entertainment Weekly music reviewer Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson called him " a hyped upstart who really does represent a promising new phase in the genre 's evolution . " David Jeffries of AllMusic called it " a soul searcher [ that ] may require more patience than your everyday debut " , but " perfects the futuristic bleak @-@ beat hip @-@ hop Kanye purposed a year earlier , and rewards the listener with every tripped @-@ out return . " Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , believed that the album had the potential to turn heads as well as " bum @-@ rush the charts . " Slant Magazine 's Paul Schrodt wrote that the album attempts to be " both a bigger pop platform and indie credibility " , and felt that Cudi 's verses " are too good to ignore " so long as you do not take them too seriously . Ann Power of the Los Angeles Times called Man on the Moon a " standout release " in spite of " Cudi 's voice " . Billboard magazine 's Michael Menachem said that the album is " anything but a traditional hip @-@ hop recording " and that Cudi 's " delivery is confident in a poetic and artful way " . David Bevan of The A.V. Club said that , despite its filler , Cudi 's " thick layer of open , intense self @-@ loathing is a clever way of unifying Man On The Moon as pure mood piece , a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness pop voyage that ’ s more Phil Collins than rap . "
In a mixed review , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone was impressed by its music , but found Cudi 's raps " pedestrian " . Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media gave the album a negative review , finding it frustrating that the album felt like a failed opportunity rather than a " non @-@ starter " . He further wrote that Cudi largely smears his verses with a " flat warble " that is salvaged by auto @-@ tune , which he remarked would be " numbing enough on its own " had it not been for the frequent " terrifyingly underwritten lyric to jolt you into sharp pangs of embarrassment . " In a largely mixed review , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times expressed his astonishment at the emotional honesty embedded into Cudi 's songwriting but felt his restrained vocal performance diminished his presence on the album , writing , that the album " is a colossal , and mystifying , missed opportunity , misguided if it is in fact guided at all . " Citing the tracks " Solo Dolo " and on " Cudi Zone " as Cudi 's most " appealingly creepy " and intricate vocal performance , on his general view of the album , Caramanica wrote that the rest of the album lacks that liveliness and drive , reducing Cudi to a " gaseous nonentity " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day was named Entertainment Weekly 's Best Hip Hop Album of 2009 and called one of the year 's best debut albums . Due to his " key track " , " Day ' n ' Nite " , Cudi was also one of their five breakout stars of the year . Calling it a " wonderfully weird album " , MTV 's James Montgomery listed Man on the Moon : The End of Day as being the nineteenth of twenty best albums of 2009 . Montgomery wrote that the albums collaborations , Commons narration of it and its detailed storytelling as some of the reasons for its inclusion on his list . The album was also Complex 's Best Album of 2009 . Prior to its official release as a single , " Pursuit of Happiness " was listed as being number fifteen on Montgomery 's list of " Best Song 's of 2009 " , and " Day ' n ' Nite " was ranked in at number fifteen on the list of " Best 25 Songs of 2009 " by Rolling Stone . Two singles from Man on the Moon : The End of Day were nominated for awards at the 52nd Grammy Awards . " Day ' n ' Nite " was nominated for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Solo Performance , while " Make Her Say " was also nominated for Best Rap Performance By A Duo or Group category . The lead single was also nominated for two BET Hip Hop Awards and one Urban Music Award . The " Crookers Remix " of " Day ' n ' Night " earned Cudi his first and only Beatport Music Award . In October 2013 , Complex named it the fifth best hip hop album of the last five years .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" Simple As ... " contains a sample of " ABC ( Auto @-@ Industry ) " performed by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark .
" In My Dreams ( Cudder Anthem ) " contains a sample of " Biceps " performed by Garnegy and Maties
" Solo Dolo " contains a sample of " The Traitor " performed by the Menahan Street Band .
" Make Her Say " contains an interpolation of " Poker Face " ( Piano & Voice Version ) performed by Lady Gaga .
" Make Her Say " contains a sample of " Let 's Ride " performed by Q @-@ Tip .
" Hyyerr " contains a sample of " Early Morning Love " performed by Lou Rawls .
" Man on the Moon ( The Anthem ) " contains a sample of " Aquarium " performed by Nosaj Thing .
" My World " contains a sample of " All What I Have " performed by Le Système Crapoutchik .
" Heart of a Lion " contains an interpolation of " You Make Me Feel Brand New " performed by The Stylistics .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Man on the Moon : The End of Day adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Royal Canadian Air Cadets =
Royal Canadian Air Cadets ( French : Cadets de l 'aviation royale du Canada ) is a Canadian national youth program for persons aged 12 to 18 . Under the authority of the National Defence Act the program is administered by the Canadian Forces ( CF ) and funded through the Department of National Defence ( DND ) . Additional support is provided by the civilian Air Cadet League of Canada ( ACL ) . Together with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , it forms the " largest federally funded youth program in the country " . Cadets are not members of the military and are not obliged to join the Canadian Forces .
The first squadrons were established in 1941 to train young men for duties during World War II . The purpose has since changed to focus on citizenship , leadership , physical fitness , general aviation and stimulating an interest in the activities of the Canadian Forces .
The majority of cadet training takes place at the local squadron during the regular school year with a percentage of cadets selected for summer training courses at various cadet summer training centres located across Canada . Central to the air cadet program are the gliding and flying scholarships offered to air cadets who qualify . One in five private pilots in Canada is an ex @-@ air cadet and 67 % of commercial and airline pilots began as air cadets . There are 456 squadrons located across the country with an approximate enrolment of 23 @,@ 000 Air Cadets .
= = Overview = =
The aim of the Cadet Program is to develop in youth the attributes of good citizenship and leadership ; promote physical fitness ; and stimulate the interest of youth in the sea , land , and air activities of the Canadian Forces ; however , each focuses on its own parent element . The Air Cadet motto is " To learn . To serve . To advance . " , and was created by Robert Myles Colwell in 1966 when he was a cadet with 625 Squadron in Perth @-@ Andover , NB .
Persons aged 12 to 18 may join the Air Cadet Program . The organization and rank system of the pre @-@ unification Royal Canadian Air Force is used with one additional rank - Flight Corporal - equating to an Army Cadet Master Corporal or a Sea Cadet Master Seaman . Cadets are not members of the Canadian Forces and cadets have no power of command over any CF member . Adult leadership is provided by members of the Canadian Forces Reserve Subcomponent Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service composed mostly of officers of the Cadet Instructors Cadre ( CIC ) Branch , supplemented , if necessary , by contracted Civilian Instructors , authorized adult volunteers , and , on occasion , officers and non @-@ commissioned members of other CF branches . The CIC Branch is specifically trained to deliver the Royal Canadian Sea , Army , and Air Cadet training program , and like all reservists come from all walks of life and all parts of the community . Some are former cadets , many have former regular or reserve force service .
Along with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , they form the Canadian Cadet Organizations . Though the cadet programs have a close relationship with the CF , cadets are not members of the Forces , and are not expected or required to join the Canadian Forces . In keeping with Commonwealth custom , the Royal Canadian Air Cadets stand last in the order of precedence , after the Royal Canadian Sea and Army Cadets .
The Canadian Cadet Movement is sponsored by the CF / DND and the civilian Air Cadet League , along with the Navy League and Army Cadet League . Each cadet unit is supported by a local Squadron Sponsoring Committee responsible to the National League through each of the Provincial Committees . The basic Air Cadet program is provided at no cost , including uniforms and activities . Most Air Cadet squadrons are sponsored by a local service organization or club such as a Royal Canadian Legion Branch , Royal Canadian Air Force Association Wing , Rotary Club , Lions Club , or a locally established committee . The local civilian sponsors must raise money to provide for accommodation , utilities , liability insurance , local awards , and additional training resources or special activities , such as mess dinners , band instruments or squadron excursions and trips , not funded by the CF / DND . Cadets and their parents are encouraged to participate in fund @-@ raising activities .
= = History = =
The Air Cadet Organization originated in the early days of World War II when the war effort required young men to meet Canada 's military obligations . By 1938 there existed a couple of groups that would help promote such an effort . In Winnipeg , Manitoba this was the Winnipeg Air Cadets launched by Albert Bennett . Other such group existed in St. Catharines , ON. and in Penhold , AB .
Prior to 1940 , official Air Cadet squadrons did not exist . One corps was opened up under the Royal Canadian Army Cadets in 1939 under the corps designation of 1601 AIR FORCE CADET WING . With the formation of the Royal Canadian Air Cadet movement the corps transferred over and was given the designation 111 VANCOUVER . This was to coincide with the local Royal Canadian Air Force unit stationed in Vancouver No. 111 Squadron . 111 Air Cadet Squadron still exists under the name 111 PEGASUS .
In 1940 , Air Minister Power directed that a nationwide voluntary organization be formed to sponsor and develop a select group of young men who would be trained to meet the increasing need for operational pilots in the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) during World War II .
On November 11 , 1940 , an Order @-@ in @-@ Council was passed to establish the Air Cadet League of Canada to work in partnership with the RCAF . The first squadrons were organized in 1941 and by 1942 there were 135 squadrons and 10 @,@ 000 cadets , mostly recruited from the Army Cadets . By 1943 , there were 315 squadrons with a membership of 23 @,@ 000 . In 1944 , the program reached its peak membership with 29 @,@ 000 cadets in 374 squadrons .
The first uniform the Air Cadets used were hand me down uniforms from the Pre War era RCAF . It consisted of a blue / gray wool uniform ; cap ( wedge ) , pants and a full collar tunic . This was phased out in 1943 with an open collar variation similar to the war time RCAF enlisted man ’ s tunic . After the war the air cadet organization received more hand me down uniforms from the RCAF before adopting the battle dress style uniform .
After the war , membership dropped to a low of 11 @,@ 000 in 155 squadrons and the Air Cadet program underwent a transformation to reflect the changing needs of Canada and the cadets . The Air Cadet League introduced awards for proficiency and loyalty to the squadrons , summer courses were offered at RCAF stations , and a flying scholarship course was developed . To date , more than 15 @,@ 000 cadets have received their private pilot licence through the scholarship course . Training shifted to be focused on the development of citizenship and an interest in aviation . Interest was renewed ; by 1961 , 332 squadrons were in existence and in 1972 , authority was given for membership of up to 28 @,@ 000 cadets .
In areas where there was a high interest in air cadets , additional squadrons were established with different parade nights to accommodate the numbers . These squadrons were often placed into air cadet wings ( a formation of two or more squadrons ) with a separate wing HQ staff of both officers and senior cadets overseeing the operation . The system was discontinued in the late 1960s and all squadrons became independent once again .
From the early days senior air cadets were given opportunities to work in staff positions beside officers , certain contracted civilians and RCAF / CF members at summer camps across Canada . A system was developed where senior cadets aged 16 or older were temporarily enrolled in the RCAF / CF on short term contracts and given the rank of Acting Corporal . They were referred to as Call @-@ out Corporals . The Senior Leaders Course at Cold Lake later even used the CF rank of Acting Master Corporal among its staff of Call @-@ out Corporals . Later the system was abolished and the " staff cadet " program selected senior cadets for advanced training who were appointed as staff cadets to assist the adult leadership .
With the unification of the Royal Canadian Navy , the Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1968 , the Canadian Forces became the Air Cadet League 's military partner in the delivery of air cadet training . In 1975 , legislation was changed to officially allow the enrolment of female cadets into the Royal Canadian Sea , Army , and Air Cadets . The " battle dress " style woolen air force blue uniform was changed to a CF rifle green safari style uniform . The style and weight were more suited to the indoor and summer training reality of the program . The first of these was issued to cadet squadrons commencing in 1978 . A new embellished brass cap badge was issued and air cadet wings were worn on the left brest rather than the right . When the CF went back to separate uniform colours in the mid @-@ 1980s , cadets followed again with a new air force blue cadet uniform being issued but following the same style as the outgoing green uniform . Squadrons received these new uniforms commencing in the fall of 1992 .
Today , the Royal Canadian Air Cadets has a membership of approximately 23 @,@ 000 in 456 squadrons ; and together with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , forms the " largest federally funded youth program in the country " . The membership has also diversified , becoming gender balanced and attracting and retaining visible minorities .
= = Local training = =
Each squadron trains one night per week — a " parade night " — to undertake the local training program . The course of instruction is prescribed by the Director of Cadets and outlined in course training plans distributed to each squadron . The four @-@ year program provides cadets instruction in citizenship , leadership , survival training , instructional techniques , drill and ceremonial and the basics of aviation and aeronautics . In the fifth and subsequent years , cadets may be assigned to instruct these classes to the younger cadets . The local training begins in September and continues until June .
In addition to the mandatory weekly training sylabus , there are additional regularly scheduled activities that cadets can participate in optional training that includes band , firearms safety and marksmanship using the 10 metre air rifle for both training and competition , biathlon , military drill practice , first aid training and competitions , and ground school instruction in preparation for gliding and flying scholarship courses . Many of these activities also involve regional , provincial , or national competitions between teams and individual cadets .
Throughout the year there are weekend exercises organized by the local squadrons . Survival exercises , participation in Remembrance Day ceremonies , and familiarization flights are all common activities . Cadet squadrons participate in community events such as parades and band concerts .
= = = Cadet Program Update – Squadron program = = =
Beginning with the 2008 / 2009 training year , a new training system was introduced replacing the program that was in use since 1992 . The Cadet Program Update ( CPU ) brings new teaching materials and incorporates more contemporary educational and youth development methods . Similar updates to the Sea and Army Cadet programs rationalize the connectivity between the three programs and more efficiently provides the training that is common to all three elements .
The cornerstone of the CPU is the recognition that people between the ages of 12 @-@ 18 pass through three basic " Developmental Periods " ( DPs ) . These DPs mark the development of their cognitive abilities from a purely experienced @-@ based ( i.e. " hands @-@ on " ) method of learning to abstract problem @-@ solving and competency . The training methods used at each training level reflect the target age group of the cadets in that training level .
The delivery of the various performance objectives ( POs ) will be through a mixture of mandatory and complementary enabling objectives ( EOs ) . The mandatory EOs will be the same for all air cadet squadrons . Individual squadrons may chose from a number of complementary EOs to support the mandatory training . The selection of complementary training activities at a local squadron is based on the local resources and the interests of the cadets involved .
The program will be phased in one year at a time with the new proficiency level 5 being introduced for the 2012 / 2013 training year . Cadets already undergoing training in the current system will complete their training under the outgoing system .
= = = Squadron training levels = = =
Air Cadets are challenged to qualify to five training levels . Each level is normally completed in the ten @-@ month training period from September to June . With the approval of the commanding officer , cadets 14 years of age and older may complete levels 1 and 2 in a single training year . Success in meeting the required standard is rewarded with the appropriate level qualification badge . In Level Four cadets learn to instruct so that when they reach Level Five , they are ready to teach other cadets . The chart below displays the training level structure of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets .
= = Summer training = =
Courses offered at Air Cadet summer camps include training in leadership , flying , fitness and sports , survival , military band , pipe band , aerospace , aviation technology , and marksmanship . The courses offered include familiarization , basic , advanced , and national summer training courses .
Familiarization courses
The only familiarization course is the two @-@ week @-@ long General Training course . It provides cadets with an introduction to camp life and outlines the various fields of interest in the Air Cadet Program .
Basic courses
The basic courses deliver training directed more specifically towards certain specialities . All of these courses are three weeks long , and are available to cadets who are level two or above . The Basic Drill & Ceremonial course prepares cadets to fill the role of a peer leader while building on their knowledge and skills in leadership , drill and ceremonial . The Basic Survival course introduces cadets to elementary survival skills and encourages them to pursue specialist training in this area of interest . Basic Aviation introduces cadets to the fundamentals of aviation and provides incentive to pursue specialist training in this area . Basic Fitness and Sports course prepares cadets to serve as an assistant sports instructor while developing personal habits to maintain a good fitness and healthy living . The Basic Aviation Technology and Aerospace course introduces cadets to the fundamentals of the aerospace industry , of airfield operations and the construction and maintenance of aircraft . The Basic Musician course develops cadets ' competence in music and prepare them to support their local military or pipe band .
Advanced courses
The advanced courses provides cadets with the knowledge required to become instructors of their speciality . Advanced Aviation Course increases cadets ' knowledge and skills of the field of aviation and provides incentive to pursue specialist training in this area . Drill And Ceremonial Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to be an instructor and team leader for drill and ceremonial activities . Survival Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to be an instructor and team leader for aircrew survival activities within the Air Cadet Program . Fitness Sports Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to perform the role of a fitness and sports instructor and team leader for fitness and sports activities conducted at the squadron , during regionally directed activities and / or as a Staff Cadet at a CSTC . Air Rifle Marksmanship Instructor Course provides cadets with the opportunity to develop coaching and marksmanship skills necessary to support the squadron marksmanship program and biathlon programs . It also introduces cadets to advanced marksmanship skills . Intermediate and advanced musician courses increases cadets ' musical skills and advances them to the next level of musical qualification , with some instructional techniques relating to music .
National courses
There are seven national courses in the air cadet summer training program . Oshkosh Trip is a two @-@ week trip to Oshkosh , Wisconsin , home to EAA AirVenture Oshkosh . The International Air Cadet Exchange is a three @-@ week exchange that allow cadets to visit air bases , centres of industry , world landmarks , universities , cultural centres and museums , and experience private hospitality with families in their own homes . It is intended for outstanding senior cadets who will represent Canada with distinction . Other national courses include Advanced Aerospace , Advanced Aviation Technology Courses – Airport Operations and Advanced Aviation Technology Courses – Aircraft Maintenance .
Aviation national courses
Glider Pilot Scholarship Program
The Glider Pilot Scholarship ( GPS ) program is a six @-@ week course with an intensive programme of ground school and in @-@ flight glider pilot training . Cadets who successfully complete their flight test and Transport Canada written exam will qualify for a glider pilot licence and be awarded Air Cadet Glider Pilot Wings.The program is also responsible for producing the largest number of glider pilots within Canada . On average , the program produces 320 glider pilots annually . Upon attaining their licences , these pilots join their local headquarters to provide other cadets with glider familiarization flying during the spring and fall seasons .
Private Pilot Scholarship Program
The Power Pilot Scholarship ( PPS ) program is a seven @-@ week course that allows cadets to get their private pilot licence and their Air Cadet Power Pilot Wings . A goal for many cadets within the program is to secure a private pilot licence prior to the age of 19 . Cadets who are aged 17 – 18 apply and are selected to write an exam and interview for the prestigious scholarship . The course provides cadets with both ground school training and in @-@ flight instruction at the various flight centres across Canada . Cadets who have been successful within the program have integrated themselves with commercial airlines , the Canadian Forces , various courier and charter companies , and have also gone on to become instructors at various flight schools . Overall , this opportunity to attain a private pilots ’ licence remains as one of the most prestigious and attractive opportunities available within the Air Cadet program .
After successfully completing a summer course , cadets are presented with a qualification badge to display on their uniform . The badges may be seen on the Cadets.ca website .
= = = Cadet Training Centres ( CTCs ) = = =
The cadet training centres ( CTC ) of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets are distributed across Canada , often co @-@ located with a Canadian Forces base . Here are the following CTCs used for air cadets :
= = = Summer training courses ( 2012 ) = = =
As of the transition to the new program in the 2012 / 2013 training year , the summer training courses varies from year to year .
* A prerequisite for the Power Pilot Scholarship is that cadets must be 17 years old before 1 September of the year of the course . * * A prerequisite for the Glider Pilot Scholarship is that cadets must be 16 years old before 1 September of the year of the course . * * * The Oshkosh trip has been suspended until further notice .
* * * * A prerequisite for being a part of the International Air Cadet Exchange is that cadets must be 17 years old before 1 August of the year of the course . * * * * * A prerequisite for being a Staff Cadet is that cadets must be 16 years old before 1 January of the year of the course . * * * * * * BLC Basic Leadership has been changed to BDCC Basic Drill and Ceremonial Course , LCIC Leadership Ceremonial Instructor Course has been changed to , DCIC Drill and Ceremonial Instructor Course .
= = Flying = =
Throughout the spring and fall approximately 22 @,@ 000 air cadets participate in familiarization gliding at regional gliding centres located across the country . Each summer , 320 cadets earn a Transport Canada Glider Pilot Licence through the Air Cadet Gliding Scholarship and 250 more earn a Private Pilot licence . The Air Cadet Gliding Program conducts approximately 60 @,@ 000 glider flights annually in Schweizer SGS 2 @-@ 33 gliders . The aircraft fleet used in the gliding program is owned by the Air Cadet League of Canada . The fleet , consisting of more than 100 gliders and tow planes is maintained by the Canadian Forces under a memorandum of understanding . Canadian Forces pilots and Civilian Instructors operate the fleet to train cadets . The aircraft that are used during the Power Pilot Scholarship are various , and they depend on the flight school the cadet is posted at during their course . The Power Pilot Scholarship is operated by private flight schools , and the instructors are not affiliated with the cadet program . The aircraft can be a Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , or DA20 Katana .
Aircraft
= = Uniform = =
Uniforms are provided at no charge . Cadets are responsible for care , cleaning and custody of the issued kit and also to return it when ceasing to be a cadet . The uniform includes : wedge , wide @-@ brimmed tan summer hat , toque , rank slip @-@ ons , short @-@ sleeved shirt , necktie , T @-@ shirt , turtleneck sweater , jacket ( tunic ) , jacket belt , trousers , trousers belt , all @-@ season jacket , boots , grey wool socks , running shoes , grey sports shorts , and blue sports T @-@ shirt .
Cadets in uniform shall be well groomed with footwear cleaned and shone . Their uniform shall be clean and properly pressed at all times . In particular , buttons , fasteners and zippers shall be kept closed . Hair must be of natural colour .
For male cadets , hair should not touch the ears or have excessive length or bulk on the head . At the top of the back of the neck , hair will either be evenly tapered or be clean cut . Moustaches are authorized but must conform to dress regulations . Beards are not authorized except for religious or medical reasons and , when authorized , must conform to dress standards . Otherwise , male cadets must be clean shaven .
For females , short hair must be neat and may not extend past the bottom of the collar , while long hair must be pulled back into a tight bun , and may be contained by a hairnet . Very long hair may be braided or worn as a bun . Hair elastics , bobby pins and hairnets should be the same colour as the cadet 's hair . When braided the cadets hair may be worn in either double or single French braids and in both cases the braids must fall behind the shoulders and not extend past the bottom of the armpit .
Different numbered orders of dress are worn on different occasions . Here are the numbered orders of dress :
C @-@ 1 ( Ceremonial ) : Worn during formal ceremonies or parades ; when parading as part of a guard of Honour ; for church services and parades ; for funerals ; or , other occasions as ordered . Medals are worn with this order of dress .
C @-@ 2 , C @-@ 3 , and C @-@ 4 ( Routine Training ) : C @-@ 2 dress is worn for day to day training ; routine parades ; or other occasions as ordered . It must be worn while travelling to and from a CTC . The dress is the same as C @-@ 1 , except that the medal ribbons replaces the medals . C @-@ 3 and C @-@ 4 is the same as C @-@ 2 , except that the turtleneck and blue T @-@ shirt replaces the shirt and tie respectively ; C @-@ 3 may be worn in cold weather .
C @-@ 5 ( Summer Training ) : Worn during summer training at a CTC . No medals , medal ribbons , pilot wings , or pins are worn with this order of dress .
C @-@ 6 ( Sports ) : Worn as directed by the squadron or CTC CO . CTC staff cadets wearing this order of dress while on duty shall wear their rank brassard .
C @-@ 7 ( CTC Staff Cadet ) : Worn by CTC staff cadets . Rank slip @-@ ons and name tag shall be worn . The wear of medal ribbons and the Certificate of Commendation Pin is authorized on the dress . Metal wings may be worn .
C @-@ 8 ( Mess dress ) Worn during mess or formal dinners , and other occasions as ordered . Same as C @-@ 2 , except that the white collar dress shirt with black bow tie replaces the shirt and tie .
= = Ranks
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, English Captain John Leake raided a number of French settlements in Newfoundland , but avoided Plaisance due to the presence of French warships in the harbour . In 1703 , Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase arrived in Plaisance as the new governor and took command of a 150 @-@ man garrison and facilities that were in poor condition . After raiding Ferryland , he learned of a planned English attack on Plaisance , and prepared for the assault . It never came , as Admiral John Graydon , in what was widely seen in England as a cowardly move , called off the attack despite of having significant advantages . Graydon was subsequently court martialed and dismissed from the service over his conduct in the entire campaign , which also included the failed Siege of Guadeloupe .
= = = French preparations = = =
In late 1704 , Subercase began planning an attack against the English settlements . In addition to his garrison , he recruited Canadiens and Abenakis from the mainland and as many settlers as possible to participate in the effort . In all , his force numbered about 450 when it set out across the peninsula on 8 January 1705 . His corps included a company of over 100 men led by Josué Dubois Berthelot de Beaucours that included Jacques Testard de Montigny and the Abenaki war leader Escumbuit , both of whom had participated in Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville 's 1696 raid against English settlements . While most of the company went overland , a brigantine was sent around the peninsula with some heavy guns .
= = = English defences = = =
St. John 's was under the command of Lieutenant John Moody , with Lieutenant Robert Latham , a military engineer and mason , as his second in command . The principal defences of St. John 's were Fort William , a stone fortification on the north side of the harbour built after the French expedition of 1696 , and the South Castle , a stone fort on the south side of The Narrows which commanded the harbour entrance . Moody had put Latham in command of South Castle , while he commanded at Fort William . The combined defense force numbered between 50 and 60 men , with about a dozen under Latham 's command .
= = Siege = =
The progress of the French was quite slow , due to the extreme winter cold and snow . They first captured Bay Bulls and Ferryland ( small coastal communities south of St. John 's ) without opposition , and then moved on to St. John 's , where they arrived near the town on 31 January . Subercase had wanted to surprise the English , but the opportunity was lost when his advance guard approached within sight of the English defences ( the remaining force having been delayed by poor conditions ) , and was driven off by cannon fire . Most of the community then fled to the protection of Fort William , and Subercase had to content himself with occupying the town while waiting for the brigantine to arrive . While he did take prisoners , he released the women and children to the fort in order to increase the burden on the English supplies . The women ended performing valuable assistance in helping with the fort 's defence .
After about two weeks ' siege , Subercase attempted to use the divisions between Moody and Latham to diminish English morale and possibly achieve a negotiated surrender or gain control of Latham 's post . He sent letters to both men , one from himself to Moody , and a second from one of the prisoners , addressed to Latham . The letter to Latham implied that a deal was in the works with Moody , and Subercase 's agents tried to convince Latham to leave his works to meet with Moody . Latham refused , and Subercase 's effort was ineffective .
After 33 days of waiting , in which the brigantine with the heavy guns never appeared , Subercase , running low on munitions and provisions , lifted the siege . He destroyed the town 's houses and fishing stages , and returned to Plaisance , taking with him 200 civilian captives . Subercase detached Montigny and 70 men , who continued to raid English settlements through the rest of the winter .
= = Aftermath = =
The French expedition took 1 @,@ 200 prisoners in all , most of which were released due to a lack of provisions , and destroyed forty cannon , 2 @,@ 000 fishing shallops , and 200 wagons , but failed to eliminate the stronghold . John Moody returned to England in late 1705 , and was rewarded with a lieutenant 's commission in the Coldstream Guards . He feuded with Latham , charging him with irregularities in his administration of the fortification works and poor command of South Castle , and his complaints led to Latham 's recall .
Subercase continued to develop the French colony in 1705 , which flourished despite the war . He was rewarded for his efforts with the Order of Saint Louis and the governorship of Acadia . There he presided over Port Royal 's defences , successfully fending off British sieges in 1707 , but was then forced to capitulate to overwhelming force in 1710 .
Subercase 's replacement at Plaisance , Philippe Pastour de Costebelle , negotiated an exchange of prisoners from the siege , and successfully captured St. John 's in January 1709 . France gave up claims of sovereignty over Newfoundland in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and , under Costebelle 's supervision , moved the French settlers from Newfoundland to Louisbourg .
The site of Fort William is a National Historic Site of Canada ( marked by a plaque ) , and the South Castle location is part of the Signal Hill National Historic Site .
= Joseph Schwantner : New Morning for the World ; Nicolas Flagello : The Passion of Martin Luther King =
Joseph Schwantner : New Morning for the World ; Nicolas Flagello : The Passion of Martin Luther King is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of James DePreist , released by Koch International Classics in 1995 . Recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon , in September 1994 , the album is a tribute to Martin Luther King , Jr. and was released in his honor on the following holiday in his name .
The album features two works by American composers , each with text from speeches by King : Joseph Schwantner 's New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) and Nicolas Flagello 's cantata The Passion of Martin Luther King . Both works include performances by Raymond Bazemore , who serves as narrator on the former and provides bass vocals on the latter . On the album 's release date , more than 30 United States radio stations broadcast the album version of Schwantner 's composition to commemorate the civil rights leader . Proceeds from the album 's sale benefited the King Center for Nonviolent Social Change . Produced by Michael Fine and engineered by Fred Vogler , the recording reached a peak position of number three on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart and remains the Oregon Symphony 's best @-@ selling album as of 2013 .
= = Composition = =
The album , 58 minutes and 54 seconds in length , contains two compositions : Joseph Schwantner 's New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) and Nicolas Flagello 's cantata The Passion of Martin Luther King . Both compositions contain text from speeches by King delivered during the civil rights movement . The first track , 23 minutes and 27 seconds in length , features Schwantner 's work . The Passion of Martin Luther King , 35 minutes and 17 seconds in length , is separated into nine tracks . The album was produced by Michael Fine and engineered by Fred Vogler . Coretta Scott King wrote the introduction for the album 's liner notes .
New Morning for the World , composed in 1982 on commission from AT & T , premiered on January 15 , 1983 ( King 's birthday ) at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ; David Effron conducted the Eastman Philharmonia , and Willie Stargell , then first baseman and team captain of the Pittsburgh Pirates , served as narrator . Schwantner selected words from public speeches by King that spanned more than a decade of his life . In the album 's liner notes , program annotator and classical music radio host Jim Svejda described the work as having " equal parts " for the orchestra and the speaker , with King 's words " supported and illuminated by an orchestra fabric of unusual variety and flexibility " . Music critics compared Schwantner 's composition to Aaron Copland 's Lincoln Portrait because of its prominent narrative passages and its " broad and lyrical scoring that sounds unmistakably American " . In describing the work , Melinda Bargreen of The Seattle Times wrote that percussion and " soaring " strings helped to emphasize King 's orations . New Morning for the World contains text from the following speeches and writings by King : " Stride Toward Freedom " ( 1958 ) , " Behind the Selma March " ( 1965 ) , and " Letter from Birmingham Jail " ( 1963 ) ; the composition ends with King 's " I Have a Dream " speech .
The Passion of Martin Luther King was composed in 1968 following King 's assassination . The Passion was first recorded in London in 1969 , with Ezio Flagello , the composer 's brother , as the bass baritone soloist . This performance was eventually released by Naxos American Classics in 2012 . DePreist conducted the National Symphony Orchestra 's first performance of the work at the Kennedy Center on February 19 , 1974 . Music critics drew comparisons to Johann Sebastian Bach 's Passions , which recounts Jesus ' death . The Oregon Symphony album was the first published recording of the work . Bazemore provided bass vocals , with additional vocals by the Portland Symphonic Choir , directed by Bruce Browne . The nine sections of the work are performed with a brief pause in between .
= = Reception = =
On the album 's release date , more than 30 United States radio stations broadcast the album 's version of New Morning for the World to commemorate King . Martin Luther King III and Schwanter celebrated the album 's release at Phipps Plaza in Atlanta . Proceeds from sales benefited the King Center for Nonviolent Social Change .
The album received positive commercial and critical reception . It reached a peak position of number three on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart and remains the Oregon Symphony 's best @-@ selling album as of 2013 . In his review for Deseret News , music critic William S. Goodfellow wrote that each work contained " sophistication and substance " . Goodfellow said of Schwanter 's composition : " The more exotic scoring ... as well as Schwantner 's minimalistic treatment of the music 's more militant episodes , gives it a drive and dramatic punch of its own . " The album features Raymond Bazemore as narrator ; Goodfellow described Bazemore 's " occasionally sing @-@ song narration " in New Morning for the World as " Lincolnesque " . He wrote that Flagello 's work contained " writing of remarkable clarity and Italianate warmth " , but thought Bazemore 's voice sounded hoarse towards the end and preferred the solo sections in New Morning for the World . The Seattle Times 's Melinda Bargreen called the album " strong and emotionally convincing " , and praised " excellent performances with strong soloists " . She wrote that both works were composed in " styles that are distinctively modern , but tonal and accessible " . Bargreen described Bazemore 's voice as " deeply affecting " and complimented DePreist for conducting " with an obvious passion for the music , drawing remarkably detailed and virtuosic performances from his orchestra . " Tim Smith of the Sun @-@ Sentinel said both works were " well worth hearing " and encouraged orchestras to explore the pieces , along with works by other African @-@ American composers , to provide the public with broader programming . Smith described New Morning for the World as " remarkably lyrical " and " quite dramatic " ; he found Bazemore 's sing @-@ song narration to be " too affected " but found the conclusion " touching " and complimented the orchestra for its overall " sturdy , communicative " performance . Smith called Flagello 's score " unabashedly romantic " and described as effective the work of Bazemore , DePreist and the orchestra .
= = Track listing = =
" New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) " ( Joseph Schwantner ) – 23 : 27
The Passion of Martin Luther King ( Nicolas Flagello )
" Hosanna filio David " – 3 : 27
" At the Center of Nonviolence " – 4 : 04
" Cor Jesu " – 3 : 53
" In the Struggle " – 5 : 25
" Et flagellis subditum " – 3 : 08
" Death is inevitable " – 3 : 48
" Stabat Mater " – 5 : 22
" We 've Got Some Difficult Days Ahead " – 2 : 13
" Finale " – 3 : 48
Track listing adapted from Allmusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence .
= Flixton , Greater Manchester =
Flixton is a village and electoral ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . The population of the ward at the 2011 census was 10 @,@ 786 . It lies about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the southwest of Manchester city centre , within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire .
Neolithic and Bronze Age artefacts have been found locally and the area may have been inhabited in those periods . Medieval Flixton was a parish within the Hundred of Salford and encompassed the manor of Flixton , along with its church , first mentioned in the 12th century . The parish comprised isolated farmsteads and a manor house . Toward the end of the 17th century its population began to rise , continuing through the 19th century , although at a much slower pace than its neighbours . Flixton was a remote rural area with few transport links and did not witness the level of industrialisation other parts of Manchester saw , but its connection to the railway network in 1873 helped transform the area into a middle @-@ class suburb .
Flixton is represented in Parliament by Labour MP Kate Green .
= = Etymology = =
Flixton has been recorded as fflixton , Fluxton , Flyxton , Flyxeton , Fleece @-@ town , Flixston and Flixtone . It is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey , and first appears in historical records in 1176 or 1177 . The name may be Scandinavian in origin , the Anglo @-@ Saxon ton meaning a farmstead , although along with nearby Urmston , it may be an anglicised personal name from the 10th or 11th centuries and not a primary settlement name from earlier times .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The area may have been inhabited during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages . Stone axes have been found on the banks of the River Mersey in Flixton , as well as on the banks of the River Irwell in Old Trafford . Further afield , two Neolithic arrowheads have been found in Altrincham and Dunham Massey , and a Bronze Age arrowhead in Warburton .
Medieval Flixton was one of several parishes which existed in the Hundred of Salford . The parish encompassed the manors of Urmston and Flixton ; the latter is first mentioned between 1189 and 1181 and was granted by the Mascy family of Dunham . The manor of Flixton 's boundaries are unclear , although they were perhaps formed by a mixture of natural and man @-@ made features including Carr Ditch , which divided Flixton and Urmston . St Michael 's Church is also first recorded at about the same time , although the building may date from an earlier period . In keeping with a pattern found in northern and eastern Cheshire and south @-@ eastern Lancashire , the parish comprised isolated farmsteads and a medieval manor house , rather than a village centre . Notable place names in medieval Flixton include Shaw Hall , located near the present @-@ day Roebuck Hotel , east of the modern Flixton village . The location of Berne is unknown , while Booths was possibly somewhere near Hulme Bridge Farm , close to the Irwell . An area named Wood may have existed in the north @-@ western part of Flixton , near a Woods @-@ end Farm noted in an 1818 survey . A Shaw Hall , whose name first appears in 1508 and was derived from a small wood , was described by historian Michael Nevell as " the most significant medieval estate within the township " . Reputed to be a Jacobean era mansion , it was referred to as a manor in 1594 , although whether this was also the case during the medieval period is unknown . It was the home of the Valentines , the Asshawes and the Egertons , and during the English Civil War was defended against a potential attack by Royalist forces . The Egertons remained at Shaw Hall until 1757 ; thereafter it was occupied by various families , until it was demolished in the 20th century .
An early mention of Flixton appears in the Testa de Nevil , which includes the entry : " Albert Gredle , sen . , gave to Henry , son of Siward , one carucate of land in Flixton by 10s. yearly . The heirs hold that land . " The manor of Flixton was , for a time , controlled by the Grelleys , Barons of Manchester . Robert of Lathom , who inherited the manor , granted the parish of Flixton to the newly created Burscough Priory , located near Ormskirk , in 1190 . The Grelleys may not have been Flixton manor 's only masters , as in 1250 – 1251 part of the area came into the possession of David de Hulton . The Hultons united what in the 12th century was a fragmented manor . In 1330 they sub @-@ let one half of it to the Valentine family and the other to two branches of the Radcliffe family . The Valentines are included in the Exchequer Lay Subsidy Rolls of 1332 , which show five tax payers in Flixton : Richard le Valentine , Henry de l 'Wode , William de l 'Berne , Richard son of Robert and John de Booth . The name Valentine also appears in Flixton 's parish registers , which begin in 1570 . Written on vellum and mostly in Latin , the first records 11 baptisms , 2 marriages and 7 burials . Christian names include Hamlet , Randle and Ralph . The registers show that surnames such as Gilbody , Valentine , Millatt and Low remained prevalent in the area well into the 19th century .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Flixton 's population remained fairly stable until the end of the 17th century , when , along with other nearby parishes , it began to rise steadily . It was by that time a small hamlet , with several buildings around the parish church and its parsonage . The 1664 hearth tax returns show that Flixton had 70 heads of household , who were likely engaged mainly in agricultural activities . Evidence exists to suggest that some areas in the parish were used for textile production , with " yarn croft " in Flixton , Stretford and Warburton indicating the production of flax . Almost 20 per cent of wills and other documents gathered from nearby areas contain references to textiles , hemp and flax .
During the Industrial Revolution many of the townships in the region experienced fairly rapid population growth , although Flixton remained an exception , its population growing by only 22 per cent between 1801 and 1851 . This was in stark contrast to Altrincham ( 165 % ) , Bowdon ( 242 % ) and Stretford ( 238 % ) , and is attributed to the emigration of villagers to more industrialised areas like Manchester , and the agricultural depression of the 1830s and 1840s . The domestic production of textiles , popular during the 17th and early 18th centuries in Flixton and other nearby townships , and the newer factory @-@ based system which replaced it , had disappeared in Altrincham by the middle of the 19th century . Weaving continued in Flixton , although within ten years of the construction of Flixton Cotton Mills in 1851 , domestic textile production had ended . In nearby Urmston , 28 per cent of the township 's population was in 1851 engaged in textile work , but the area did not experience the level of industrialisation seen in towns like Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , east of Manchester , where 16 mills were built between 1815 and 1829 , doubling the population . The reasons for this reliance on land rather than industry are unclear .
Flixton was a remote rural area with few transport links to nearby towns , the rivers Irwell and Mersey for the most part cutting off access to other areas . To the southwest , Carrington Old Bridge , removed in about 1840 , was an old wooden structure too narrow to accommodate carts , which were forced to use a nearby ford . Another ford existed near Flixton Church and yet another near Shaw Hall . An omnibus service carried passengers to and from Stretford , where the nearest railway station was located , but it was the town 's connection on 2 September 1873 to the UK 's railway network , through the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway ( later the Cheshire Lines Committee ) line from Manchester to Liverpool , which helped transform the area . A new bridge across the Mersey was built around 1906 – 1907 , replacing the earlier structure nearer to Carrington . Flixton gradually became a middle @-@ class railway suburb of Manchester .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
In 1841 Davyhulme , Flixton and Urmston became part of the Chorlton Poor Law Union , until 1849 when , with Stretford , it was transferred to Barton upon Irwell Poor Law Union . An 1894 Act of Parliament created urban and rural district councils , and along with Carrington , Davyhulme , Dunham Massey , Hale , Partington , Timperley and Warburton , Flixton became part of Barton upon Irwell Rural District ( Urmston gained an urban district council ) . Land was exchanged between Flixton and Irlam Urban District and Barton Moss civil parish . A further exchange of land occurred in 1920 , with Carrington civil parish . In 1933 the civil parish became a part of Urmston Urban District .
= = = Political representation = = =
From 1918 to 1950 Flixton was a part of the Stretford Division of Lancashire and from 1950 to 1983 a part of the borough constituency of Stretford . From 1983 to 1997 it was included in the new constituency of Davyhulme and represented by the Conservative Party MP Winston Spencer @-@ Churchill , grandson of Winston Churchill . The Davyhulme constituency was replaced in 1997 by Stretford and Urmston , whose first MP was Labour 's Beverley Hughes . She won the 1997 General Election with 58 @.@ 5 per cent of the vote , against the Conservatives ' John Gregory with 30 @.@ 5 per cent . She was replaced in 2010 by Kate Green , who won 48 @.@ 6 per cent of the vote , compared to the Conservatives ' Alex Williams with 28 @.@ 7 per cent . The Liberal Democrats gained 16 @.@ 9 per cent of the vote .
Flixton elects three councillors to Trafford Council ; as of the 2012 local election , all three seats are held by Jonathan Coupe , Paul Lally and Vivienne Ward , for the Conservative Party .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 44 ′ 27 ″ N 2 ° 38 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 4427 ° , -2.3844 ° ) and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Flixton is located between Urmston and Irlam , which lie to the east and west . For the purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Flixton forms a south westerly part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , with Manchester city centre 6 @.@ 4 miles ( 10 @.@ 3 km ) to the north @-@ eastnorth .
Flixton ward 's southern boundary is formed by the River Mersey , opposite the neighbouring ward of Bucklow St Martins . With the creation of the Manchester Ship Canal , which roughly followed the former path of the River Irwell , the township 's western boundary with Irlam was adopted in 1896 . Today , the ward 's western boundary lies further east , running south through farmland near Woodsend Circle . Flixton 's north and eastern boundaries are formed by Moorside Road and the area slightly east of Chassen Road railway station . Most of the town 's population lives to the north , the south being mainly open land .
= = Demography = =
As of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Flixton ward 's population was 9 @,@ 473 , 9 @,@ 164 of whom were white , the remainder being either of mixed race , Asian , Black or Chinese . 3 @,@ 789 people are listed as single and 3 @,@ 543 as married for the first time ; the remainder were either remarried , separated , divorced or widowed . 7 @,@ 771 people considered themselves Christian , 952 stated they had no religion and 606 did not state their religion . 86 people are listed as Muslims , 22 as Hindus , 10 as Buddhist and 8 as Jewish .
Of Flixton 's 4 @,@ 530 households 83 @.@ 1 per cent are listed as owner occupied . Most houses in the area are semi @-@ detached ; the rest are detached , terraced or flats . Average household income for 2010 was £ 39 @,@ 231 . According to the 2001 census , of the 6 @,@ 812 people aged 16 – 74 , 46 @.@ 1 per cent were employed on a full @-@ time basis , 11 @.@ 2 per cent part @-@ time , and 7 @.@ 3 per cent self @-@ employed . 1 @.@ 8 per cent were unemployed and seeking work , while 16 @.@ 5 per cent were retired .
= = Culture = =
Flixton Band , formed in 1877 , played at the official opening of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 , attended by Queen Victoria . It was disbanded in 1933 but reformed in 1967 , since when it has performed on television and radio .
Local artist Frances Lennon , born in nearby Stretford , moved with her husband to Flixton in the late 1970s . Following his death she became a full @-@ time painter , releasing several books including A Trafford Childhood ( 1986 ) and A Manchester Childhood ( 2001 ) . Dubbed " the people 's artist " , she was the official artist for the 2002 Commonwealth Games and produced a special book of paintings relating to games and sports .
= = = Religion = = =
Flixton is in the Church of England Diocese of Manchester and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford . Historically church life has centred around the Grade II * listed 12th @-@ century St Michaels Church , built on raised land close to the centre of Flixton village . For about 500 years the church was attached to Lichfield Cathedral . Another Church of England place of worship , St John 's Church , can be found on Irlam Road . Flixton 's Catholic Community worships at St Monica 's Church on Woodsend Road South . The parish was founded in 1950 and the church built from 1968 to 1969 .
= = Landmarks = =
Flixton House , a late 18th @-@ century Grade II listed building set in Flixton Park and Gardens , was the focus of one of the first footpath battles in England after its owner , Ralph Wright , in 1824 closed several footpaths crossing his estate . Local residents accepted the closures , but Wright also attempted to change the route of footpaths not on his land , ploughing the entrance to one and sowing it with oats . A local farmer , Samuel Wood , objected to Wright 's tactics and removed each obstruction , restoring the footpath . Wright successfully gained an order supporting his changes at his third attempt , but by then the case had attracted considerable interest and in 1826 the Manchester Society for the Preservation of Ancient Footpaths was formed . After several years of expensive legal wrangling , Wright 's order was quashed and in June 1827 the footpaths affected were reopened . Wright obtained further orders and again closed the footpaths , before the matter was finally resolved at the Quarter Session on 29 October that year , to Wright 's cost . His loss proved to be an important event in the movement for footpath preservation in England .
Abbotsfield Park was the venue for a 1963 Beatles concert , booked before they became famous . The Urmston and District Model Engineering Society operates a miniature railway around the park and ran a yearly May Day Steam rally in conjunction with the Lancashire Traction Engine Club until 2010 . Stocks , once located in Flixton village and seldom used , were removed in 1823 . A tree planted in 1887 to celebrate Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee , and known locally as ' The Jubilee Tree ' , now stands in the same area .
To the southwest lies Green Hill , from which the disused Flixton Sewage Works may be viewed . Formed from pulverised fuel ash , the soil provides ideal conditions for flora like gorse and is a habitat for moles . The former sewage works is an important undisturbed wintering site for wildfowl , such as marsh harriers and linnets . Nearby , Duttons Pond is a privately run but publicly accessible location for anglers . West of Dutton 's Pond is Jack Lane nature reserve , a small marshland habitat for wetland birds , surrounded by farmland .
= = Transport = =
Public transport in Flixton is coordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Bus services in Flixton run to destinations such as Davyhulme , Urmston , Stretford , Partington , Hulme and Manchester . The two local railway stations , Flixton and Chassen Road , are managed by Northern Rail .
= = Education = =
Flixton has several primary and secondary schools . Its first was founded by Peter Egerton , in 1643 , and built close to the parish church . The building was later replaced by the Dog and Partridge Inn , but another school was opened near the present @-@ day Roebuck pub in 1662 , of thatched wood and plaster . Shawtown school , which was slightly closer to Urmston than the building it replaced , was still extant in 1826 , but was later used as cottages . A school built in 1861 opposite the parish church and expanded in 1893 has since been demolished .
Flixton Girls ' School is a non @-@ selective sports specialist academy school , for girls aged 11 – 16 . Its 2011 Ofsted report describes it as a good school , with " a number of outstanding features including the way in which the school promotes community cohesion " . Another local school , Wellacre Academy , was described by Ofsted as " an outstanding and happy school which knows itself very well " .
= = Sport = =
Flixton was witness to bull and bear baiting , performed in several places throughout the village . One of these was in Shawtown , on " Schoo ' Green " , and another was at " Th ' Grane " , at the top of Woodsend Road , opposite where the Red Lion pub once stood . The practice was ended in 1816 . Badger baiting was also practised , at certain inns . Anecdotal evidence exists to suggest that hunting , cockfighting and horse racing took place in Flixton , the latter in the fields around the parish church .
Formed in 1990 , Trafford Football Club plays in the Northern Premier League . Local golf courses include the municipally owned William Wroe Golf Course and the privately owned Flixton Golf Club . The William Wroe course , named after Councillor William Wroe , was opened in 1973 as a fourteen @-@ hole course , six holes occupying land on the Flixton road side of the railway , and eight on the Church road side . The land it occupies was originally purchased by Urmston District Council in 1935 , but from 1947 to 1970 , aware that it was gradually becoming occupied , Wroe campaigned for the establishment of a municipal golf course . It was expanded to fifteen holes , then eventually to eighteen holes in 1984 , after the nearby Acre Gate Farm became vacant .
= Skull Tower =
The Skull Tower ( Serbian : Ćele kula , Ћеле Кула , pronounced [ tɕel ̩ e kula ] ) is a tower composed largely of human skulls located in the city of Niš , Serbia . During the 1809 Battle of Čegar , fought during the First Serbian Uprising ( part of the Serbian Revolution , 1804 – 1817 ) , Serbian revolutionaries under Stevan Sinđelić were attacked by Turkish forces on Čegar Hill , near Niš . Rather than be captured by the Turks and impaled , Sinđelić fired his pistol into a powder magazine , killing himself and all Serbian rebels and Turkish soldiers in the vicinity . Afterward , Hurshid Pasha , the Turkish vizier of Niš , ordered that a tower be made from the skulls of the killed Serbian revolutionaries . The tower is 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high , and originally contained 952 skulls embedded on four sides in fourteen rows .
Following the Turkish withdrawal from Niš in 1878 , the tower was roofed over , and in 1892 a chapel was built around it . In 1937 , the chapel was renovated . A bust of Sinđelić was added the following year . In 1948 , Skull Tower and the chapel enclosing it were declared Cultural Monuments of Exceptional Importance and came under the protection of the Socialist Republic of Serbia . Further renovation of the chapel occurred again in 1989 . As of 2013 , 54 skulls remain on the tower ; the one that is said to belong to Sinđelić is enclosed in a glass container . Seen as a symbol of independence by Serbs , the tower is mentioned in the writings of French Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine and English travel writer Alexander William Kinglake . In the two centuries following its construction it has become a popular tourist attraction , visited by between 30 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 people annually .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
During the time of the Ottoman Empire , Turkish forces were known to create tower structures from the skulls of their enemies in order to create terror amongst their opponents . The First Serbian Uprising ( part of the Serbian Revolution , 1804 – 1817 ) against Ottoman rule erupted in 1804 , with Karađorđe Petrović as its leader . On 19 May 1809 , 3 @,@ 000 Serbian revolutionaries led by commander ( Serbian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) Stevan Sinđelić were attacked by a large Turkish force on Čegar Hill , located close to the city of Niš . Owing to a lack of coordination between Serb commanders , the revolutionaries failed to receive any support from other Serbian rebel detachments . The numerically superior Turks lost thousands of troops in numerous attacks against the Serbs , but eventually overwhelmed the Serbian lines . Knowing that he and his men risked impalement if captured , Sinđelić took his flintlock and fired at his entrenchment 's gun powder magazine . The resulting explosion killed him , and all the surviving Serb revolutionaries and Turkish soldiers in the vicinity .
= = = Construction = = =
After the battle , the Turkish vizier of Niš , Hurshid Pasha , ordered that the heads of Sinđelić and his men be skinned , stuffed and sent to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II . The skulls were then returned to Niš , where the Turks built Skull Tower as a warning to future generations intending to revolt against the Ottoman Empire . The tower stands 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high , and originally consisted of 952 skulls embedded on four sides in fourteen rows . In the ensuing years , many skulls fell out from the tower walls , some were taken away for burial by relatives thinking they could identify the skulls of their deceased family members , and some were taken by souvenir hunters . Once the Ottomans withdrew from Niš in 1878 , the tower was roofed over to protect it from the elements . In 1892 , a chapel designed by the architect Dimitrije Leko was built over the tower with donations from across Serbia . A plaque dedicated near the chapel in 1904 reads : " To the first Serbian liberators after Kosovo . " The chapel was renovated in 1937 , and a bust of Sinđelić was added the following year . In 1948 , Skull Tower and the chapel enclosing it were declared Cultural Monuments of Exceptional Importance and came under the protection of the Socialist Republic of Serbia . Further renovation of the chapel occurred again in 1989 . As of 2014 , 54 skulls remain on the tower , and the one that is said to belong to Sinđelić rests in a glass container .
= = = Significance and portrayal in Balkan culture = = =
In the centuries following its construction , the tower has become a symbol of Serbian independence and a pilgrimage site for Serbs . It is considered one of the most visited places in Serbia , with 30 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 tourists visiting it annually . In the early 1830s , French Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine wrote of the tower upon visiting Niš , which was at the time still part of the Ottoman Empire , saying :
I saw a large tower rising in the midst of the plain , as white as Parian marble ... [ R ] aising my eyes to the monument , I discovered that the walls , which I supposed to be built of marble or white stone , were composed of regular rows of human skulls ; these skulls bleached by the rain and sun , and cemented by a little sand and lime , formed entirely the triumphal arch which now sheltered me from the heat of the sun . In some places portions of hair were still hanging and waved , like lichen or moss , with every breath of wind . The mountain breeze , which was then blowing fresh , penetrated the innumerable cavities of the skulls , and sounded like mournful and plaintive sighs . My eyes and my heart greeted the remains of those brave men whose cut @-@ off heads made the cornerstone of the independence of their homeland . May the Serbs keep this monument ! It will always teach their children the value of the independence of a people , showing them the real price their fathers had to pay for it .
In 1849 British traveler Alexander William Kinglake described Skull Tower as the building that captivated him most in all of Ottoman Serbia , saying he was impressed by the " simple grandeur of the architect 's conception " and that he was struck by the " exquisite beauty of the fretwork . " An exhibition at the Military Museum in Belgrade contains a replica of the tower . Prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia , tens of thousands of schoolchildren from across Yugoslavia visited the original in Niš .
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= = = Websites = = =
= Chalciporus piperatus =
Chalciporus piperatus , commonly known as the peppery bolete , is a small pored mushroom of the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America . It has been recorded under introduced trees in Brazil , and has become naturalised in Tasmania and spread under native Nothofagus cunninghamii trees . A small bolete , the fruit body has a 1 @.@ 6 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) orange @-@ fawn cap with cinnamon to brown pores underneath , and a 4 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) high by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick stipe . The rare variety hypochryseus , found only in Europe , has yellow pores and tubes .
Described by Pierre Bulliard in 1790 as Boletus piperatus , it is only distantly related to other members of the genus Boletus and was reclassified as Chalciporus piperatus by Frédéric Bataille in 1908 . The genus Chalciporus was an early branching lineage in the Boletaceae and appears to be related to boletes with parasitic properties . Previously thought to be ectomycorrhizal ( a symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungus and the roots of various plant species ) , C. piperatus is now suspected of being parasitic on Amanita muscaria . The flesh of C. piperatus has a very peppery taste , and can be used as a condiment or flavouring .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
French mycologist Pierre Bulliard described the species as Boletus piperatus in 1790 . In its taxonomic history , it has been transferred to the genera Leccinum ( Samuel Frederick Gray , 1821 ) , Viscipellis ( Lucien Quélet , 1886 ) , Ixocomus ( Quélet , 1888 ) , Suillus ( Otto Kuntze , 1898 ) , and Ceriomyces ( William Alphonso Murrill , 1909 ) . It was reclassified and given its current binomial name in 1908 by Frédéric Bataille when he made it the type species of the newly circumscribed genus Chalciporus . The species name piperatus means " peppery " in Latin . It is commonly known as the " peppery bolete " .
Chalciporus piperatus is a member of the genus Chalciporus , with which the genus Buchwaldoboletus form a group of fungi that is an early offshoot in the Boletaceae . Many members of the group appear to be parasitic .
Two varieties have been described . Chalciporus piperatus var. hypochryseus was originally described as Boletus hypochryseus by Czech mycologist Josef Šutara in 1993 , and was moved to Chalciporus a year later by Regis Courtecuisse . Wolfgang Klofac and Irmgard Krisai @-@ Greilhuber reclassified it as a variety of C. piperatus in 2006 , although some sources continue to regard it as a distinct species . Variety amarellus , first published by Quélet as Boletus amarellus in 1883 and later transferred to Chalciporus by Bataille in 1908 , was described as a variety of C. piperatus in 1974 by Albert Pilát and Aurel Dermek . Authorities disagree as to whether or not it has independent taxonomic significance .
= = Description = =
One of the smaller boletes , Chalciporus piperatus has an orange @-@ fawn 1 @.@ 6 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) cap that is initially convex before flattening out in age . The cap surface can be furrowed ; shiny when dry , it can be a little sticky when wet . The colour of the pore surface ranges from cinnamon to dark reddish brown in maturity . When bruised , the pore surface stains brown . Individual pores are angular , measuring about 0 @.@ 5 – 2 mm wide , while the tubes are 3 – 10 mm deep . Slender for a bolete , the stipe measures 4 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick , and is either roughly the same width throughout its length , or slightly thicker near the base . The colour of the stem is similar to the cap , or lighter , and there is yellow mycelium at the base . The flesh is yellow , sometimes with reddish tones , maturing to purplish brown . It has no odour . The spore print is brown to cinnamon . Variety hypochryseus is essentially identical to the main form except for its bright yellow tubes and pores . Variety amarellus has pinker pores and a taste that is bitter rather than peppery .
The spores are smooth , narrowly fusiform ( fuse @-@ shaped ) , and measure 7 – 12 by 3 – 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 20 – 28 by 6 – 8 µm and are hyaline ( translucent ) , four @-@ spored , and narrowly club @-@ shaped , with many internal oil droplets . Cystidia are fusiform , sometimes with a rounded tip , and have dimensions of 30 – 50 by 9 – 12 µm . Some are more or less hyaline , while others are encrusted with a golden pigment . The cap cuticle is a trichodermium , an arrangement in which the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These hyphae are 10 – 17 µm wide and have elliptical to cylindrical cells at their ends that are not gelatinous . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
The fruit body of the North American species Chalciporus piperatoides are similar , but can be distinguished by its flesh and pores staining blue after cutting or bruising . It has a less peppery taste . Another mild @-@ tasting relative , C. rubinellus , has brighter colours than C. piperatus , including completely red tubes . One European species , C. rubinus , has a shape similar to C. piperatus , but has red pores and a stem covered in red dots .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Fruit bodies of Chalciporus piperatus occur singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . The fungus occurs naturally in or near coniferous or beech and oak woodlands , often on sandy soils . Fruit bodies appear in Europe in late summer and autumn from August to November . The fungus is widespread across North America , fruiting from July to October in the eastern states and from September to January on the Pacific Coast . It is found in Mexico and Central America . In Asia , it has been collected from Pakistan , West Bengal ( India ) , and Guangdong Province ( China ) . In South Africa , it is known from the southwestern Cape Province and the eastern Transvaal Province .
Chalciporus piperatus grows in conifer plantations associated with the fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria ) and the chanterelle ( Cantharellus cibarius ) . It has been recorded under introduced loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ) plantations in Santa Catarina and Paraná states in southern Brazil , and under introduced trees in the Los Lagos Region of Chile . It has also spread into native forest in northeastern Tasmania and Victoria , having been found growing with the native myrtle beech ( Nothofagus cunninghamii ) . The rare variety hypochryseus occurs only in Europe , including Austria , the Czech Republic , Greece , Italy , and Spain . Also rare , variety amarellus is widespread in European coniferous forests , where it usually found near pines , spruce , and sometimes fir .
Fruit bodies can be parasitised by the mould Sepedonium chalcipori , a highly specialised mycoparasite that is only known to infect this bolete . Infections result in necrotic mushroom tissue and the production of copious yellow conidia .
Initially thought to be ectomycorrhizal ( symbiotic with plants , like most Boletaceae ) , C. piperatus has not been confirmed as such in multiple synthesis studies or in isotope fractionation studies . There is some speculation that C. piperatus is a mycoparasite on the mycorrhiza of Amanita muscaria . In New Zealand , A. muscaria is thought to have been introduced with Pinus radiata , and has made a host jump to the native Nothofagus trees ; C. piperatus has since been observed fruiting near Nothofagus trees with A. muscaria associations . Buchwaldoboletus lignicola is in the same clade as C. piperatus and is thought to be a parasite as well , strengthening the evidence that C. piperatus and its relatives may be mycoparasites .
= = Uses = =
This mushroom is edible but very peppery . The Italian chef Antonio Carluccio recommends only using it to add flavour to other mushrooms . It has been used as a condiment in many countries . The mushroom should be well @-@ cooked before consumption to minimize the risk of gastric symptoms ; the peppery taste is lost with cooking . In powdered form , it loses its peppery taste quickly . Some guidebooks classify C. piperatus as inedible . Fruit bodies can be used for mushroom dyeing ; depending on the mordant used , yellow , orange , or greenish @-@ brown dyes can be made .
= = Chemistry = =
Sclerocitrin , a pigment compound originally isolated from the common earthball ( Scleroderma citrinum ) , is the major contributor to the yellow colour of the mycelium and the stipe base of C. piperatus fruit bodies . Other compounds that have been isolated from this species include norbadione A , chalciporone , xerocomic acid , variegatic acid , variegatorubin , and another yellow pigment , chalcitrin . Chalciporone is responsible for the bitter taste of the fruit bodies . The pigments sclerocitrin , chalcitrin , and norbadione A are derived biosynthetically from xerocomic acid . Related compounds found in the fruit bodies include the chalciporone isomers isochalciporone and dehydroisochalciporone .
A field study of fungi growing in polluted sites in the Czech and Slovak Republics found that C. piperatus fruit bodies growing near lead smelters and on mine and slag dumps had the greatest ability to bioaccumulate the element antimony . In one collection , an " extremely high " level of the element was detected — 1423 milligrams of antimony per kilogram of dried mushroom . In comparison , the antimony levels detected in other common terrestrial fungi from the same area , both saprobic and ectomycorrhizal , were more than an order of magnitude smaller .
= Clinton D. " Casey " Vincent =
Clinton D. " Casey " Vincent ( November 29 , 1914 – July 5 , 1955 ) was an American flying ace who became the second youngest general officer in United States Army Air Forces history . Vincent was one of Claire Chennault 's two top fighter commanders in the China Burma India Theater of World War II , and served as the model for two comic strip characters by Milton Caniff : " Colonel Vince Casey " , and " Brigadier General P.G. ' Shanty ' Town " .
Vincent planned and carried out daring offensive air tactics in China , forming the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon which staged out of forward airfields to attack the enemy unexpectedly . The successful concept was twinned and reorganized by Chennault into two mixed @-@ aircraft groups , with Vincent commanding one of them , the 68th Composite Wing . A string of Allied victories throughout 1943 caused the Japanese to plan a major retaliatory move . Beginning in May 1944 , the airmen were hit repeatedly and forced into retreat as the Japanese implemented Operation Ichi @-@ Go . Vincent 's men demolished their valuable airbases and fell back to Chennault 's stronghold at Kunming . Vincent returned to the U.S. afterward , his tour of duty complete .
Back home , Vincent was put in command of a training wing and in 1946 was asked to teach at the Air War College . Following this , he held the position of second @-@ in @-@ command of the Western Air Defense Force . Vincent died of a heart attack in 1955 . The United States Air Force ( USAF ) named an air base after him in 1956 : the Vincent Air Force Base in Yuma , Arizona . The airfield was turned over to the Marines in 1962 , and is today the very busy Marine Corps Air Station Yuma ( Vincent Field ) .
= = Early career = =
Clinton Dermott Vincent was born in 1914 in the small town of Gail , Texas . His parents , Carvin Wyoming Vincent and the former Rosa Lee Burgess , produced 10 or 11 children — Vincent was the youngest . He was nicknamed " Casey " from youth . While still a small child , Vincent moved with his family to Natchez , Mississippi , where he went to school . After excelling in high school , Vincent was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point , becoming a cadet on July 1 , 1932 . Vincent graduated on June 12 , 1936 , and became a second lieutenant .
Vincent transferred to the Air Corps and took primary flight training at Randolph Field in Texas , about 500 miles ( 800 km ) from his parents back home . In January 1937 , during his primary training , his mother died in Natchez at the age of 65 . Following primary , Vincent took the attack course in advanced flying at Kelly Field in San Antonio , Texas . During a dance held at the officer 's club , he met Margaret " Peggy " Hennessey , a young woman with an infant daughter , and fell in love . In November 1937 , he was posted operations officer for the 19th Pursuit Squadron at Wheeler Field near Pearl Harbor . Hennessey traveled to Hawaii to be with him , and on February 10 , 1938 , they married — the couple celebrated the birth of a daughter named Thayer on December 17 . The young father rose in rank to first lieutenant in June 1939 , then was promoted to captain on October 7 , 1940 . In November 1940 , Vincent transferred to the newly formed 35th Pursuit Group at Hamilton Field in Northern California where he served as squadron commander . The Group trained in several fighter aircraft types , including Seversky P @-@ 35s , P @-@ 36 Hawks , P @-@ 39 Airacobras and P @-@ 40 Warhawks . Vincent advanced to group operations officer , then executive officer , then in December 1941 was made group commander .
On December 5 , two days before the attack on Pearl Harbor , Vincent 's wife pinned the gold leaves of a major on his shoulders . That evening , the 35th Pursuit Group shipped out for overseas duty in Manila , to join the group 's 21st and 34th Squadrons already there . The next day Peggy Vincent began to drive her two daughters to San Antonio to be with family . On December 7 when Hawaii was attacked by Japanese naval forces , the unarmed ship carrying Vincent , traveling with no escort , was ordered to return immediately to San Francisco Bay . Vincent remained in California for another month , joined by his wife and daughter , during which time he learned that Manila had fallen , and that fellow Group pilot Sam Marrett , a friend from West Point , had died in its defense . On January 12 , 1942 , the USS Mariposa sailed in convoy with Vincent aboard , headed for the Far East .
= = China = =
Vincent arrived in Melbourne , Australia , in early February , then sailed in a different convoy to Perth . In March , he sailed to Karachi , India , and was posted to Karachi American Air Base , one of the more distant ports that supplied The Hump . There , Vincent served as Director of Pursuit Training for the Tenth Air Force at the rank of lieutenant colonel . Wishing for a combat post , in November 1942 he was ordered by Clayton Bissell , commander Tenth Air Force , to transfer to China to join General Claire Chennault and his China Air Task Force ( CATF ) , a group formed from the Flying Tigers . Bissell 's orders specified Vincent take the position of Chennault 's executive officer , to apply a dose of West Point regimen to the haphazard CATF paperwork , but Chennault , irked at this maneuver by his 2 @,@ 200 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 500 km ) distant superior , instead assigned Vincent operations officer . Three days into the new job , Vincent wrote in his diary , " Any similarity between the China Air Task Force and a military organization is purely accidental . " He observed that administrative procedures were poor . " ... the Group just runs by itself . All Colonel Scott ( Robert Lee Scott , Jr . ) cares about is fighting — and he is good at that ! "
Vincent cared little what title he served under — he just wanted to fly in combat . After instituting procedural changes regarding the format of official reports originating from CATF , he assigned himself his first air combat flight on November 22 , escorting bombers against the harbor of Haiphong on the coast of French Indochina , during which he dropped a bomb from his fighter into the harbor 's dock area . Five days later , he scored his first aerial victory : a fixed @-@ undercarriage Japanese fighter he encountered during an attack on Canton in which 10 B @-@ 25s and 22 P @-@ 40s downed some 16 to 22 enemy aircraft . Vincent noted that he was effectively serving three desk jobs — " ' Exec ' , ' Intelligence ' , and ' Operations ' " — but that Chennault was pleased to find his new administrator a skilled pilot eager to fight .
In the final weeks of 1942 , the CATF was often grounded by bad weather . Vincent flew combat in Peggy I on December 12 , but two days later he was ordered by Chennault , at Bissell 's insistence , to refrain from flying a mission he had planned . Another pilot took Peggy I on that mission but belly @-@ landed the aircraft on a road . Vincent borrowed a different aircraft to fly reconnaissance missions on December 17 and 19 , but stayed on the ground again during a short visit by Bissell , to satisfy his expectations . General Joseph Stilwell flew in on December 22 to award Chennault the Distinguished Service Medal , and to take him to Chungking , the provisional wartime capital of China . Left in charge of CATF for the rest of December , Vincent led the combat missions he put together . On December 24 he was awarded the Silver Star for his combat performance .
In early January 1943 , Vincent was officially made executive officer of the CATF , taking over the multiple leadership roles held previously by Scott and by Merian C. Cooper , who were both heading home . He checked out in a C @-@ 53 transport , flew it to Chungking for a " short visit with Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ Shek " , and was promoted to colonel . On January 24 , Albert " Ajax " Baumler flew a captured and repaired Mitsubishi A6M Zero from Kweilin , and Vincent put it through its paces to become one of only five pilots in the " Zero Club " — China @-@ based U.S. pilots who test @-@ flew this particular aircraft . Starved of fuel and supplies in February , the CATF mounted few missions ; during the same period , Commanding General of the USAAF Henry H. Arnold visited with Chennault and Vincent to inform them that a group of fuel @-@ hungry heavy bombers were to be assigned to the CATF , under Colonel Royden Eugene Beebe , Jr .
= = = Fourteenth Air Force = = =
On March 10 , 1943 , the China Air Task Force became the Fourteenth Air Force , and Vincent was made chief of staff . He prevailed upon Chennault to let him take a fighter squadron deeper into enemy territory via advance bases where the fliers would stop to refuel and re @-@ arm . In May 1943 , a forward echelon commanded by Vincent with Tex Hill as vice commander was flown out of bases in east China , along the Hengyang – Kweilin line . This bold thrust into enemy @-@ held territory put all major Japanese airbases from north China to Indochina and Thailand under threat of U.S. air attack . Flying Peggy II , a new P @-@ 40K he received on June 2 , Vincent racked up four more aerial victories , making him an ace , then number six on August 26 , 1943 . For this , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Legion of Merit ; the latter " for outstanding leadership of a small force , which , against numerically superior air strength , succeeded in disrupting enemy communications and routing troop columns . " Chennault forbade him from any further combat missions .
Meanwhile , back home in San Antonio , Texas in early 1943 , Peggy Vincent wrote to cartoonist Milton Caniff to tell him that her husband was working under Chennault in China , much like the characters in Caniff 's comic strip Terry and the Pirates . Peggy Vincent sent Caniff photographs of her husband and told the cartoonist about his flying exploits . Caniff worked the flier into his comic strip as " Colonel Vince Casey " around March 1943 . In September and October 1943 , Vincent was rotated back home on leave during which he met Caniff . Nine months after the visit , a second daughter was born to the Vincents , named Patricia .
Upon his return to CBI , Vincent was informed that reconnaissance flights over Formosa ( Taiwan ) showed a growing concentration of Japanese aircraft . To Vincent , they appeared vulnerable to attack from advance bases , so he and Hill planned a long @-@ range mission . On Thanksgiving Day , November 25 , 1943 , Vincent sent Hill in command of a mixed force of eight early Allison @-@ engined P @-@ 51 Mustangs , eight P @-@ 38 Lightnings and fourteen B @-@ 25 Mitchells against 100 bombers and 112 fighters at Hsinchu Air Base — the attackers destroyed 15 of 20 defending fighters as well as 27 enemy bombers on the ground without loss to themselves . Four days later flying escort to B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers , Vincent led the 23d Fighter Group against Tien Ho airdrome at Canton — the group shot down 13 of 20 defending fighters .
The Formosa attack was one of the most devastating in the CBI Theater — it catalyzed the Japanese to lay plans to invade and seize the advance airfields Vincent had developed in east China . These plans became one of the two primary goals of Operation Ichi @-@ Go , Japan 's 1944 invasion of east China .
As an expansion of the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon , the 68th Composite Wing was formed in December 1943 . Vincent commanded the 68th for its first year . The mixed unit was composed of fighters , fighter bombers and medium bombers , flown by both American and Chinese airmen . Vincent flew a B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber to lead his men in some of the bombing raids . More than 500 @,@ 000 tons of Japanese shipping were sunk by Vincent 's airmen , and the Japanese air power was greatly reduced south of the Yangtze River . On June 2 , 1944 , Vincent was promoted to temporary brigadier general , the second youngest general officer in the USAAF . It had taken him only seven years to rise from second lieutenant to general . An article about the meteoric rise of young military officers was printed in Time on June 19 , 1944 . Among other officers mentioned , Vincent was described as 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , 175 pounds ( 80 kg ) , a six @-@ kill ace and the prototype for the cartoon character Vince Casey . Of Vincent , Caniff said that he " picked his brain " about living and fighting conditions in China .
Vincent commanded the 68th Composite Group with Tex Hill as his deputy during the whole of the Japanese Operation Ichi @-@ Go of 1944 . The Americans in their advance bases were thrown on the defensive . In late June , Vincent ordered the evacuation of the base built at Hengyang , destroying it with explosives so that the Japanese could not make use of the buildings or the airstrip . Directly afterward , Vincent was called to attend a formal dinner with American and Chinese generals and ambassadors , honoring Vice President Henry A. Wallace who was on a fact @-@ finding mission . Meeting after dinner in his office , Vincent told Wallace " the unvarnished truth — that , barring a miracle , the Japanese will have all of east China by July 15 ! "
Japanese supply problems in east China were as critical as American ones , and the Japanese advance was slowed until September when Vincent was forced to retreat and destroy his advance base at Tanchuk . The same treatment befell his own headquarters at Kweilin in October . As he circled Kweilin one final time in his command B @-@ 25 , he said to Time magazine writer Theodore H. White ( who was evacuating as well ) , " I 'm going to write a book about this campaign . I 'm going to call it Fire and Fall Back . " A month later , Vincent 's HQ , relocated to Liuchow , was abandoned , with the 68th retreating to the 14th Air Force stronghold at Kunming . On December 13 , 1944 , both Hill and Vincent completed their tours of duty and left China , Vincent to command the 30th Training Wing at Turner Field in Georgia .
= = Postwar career = =
In 1946 , Vincent reverted to the permanent rank of captain and began teaching at the Air War College . During this time , the United States Air Force ( USAF ) was formed from the USAAF . From 1949 to 1955 , Vincent rose in rank , reaching temporary brigadier general once again in 1951 . A son was born to him , named Clinton D. Vincent , Jr . , nicknamed Casey Junior .
In 1951 Caniff , who started a new comic strip entitled Steve Canyon four years earlier , used Vincent as a model for a new character , this time making him the youthful " Brigadier General P.G. ' Shanty ' Town " . Caniff made General Town into a hard @-@ working peacetime general , concerned with the defense of America .
In 1953 , Vincent was placed second in command under Major General Walter E. Todd , Commander Western Air Defense Force . Todd 's station was at Hamilton Air Force Base near San Francisco . As Vice Commander , Vincent took an active role in defense developments such as the EC @-@ 121 Warning Star , a large radar @-@ equipped aircraft that held a rotating crew of 31 for extended flights , used to detect the approach of enemy aircraft and to coordinate fighter interception . Vincent held the position until mid @-@ 1955 .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1955 , Vincent was ordered to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs , Colorado where he was to serve as deputy chief of staff for operations of the Continental Air Command . On July 5 at the age of 40 , after one full day at his new post , Vincent went to bed at his residence on the air base and died of a heart attack in his sleep . His wife , three daughters and one son were still at their residence on Hamilton AFB in California , preparing to move , when they received word . Caniff responded to the tragic news by having his character General Town die from overwork .
On September 1 , 1956 , Yuma Air Force Base was renamed Vincent Air Force Base in Vincent 's honor . A plaque commemorating the event was unveiled by Vincent 's widow , Peggy Vincent , at a ceremony held on October 12 .
In 1975 , Vincent 's war diaries were made into a book : Fire and Fall Back : the World War Two " CBI " story of " Casey " Vincent , compiled and edited by author Glenn E. McClure . " Tex " Hill said of Vincent and the diaries " He was strong , smart — just one hell of a good man . He was never recognized for what he did . He handled it well in China . But you could tell in his diary that he felt like he 'd been left hanging . "
= 1920 Louisiana hurricane =
The 1920 Louisiana hurricane was a strong tropical cyclone that caused significant damage in parts of Louisiana in September 1920 . The second tropical storm and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it formed from an area of disturbed weather on September 16 , 1920 , northwest of Colombia . The system remained a weak tropical depression as it made landfall on Nicaragua , but later intensified to tropical storm strength as it moved across the Gulf of Honduras , prior to making a second landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm quickly intensified as it moved towards the north @-@ northwest , reaching its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) prior to making landfall near Houma , Louisiana with no change in intensity . Afterwards , it quickly weakened over land , before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas .
As it approached the United States Gulf Coast , the hurricane forced an estimated 4 @,@ 500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island , and numerous other evacuations and precautionary measures to occur . At landfall , the hurricane generated strong winds along a wide swath of the coast , uprooting trees and causing damage to homes and other infrastructure . Heavy rainfall associated with the storm peaked at 11 @.@ 9 in ( 300 mm ) in Robertsdale , Alabama . The heavy rains also washed out railroads , leading to several rail accidents . Across the Gulf Coast , damage from the storm totaled to $ 1 @.@ 45 million , and one death was associated with the hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ September , a trough moved across the central Caribbean Sea and into the vicinity of the Colombian islands . Becoming more organized , it developed a closed circulation on September 16 , and as such was classified as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC that day . For much of its early existence the depression remained weak , with winds remaining at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure below 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The weak disturbance later made landfall at that intensity on the Mosquito Coast near the border of Honduras and Nicaragua by 0600 UTC on September 18 . The small system gained intensity as it moved over Honduras , attaining tropical storm strength on September 19 prior to entering the Gulf of Honduras near Trujillo , Colón . In the Gulf of Honduras , the tropical storm slightly intensified to maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on September 20 , and later made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula as it accelerated towards the north @-@ northwest . Despite initially being reported to have maintained intensity across the peninsula , a reanalysis of the storm determined that it had weakened to minimal tropical storm strength , before entering the Gulf of Mexico late on September 20 .
The weakened tropical storm began to intens
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ify once in the Gulf of Mexico . On September 20 at 0600 UTC , the storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern day Category 1 hurricane . Continuing to intensify in the Gulf , the hurricane attained Category 2 hurricane intensity at 0000 UTC on September 22 , and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and an estimated minimum pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The hurricane later made landfall at peak intensity near Houma , Louisiana at 0100 UTC later that day . Maximum winds spanned 32 mi ( 51 km ) from the center at landfall . Ships offshore the Louisiana coast also reported an eye associated with the hurricane . Once over land , the system began to quickly weaken , degenerating to tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC the same day , while located near Iberville Parish . Continuing to accelerate towards the north @-@ northwest , it is estimated that the tropical cyclone dissipated on September 23 over Kansas , based on observations from nearby weather stations .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Hurricane warnings were initially issued for areas of the Gulf Coast between Morgan City , Louisiana and Corpus Christi , Texas , but were later moved eastward to coastal regions between Pensacola , Florida and New Orleans as the hurricane progressed closer to the coast . Additional marine warnings were also issued for offshore regions that could be potentially affected by the hurricane , and boats were evacuated into Gulf Coast ports . Onshore , freight trains on Galveston Island were moved to the mainland in preparation for the storm . Interurban railways also evacuated people out of the island , with an estimated 4 @,@ 500 people being evacuated . The United States Coast Guard were ordered to be ready for immediate service in the event of an emergency , while the US National Guard on strike duty in Galveston 's Camp Hutchings were transferred to a barracks in Fort Crockett . Oil companies abandoned operations in coastal oil fields in advance of the hurricane . People along Lake Ponchartrain evacuated into New Orleans , causing hotels to overflow and forcing refugees to take shelter in other public buildings including post offices .
Strong winds and gusts were reported across the Gulf Coast and in the Gulf of Mexico . A ship reported a minimum central barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) just prior to the storm 's intensification into a hurricane . Grand Isle , Louisiana reported sustained winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , and winds of at least 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) were reported as far east as Bay St. Louis , Mississippi . As a result , numerous trees were uprooted and power lines were downed . One death occurred New Orleans after being electrocuted by an electric wire that had been downed by the hurricane 's strong winds . The downed power lines also caused a lack of communication from areas affected , hampering relief efforts . In New Orleans , at least 2 @,@ 500 telephones were without service , and homes were unroofed by the strong winds . Along the coast and further inland , rainfall was concentrated primarily on the eastern half of the cyclone , with most rain occurring from September 21 to the 23rd . In Robertsdale , Alabama , 11 @.@ 9 in ( 300 mm ) of rain was recorded , the most associated with the hurricane . A 24 – hour September rainfall record was set when 1 @.@ 60 in ( 41 mm ) of rain was measured in Kelly , Louisiana . However , due to the system 's rapid dissipation over land , rainfall amounts remained generally less than 2 in ( 51 mm ) in interior regions of Louisiana . In Texas , rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 20 in ( 30 mm ) in Beaumont . The heavy rains caused washouts and damage to railroads across Louisiana . A train running from Louisville , Kentucky to Nashville , Tennessee was left stranded after being washed out near Chef Menteur Pass , and other rail operations were stopped between New Orleans and Mobile , Alabama . Tides of 5 – 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) above average were reported in Lake Borgne and Mississippi Sound as the hurricane moved over the coast , while tides of 5 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) above average were reported in Biloxi , Mississippi . The strong storm surge caused considerable damage to Grand Isle and Manilla Village , Louisiana . Due to the hurricane 's landfall near low tide , however , major storm surge impacts were mitigated . Overall infrastructural damage caused by the hurricane totaled to $ 750 @,@ 000 , while crop related damage , particularly to rice and sugar cane , totaled to $ 700 @,@ 000 .
= Courageous @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Courageous class , sometimes called the Glorious class , was the first multi @-@ ship class of aircraft carriers to serve with the Royal Navy . The three ships — Furious , Courageous and Glorious — were originally laid down as " large light cruisers " ( battlecruisers ) to be used in the Baltic Project during the First World War . While very fast , their minimal armour and few guns limited their long @-@ term utility in the post @-@ war Royal Navy and they were laid up after the war . They were considered capital ships by the terms of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty and were included in the total amount of tonnage allowed to the Royal Navy . Rather than scrap them , the Navy decided to convert them to aircraft carriers as permitted under the Treaty .
Furious , already partially converted during the war , began her reconstruction in 1921 , before the Treaty came into effect . She was given a three @-@ quarters @-@ length flight deck . In attempt to minimize air turbulence she was given no superstructure or " island " . This was not entirely satisfactory and a small island was added in 1939 . Another problem was that she lacked a standard funnel ; instead , her boiler uptakes ran along the sides of the ship and exhausted out of gratings on the rear of the flight deck , or the sides of the ship if landing operations were in progress . The long ducts reduced her aircraft capacity and the exhaust gases were as much of a problem for landing aircraft as the turbulence would have been . Her half @-@ sisters , Courageous and Glorious , began their conversions to aircraft carriers as Furious neared completion . They drew upon the experience gained by the Royal Navy since Furious had been designed and incorporated an island with a funnel , increasing their aircraft capacity by one @-@ third and making it safer to land .
As the first large , or " fleet " , carrier completed by the Royal Navy , Furious was extensively used to evaluate aircraft handling and landing procedures , including the first @-@ ever carrier night @-@ landing in 1926 . Courageous became the first warship lost by the Royal Navy in the Second World War when she was torpedoed in September 1939 by a German submarine . Glorious unsuccessfully hunted the German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean in 1939 . She participated in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 , but was sunk by two German battleships in June when she was unwisely allowed to sail home with minimal escort . Furious spent the first months of the war hunting for German raiders and escorting convoys before she began to support British forces in Norway . She spent most of 1940 in Norwegian waters making attacks on German installations and shipping , and most of 1941 ferrying aircraft to West Africa , Gibraltar and Malta before refitting in the United States . She ferried aircraft to Malta as part of the Malta Convoys during 1942 and provided air support to British forces during Operation Torch . Furious spent most of 1943 training with the Home Fleet , but made numerous air strikes against the German battleship Tirpitz and other targets in Norway in 1944 . The old ship was worn out by late 1944 , so she was reduced to reserve status in September before being paid off in 1945 and sold for scrap in 1948 .
= = Careers as battlecruisers = =
The first two ships of the class , Courageous and Glorious , spent the First World War on North Sea patrols , climaxing in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 . Their half @-@ sister Furious was designed with a pair of 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) guns — as opposed to four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) — but was modified while being built to hold a flying @-@ off deck and hangar in lieu of her forward turret and barbette . She made some patrols in the North Sea before her rear turret was removed and another flight deck added . Her aircraft attacked Zeppelin sheds during the Tondern raid in July 1918 .
All three ships were reduced to reserve after the war . The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited the signatory nations to a set amount of capital ship tonnage ; all ships in excess of this figure had to be scrapped . However , up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 000 t ) of existing ships could be converted into aircraft carriers , and the Royal Navy decided to utilize the Courageous @-@ class ships due to their high speed . Each ship was reconstructed with a flight deck during the 1920s .
= = Conversions = =
Furious had been fitted during the First World War with a flying @-@ off and landing deck , but the latter proved largely unusable because of the strong air currents around the superstructure and exhaust gases from the funnel . She was laid up after the war , but was converted to an aircraft carrier between June 1921 and September 1925 . Her design was based on the very limited experience gained with the first two British carriers : Argus , less than three years old , and Eagle , which had only carried out 143 deck landings during preliminary sea trials in 1920 .
Furious 's superstructure , masts , funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 @-@ by @-@ 92 @-@ foot ( 175 @.@ 6 by 28 @.@ 0 m ) flight deck that extended over three @-@ quarters of her length . This flight deck was not level ; it sloped upwards about three @-@ quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft , which had no brakes at the time it was designed . That era 's fore @-@ and @-@ aft arresting gear , initially 320 feet ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) long on Furious , was not intended to stop landing aircraft — the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind — but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck . Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges minimised turbulence . To minimise any turbulence over the flight deck , Furious was flush @-@ decked and lacked an island , like Argus ; instead she was provided with a retractable charthouse at the forward end of the flight deck .
A two @-@ level hangar was built under the flight deck , each level being 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high . The lower hangar was 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long by 35 – 50 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and the upper was 520 by 50 feet ( 158 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 2 m ) . Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers . Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck , or , when landing operations were in progress , out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship . This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space , made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree . Her original flying @-@ off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters so that the ship could simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck and could speedily launch her aircraft from both decks . Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck . Two 47 @-@ by @-@ 46 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) lifts ( elevators ) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars . Two 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) ready @-@ use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship 's boats on the upper deck . An additional 20 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 l ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) of petrol were in bulk storage . The longitudinal arresting gear proved unpopular in service and it was ordered removed in 1927 after tests aboard Furious in 1926 had shown that deck @-@ edge palisades were effective in reducing cross @-@ deck gusts that could blow aircraft over the side . Furious 's long exhaust ducting hampered landing operations , and restricted the size of the hangars and thus the number of aircraft that she could carry .
Glorious and Courageous were converted to aircraft carriers after Furious began her reconstruction , Courageous at Devonport starting on 29 June 1924 , and Glorious at Rosyth on 14 February 1924 . The latter was moved to Devonport to complete the conversion after Furious was finished . Their design was based on Furious with a few improvements based on experience gained since she was designed . All superstructure , guns , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar , each level 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long , was built on top of the remaining hull ; the upper hangar level opened onto a short " flying @-@ off deck " , below and forward of the main flight deck . Two slightly larger 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 by 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island was added on the starboard side with the bridge , flying control station , and funnel , as an island did not create as much turbulence as had been earlier feared . By 1939 both ships could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol .
= = Description = =
The Courageous @-@ class ships had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 6 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) at deep load . These were increases of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) in beam and over 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) in draught compared to their earlier incarnations as battlecruisers . They displaced 24 @,@ 210 long tons ( 24 @,@ 600 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 990 long tons ( 27 @,@ 420 t ) at deep load , increases of over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) . Their metacentric height declined from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load to 4 @.@ 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) and the ships had a complete double bottom . In 1939 , Courageous had a complement of 807 officers and enlisted men , plus 403 men in her air group .
Their half @-@ sister Furious was the same length , but had a beam of 89 feet 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) , and an average draught of 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , two feet deeper than before the conversion . She displaced 22 @,@ 500 long tons ( 22 @,@ 900 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load , over 3 @,@ 000 long tons more than her previous displacement of 19 @,@ 513 long tons ( 19 @,@ 826 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 890 long tons ( 23 @,@ 260 t ) at deep load . Furious 's metacentric height was 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load , a reduction of 1 @.@ 48 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) after her conversion . In 1932 , Furious had a complement of 738 officers and enlisted men , plus 468 men in her air group .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Courageous @-@ class ships were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . Arranged in two engine rooms , each of the turbines drove one of the four propeller shafts . Furious 's propellers were 11 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 18 Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers equally divided among three boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . No significant changes to the machinery were made during the conversion process to any of the three ships , but their increased displacement reduced their speed to approximately 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
Furious 's fuel capacity was increased by 700 long tons ( 710 t ) during her reconstruction , which increased her range to 7 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 850 km ; 8 @,@ 610 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The maximum fuel capacity of Courageous and Glorious was increased during the conversion to 3 @,@ 800 long tons ( 3 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil , giving them an endurance of 6 @,@ 630 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 280 km ; 7 @,@ 630 mi ) at 10 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech @-@ loading BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , five on each side , for self @-@ defence from enemy warships . They fired 82 @-@ pound ( 37 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 790 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) . Their maximum range was 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) at their maximum elevation of 25 ° , and the rate of fire was 12 rounds per minute .
Half a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti @-@ aircraft guns . Four were mounted on the sides of the flying @-@ off deck and two on the quarterdeck . They had a maximum depression of − 5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . The guns fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive ( HE ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of 10 to 15 rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The four guns on the flying @-@ off deck were removed during trials of the lower flight deck in 1926 – 27 , but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded .
Four single QF 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ poms were installed by 1927 . During Furious 's September 1930 – February 1932 refit , her anti @-@ aircraft outfit was changed by the substitution of two eight @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom mounts for the forward 4 @-@ inch guns on the flying @-@ off deck removed earlier . The Mark V mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute .
The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) and 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns were replaced during Furious 's refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin dual @-@ purpose Mark XIX mounts . One mount each was on the former flying @-@ off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side . The Mark XIX mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark XVI gun fired 15 – 20 35 @-@ pound ( 16 kg ) HE shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 660 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) . Against surface targets it had a range of 19 @,@ 850 yards ( 18 @,@ 150 m ) and a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective anti @-@ aircraft range of much less . Two more Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island at the same time .
During the Second World War , Furious , the only surviving ship of the three , received an eventual total of 22 manually operated automatic 20 mm Oerlikon light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mount . The Oerlikon fired a .272 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 123 kg ) HE shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 750 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . The maximum ceiling was 10 @,@ 000 feet and the maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) although the effective range was under 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) . The cyclic rate of fire was 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 250 and 320 rounds per minute owing to the need to reload magazines .
A mix of single @-@ purpose anti @-@ surface and anti @-@ aircraft guns in various sizes was considered for Courageous and Glorious by the Admiralty , but was ultimately rejected for a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark VIII guns in single high @-@ angle mounts . One mount was on each side of the lower flight deck and a pair were on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of each ship . These mounts could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to a maximum of 90 ° . The Mark VIII guns fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) HE shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 457 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) at a rate of eight to twelve rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 32 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 800 m ) , but an effective range of much less . They had a maximum range of 16 @,@ 160 yards ( 14 @,@ 780 m ) against surface targets .
During refits in the mid @-@ 1930s , both ships received multiple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom mounts . Courageous received three quadruple Mark VII mounts , one on each side of the flying @-@ off deck , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one behind the island on the flight deck ( two of these were transferred from the battleship Royal Sovereign ) . Glorious received three octuple Mark VI mounts in the same locations . Both ships received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine guns in a single quadruple mounting . This mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 70 ° . The machine guns fired a 1 @.@ 326 @-@ ounce ( 37 @.@ 6 g ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 520 ft / s ( 770 m / s ) . This gave the gun a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , although its effective range was only 800 yards ( 730 m ) . Neither ship had any further guns added before they were sunk early in the war , in 1939 and 1940 , respectively .
= = = Fire control and radar = = =
To assist its weapon systems in hitting their target , Furious was completed with one fire @-@ control system for each side , with separate directors for low @-@ angle and high @-@ angle guns . The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns were centrally controlled by a Dreyer Fire @-@ Control Table on the lower deck while the 4 @-@ inch guns had their mechanical computers next to their directors . The existing fire @-@ control directors were removed when Furious received her new dual @-@ purpose 4 @-@ inch mountings in 1939 . New high @-@ angle directors , including two for the pom @-@ poms , were mounted on top of the new island and on the former lower flight deck . Over the course of the war Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on top of the high @-@ angle directors . She also received a Type 290 air @-@ search radar .
Courageous was initially fitted only with low @-@ angle directors for her guns , but these were replaced by dual @-@ purpose directors when she was refitted in 1930 . ( Glorious , completed later , had hers from the beginning . ) Neither ship was fitted with radar before its early loss .
= = = Protection = = =
Little armour other than that of the barbettes was removed during their conversion to aircraft carriers . The transverse bulkheads were carried through the locations of the former barbettes . The flight deck was .625 inches ( 15 @.@ 9 mm ) in thickness .
Unlike other British battlecruisers , the bulk of the armour of the Courageous @-@ class ships was made from high @-@ tensile steel ( HTS ) , a type of steel used structurally in other ships . Their waterline belt consisted of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of HTS covered by a 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) thick mild steel skin . It protected roughly the middle two @-@ thirds of the ship with a one @-@ inch extension forward to the two @-@ inch forward transverse bulkhead well short of the bow . The belt had a height of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) , of which 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) was below the designed waterline . From the former forward barbette a three @-@ inch bulkhead extended out to the ship 's side between the upper and lower decks and a comparable bulkhead was in place at the former location of the rear barbette as well . Four decks were armoured with thicknesses varying from 0 @.@ 75 to 3 inches ( 19 to 76 mm ) , thickest over the magazines and the steering gear . After the Battle of Jutland , 110 long tons ( 110 t ) of extra protection was added to the deck around the magazines .
The torpedo bulkheads were increased during building from 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in thickness . All three ships were fitted with a shallow anti @-@ torpedo bulge integral to the hull , which was intended to detonate the torpedo before it hit the hull proper and deflect the underwater explosion to the surface , away from the ship . However , later testing proved that it was not deep enough to accomplish its task and that it lacked the layers of empty and full compartments that were necessary to absorb the force of the explosion .
= = = Air groups = = =
Normally , Furious could carry only about 36 aircraft . In the 1920s this commonly meant one flight ( squadrons after 1932 ) of fighters ( Fairey Flycatcher ) , two of spotters ( Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison ) , one spotter reconnaissance ( Fairey IIID ) and two flights of torpedo bombers ( Blackburn Dart ) . In 1935 there was one squadron of fighters with Hawker Nimrods and Hawker Ospreys , one squadron of Blackburn Baffin torpedo bombers and one squadron of Fairey IIIF spotters . During the Second World War , the carrier typically carried a single fighter squadron and two of strike aircraft of various types , although the mix was often adjusted for specific missions .
Courageous and Glorious were generally similar except that they carried a total of 48 aircraft . They commonly flew the same types of aircraft as Furious , although they are also known to have flown the Fairey Seal , the Blackburn Shark , and the Blackburn Ripon .
= = Pre @-@ war service = =
Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925 , although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) inventory . These included landing and flying @-@ off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes , with and without wheels , to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats . The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty . A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily . The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards . Deck @-@ edge palisades ( windbreaks ) were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather . The first carrier night @-@ landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious .
The ship was reduced to reserve status on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport from September 1930 to February 1932 , focused on refitting her machinery and re @-@ tubing her boilers . In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck , the AA armament was revised and water spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars . Upon completion she ran a full @-@ power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28 @.@ 8 knots ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) from a total of 89 @,@ 754 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 930 kW ) .
Furious was recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November . Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934 . Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for King George VI . She became a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1937 , although she was refitted between December 1937 and May 1938 in Devonport , where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward . During the Munich Crisis in September 1938 , she embarked Nos. 801 , 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow , before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair .
She was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and palisades , mounted AA guns on her flying @-@ off deck , plated in the doors at the forward end of the upper hangar , and gave her a small island on the starboard side . Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939 .
Courageous was recommissioned on 21 February 1928 and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet from May 1928 to June 1930 . She was relieved by Glorious and refitted from June to August 1930 . The ship was assigned to the Atlantic and Home Fleets from 12 August 1930 to December 1938 aside from a temporary attachment to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1936 . In the early 1930s , transverse arresting gear was installed and she received two hydraulic catapults on the upper flight deck before March 1934 . Courageous was refitted again between October 1935 and June 1936 and received her pom @-@ pom mounts . She was also present at the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review . She became a training carrier in December 1938 when Ark Royal joined the Home Fleet and continued on that duty until the start of the Second World War .
Glorious was recommissioned on 24 February 1930 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , but was attached to the Home Fleet from March to June 1930 . She relieved Courageous in the Mediterranean Fleet in June 1930 and remained there until October 1939 . In a fog on 1 April 1931 Glorious rammed SS Florida amidships while steaming at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The impact crumpled 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) of the flying @-@ off deck and forced Glorious to put into Gibraltar for temporary repairs . She had to sail to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted until September 1931 . Sometime in the early 1930s , transverse arresting gear was installed . She was refitted at Devonport from July 1934 to July 1935 where she received two catapults , her flight deck was extended to the rear , her quarterdeck was raised one deck and she received her multiple pom @-@ pom mounts . Glorious also participated in the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review before returning to the Mediterranean .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Courageous = = =
In the early days of the war , hunter @-@ killer groups were formed around the fleet aircraft carriers to find and destroy U @-@ boats . On 17 September 1939 , two torpedoes from U @-@ 29 turned the tables , and Courageous became the first British warship sunk in the Second World War . As Ark Royal had been surprised by a near miss 7 days earlier , the fleet carriers were withdrawn from this duty .
= = = Glorious = = =
Force J , including Glorious , was organised to hunt for the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean . They were not successful , and Glorious remained in the Indian Ocean until December when she was transferred to the Mediterranean . Glorious was recalled to the Home Fleet in April 1940 to provide air cover for British forces landing in Norway . Gloster Gladiators of No. 263 Squadron RAF were flown aboard to be transferred to Norwegian airbases . Glorious and Ark Royal arrived off central Norway on 24 April where 263 Squadron was flown off and their organic aircraft attacked targets in the Trondheim area before Glorious had to return to Scapa Flow on 27 April to refuel and embark new aircraft . She returned on 1 May , but had been unable to load new aircraft because of poor weather . The task force was under heavy air attack by the Luftwaffe all day and was withdrawn that evening .
Glorious returned on 18 May with six Supermarine Walrus amphibious flying boats of 701 Squadron and 18 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF . The Walruses were quickly flown off to Harstad , but the airfield at Skånland was not yet ready for the Hurricanes and they were still aboard when Glorious returned to Scapa on 21 May . Glorious came back to the Narvik area on 26 May and the Hurricanes were quickly flown off .
However , even this success proved to be ephemeral , and British forces were ordered withdrawn a few days later . The evacuation ( Operation Alphabet ) began in the north on the night of 3 / 4 June , and Glorious arrived off the coast on 2 June to provide support . She only carried nine Sea Gladiators of 802 Squadron and six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 823 Squadron for self @-@ defence , as it was hoped to evacuate the RAF fighters if at all possible . Ten Gladiators of 263 Squadron were flown aboard during the afternoon of 7 June and the Hurricanes of 46 Squadron were also flown aboard without any significant problems in the early evening despite having a much higher landing speed than the biplanes . This was the first time that high performance monoplanes without tailhooks had been landed on an aircraft carrier .
Captain Guy D 'Oyly @-@ Hughes requested and was granted permission to proceed independently to Scapa Flow in the early hours of 8 June . On the way back across the North Sea , Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , Acasta and Ardent , were found by the two German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . No combat air patrol was being flown , no aircraft were spotted on the deck for quick take off and there was no lookout in the crow 's nest . The German heavy ships sank all three British vessels with most of their crews , although Acasta managed to torpedo Scharnhorst before she was sunk . Only 43 men from Glorious survived .
= = = Furious = = =
Until 2 October 1939 , Furious remained on training duties , combined with anti @-@ submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland . She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and sortied on 8 October with the fleet to hunt unsuccessfully for the Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway . Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship Royal Oak in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October , the day before Royal Oak was sunk by U @-@ 47 in Scapa Flow . Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 .
Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 and her Swordfish made several attacks on German ships in Narvik on the following days . She refuelled at Tromsø on the 14th and remained behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April , her aircraft flying reconnaissance missions until ordered home on 25 April . Her port inner turbine had been damaged by the shock wave from a near miss on 18 April , and the damage was more serious than initially thought . After quick repairs , Furious returned on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed 263 Squadron ; they were flown off on 21 May once their base at Bardufoss was ready . She sailed to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off .
On 14 June , carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection , Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax , Nova Scotia carrying £ 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold bullion . On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft , spare parts and munitions . On his own initiative , Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used for sugar bound for Britain . She reembarked her aircraft upon her arrival and made a number of air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø through October 1940 . Furious loaded 55 aircraft in Liverpool on 7 November and sailed for Takoradi , Gold Coast , on 15 November where the aircraft were flown off on 27 November to reinforce fighter units defending Egypt . By 15 December , Furious was back in Liverpool , where she embarked 40 Hurricanes for Takoradi . She sailed on the 21st and joined up with Convoy WS 5A which encountered the German cruiser Admiral Hipper on the 25th . The German ship was driven off by the escorts , and Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 . She arrived in Britain on 5 February where she was given a brief refit . She made another ferry trip to Takoradi between 4 and 22 March .
Now with a new destination for her ferry trips , Furious transported two dozen Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to Ark Royal to be flown off for Malta . She returned for another load of Hurricanes and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May . Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern . This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia . She would repeat this ferry mission three more times from June through September 1941 . In July and August , however , Furious and Victorious attacked German installations in the Arctic areas of Norway and Finland with limited success and heavy losses . Following her last ferry mission she was sent to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to refit .
Furious arrived back in the UK in April 1942 and spent the next three months working up . In August she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal , but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta . This she did , just as Eagle was torpedoed , but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully . She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day south @-@ east of the Balearic Islands . After this mission Furious was sent back to Home Fleet for training . One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch , and she arrived on 27 October . She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on the 29th before returning to Gibraltar to participate in Torch .
Providing cover for the Central Task Force , Furious 's aircraft neutralised the airfields at La Senia and Tafraoui , both near Oran , Algeria . She remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war . In July the Home Fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily ; Furious 's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report then shoot it down . She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training .
On 3 April 1944 , Fairey Barracudas from Furious and Victorious attacked the German battleship Tirpitz in Altafjord , Norway , as part of Operation Tungsten . Tirpitz was hit 14 times and needed three months to complete her repairs , although four aircraft were lost in the attack . The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later in the month , but bad weather prevented any attack from being made . Instead the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø , but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships . Three operations against targets in northern Norway , including two against Tirpitz , had to be abandoned or diverted to other targets in May , but three German ships were sunk and two more were set afire . Furious and other carriers made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July , but were unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences . Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August , but only the attack on the 24th was even partially successful as two minor hits were made .
As the war progressed , the ship 's age and limitations became increasingly apparent , and Furious was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944 . She was paid off in April 1945 and used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship 's structure . She was sold in 1948 for scrapping , completed in 1954 at Troon .
= Chris Metzen =
Christopher Vincent " Chris " Metzen ( born November 22 , 1973 ) is an American game designer , artist , voice actor and author known for his work creating the fictional universes and scripts for Blizzard Entertainment 's three major award @-@ winning media franchises : Warcraft , Diablo and StarCraft . On occasion , Metzen has published his art under the alias " Thundergod " . Metzen was hired by Blizzard Entertainment as an animator and an artist ; his first work for the company was with the video game Justice League Task Force .
Metzen is currently the Senior Vice President of Story and Franchise Development at Blizzard Entertainment and has assisted the company 's projects by providing voice talent for a number of characters , as well as contributing to artistic character design . Outside of Blizzard Entertainment , Metzen authored a graphic novel series based on a futuristic second American civil war .
In his most recent work , Metzen co @-@ authored graphic novels , Transformers : Autocracy and Transformers Monstrosity with author Flint Dille and artist Livio Ramondelli .
= = Career = =
Metzen began his career in design after applying to Blizzard Entertainment , then known as Chaos Studios , on the recommendation of a friend who had seen his work . He was quickly recruited by the company , although Metzen states that at the time he did not really know what Blizzard Entertainment dealt with , assuming it was a graphic design studio rather than a video game developer .
Metzen 's first work for the company was with the game Justice League Task Force , in which he provided artwork and character animation . Around the same time , Metzen also contributed to 1994 's Warcraft : Orcs and Humans by working on artwork , illustrations and the game 's documentation . Later video games by Blizzard Entertainment would frequently include Metzen 's work in manual design , illustration and concept art . However , Metzen 's role in developing later Warcraft games increased significantly with 1995 's Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness , which gave him the opportunity to work on the game 's fantasy @-@ based fictional universe in addition to designing the game 's various scenarios and missions .
In 1996 , Blizzard Entertainment launched its second major franchise with the role @-@ playing game Diablo . Diablo 's fictional universe was created by both Metzen and fellow designer Bill Roper , and Metzen also provided voice acting for some of the game 's characters . On occasion , Metzen would provide voice talent for later video games . In 1998 he took the role of lead designer on the science fiction strategy game StarCraft . Along with James Phinney , Metzen again provided the game 's extensive story and script , as well as organizing the voice casting for the game . In 1999 , Metzen wrote a short story set in the StarCraft universe with fellow Blizzard Entertainment employee Sam Moore . The story , entitled Revelations , was published in the spring issue of Amazing Stories with cover artwork by Samwise Didier . Returning to the Diablo series in 2000 with Diablo II , Metzen worked on the game 's story , script and artwork . In 2001 , he published a novel set in the Warcraft universe , entitled Of Blood and Honor .
With 2002 's Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos , Metzen was the creative director , a role he would hold in all of Blizzard 's later video games , and provided the game 's story concept and script . Metzen 's work with 2004 's massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft was not as extensive as his earlier work , but he still contributed with script writing , artwork and voice work .
Metzen announced in early 2005 that he was working on a graphic novel series independent of Blizzard Entertainment . The series , entitled Soldier : 76 , is set in a second American civil war in 2010 , with increased domestic and global terror threats and the increase in power for the US federal government over that of local state governments serving as a background . Metzen wrote the series ' script , while Brazilian artist Max Velati was responsible for the illustration and painting of the book . Soldier : 76 would later appear as a character in Overwatch , Blizzard 's online first @-@ person shooter game , released in May 2016 .
Chris Metzen teamed with author Flint Dille and artist Livio Ramondelli to create the 12 @-@ part , bi @-@ weekly digital comic series , Transformers : Autocracy . Autocracy , published by IDW Publishing was published in 2012 . The series focuses on the days just before the Great War . It is set after Megatron Origin , and presents the Decepticons as an established force , sowing dissent across Cybertron primarily through terrorist actions . The series focuses on Orion Pax , an Autobot commander charged with rooting out these cells . Transformers : Autocracy was released as a collected Trade Paperback in July 2012 with a bonus forward authored by Metzen . The same team is current working on the follow @-@ up series , " Transformers : Monstrosity " .
Metzen made a cameo appearance in the 2016 Warcraft film , as a turbaned perfume vendor in Stormwind .
= = Personal life = =
He first started creating comics at the age of twelve , but that he had held an interest in drawing since at least six . He states that he still retains a habit of spending " an average of thirty @-@ five dollars per week " on comics books . A fan of Dungeons & Dragons , Metzen cites the Dragonlance series of novels and Star Wars as the primary inspirations for his fantasy and science fiction creations , and names fantasy and comic book artists such as Walt Simonson and Keith Parkinson as his artistic inspirations .
He defines his artistic style as having been " heavily influenced by Walt Simonson 's and Jim Lee 's pencilling styles for form " while preferring the " costuming , themes and general feel of Larry Elmore and Keith Parkinson 's fantasy paintings " . In addition to art , Metzen 's interests include pop and rock music , the nightlife , and dirt bikes . On April 21 , 2013 , Metzen married his longtime girlfriend Kat Hunter , who is a licensing project manager at Blizzard Entertainment .
= = Roles = =
= = = Video games = = =
Diablo – Skeleton King
StarCraft – Marine , Battlecruiser , Ghost
Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos – Thrall
Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne – Thrall , Vol 'jin
World of Warcraft – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Orcs , Nefarian , Ragnaros , Hakkar the Soulflayer
World of Warcraft : The Burning Crusade – Thrall , Vol 'jin
World of Warcraft : Wrath of the Lich King – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Varian Wrynn , Deathbringer Saurfang / Dranosh Saurfang , Bronjahm
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty – Marine , Battlecruiser
World of Warcraft : Cataclysm – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Varian Wrynn , Nefarian , Ragnaros , Hakkar the Soulflayer
World of Warcraft : Mists of Pandaria – Thrall , Arcanital Mara 'kah , Captain Halu 'kal , Nalak the Storm Lord , War @-@ God Jalak
Starcraft II : Heart of the Swarm - Marine , Battlecruiser
Hearthstone : Heroes of Warcraft - Thrall , Various minions
World of Warcraft : Warlords of Draenor - Thrall
Heroes of the Storm - Thrall
StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void – Marine , Battlecruiser
Overwatch - Creative director
= Norse @-@ American medal =
The Norse @-@ American medal was struck at the Philadelphia Mint in 1925 , pursuant to an act of the United States Congress . It was issued for the 100th anniversary of the voyage of the ship Restauration , bringing early Norwegian immigrants to the United States .
Minnesota Congressman Ole Juulson Kvale , a Norse @-@ American , wanted a commemorative for the centennial celebrations of the Restauration journey . Rebuffed by the Treasury Department when he sought the issuance of a special coin , he instead settled for a medal . Sculpted by Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser , the medals recognize those immigrants ' Viking heritage , depicting a warrior on the obverse and a vessel on the reverse . They also recall the early Viking explorations of North America .
Once authorized by Congress , they were produced in various metals and sizes , for the most part prior to the celebrations near Minneapolis in June 1925 . Only 53 were issued in gold , and they are rare and valuable today ; those struck in silver or bronze are much less expensive . They are sometimes collected as part of the commemorative coin series .
= = Background and inception = =
On July 4 or 5 , 1825 , the vessel Restauration sailed from Stavanger , Norway for the United States , with 45 emigrants aboard . According to what The New York Times deemed " bacchanalian " legends of its passage , the expedition anchored off an English seacoast village and traded ashore some of its rum , only to depart in haste when local officials took an interest . Off Madeira , expedition leader Lars Larsen is said to have fished a cask from the sea , which proved to be filled with rare wine that was thoroughly enjoyed by those aboard . After they arrived in New York on October 9 , 1825 , the ship was seized pursuant to a court order , as the passengers exceeded the permitted number for a ship of its size by 21 , counting a baby girl born to the Larsens en route . In addition , a fine was to be imposed , but because the immigrants spoke no English and had no knowledge of American laws , President John Quincy
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. Maribor 's highest league position was in the 1969 – 70 season when the club finished in 10th place in an 18 @-@ club league . The average league placement of the club in Yugoslav top flight was 13 @.@ 8 . The 1971 – 72 season was their last season in top division as the team finished last with 20 points . Mladen Kranjc , one of the best players in history of the club , was the best goalscorer for the team in each of its five seasons spent in the Yugoslav top division , having scored a total of 54 league goals , which eventually led to his transfer to one of the top Yugoslav clubs , Dinamo Zagreb .
In the next season , Maribor played in the second Yugoslav division and finished as the runners @-@ up , which meant that they qualified for the Yugoslav first division promotion play @-@ off . In the first qualifying round against Montenegrin side Budućnost , Maribor won on penalties and qualified for the decisive round against Proleter . The first leg was played in Maribor on 8 July 1973 , and is acknowledged as one of the most historic matches in history of the club as it still holds the club 's attendance record . There were 20 @,@ 000 spectators , 15 @,@ 000 of whom were already present in the stands almost three hours before kick off , eventually helping Maribor win the game 3 – 1 . However , the two @-@ goal advantage proved to be insufficient as Proleter won the second leg in Zrenjanin 3 – 0 and earned promotion with the score 4 – 3 on aggregate . In the second leg match when the score was 1 – 0 for the home team , Maribor had scored an equaliser in the 23rd minute , but the goal was disallowed . The later TV replay showed that the ball had actually crossed the goal line and that the goal should have stood .
After the dramatic play @-@ off against Proleter , the club entered a period of stagnation . During this period Maribor were again close to promotion to top division in the 1978 – 79 season when they finished in second place , six points behind Bosnian side Čelik .
= = = Bribery scandal and aftermath = = =
At the end of the 1980 – 81 season Maribor were celebrating as the club managed to avoid relegation , when the " Ball " ( Žoga ) bribery scandal emerged , and caused the club to be relegated from second tier to third by the decision of the Football Association of Yugoslavia disciplinary committee . The club had a secret fund that was used for bribing officials and opponents . The fund was abolished in 1968 after the club was promoted to the first division , but was later established again in 1976 . Some club officials were keeping track of the bribery expenses in their black book , which was later confiscated by the authorities . From the book it is clear that Maribor had bribed a total of 31 people . After the scandal and the subsequent relegation to third division , Maribor spent the following years bouncing between the second and third Yugoslav leagues until the independence of Slovenia in 1991 .
In 1988 Maribor joined MŠD Branik organization , to form Maribor Branik . Although the club uses only the name Maribor in domestic and international competitions it is still officially registered as NK Maribor Branik to this day . The club always had close ties to MŠD Branik as NK Branik Maribor , an association football club which was part of MŠD Branik , had been dissolved only a couple of months before Maribor was established and , many fans who had supported Branik simply switched to supporting Maribor as they viewed the club as the successor of Branik . In October that year Mladen Kranjc was involved in a tragic motorcycle accident in Dolnja Počehova . Considered to be one of the best goalscorers in the history of the club , he died at the age of 43 .
= = = After independence = = =
Following the independence of Slovenia , Slovenia 's best clubs joined the newly formed Slovenian League . Maribor were one of the league 's founding members , and are one of only three clubs , along with Gorica and Celje , who have never been relegated from the Slovenian top division . In the first couple of seasons , Maribor 's rivals Olimpija from Ljubljana , who have had a long tradition of playing in the Yugoslav first league and at the time still had their squad composed of players from that era , dominated the league . Although Olimpija dominated the league , Maribor still managed to win the first edition of the Slovenian Cup in 1992 . The final match was played in Ljubljana at Bežigrad Stadium versus Olimpija . It ended in a goalless draw after regular time and was won by Maribor after a penalty shoot @-@ out ( 4 – 3 ) . This was the first major success for Maribor . During the next season the team had their European début , appearing in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . They played their first European match on 19 August 1992 , when they hosted Ħamrun Spartans of Malta and won with the score 4 – 0 . Ante Šimundža scored the first historic goal of the match . Olimpija went on to win the first four domestic championships , until their streak was interrupted by Gorica who won it in the 1995 – 96 season . Maribor were runners @-@ up in the 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 and 1994 – 95 seasons , before finishing third in 1993 – 94 and then fourth in the 1995 – 96 season . During this period the club managed to win another Slovenian cup in 1993 – 94 , defeating Mura from Murska Sobota in the final with 3 – 2 on aggregate .
The 1996 – 97 season proved to be the turning point in the history of Maribor . The club stormed the Slovenian league and became national champions for the first time in their history . During this season average home attendance was 5 @,@ 289 spectators , which is still a record in the Slovenian League . The final match of the season was played on 1 June 1997 , against Beltinci and attracted a crowd of 14 @,@ 000 , which is also a record of the Slovenian top league . In that season Maribor also won the 1996 – 97 Slovenian Cup , thus winning the domestic Double , a feat also repeated in the 1998 – 99 season . After their first title in 1996 – 97 Maribor went on to win six more titles , bringing their total number to seven consecutive titles by 2003 . During this period the team also won three Slovenian cups and in the 1999 – 2000 season , the club , led by head coach Bojan Prašnikar , defeated Genk of Belgium ( 5 – 1 , 0 – 3 ) and French powerhouse Lyon ( 1 – 0 , 2 – 0 ) and qualify for the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Champions league . Maribor were drawn into the same group with Dynamo Kiev , Bayer Leverkusen and Lazio . To date , Maribor is one of only four clubs ( along with Dinamo Zagreb , Partizan and Hajduk Split ) from the former SFR Yugoslavia who participated in UEFA Champions League group stages since the breakup of the country in 1991 .
= = = Financial difficulties = = =
The 2003 – 04 Slovenian Cup was the last trophy won by Maribor before the darkest era of the club began . Between 2004 and 2008 , the club was plagued by financial difficulties , and Maribor even came close to being disbanded at one point . However , the club did not follow their rivals Olimpija Ljubljana and Mura on that path .
Due to their large debts , which at one point amounted to 4 million euros , the club could not afford to buy new players . As a consequence , the first team at the time consisted mostly of youth players mixed with a couple of foreign players brought to the club on free transfers . In the autumn of 2006 , the leadership of the club changed , with the debt still amounting to over 3 million euros , and it was not until January 2011 that the club announced that the debt had been paid in full . During this period , Maribor never finished above third place in the Slovenian league , and were runners @-@ up in the Slovenian Cup twice . They were , however , one of the 11 winners of the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup , in which they defeated Spanish side Villarreal in the final round , only a couple of months after Villareal had played in the semi @-@ final of the UEFA Champions League .
= = = Current status = = =
From the 2007 – 08 season onwards , Slovenian football legends Zlatko Zahovič as the sport director , and soon afterwards , Darko Milanič as the head coach , and former Maribor player Ante Šimundža as the assistant coach , were appointed to head the club 's sports department . On 10 May 2008 , the club re @-@ opened the renovated Ljudski vrt , which had undergone a major reconstruction that lasted almost 20 months . The first match played in the newly refurbished stadium was a league match against Nafta and was won 3 – 1 in front of 12 @,@ 435 spectators . At the start of 2008 – 09 season , Maribor entered history books as the first club who won 1 @,@ 000 points in the Slovenian top division , after a 2 – 1 away win against Rudar Velenje on 26 July 2008 . Under the guidance of head coach Darko Milanič , Maribor won all three domestic trophies available to them ( the Slovenian League , Cup , and Supercup ) in only two seasons with the club , thus becoming the first coach with all three domestic trophies won in Slovenian football . On 12 December 2010 , the club celebrated its 50th anniversary . With the 2 – 1 away victory over Primorje , on 21 May 2011 , Maribor secured its ninth Slovenian league title . Four days later the team played the Slovenian cup final at Stožice stadium and lost to Domžale 4 – 3 .
At the beginning of the 2011 – 12 season , Maribor played in the 2011 Slovenian Supercup against Domžale on 8 July 2012 and lost with the score 2 – 1 after regulation . This was the second consecutive loss for Maribor against Domžale in domestic cup finals in five weeks , after losing the Slovenian cup in May 2011 . In August 2011 , Maribor defeated Rangers and qualified for the group stage of the 2011 – 12 UEFA Europa League . They managed to get one point in six matches , holding Braga to a draw at the home turf . In the same season , Maribor won their tenth league title with a record numbers of points ( 85 ) . The league title was confirmed in the game against Triglav Kranj on 22 April 2012 with an 8 – 0 win . Furthermore , they won the Slovenian domestic cup on 23 May 2012 by defeating their Styrian rivals Celje after penalties , securing their seventh cup title . This was the third time that Maribor managed to win The Double and the first time since the 1998 – 99 season .
At the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season , Maribor played in their fourth successive Supercup final . The match was played on 8 July 2012 at Ljudski vrt stadium . Unlike in the previous two seasons , when the club finished as the runners @-@ up , they managed to win their second Supercup trophy this time , defeating their " eternal rivals " Olimpija Ljubljana 2 – 1 . Maribor qualified to the group stages of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League for the second season in a row as one of the losers in the play @-@ off round of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Champions League , where they were eliminated by Dinamo Zagreb . They managed to get four points this time , defeating Panathinaikos and drawing with Tottenham Hotspur , both at home . Maribor confirmed their eleventh league title on 11 May 2013 , when they defeated Olimpija Ljubljana 2 – 1 . Like in the previous season , they again defeated Celje in the 2013 Cup Final , securing their fourth " Double " in the history .
In the 2013 – 14 season , Maribor qualified to the group stages of the Europa League for the third consecutive time after losing to Viktoria Plzeň in the Champions League play @-@ off stage . This time , the team earned seven points and progressed through the group stages for the first time after defeating Wigan Athletic 2 – 1 in the final matchday . In the Round of 32 , they were eliminated by the future competition winner Sevilla with an aggregate score of 4 – 3 . Maribor qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stages for the second time in their history on 26 August 2014 after eliminating Scottish club Celtic with an aggregate score of 2 – 1 in the play @-@ offs . They were drawn into the Group G alongside Chelsea , Schalke 04 and Sporting CP , where they managed to obtain three points in six games after a draw and a defeat against each team .
In the 2015 – 16 season , Maribor was eliminated from the European competitions after just two matches , being defeated by Astana in the second qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League , meaning the club failed to advance to the third qualifying round of the competition for the first time after the 2003 – 04 season . In the same season , Maribor failed to win the domestic title for the first time since 2009 – 10 after finishing in the second place behind Olimpija Ljubljana .
= = Social identity = =
= = = Kit and colours = = =
Throughout the entire history of Maribor the club 's main colour was purple . At the beginning of the club some officials were favouring the red and white colours , while the traditional colours of Branik were black and white . Because of the fact that many football teams in SFR Yugoslavia wore red @-@ white or black @-@ white jerseys , most notably Crvena Zvezda and Partizan , Maribor officials decided for a new and fresh combination . They decided to follow the example of Fiorentina , which at the time was one of the most successful clubs in Europe , and their purple and white combination . Oto Blaznik , the first captain in history of the club , was the one who proposed the combination after seeing the Italian side play . Eventually they changed the secondary colour to yellow . Today , Maribor play their home matches in purple and away matches in white kits . The team is nicknamed The Purples ( Vijoličasti ) ; another common nickname is The Violets ( Vijolice ) , both referring to their primary colour purple , present on players ' jerseys and in the club crest . The club is also continuously referred to as the Pride of Styria ( Štajerski ponos ) and as The Viole , the latter being popular predominantly in the region of the former Yugoslavia . Maribors ' current kit manufacturer is Adidas .
= = = Crest = = =
The badge of the club is one of the most recognizable sport symbols in Slovenia . It is based on the official emblem of the city of Maribor , which is turn based on a 14th @-@ century seal with minor differences . The badge is formed in a shape of a shield , and shows the former Piramida Castle with open doors that used to stand on top of the Pyramid Hill before it was demolished at the end of the 18th century . A violet blossom forms the backdrop . Unlike the coat of arms of the city of Maribor , the current badge of the club does not represent a white dove facing downwards to the castle but an athlete . At the top of the shield the name of the club and the year of its foundation is inscribed . The entire badge uses only two colours , purple and yellow . Previous versions of the crest included the colour white , a traditional third colour of the club , in the form of a white castle in the centre and a white ball that was on top of the shield . Since May 2012 , the official badge includes a yellow star above the crest , which indicates the first ten Slovenian League titles won by the club .
= = Stadium = =
The Ljudski vrt ( English : People 's Garden , German : Volksgarten ) stadium is the only stadium in Maribor that lies on the left bank of the river Drava . The stadium is a natural , cultural , architectural and sports landmark of the city . The stadium is named after a public park previously located in the area . A cemetery was also located on the same area before the stadium was built . The stadium was opened in 1952 and underwent a major reconstruction in the early 1960s . The club first started to compete in the Ljudski vrt in 1961 , when the current main stand was still under construction . The stand is notable for its 129 @.@ 8 metres long and 18 @.@ 4 m high concrete arch and is still the main stand of the stadium . In 1994 floodlights were installed and the stadium hosted its first evening match . Since then the stadium went through several renovations . The most notable was the one in 2008 when the stadium was completely refurbished . Presently , it has a capacity of 12 @,@ 702 seats .
Beside being the home ground of Maribor , the stadium also hosts matches of the Slovenia national football team and was their main venue used for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying matches . It was one of two stadiums in the country which hosted the national team in UEFA Euro 2012 , 2014 FIFA World Cup , and UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers . The record attendance in the Yugoslav era was 20 @,@ 000 spectators , while the record for a Slovenian League match is 14 @,@ 000 spectators , achieved in the last match of the 1996 – 97 season .
= = Supporters = =
Since their inception in 1960 , Maribor have developed a loyal , passionate and dedicated fanbase and Maribor 's fans are considered the best in the country . After Slovenia declared independence in 1991 , most of the town 's industry perished and over 25 % of the population was unemployed . Still , the people remained loyal to the club . The club is by far the most popular football team in the country and is , in number of football supporters , second only to the Slovenia national football team . Besides the city of Maribor and the surrounding area , the club also has a large fan base in the regions of Styria ( Štajerska ) and Carinthia . A small number of supporters are also present in Ilirska Bistrica in the Slovenian Littoral ( Primorska ) . Soon after the foundation of Maribor , the club was branded as the citizens club , while their city rivals Železničar Maribor has always been branded as the club of the working class . This was mainly because Maribor was seen , by the fans , as the successor of Branik Maribor , a club that folded in 1960 . Many fans of Branik then started to cheer for Maribor , a club that was founded only couple of months later .
Since the establishment of the Slovenian league , PrvaLiga , Maribor had the highest average attendance in almost every season to date ( 20 out of 25 ) , and , overall , had more spectators on its home matches than the second and third most viewed clubs in the league combined . The highest attendance was in the 1996 – 97 season , when on average 5 @,@ 289 people attended Maribor 's matches , which is still a record in Slovenian club football . The highest attendance in a Slovenian league match was on 1 June 1997 , when Maribor played against Beltinci ( 14 @,@ 000 ) . In addition , they are the only club that gathered over one million people on their matches in Slovenian league , since its foundation in 1991 .
In April 2013 the club began with a project Base1960 ( Baza1960 ) , a joint project of Maribor and their fans with the goal of spreading fan awareness and loyalty towards the club and to establish violet bases ( Vijo 'lčne baze ) throughout the country , where Maribor fans would be able to hang out . The bases are usually pubs that were already gathering points for Maribor fans in the past . With the status of the official violet base , those pubs are now able to sell tickets for Maribor 's home and away matches and official fan merchandise or to organize fan zones during Maribor 's matches broadcast on television . Ljudski vrt is regarded as the main base , with 10 others across the eastern part of Slovenia opened as of November 2014 . The first violet base was opened on 29 April 2013 in Dravski Dvor , a small settlement couple of kilometers to the southeast of Maribor . Of the current 10 bases , nine are located in Styria and one in Carinthia .
The club also has an ultras group called Viole Maribor established in 1989 which is , by numbers and organization , considered the biggest in Slovenia . An apolitical group , the core of Viole consists of around 250 members , while the whole group has around 1 @,@ 000 registered members . They are located on the southern stand of the stadium which has a capacity of just over 2 @,@ 000 . The most Maribor fans gathered on an away match in domestic competitions was in 2001 , when 3 @,@ 000 fans gathered in Ljubljana , while the most fans gathered on an away match abroad was in 2014 during the club 's UEFA Champions League campaign , when 1 @,@ 500 fans gathered in London . Their biggest rivals are the Green Dragons of Olimpija Ljubljana . Since early 2000s another fan group emerged to support Maribor at their matches . The group is called ESS ( East Side Supporters ) and consists mostly of former members of Viole Maribor , now season tickets holders . They are , as the name implies , located at the east stand of the stadium .
Famous fans
Famous , non @-@ football related , supporters of NK Maribor are listed on this list alphabetically .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Eternal derby = = =
Maribor 's biggest rivalry was with Olimpija Ljubljana , against whom they contested the Eternal derby ( Večni derbi ) . Olimpija folded and was dissolved in 2004 . Today , the continuation of the rivalry is considered as the matches between Maribor and the new Olimpija Ljubljana , established in 2005 as NK Bežigrad . The rivalry traced its roots back to the early 1960s , when the first match between the two clubs was played . The two teams represented the two largest cities in Slovenia , the capital city of Ljubljana and the second largest city Maribor , and both teams always had the largest fan bases in the country . Traditionally , Ljubljana represents the richer western part of the country , while Maribor is the center of the poorer eastern part . In addition , Ljubljana was always the cultural , educational , economic and political center of the country and Olimpija and its fans were considered as the representatives of the upper class . Maribor , on the other hand , was one of the most industrialized cities in Yugoslavia , and the majority of its fans were the representatives of the working class , which means that the rivalry usually had political , social , and cultural tensions as well .
The old rivalry reached its peak in the final round of the 2000 – 01 season , when one of the most celebrated matches in Slovenian League history was played . Olimpija met Maribor at their home stadium , Bežigrad , and both teams were competing for their fifth Slovenian League title . The home team needed a win for the title , while a draw was enough for Maribor . The atmosphere was electric days before the kick @-@ off , and the stadium with a capacity of 8 @,@ 500 was completely sold out . At the end , the match ended with a draw ( 1 – 1 ) and Maribor started to celebrate their fifth consecutive title in front of 3 @,@ 000 of their fans that gathered in Ljubljana that day .
An additional intensity to the rivalry is the fact that both Maribor and Olimpija always had support on their matches from ultras groups , called Viole Maribor ( supporting Maribor ) , and the Green Dragons , who support Olimpija . The two groups are the largest in the country , and it is not uncommon that the matches between the two clubs were sometimes interrupted by violent clashes between the two groups or with the police . On many occasions , before or after the matches , the fans of the two clubs would also meet up and fight on the streets . One of the worst incidents , in April 2010 after a match , resulted in a stabbing of a member of the Green Dragons who , with a group of friends , got into a fight with members of the Viole in Ljubljana 's railway station . However , to date , there have not been any fatalities in the country related to football violence .
Because the new Olimpija is supported by most of the fans of the previous Olimpija , including their ultras group , the Green Dragons , who have a long @-@ standing rivalry with Maribor 's own ultras group Viole Maribor , many see the matches between Maribor and the new club as the continuation of the rivalry and refer to it by the same name . However , there are many fans , either the ones from Maribor or the ones from Ljubljana , that do not share the same view and do not share similar beliefs , including part of the media such as RTV Slovenija and Večer . The overall statistics of the old and the new Olimpija are tracked separately by the Football Association of Slovenia and the Association of 1 . SNL . The first match between Maribor and the new Olimpija took place on 24 October 2007 in a Slovenian cup quarter @-@ final match that was won by Maribor , 3 – 1 . At the time Olimpija was still competing under the name Olimpija Bežigrad . Statistically , Maribor is the more successful club either in the case of matches only from the period from 1962 to 2005 or the whole period from 1962 to present day . Maribor is also much more successful in case of the matches against Olimpija , established in 2005 as Bežigrad .
= = = Prekmurian – Styrian derby = = =
The other major rivalry of the club was that against Mura from Murska Sobota . Similar to Olimpija , Mura also folded and was dissolved in 2004 and today the continuation of the rivalry is considered as the matches between Maribor and NŠ Mura , established in 2012 , who consider themselves , together with the fans of the old Mura , as the spiritual continuation of the dissolved club . The match between the two clubs was first played in 1967 in the time of SFR Yugoslavia . Although the first match was played in the late 1960s it was not until the independence of Slovenia in 1991 when most of the matches were played . Before the establishment of the 1 . SNL in 1991 both clubs had never played together in the top division and the rivalry became apparent only after the independence of Slovenia , when both clubs were among the top teams of the newly established national league . Mura comes from a small , rural town of Murska Sobota in eastern Slovenia which is the center of the poorest region in the country , Prekmurje . Prekmurje was , for about a thousand years , part of the Kingdom of Hungary , unlike other Slovene Lands . It therefore maintains certain specific linguistic , cultural and religious features that differentiate it from other traditional Slovenian regions . The Mura river , which runs on the border between Styria ( Štajerska ) , the capital of which is Maribor , and Prekmurje was therefore not just a natural barrier , but political as well . During the 1990s and early 2000s the two clubs were the most successful and popular teams in the eastern part of the country . The rivalry reached its peak in 2003 – 04 season when Mura hosted Maribor at home in the final round of the season . Before the match Maribor was leading the table and was close in winning their eighth consecutive title while the mid table position of Mura was predetermined before the final round . However , Mura won the match 2 – 1 and Maribor eventually finished the season on third place , losing the title by two points .
Mura also has support during their matches from their ultras group , named the Black Gringos . Statistically , both teams always enjoyed one of the biggest attendances on their matches and , in term of numbers , both teams had one of the largest fan bases in the country . The fact that Prekmurje is one of the smallest and least populated regions in Slovenia has made Mura 's fans labeled , by the general public , as one of the most loyal in the country . Statistically , Maribor is the more successful club , considering either the case of matches from the period from 1967 to 2005 , or the whole period from 1967 to present day .
= = Honours = =
= = = Yugoslavia = = =
League
Yugoslav Second League :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1966 – 67
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1963 – 64 , 1972 – 73 , 1978 – 79
Yugoslav Third League :
Winners ( 5 ) : 1960 – 61 , 1975 – 76 , 1981 – 82 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1987 – 88
Cup
Yugoslav Cup
Semi @-@ finalists ( 1 ) : 1967 – 68
Slovenian Republic Cup :
Winners ( 13 ) : 1961 , 1966 , 1967 , 1972 – 73 , 1973 – 74 , 1976 – 77 , 1978 – 79 , 1980 – 81 , 1982 – 83 , 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86 , 1987 – 88 , 1988 – 89
Runners @-@ up ( 8 ) : 1963 , 1968 , 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1972 , 1983 – 84 , 1986 – 87
= = = Slovenia = = =
League
Slovenian First League :
Winners ( 13 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98 , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
Runners @-@ up ( 5 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 , 1994 – 95 , 2009 – 10 , 2015 – 16
Cup
Slovenian Cup :
Winners ( 9 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1993 – 94 , 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 2003 – 04 , 2009 – 10 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2015 – 16
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Slovenian Supercup :
Winners ( 4 ) : 2009 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 2010 , 2011 , 2015
Doubles and Trebles
The Double ( League and Cup ) :
Winners ( 4 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 ( as part of the Treble )
The Treble ( League , Cup and Supercup ) :
Winners ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Maribor 's tally of 13 Slovenian Championships and the total of nine Slovenian Cup titles is the highest in Slovenian football . Maribor holds the record for most consecutive league titles ( 7 and 5 respectively ) , ahead of Olimpija ( 4 ) and Gorica ( 3 ) . They are also the only team in the country that has achieved the Slovenian Championship and the Slovenian Cup doubles on more than one occasion ( 4 ) . In addition , they are the only club who has won the Slovenian version of the treble , having won the league , cup and supercup during the 2012 – 13 season . On their official website , UEFA states that Maribor has won one international cup , as Maribor was one of the winners of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 2006 . However , the trophy itself was awarded to Newcastle United , the team that advanced farthest in the UEFA competitions that season . Maribor have the best top @-@ flight record in history , having finished below fourth place only once . Maribor also have the highest average league finishing position for the Slovenian league , with an average league placing of 2 @,@ 0 . In addition , they were the first team to win 1 @,@ 000 points in Slovenian top flight , achieving that with a 2 – 1 away victory against Rudar Velenje on 26 July 2008 .
= = Youth Academy = =
Maribor 's Academy is responsible for youth development at the club , with the goal of developing young players for the future . The academy is hailed as the best in Slovenia and has been enjoying a fair amount of success in producing promising young players . The academy is composed of four youth selections , ranging from U14 to U19 , and the Children 's Football School , composed by players attending the primary school . Totally , there are over 210 youth players in the system who are trained by professional staff within the club . The
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vision of the club and its youth system is not only to produce new players but also to prepare young children for the future and life without football . Therefore , each child who wants to be a member of the academy must also be successful not only on the football field but also in the field of education . During the last few years the club has also spread the football school activities to primary schools in the city of Maribor and the surrounding area , in the form of circles , where as part of the Children 's Football School around 300 of the youngest footballers train .
Since the independence of Slovenia in 1991 and the establishment of Maribor 's youth system in its present form , the academy has been the most successful in the country . U19 team holds the record for most titles than any other team , having won six times . The same team has also won three Youth Cups and is therefore the most triumphant team in their category . Other teams are equally successful as both U17 and U15 teams holds the record for most titles ( five ) in their category . Even younger selections of the club also play in top @-@ flight of their respective age categories and share similar success . In addition , Maribor 's youth squads became the first in the country that were able to achieve league victories in the four highest youth levels ( U19 , U17 , U15 and U13 ) during the course of one season . Maribor 's youth academy give , on average , at least 15 players per season to the Slovenia national football team youth selections and players from the academy are continuously tracked by renowned European clubs . In 2012 , a record eight Maribor players were called to the Slovenia national under @-@ 17 football team for the 2012 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
The following list of players is current as of the date shown in the update status at the foot of the listing and player inclusion , team positions , nationalities and squad numbers depicted for the players is based solely on the first team squad information that is published and regularly maintained under the " Players " tab of the NK Maribor official website . For the information about reserves and youth players see Maribor B.
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Information in the above player listing is current as of 24 June 2016 .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
19 – Stipe Balajić , defender ( 1998 – 2005 )
Number 19 is the only retired number in history of Maribor . It was retired in honour of Stipe Balajić , who was with the club for eight seasons in the late 1990s and early 2000s , during the club 's most successful period . He is considered as one of the best players to ever play for the club and played , both , as a defender and midfielder . In his last couple of seasons he was also team captain . Balajić earned a total of 229 official appearances for the club , scoring 37 goals in the process . He played his last match with the club on 7 July 2005 , in a friendly match against his former club Hajduk Split . He started the match and was then substituted after 19 minutes of play in a symbolic gesture .
= = = Purple warrior = = =
The Purple warrior ( Vijoličasti bojevnik or Vijol 'čni bojevnik ) , is a trophy awarded to the most distinguished player in the past year . The winner of the trophy is decided by a popular vote on the official website of the club , where everybody can participate . The voting starts at the end of the year and is usually finished in a month . To be eligible to participate in a poll , a player must appear for the club in at least 10 official matches . The voting was first introduced at the end of 2007 – 08 season , with Czech defender Lubomir Kubica selected as the first ever trophy winner . Defender Elvedin Džinić was the first domestic player that won the award . Between 2007 and 2011 the voting was conducted during the summer and awarded to the best player of the past season , however , the trophy for the season 2011 – 12 was not awarded . Instead , the club had decided to prolong the voting and award the trophy to the most distinguished player of the past full year ( from January until December ) . Marcos Tavares was awarded the award five times , all in successive years .
Winners
= = Notable managers = =
The following managers have won at least one trophy when in charge of Maribor after the independence of Slovenia in 1991 :
= = Club officials = =
Note : Flags indicate staff member 's primary nationality . They may hold more than one secondary nationalities .
= Neil Peart =
Neil Ellwood Peart , OC ( / ˈpɪərt / ; born September 12 , 1952 ) , is a Canadian @-@ American musician and author , best known as the drummer and primary lyricist for the rock band Rush . Peart has received numerous awards for his musical performances , including an induction into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1983 , making him the youngest person ever so honored . He is known for his technical proficiency and stamina .
Peart grew up in Port Dalhousie , Ontario ( now part of St. Catharines ) . During adolescence , he floated between regional bands in pursuit of a career as a full @-@ time drummer . After a discouraging stint in England to concentrate on his music , Peart returned home , where he joined a local Toronto band , Rush , in the summer of 1974 .
Early in his career , Peart 's performance style was deeply rooted in hard rock . He drew most of his inspiration from drummers such as Keith Moon and John Bonham , players who were at the forefront of the British hard rock scene . As time passed , he began to emulate jazz and big band musicians Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich . In 1994 , Peart became a friend and pupil of jazz instructor Freddie Gruber . It was during this time that Peart decided to revamp his playing style by incorporating jazz and swing components . Gruber was also responsible for introducing him to the products of Drum Workshop , the company whose products Peart currently endorses .
In addition to being a musician , Peart has published several memoirs about his travels . Peart is also Rush 's primary lyricist . In writing lyrics for Rush , Peart addresses universal themes and diverse subject matter including science fiction , fantasy , and philosophy , as well as secular , humanitarian and libertarian themes . All five of his books are travel @-@ based non @-@ fiction , though they diverge into his life and these subjects as well . Peart currently resides in Santa Monica , California , with his wife , photographer Carrie Nuttall , and daughter , Olivia Louise . He also has a home in the Laurentian Mountains of Quebec , Canada , and spends time in Toronto for recording purposes .
On December 7 , 2015 , Peart announced his retirement from music in an interview with Drumhead Magazine , though bandmate Geddy Lee suggests Peart 's comments are taken out of context .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early childhood = = =
Peart was born in a Hamilton hospital to Glen and Betty Peart and lived his early years on his family 's farm in Hagersville , on the outskirts of Hamilton . The first child of four , his brother Danny and sisters Judy and Nancy were born after the family moved to St. Catharines when Peart was two years old . At this time his father became parts manager for Dalziel Equipment , an International Harvester farm machinery dealer . In 1956 the family moved to the Port Dalhousie area of the town . Peart attended Gracefield School and later Lakeport Secondary School , and describes his childhood as happy and says he experienced a warm family life . By early adolescence he became interested in music and acquired a transistor radio , which he would use to tune into pop music stations broadcasting from Toronto , Hamilton , Welland , Ontario and Buffalo , New York .
His first exposure to musical training came in the form of piano lessons , which he later said in his instructional video A Work in Progress did not have much impact on him . He had a penchant for drumming on various objects around the house with a pair of chopsticks , so for his 13th birthday his parents bought him a pair of drum sticks , a practice drum and some lessons , with the promise that if he stuck with it for a year they would buy him a kit .
His parents bought him a drum kit for his 14th birthday and he began taking lessons from Don George at the Peninsula Conservatory of Music . His stage debut took place that year at the school 's Christmas pageant in St. Johns Anglican Church Hall in Port Dalhousie . His next appearance was at Lakeport High School with his first group , The Eternal Triangle . This performance contained an original number titled " LSD Forever " . At this show he performed his first solo .
Peart got a job in Lakeside Park , in Port Dalhousie on the shores of Lake Ontario , which later inspired a song of the same name on the Rush album Caress of Steel . He worked on the Bubble Game and Ball Toss , but his tendency to take it easy when business was slack resulted in his termination . By his late teens , Peart had played in local bands such as Mumblin ’ Sumpthin ’ , the Majority , and JR Flood . These bands practiced in basement recreation rooms and garages and played church halls , high schools and roller rinks in towns across Southern Ontario such as Mitchell , Seaforth , and Elmira . They also played in the northern Ontario city of Timmins . Tuesday nights were filled with jam sessions at the Niagara Theatre Centre .
= = = Career before joining Rush = = =
At eighteen years of age , after struggling to achieve success as a drummer in Canada , Peart travelled to London , England hoping to further his career as a professional musician . Despite playing in several bands and picking up occasional session work , he was forced to support himself by selling trinkets to tourists in a souvenir shop called The Great Frog on Carnaby Street .
While in London he came across the writings of novelist and Objectivist Ayn Rand . Rand 's writings became a significant early philosophical influence on Peart , as he found many of her writings on individualism and Objectivism inspiring . References to Rand 's philosophy can be found in his early lyrics , most notably " Anthem " from 1975 's Fly by Night and " 2112 " from 1976 's 2112 .
After eighteen months of dead @-@ end musical gigs , and disillusioned by his lack of progress in the music business , Peart placed his aspiration of becoming a professional musician on hold and returned to Canada . Upon returning to St. Catharines , he worked for his father selling tractor parts at Dalziel Equipment .
= = = Joining Rush = = =
After returning to Canada , Peart was recruited to play drums for a St. Catharines band known as Hush , who played on the South Ontario bar circuit . Soon after , a mutual acquaintance convinced Peart to audition for the Toronto @-@ based band Rush , which needed a replacement for its original drummer John Rutsey . Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson oversaw the audition . His future band mates describe his arrival that day as somewhat humorous , as he arrived in shorts , driving a battered old Ford Pinto with his drums stored in trashcans . Peart felt the entire audition was a complete disaster . While Lee and Peart hit it off on a personal level ( both sharing similar tastes in books and music ) , Lifeson had a less favourable impression of Peart . After some discussion , Lee and Lifeson accepted Peart 's maniacal British style of drumming , reminiscent of The Who 's Keith Moon .
Peart officially joined the band on July 29 , 1974 , two weeks before the group 's first US tour . Peart procured a silver Slingerland kit which he played at his first gig with the band , opening for Uriah Heep and Manfred Mann in front of over 11 @,@ 000 people at the Civic Arena , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania on August 14 , 1974 .
= = = Early career with Rush = = =
Peart soon settled into his new position , also becoming the band 's primary lyricist . Before joining Rush , he had written few songs , but , with the other members largely uninterested in writing lyrics , Peart 's previously underutilized writing became as noticed as his musicianship . The band was working hard to establish themselves as a recording act , and Peart , along with the rest of the band , began to undertake extensive touring .
His first recording with the band , 1975 's Fly by Night , was fairly successful , winning the Juno Award for most promising new act , but the follow @-@ up , Caress of Steel , for which the band had high hopes , was greeted with hostility by both fans and critics . In response to this negative reception , most of which was aimed at the B side @-@ spanning epic " The Fountain of Lamneth " , Peart responded by penning " 2112 " on their next album of the same name in 1976 . The album , despite record company indifference , became their breakthrough and gained a following in the United States . The supporting tour culminated in a three @-@ night stand at Massey Hall in Toronto , a venue Peart had dreamed of playing in his days on the Southern Ontario bar circuit and where he was introduced as " The Professor on the drum kit " by Lee .
Peart returned to England for Rush 's Northern European Tour and the band stayed in the United Kingdom to record the next album , 1977 's A Farewell to Kings in Rockfield Studios in Wales . They returned to Rockfield to record the follow @-@ up , Hemispheres , in 1978 , which they wrote entirely in the studio . The recording of five studio albums in four years , coupled with as many as 300 gigs a year , convinced the band to take a different approach thereafter . Peart has described his time in the band up to this point as " a dark tunnel . "
= = = Playing style reinvention = = =
In 1992 , Peart was invited by Buddy Rich 's daughter , Cathy Rich , to play at the Buddy Rich Memorial Scholarship Concert in New York City . Peart accepted and performed for the first time with the Buddy Rich Big Band . Peart remarked that he had little time to rehearse , and noted that he was embarrassed to find the band played a different arrangement of the song than the one he had learned . Feeling that his performance left much to be desired , Peart decided to produce and play on two Buddy Rich tribute albums titled Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich in 1994 and 1997 in order to regain his aplomb .
While producing the first Buddy Rich tribute album , Peart was struck by the tremendous improvement in ex @-@ Journey drummer Steve Smith 's playing , and asked him his " secret . " Smith responded he had been studying with drum teacher Freddie Gruber .
In early 2007 , Peart and Cathy Rich again began discussing yet another Buddy tribute concert . At the recommendation of bassist Jeff Berlin , Peart decided to once again augment his swing style with formal drum lessons , this time under the tutelage of another pupil of Freddie Gruber , Peter Erskine , himself an instructor of Steve Smith . On October 18 , 2008 , Peart once again performed at the Buddy Rich Memorial Concert at New York 's Hammerstein Ballroom . The concert has since been released on DVD .
= = = Family tragedy and recovery = = =
On August 10 , 1997 , soon after the conclusion of Rush 's Test for Echo Tour on July 4 , 1997 , Peart 's first daughter and then @-@ only child , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Selena Taylor , was killed in a single @-@ car accident on Highway 401 near the town of Brighton , Ontario . His common @-@ law wife of 22 years , Jacqueline Taylor , succumbed to cancer only 10 months later on June 20 , 1998 . Peart attributes her death to the result of a " broken heart " and called it " a slow suicide by apathy . She just didn 't care . "
In his book Ghost Rider : Travels on the Healing Road , Peart writes that he told his bandmates at Selena 's funeral , " consider me retired . " Peart took a long sabbatical to mourn and reflect , and travelled extensively throughout North and Central America on his motorcycle , covering 88 @,@ 000 km ( 55 @,@ 000 mi ) . After his journey , Peart decided to return to the band . Peart wrote the book as a chronicle of his geographical and emotional journey .
Peart was introduced to photographer Carrie Nuttall in Los Angeles by long @-@ time Rush photographer Andrew MacNaughtan . They married on September 9 , 2000 . In early 2001 , Peart announced to his bandmates that he was ready to return to recording and performing . The product of the band 's return was the 2002 album Vapor Trails . At the start of the ensuing tour in support of the album , it was decided amongst the band members that Peart would not take part in the daily grind of press interviews and " meet and greet " sessions upon their arrival in a new city that typically monopolize a touring band 's daily schedule . Peart has always shied away from these types of in @-@ person encounters , and it was decided that exposing him to a lengthy stream of questions about the tragic events of his life was not necessary .
Since the release of Vapor Trails and his reunion with bandmates , Peart has returned to work as a full @-@ time musician . Rush released an all @-@ covers EP , Feedback in June 2004 and their 18th studio album Snakes & Arrows in May 2007 , supported by tours in 2004 , 2007 , and 2008 .
In the June 2009 edition of Peart 's website 's News , Weather , and Sports , titled " Under the Marine Layer " , he announced that he and Nuttall were expecting their first child . Olivia Louise Peart was born later that year .
Peart and the rest of the band toured North America , South America and Europe on the Time Machine Tour , which concluded on July 2 , 2011 , at The Gorge Amphitheatre in George , Washington . Following this tour , the band released their most recent studio album , Clockwork Angels on June 12 , 2012 . On January 22 , 2015 , the band officially announced the Rush R40 Tour , celebrating the fortieth anniversary of Peart 's membership in the band .
In the mid @-@ 2010s , Peart acquired American citizenship .
= = = Retirement = = =
Peart announced his retirement in an interview in December 2015 :
Lately Olivia has been introducing me to new friends at school as ' My dad — He 's a retired drummer . ' True to say — funny to hear . And it does not pain me to realize that , like all athletes , there comes a time to ... take yourself out of the game . I would rather set it aside than face the predicament described in our song ' Losing It ' …
Peart had been suffering from chronic tendonitis and shoulder problems . Bandmate Geddy Lee 's interpretation of Peart 's announcement was that Peart was merely confirming his retirement from touring .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Style and influences = = =
Peart 's drumming skill and technique are well @-@ regarded by fans , fellow musicians , and music journalists . His influences are eclectic , ranging from Pete Thomas , John Bonham , Michael Giles , Ginger Baker , Phil Collins , Steve Gadd , Stewart Copeland , Michael Shrieve and Keith Moon , to fusion and jazz drummers Billy Cobham , Buddy Rich , Bill Bruford and Gene Krupa . The Who was the first group that inspired him to write songs and play the drums . Peart is distinguished for playing " butt @-@ end out " , reversing stick orientation for greater impact and increased rimshot capacity . " When I was starting out " , Peart said , " if I broke the tips off my sticks I couldn 't afford to buy new ones , so I would just turn them around and use the other end . I got used to it , and continue to use the heavy end of lighter sticks – it gives me a solid impact , but with less ' dead weight ' to sling around . "
Peart had long played matched grip , but shifted to traditional as part of his style reinvention in the mid @-@ 1990s under the tutelage of jazz coach Freddie Gruber . He played traditional grip throughout his first instructional DVD A Work in Progress , and on Rush 's Test For Echo studio album . Peart went back to using primarily matched , though he does switch to traditional from time to time when playing songs from Test for Echo and during moments when he feels traditional grip is more appropriate , such as the rudimentary snare drum section of his drum solo . He discusses the details of these switches in the DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo .
= = = Equipment = = =
With Rush , Peart has played Slingerland , Tama , Ludwig , and Drum Workshop drums , in that order .
Peart played Zildjian A @-@ series cymbals and Wuhan china cymbals until the early 2000s when he switched to Paragon , a line created for him by Sabian . In concert , Peart uses an elaborate 360 @-@ degree drum kit , with a large acoustic set in front and electronic drums to the rear .
During the late 1970s , Peart augmented his acoustic setup with diverse percussion instruments including orchestra bells , tubular bells , wind chimes , crotales , timbales , timpani , gong , temple blocks , bell tree , triangle , and melodic cowbells . Since the mid @-@ 1980s , Peart has replaced several of these pieces with MIDI trigger pads . This was done in order to trigger sounds sampled from various pieces of acoustic percussion that would otherwise consume far too much stage area . Some purely electronic non @-@ instrumental sounds are also used . One classic MIDI pad used is the Malletkat Express which is a two @-@ octave electronic MIDI device that resembles a xylophone or piano . The Malletkat Express is composed of rubber pads for the " keys " so that any stick can be used . Beginning with 1984 's Grace Under Pressure , he used Simmons electronic drums in conjunction with Akai digital samplers . Peart has performed several songs primarily using the electronic portion of his drum kit . ( e.g. " Red Sector A " , " Closer to the Heart " on A Show of Hands and " Mystic Rhythms " on R30 . ) Peart 's drum solos also feature sections performed primarily on the electronic portion of his kit .
Shortly after making the choice to include electronic drums and triggers , Peart added what has become another trademark of his kit : a rotating drum riser . During live Rush shows the riser allows Peart to swap the prominent portions of the kit ( traditional acoustic in front , electronic in back ) . A staple of Peart 's live drum solos has been the in @-@ performance rotation @-@ and @-@ swap of the front and back kits as part of the solo itself . This special effect provides both a symbolic transition of drum styles within the solo and a visual treat for the audience .
In the early 2000s , Peart began taking full advantage of the advances in electronic drum technology , primarily incorporating Roland V @-@ Drums and continued use of samplers with his existing set of acoustic percussion . His digitally @-@ sampled library of both traditional and exotic sounds has expanded over the years with his music .
In April 2006 , Peart took delivery of his third DW set , configured similarly to the R30 set , in a Tobacco Sunburst finish over curly maple exterior ply , with chrome hardware . He refers to this set , which he uses primarily in Los Angeles , as the " West Coast kit " . Besides using it on recent recordings with Vertical Horizon , he played it while composing parts for Rush 's album , Snakes & Arrows . It features a custom 23 @-@ inch bass drum ; all other sizes remain the same as the R30 kit .
On March 20 , 2007 Peart revealed that Drum Workshop prepared a new set of red @-@ painted DW maple shells with black hardware and gold " Snakes & Arrows " logos for him to play on the Snakes & Arrows Tour .
Peart has also designed his own signature series drumstick with Pro @-@ Mark . The Promark PW747W , Neil Peart Signature drumsticks , are made of Japanese White Oak , which adds more weight than a standard hickory stick . They have the thickness of a standard 5A ( 0 @.@ 551 " , 1 @.@ 4 cm ) but are longer ( 16 @.@ 25 " , 41 @.@ 3 cm ) with a thicker taper and larger olive shaped wooden tip . When Rush held their Time Machine Tour , Pro @-@ Mark released three limited edition sticks , each with one of the three designs selected from Peart 's " Steam Punk " tour kit printed with copper ink . Some other artists who use the Neil Peart Signature series include Ben Johnston of Biffy Clyro , Richie Hayward of Little Feat and Paul Garred of The Kooks .
During the 2010 @-@ 11 Time Machine Tour Peart used a new DW kit which was outfitted with copper @-@ plated hardware and time machine designs to match the tour 's steampunk themes . Matching Paragon cymbals with clock imagery were also used .
= = = Solos = = =
Peart is noted for his distinctive in @-@ concert drum solos , characterized by exotic percussion instruments and long , intricate passages in odd time signatures . His complex arrangements sometimes result in complete separation of upper- and lower @-@ limb patterns ; an ostinato dubbed " The Waltz " is a typical example . His solos have been featured on every live album released by the band . On the early live albums ( All the World 's a Stage & Exit ... Stage Left ) , the drum solo was included as part of a song . On all subsequent live albums through Time Machine 2011 : Live in Cleveland , the drum solo has been included as a separate track . The Clockwork Angels Tour album includes three short solos instead of a single long one : two interludes played during other songs and one standalone .
Peart 's instructional DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo is an in @-@ depth examination of how he constructs a solo that is musical rather than indulgent , using his solo from the 2004 R30 30th anniversary tour as an example .
= = Lyrics = =
Peart is the main lyricist for Rush . Literature has always heavily influenced his writings and , as such , he has tackled a wide range of subjects . In his early days with Rush , much of his lyrical output was influenced by fantasy , science fiction , mythology and philosophy . However , nearly as much would deal with real world or personal issues such as life on the road and parts of his adolescence .
The song " 2112 " focuses on the struggle of an individual against the collectivist forces of a totalitarian state . This became the band 's breakthrough release , but also brought unexpected criticism , mainly because of the credit of inspiration Peart gave to Ayn Rand in the liner notes . " There was a remarkable backlash , especially from the English press , this being the late seventies , when collectivism was still in style , especially among journalists , " Peart said . " They were calling us ' Junior fascists ' and ' Hitler lovers . ' It was a total shock to me " .
Weary of ideological fealty to Rand 's philosophy of Objectivism , Peart has sought to remind listeners of his eclecticism and independence in interviews . He did not try to argue in defence of Rand 's views , saying " For a start , the extent of my influence by the writings of Ayn Rand should not be overstated . I am no one 's disciple . "
The 1980 album Permanent Waves saw Peart cease to use fantasy and mythological themes . 1981 's Moving Pictures showed that Peart was still interested in heroic , mythological figures , but now placed firmly in a modern , realistic context . The song " Limelight " from the same album is an autobiographical account of Peart 's reservations regarding his own popularity and the pressures with fame . From Permanent Waves onward , most of Peart 's lyrics began to revolve around social , emotional , and humanitarian issues , usually from an objective standpoint and employing the use of metaphors and symbolic representation .
1984 's Grace Under Pressure strings together such despondent topics as the Holocaust ( " Red Sector A " ) and the death of close friends ( " Afterimage " ) . Starting with 1987 's Hold Your Fire and including 1989 's Presto , 1991 's Roll the Bones , and 1993 's Counterparts , Peart would continue to explore diverse lyrical motifs , even addressing the topic of love and relationships ( " Open Secrets " , " Ghost of a Chance " , " Speed of Love " , " Cold Fire " , " Alien Shore " ) a subject which he purposefully avoided in the past , out of fear of using clichés . 2002 's Vapor Trails was heavily devoted to Peart 's personal issues , along with other humanitarian topics such as the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks ( " Peaceable Kingdom " ) . The album Snakes & Arrows dealt primarily and vociferously with Peart 's opinions regarding faith and religion . The lyrics of the album 's song " Faithless " exhibit Peart 's life stance , which has been closely identified with secular humanism . Peart has only explicitly discussed his religious views in his book The Masked Rider : Cycling in West Africa , in which he writes " I 'm a linear thinking agnostic , but not an atheist , folks . "
Opinions of Peart 's lyrics have always been divided . While fans have lauded them as thoughtful and intelligent , some critics have called them overwrought and bombastic . In 2007 , he was ranked No. 2 ( after Sting ) on Blender magazine 's list of " worst lyricists in rock " . In contrast , Allmusic has called Peart " one of rock 's most accomplished lyricists . "
= = Political views = =
For most of his career , Peart had never publicly identified with any political party or organization in Canada or the United States . Even so , his political and philosophical views have often been analyzed through his work with Rush and through other sources . In October 1993 , shortly before that year 's Canadian federal election , Peart appeared with then @-@ Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien in an interview broadcast in Canada on MuchMusic . In that interview , Peart stated he was an undecided voter who supported Quebec federalism .
Peart has often been categorized as an Objectivist and an admirer of Ayn Rand . This is largely based on his work with Rush in the 1970s , particularly the song " Anthem " and the album 2112 ; the latter specifically credited Rand 's work . However , in his 1994 Rush Backstage Club Newsletter , while contending the " individual is paramount in matters of justice and liberty , " Peart specifically distanced himself from a strictly Objectivist line . In a June 2012 Rolling Stone interview , when asked if Rand 's words still speak to him , Peart replied , " Oh , no . That was forty years ago . But it was important to me at the time in a transition of finding myself and having faith that what I believed was worthwhile . " Peart has also ascribed to a philosophy that he has called " Tryism , " which means that anything that one tries to attain will be attained if one tries hard enough .
Although Peart is sometimes assumed to be a " conservative " or " Republican " rock star , he has criticized the Republican Party by stating that the philosophy of the party is " absolutely opposed " to Christ 's teachings . In 2005 he described himself as a " left @-@ leaning libertarian , " and is often cited as a libertarian celebrity . In July 2011 , Peart reiterated those views , calling himself a " bleeding @-@ heart libertarian " .
In a 2015 interview with Rolling Stone , Peart stated that in US politics he supports the Democratic Party .
= = Books = =
Peart is the author of five non @-@ fiction books , the latest released in September 2012 . His growth as an author predates the published work by several years ( not including his work as Rush 's primary lyricist ) , through private letters and short travelogues sent out to a small circle of friends and family .
Peart 's first book , titled The Masked Rider : Cycling in West Africa , was written in 1996 about a month @-@ long bicycling tour through Cameroon in November 1988 . The book details Peart 's travels through towns and villages with four fellow riders . The original had a limited print run , but after the critical and commercial success of Peart 's second book , Masked Rider was re @-@ issued and remains in print as of 2006 .
After losing his wife and ( at the time ) only daughter , Peart embarked on a lengthy motorcycle road trip spanning North America . His experiences were penned in Ghost Rider : Travels on the Healing Road . Peart and the rest of the band were always able to keep his private life at a distance from his public image in Rush . However , Ghost Rider is a first @-@ person narrative of Peart on the road , on a BMW R1100GS motorcycle , in an effort to put his life back together as he embarked on an extensive journey across North America .
Years later , after his marriage to Nuttall , Peart took another road trip , this time by car . In his third book , Traveling Music : The Soundtrack of my Life and Times , he reflects on his life , his career , his family and music . As with his previous two books , it is a first person narrative .
Thirty years after Peart joined Rush , the band found itself on its 30th anniversary tour . Released in September 2006 , Roadshow : Landscape With Drums , A Concert Tour By Motorcycle details the tour both from behind Neil 's drumkit and on his BMW R1150GS and R1200GS motorcycles .
Peart 's next book , Far and Away : A Prize Every Time , was published by ECW Press in May 2011 . This book , which he worked on for two years , is based around his travelling in North and South America . It tells how he found in a Brazilian town a unique combination of West African and Brazilian music . In 2014 , a follow @-@ up book , Far and Near : On Days like These , was published by ECW . It covers travels in North America and Europe .
Peart worked with science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson to develop a novelization of Rush 's 2012 album Clockwork Angels ; the book was published by ECW Press . Snippets of the band 's lyrics can be found throughout the story .
= = Other books = =
Drumbeats ( 1985 ) - with Kevin J. Anderson
Rhythm & Light ( 2010 ) - Neil Peart photographed by Carrie Nuttall
Clockwork Angels ( 2012 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson , based on the story and lyrics by Neil Peart .
Taking Center Stage - A Lifetime Of Live Performance ( 2013 ) - by Joe Bergamini
Clockwork Angels - The Graphic Novel ( 2015 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson , Neil Peart & artwork by Nick Robles .
Clockwork Lives ( 2015 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson & Neil Peart
= = Non @-@ Rush music projects = =
Jeff Berlin 's 1985 album Champion , played drums on two songs , the title track " Champion , " and " Marabi . "
Vertical Horizon 's 2009 album Burning the Days - drums on 3 songs including " Save Me from Myself , " " Welcome to the Bottom , " and " Even Now "
Vertical Horizon 's 2009 album Burning the Days - " Even Now " - co @-@ written by Matt Scannell and Neil Peart
Vertical Horizon 's 2013 album Echoes from the Underground - drums on 2 songs including " Instamatic " and " South for the Winter "
Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich ASIN : B001208NUQ
Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich , Vol . 2 ASIN : B000002JD4
Peart had a brief cameo in the 2007 film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters , in which samples of his drumming were played .
Peart also had a brief cameo in the 2008 film Adventures of Power and in the DVD extra does a drum @-@ off competition .
= = DVDs = =
Apart from Rush 's video releases as a band , Peart has released the following DVDs as an individual :
A Work in Progress
Anatomy of A Drum Solo S.l. : Hudson Music : Distributed by Hal Leonard . 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4234 @-@ 0700 @-@ 8
The Making Of Burning For Buddy ( A Tribute To The Music Of Buddy Rich ) ASIN : 0739045059
Taking Center Stage : A Lifetime of Live Performance Distributed by Hudson Music . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4584 @-@ 1174 @-@ 7
Fire on Ice : The Making of the Hockey Theme Distributed by Drum Channel . 2011 . ASIN : B00481YQPW
= = Awards and honours = =
Peart has received the following awards in the Modern Drummer magazine reader 's poll :
Hall of Fame : 1983
Best Rock Drummer * : 1980 , 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , 2006 , 2008
Best Multi @-@ Percussionist * : 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1986
Best Percussion Instrumentalist : 1982
Most Promising New Drummer : 1980
Best All Around : 1986
1986 Honor Roll : Rock Drummer , Multi @-@ Percussion
( * – As a member of the Honor Roll in these categories , he is no longer eligible for votes in the above categories . )
Best Instructional Video : 2006 , for Anatomy of A Drum Solo
Best Drum Recording of the 1980s , 2007 , for " YYZ " from Exit ... Stage Left
Best Recorded Performance :
1980 : Permanent Waves
1981 : Moving Pictures
1982 : Exit ... Stage Left
1983 : Signals
1985 : Grace Under Pressure
1986 : Power Windows
1988 : Hold Your Fire
1989 : A Show of Hands
1990 : Presto
1992 : Roll the Bones
1993 : Counterparts
1997 : Test for Echo
1999 : Different Stages
2002 : Vapor Trails
2004 : R30
2007 : Snakes & Arrows
2011 : Time Machine
2012 : Clockwork Angels
Peart has received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2007 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer
Best Live Performer
Best DVD ( Anatomy Of A Drum Solo )
Best Drumming Album ( Snakes & Arrows )
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2008 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Mainstream Pop Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Live Drumming Performer
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2009 :
Drummer Of The Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2010 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Live Performer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Progressive Rock Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Along with his bandmates Lee and Lifeson , Peart was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9 , 1996 . The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured , as a group . Peart was inducted into the Canadian Songwriter Hall of Fame along with bandmates Lifeson and Lee . On April 18 , 2013 , Rush was inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame .
= The Answer 's at the End =
" The Answer 's at the End " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released in 1975 on his final album for Apple Records , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . Part of the song lyrics came from a wall inscription at Harrison 's nineteenth @-@ century home , Friar Park , a legacy of the property 's original owner , Sir Frank Crisp . This aphorism , beginning " Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass " , had resonated with Harrison since he bought the property in 1970 , and it was a quote he often used when discussing his difficult relationship with fellow ex @-@ Beatle Paul McCartney .
Harrison 's adaptation of the verse for " The Answer 's at the End " coincided with a period of personal upheaval , following the harsh criticism that his 1974 North American tour had received from a number of influential concert reviewers . The song 's plea for tolerance recalls Harrison 's 1970 hit song " Isn 't It a Pity " , and in part of its musical arrangement , " The Answer 's at the End " bears the influence of Nina Simone 's 1972 cover version of that earlier composition .
Like much of the Extra Texture album , the song has traditionally enjoyed a mixed reception from music critics and biographers – being labelled " archaic parlour poetry " and a " bleak assessment of the human condition " on one hand , and a " gorgeously melodic song of forgiveness " on the other . The backing musicians on the recording include members of the band Attitudes , among them David Foster and Jim Keltner , who were signed to Harrison 's Dark Horse record label at the time .
= = Background = =
In March 1970 , George Harrison and his first wife , Pattie Boyd , moved into their Victorian Gothic residence at Friar Park in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire . The 120 @-@ room house was built in the 1890s on the site of a thirteenth @-@ century friary by Frank Crisp , a City of London solicitor and microscopist . Harrison was immediately taken with Crisp 's penchant for whimsy , the legacies of which included interior features such as doorknobs and light switches shaped as monks ' faces ( which meant " tweaking " a nose in order to turn each light on ) , and a carving of a monk 's head that showed him smiling on one side and frowning on the other . A keen horticulturalist and an authority on medieval gardening , Crisp established 10 acres of formal gardens , which similarly reflected his eccentric tastes .
From midway through the twentieth century until 1969 , ownership of Friar Park resided with the Roman Catholic Church . As a result , paint masked some of Crisp 's inscriptions inside the house , but outside , signs reading " Don 't keep off the grass " , " Herons will be prosecuted " and " Eton boys are a Harrowing sight " remained intact .
Harrison also discovered inscriptions with a more profound meaning , which he described to his Hare Krishna friend Shyamasundar Das as " like songs really , about the devil , about friendship , life " . One example was " Shadows we are and shadows we depart " , written on a stone sundial ; another began : " Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass / You know his faults , now let his foibles pass ... " This four @-@ line verse was written above an entrance @-@ way in a garden wall , and it was an aphorism that Harrison soon took to quoting in interviews . On 28 April 1970 , just over two weeks after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , he used the words during an interview for New York 's WPLQ Radio , as Village Voice reporter Howard Smith repeatedly pushed for details on the animosity between Paul McCartney and the other three Beatles . In October 1974 – towards the end of what Harrison termed a " bad domestic year " , following his split with Boyd , and shortly before his troubled North American tour with Ravi Shankar – he used the same quote in an interview with BBC Radio 's Alan Freeman , when again discussing the current relationship among the four ex @-@ Beatles .
= = Composition = =
Harrison wrote his first Friar Park @-@ inspired composition , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " , within two months of moving in . As with the " Crispisms " that surfaced in the lyrics to his 1974 single " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , a number of years elapsed before he incorporated the " Scan not a friend " inscription into a song . In 1975 , it provided the central theme to " The Answer 's at the End " , a composition that , theologian Dale Allison has written , " expresses the personal doubts and religious uncertainty George experienced in the mid @-@ 1970s " . This temporary uncertainty contrasted with his previous devotion to a Hinduism @-@ aligned spiritual path , Allison notes . It was also a period marked by Harrison 's excessive use of alcohol and cocaine – a symptom of his despondency following the 1974 North American tour and the generally unfavourable reception afforded his Dark Horse album .
The song begins in the key of D , before changing key to F for the choruses . In its musical mood , authors Robert Rodriguez and Elliot Huntley liken the released recording to " Isn 't It a Pity " , issued on Harrison 's 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass , while Simon Leng describes " The Answer 's at the End " as a ballad set to a " mellow , reflective soul mood " , like much of its parent album , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) .
According to the way he renders Crisp 's inscription in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison made a minor alteration to the original text 's third line ( " Life is one long enigma , true , my friend " ) for his opening verse :
Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass
You know his faults , now let his foibles pass
Life is one long enigma , my friend
So read on , read on , the answer 's at the end .
In another passage from I , Me , Mine , read out by his son Dhani in the 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , Harrison explains that these words helped him reach a better understanding of human relationships and others around him .
The theme of tolerance is further reflected in the song 's chorus , where Harrison urges : " Don 't be so hard on the ones that you love / It 's the ones that you love , we think so little of ... " The chorus lyrics echo the message of " Isn 't It a Pity " , in this case , author Ian Inglis writes , providing a " bleak assessment of the human condition " .
The second verse begins with an example of what Harrison biographer Alan Clayson views as the " restricted code " found in the lyrics on much of Extra Texture . Harrison sings , " The speech of flowers excels the flowers of speech / But what 's often in your heart is the hardest thing to reach " – the second line of which , Allison writes , " is surely [ Harrison ] talking about his inability to find God , who for him dwells , above all , inside the human being " . Allison suggests that , with the singer describing life as first an " enigma " and then a " mystery " , the previous certainties of his faith have disappeared ; true to the song title , Allison continues , " Only death will reveal ... whether his religious beliefs have been true or false . "
As a further reference to the sentiment regarding friendship expressed in " Isn 't It a Pity " , the middle section of " The Answer 's at the End " reflects the influence of Nina Simone 's 1972 cover of that earlier song . According to his recollection in I , Me , Mine , Harrison added this section , or coda , when recording " The Answer 's at the End " . In the lines " And isn 't it a pity how / We hurt the ones we love the most of all ... " , Inglis notes the influence of the 1944 pop standard " You Always Hurt the One You Love " .
In the final half @-@ verse , following a brief instrumental passage , Harrison personalises the second line of Crisp 's text to " You know my faults , now let my foibles pass " . Rodriguez remarks that the subject of reserving judgement would have resonated with Harrison at this time , given the " shellacking " he had recently received in music publications such as Rolling Stone .
Among the former Beatle 's biographers , interpretations differ over the message of Extra Texture songs such as " The Answer 's at the End " , with regard to his spirituality . Like Dale Allison , Gary Tillery writes of Extra Texture revealing Harrison 's " inner turmoil at having strayed from his faith " . Leng views this composition as " a deliberate tempering of tone rather than a change in fundamental beliefs " , however , with the song 's choruses " attenuat [ ing ] the search for universal solutions to a simpler , earthbound observation " . Joshua Greene similarly writes that Harrison had " regained strength and relaxed his missionary zeal " during 1975 . Greene references " The Answer 's at the End " while stating that " a modest appeal for tolerance " had now replaced the singer 's earlier " exhortations to chant and warnings about rebirth in the material world " .
= = Recording = =
Harrison taped the basic track for " The Answer 's at the End " at A & M Studios in Los Angeles on 22 April 1975 . During the previous month , Harrison attended a press party held by McCartney and the latter 's band Wings , on board the Queen Mary at Long Beach – an event that marked the first social meeting between the two former bandmates since December 1970 . McCartney biographer Howard Sounes views Harrison 's attendance as evidence of a " Beatles rapprochement " , five years after their break @-@ up .
Authors Nicholas Schaffner and Rodriguez have commented on the rushed and expedient nature of the sessions for Extra Texture , an album that saw out Harrison 's commitments to EMI @-@ affiliated Apple Records and allowed him to sign with his own , A & M @-@ distributed label , Dark Horse Records . Rather than use his Friar Park studio , Harrison recorded the album at a facility he admitted to finding " technically limiting " , since he was in Los Angeles overseeing projects by his various Dark Horse acts when studio time became available , following the cancellation of sessions for Splinter 's second album . Another of these acts was Attitudes , a band put together by his friend , session drummer Jim Keltner . " The timing was perfect , " Leng writes of Harrison 's approach to making Extra Texture , " as this latest signing to Dark Horse provided a ready @-@ made backup band , close at hand . "
Although Attitudes guitarist Danny Kortchmar did not play on the album , " The Answer 's at the End " was one of two songs that featured all three of the other band members : Keltner , pianist / musical arranger David Foster and bassist / lead singer Paul Stallworth . Another guest musician on the recording was keyboard player Gary Wright , a regular contributor to Harrison 's solo work throughout the 1970s and soon to enjoy a career breakthrough with his Dream Weaver album ( 1975 ) . A & M engineer Norman Kinney , who had carried out the mix down for the Concert
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from Canterbury and lies next to the Swale , a strip of sea separating mainland Kent from the Isle of Sheppey in the Thames Estuary . It is close to the A2 , which follows an ancient British trackway which was used by the Romans and the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and known as Watling Street . The Faversham name is of Latin via Old English origin , meaning " the metal @-@ worker 's village " .
There has been a settlement at Faversham since pre @-@ Roman times , next to the ancient sea port on Faversham Creek , and archaeological evidence has shown a Roman theatre was based in the town . It was inhabited by the Saxons and mentioned in the Domesday book as Favreshant . The town was favoured by King Stephen who established Faversham Abbey , which survived until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 . Subsequently , the town became an important seaport and established itself as a centre for brewing , and the Shepherd Neame Brewery , founded in 1698 , remains a significant major employer .
The town was also the centre of the explosives industry between the 17th and early 20th century , before a decline following an accident in 1916 which killed over 100 workers . This coincided with a revival of the shipping industry in the town . Faversham has a number of landmarks , with several historic churches including St Mary of Charity , Faversham Parish Church , the Maison Dieu and Faversham Recreation Ground . Faversham Market has been established for over 900 years and is still based in the town centre . There are good road and rail links , including a Southeastern service to the High Speed 1 line at Ebbsfleet International and London .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Faversham was established as a settlement before the Roman conquest . The Romans established several towns in Kent including Faversham , with traffic through the Saxon Shore ports of Reculver , Richborough , Dover and Lympne converging on Canterbury before heading up Watling Street to London . The town was less than 10 miles from Canterbury , and consequently Faversham had become established on this road network by 50 AD following the initial conquest by Claudius in 43 AD . Numerous remains of Roman buildings have been discovered in and around Faversham , including under St Mary of Charity Church where coins and urns were discovered during reconstruction of the western tower in 1794 . In 2013 , the remains of a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Roman theatre , able to accommodate some 12 @,@ 000 people , were discovered at a hillside near the town . The cockpit @-@ style outdoor auditorium , the first of its kind found in Britain , was a style the Romans used elsewhere in their empire on the Continent .
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Faversham was a summer capital for the Saxon kings of Kent . It was held in royal demesne in 811 , and is further cited in a charter granted by Coenwulf , the King of Mercia . Coenwulf described the town as the King 's little town of Fefresham , while it was recorded in the Domesday Book as Favreshant . The name has been documented as meaning " the metal @-@ worker 's village " , which may derive from the Old English fæfere , which in turn comes from the Latin " faber " meaning " craftsman " or " forger " . The town had established itself as a seaport by the Middle Ages , and became part of the Confederation of the Cinque Ports in the 13th century , providing a vessel to Dover . The Gough Map of Britain , printed in 1360 , shows the Swale as an important shipping channel for trade .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The manor was recorded as Terra Regis , meaning it was part of the ancient royal estates . King Stephen gave it to his chief lieutenant , William of Ypres , but soon made him swap it with Lillechurch ( now Higham ) so that the manor of Faversham could form part of the endowment of Faversham Abbey . Stephen established the abbey in 1148 , and is buried there with his consort Matilda of Boulogne , and his son , Eustace , the Earl of Boulogne . Stephen favoured the town because of the abbey , and so it was historically important during his reign . King John tried to give the church to Simon of Wells in 1201 , but it was owned by the monks of St Augustine 's Abbey at Canterbury , who appealed to Rome and denied the request . Abbey Street was constructed around this time in order to provide an appropriate approach to the abbey from the town . It still houses timber framed buildings and has been described as " the finest medieval street in southeast England " .
Sir Thomas Culpeper was granted Faversham Abbey by Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 . Most of the abbey was demolished , and the remains of Stephen were rumoured to have been thrown into Faversham Creek . An excavation of the abbey in 1964 uncovered the empty graves . The entrance gates survived the demolition and lasted until the mid @-@ 18th century , but otherwise only a small section of outer wall survived . The abbey 's masonry was taken to Calais to reinforce defence of the town , then in British possession , against the French army . In 1539 , the ground upon which the abbey had stood , along with nearby land , passed to Sir Thomas Cheney , Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports .
Among the few surviving buildings of Faversham Abbey are the two barns at Abbey Farm . Minor Barn was built around 1425 ; Major Barn , the larger of the two , dates from 1476 . Next to the barns is the Abbey Farmhouse , part of which dates from the 14th century . The Abbey Guest house , on the east side of the Abbey 's Outer Gateway , has survived as Arden 's House . This house , now a private residence in Abbey Street , was the location of the murder of Thomas Arden in 1551 . The Faversham Almshouses were founded and endowed by Thomas Manfield in 1614 , with additional houses being built by Henry Wright in 1823 .
Due to the poor quality of roads in the Middle Ages , travel by sea was an important transport corridor . Richard Tylman ( or Tillman ) , mayor in 1581 , expanded the port at Faversham , building two wharfs . He became a key figure in exporting corn , wheat and malt to London from the town .
Several notable people in the Middle Ages had origins in Faversham . Haymo of Faversham was born in Faversham and later moved to Paris to join the Franciscans , becoming the " Aristotelian of Aristotelians " . Simon of Faversham was born in the town around the middle of the 13th century and later became Chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1304 . The notorious pirate Jack Ward is believed to have been born in Faversham around 1553 . John Wilson , lutenist and teacher was born in Faversham in 1595 who was the principal composer for the King 's Men and a professor of music at Oxford . There is now a plaque at the site of the house in Abbey Street where he was born .
= = = Explosives industry = = =
A gunpowder plant had been established around 1573 in Faversham . The town had a stream which could be dammed at intervals to provide power for watermills . It became known as the Home Works in the 18th century and was nationalised in 1759 . By the 19th century , the site stretched for around a mile along the waterfront . A second explosive works was established at Oare to the northwest of town in the late 17th century , with the Marsh Works following in 1786 . Towards the end of the 19th century , two new factories were built alongside the Swale to manage production of TNT and cordite . Faversham developed six explosive factories , and from 1874 to 1919 , the town was the centre of the explosives industry in the UK .
The first production of guncotton took place in the Marsh Works in 1847 . Due to a lack of experience with production methods , an explosion took place soon after work started , with several fatalities . On Sunday 2 April 1916 , an explosion occurred at one of the Swale factories in Uplees after sparks from a chimney ignited the works containing around 150 tonnes of high explosives . The incident killed over 100 people , which led to decline of the explosives industry in the town . Later accounts suggested that had the incident not happened on a Sunday , there would have been many more casualties .
All three gunpowder factories closed in 1934 due to the impending threat of World War II . Production was moved to Ardeer in Ayrshire , Scotland , and the munition industry around Faversham is now extinct . The town is now a harbour and market community ; old sail @-@ powered Thames barges are repaired , rebuilt and moored along the creekside .
= = = Industrial Revolution and beyond = = =
Kent is the centre of hop @-@ growing in England , being centred on nearby Canterbury and Faversham has been the home of several breweries . The Shepherd Neame Brewery was officially founded in 1698 , though brewing activities in Faversham pre @-@ date this . The brewery claims to be the oldest in Britain and continues to be family @-@ owned . The Rigden brewery was founded in the early 18th century by Edward Rigden . It subsequently merged with the Canterbury @-@ based George Beer in 1922 to become George Beer & Rigden before being purchased by the Maidstone based Fremlins . Whitbread bought out Fremlins in 1967 , and closed the Faversham brewery in 1990 . The site is now a Tesco superstore . Shepherd Neame remains a significant regional brewer despite a decline in consumption of traditional bitter beer , producing around 230 @,@ 000 barrels a year . It now also makes India Pale Ale under licence . Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Philip Neame , recipient of the Victoria Cross , was born in Faversham and a memorial to him was placed in the town centre in 2014 .
A shipyard was established in Faversham by James Pollock & Sons ( Shipbuilders ) in 1916 at the request of Lord Fisher , the First Lord of The Admiralty , for manufacturing barges for landing craft . Faversham already had a tradition of shipbuilding , and it soon became a major contributor to markets throughout the world , producing vessels such as the Molliette and the Violette , both constructed of concrete . Over 1200 ships were built and launched from Faversham between 1916 and 1969 .
Faversham Market is still held in the town centre . It is now the oldest street market in Kent , dating back over 900 years . Monthly markets are also held in Preston Street and Court Street .
Having been an important thoroughfare since the 12th century , Abbey Street went into decline around the start of the 20th . Some buildings on the street adjoining Quay Lane were demolished in 1892 and much of the entire street was intended for demolition as recently as the 1950s , until intervention from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings . Local people began a determined fight to restore and preserve the area . Faversham has a highly active archaeological society and a series of community archaeology projects are run every year . In 2009 , evidence of the town 's medieval tannery was unearthed in back gardens of one street , and evidence from the Saxon period was uncovered during the Hunt the Saxons project between 2005 and 2007 .
= = Government = =
A charter was granted to the Mayor of Faversham , Jurats and Freemen of the Town of Faversham in 1546 , and regranted 1685 ; the town council was established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 . The parliamentary constituency of Faversham was created for the 1885 general election and replaced by the new constituencies of Sittingbourne and Sheppey and Faversham and Mid Kent at the 1997 general election . The town has been represented by a Member of Parliament from the Conservative Party other than between 1945 and 1970 . Since 2015 , the constituency 's MP has been Conservative Helen Whately .
Faversham is within the Swale local government district . The town contains the four electoral wards of Abbey , Davington Priory , St Ann 's and Watling . The town has absorbed several former civil parishes such as Buckland @-@ by @-@ Faversham and Faversham Without , and created new parishes in the area including Graveney , Luddenham , Oare and Sheldwich .
The Arms of Faversham Town Council is based on the Royal Arms of England , alluding to the town 's regal history .
= = Geography = =
Faversham is roughly equidistant between Sittingbourne and Canterbury . It lies 48 miles ( 77 km ) east of London , 18 miles ( 29 km ) east north east of Maidstone and 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Ashford . Nearby villages include Oare across Oare Creek to the north , Luddenham , Mockbeggar and Ospringe .
Geographically , Faversham sits at a boundary between marshland to the north and a mixture of brick earth , gravel and chalk to the south which leads into the North Downs . Faversham Creek connects the town to the Swale that separates mainland Kent from the Isle of Sheppey . The surrounding area is part of the South Swale Nature Reserve , popular with wildfowl and wading birds . The coastline around Faversham is a by @-@ product of the changes to sea level around Britain since the end of the last ice age . During Roman Britain and into the first millennium , the Faversham coast was a large estuary with Oare and Graveney being peninsulas . Land reclamation during the Middle Ages , which closed the River Wantsum and connected the Isle of Thanet to mainland Kent , resulted in less tidal waters reaching Faversham . This led to the gradual silting up of estuaries ; Faversham Creek and its tributaries have been reduced from 1 @,@ 378 acres ( 558 ha ) to 43 acres ( 17 ha ) . To stop the creek silting up completely and making navigation impossible , a number of sluices have been installed since the 16th century .
Faversham holds two UK weather records . The first was when the UK 's highest ever temperature was recorded on 10 August 2003 , at 38 @.@ 5 ° C ( 101 @.@ 3 ° F ) . This was the first time the temperature had ever exceeded 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in the UK . The second was the highest UV index ever recorded , 16 ( Extreme ) on 6 June 2015 .
The absolute minimum temperature of − 17 @.@ 8 ° C ( 0 @.@ 0 ° F ) was set in January 1985 .
At the 2011 UK census , Faversham had a population of 19 @,@ 316 , an increase of 1 @,@ 606 from the 2001 census . The population figures were split into Abbey ( 6 @,@ 084 ) , Davington Priory ( 2 @,@ 593 ) , St Ann 's ( 5 @,@ 268 ) and Watling ( 5 @,@ 371 ) . 9 @,@ 770 people were employed within the town , split into retail ( 1 @,@ 416 ) , education ( 1 @,@ 239 ) , health and social work ( 1 @,@ 200 ) , construction ( 836 ) and manufacturing ( 692 ) . 17 @,@ 868 of the town 's residents were born in England .
= = Culture = =
Arden of Feversham is a play about the murder of Thomas Arden written around 1590 , possibly by William Shakespeare or Christopher Marlowe . It gives its name to the modern Arden Theatre in the town , Local theatre groups perform in the theatre as part of the Canterbury Festival each autumn .
The Royal Cinema is based near the town square . It opened in 1936 and is now Grade II listed . It is one of only two mock Tudor cinemas to survive in the UK .
The Faversham Society was established in 1962 , and is one of the oldest Civic Societies in the UK . It owns and manages the Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre as its headquarters . The Centre hosts a large museum depicting the town 's history and culture and hosts the town 's Visitor Information Centre , including a bookshop .
The Maison Dieu ( ' House of God ' ) , located on the A2 to the southwest of the town centre , is a hospital , monastery , hostel , retirement home and Royal lodge commissioned by Henry III in 1234 and now in the care of English Heritage . It is now managed by the Maison Dieu Trust and closely associated to the Faversham Society as a museum of Roman artefacts from the surrounding area .
Davington Priory lies to the northwest of the town centre and was founded in the mid 12th century . It is currently owned and occupied by musician and activist Bob Geldof .
Brogdale Farm , to the south of the town centre , has hosted the DEFRA National Fruit Collection since 1954 . It has over 2 @,@ 040 varieties of apple , 502 of pear , 350 of plum , 322 of cherry and smaller collections of bush fruits , nuts and grapes , all grown in 150 acres ( 61 ha ) of orchards . The farm hosts a number of fruit festivals throughout the year , guided tours and activities for schools . It also hosts the 9 @-@ inch Faversham miniature railway which runs through the orchards .
In 2011 it was discovered that the town owns an original version of Magna Carta , potentially worth about £ 20m , rather than a copy worth only £ 10 @,@ 000 . In 2015 , the copy went on display to the general public at the town 's Alexander Centre – the first time it had been on display for 715 years .
= = Community facilities = =
Faversham Recreation Ground ( locally known simply as Faversham Rec ) is to the east of the town centre . It was established in 1860 by local solicitor Henry Wreight , who bequeathed his £ 70 @,@ 000 estate , including two almshouses housing 70 people , to the town in order that locals would have an area to enjoy . The rec has been preserved and is now run by the town 's Municipal Charity . A bandstand was added towards the end of the 19th century , and sporting events began to be held on the rec . A week long party was held to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 , which drew praise from Princess Andrei of Russia , then living in Faversham . A 50 @-@ year extension on the lease was signed in 2010 , confirmed its continued use by the general public .
The Oare Gunpowder Works , scene of the 1916 explosion , is now a country park and nature reserve open to the public free of charge . The Oare Marshes are an important reserve for birds . There is an information centre near the site of the former Harty ferry over the Swale to the Isle of Sheppey . Remains of the process houses and other mill leats have been conserved , and various trails are signposted . An early 20th century electric @-@ powered gunpowder mill which was transferred to Ardeer in 1934 has been repatriated to the country park and is on display . The 18th @-@ century works bell has also been repatriated and is on display at Faversham 's Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre . Stonebridge Pond , on the site of the original Chart Mills , was donated to Swale Borough Council in the early 1980s . It is now a haven for wading birds .
= = Landmarks = =
Faversham Stone Chapel ( in Norton , Buckland and Stone ) is the remains of the Church of Our Lady of Elwarton , an ancient monument managed by The Faversham Society . It was originally used for pagan rituals in pre @-@ Roman Britain , and is the only remaining evidence in Britain of a church incorporating a pagan shrine . The building was converted into a church around AD601 when Pope Gregory I encouraged pagan buildings to be converted rather than destroyed . The church has not seen service since the 16th century and was reported as " being in a state of disrepair " and unused since the Reformation .
Although Faversham Abbey was dissolved by Henry VIII the nearby St Mary of Charity , Faversham Parish Church remains , and has been a Grade I listed building since 1950 . The church was established in 1147 by King Stephen and Queen Matilda , with a distinctive spire added around 1794 – 97 that can be easily seen from many places around town . The interior was restored in the mid @-@ 19th century by the architect Sir George Gilbert Scott , who redesigned the nave and transepts and added a stone encasing to the spire . The church reputedly contains the remains of King Stephen , which were recovered from Faversham Creek after the dissolution of the abbey . The church holds an altar dedicated to Saints Crispin and Crispinian , who reportedly fled to Faversham in the 3rd century .
St Catherine 's Church dates from the Norman period and was extensively restored in the 1860s . The nearby Ospringe Church , to the southwest of town , dates from Norman Britain , aside from a replacement tower built in 1866 . The National Shrine of Saint Jude is a Roman Catholic shrine in the Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel . It was established in 1955 and regularly attracts Catholic pilgrims .
The historic central area , especially the part @-@ pedestrian parts between the station and the creek , attracts visitors , who can learn about the town 's history and features at the Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lis centre , which provides tourist information and houses a museum . There is still a regular market several days each week in the market square where the Guildhall stands . Nearby streets feature old pubs , almshouses , shops and a growing collection of art galleries and restaurants .
Faversham Cottage Hospital opened in 1887 . It was extended in 1922 and included a World War I memorial , which was unveiled by Vice Admiral Hugh Evan @-@ Thomas . The memorial was later adapted to commemorate World War II casualties . In 2014 , the memorial became Grade II listed .
Faversham Cemetery opened in 1898 . The chapel was designed by Edwin Pover . 73 victims of the 1916 gunpowder explosion are buried in the cemetery , as is the Irish novelist Kate O 'Brien .
= = Transport = =
Faversham is close to the A2 road , a historically important route from London to Canterbury and the Channel ports . The route began as an ancient trackway which the Romans later paved and marked as Iter II ( Second Route ) on the Antonine Itinerary . The Anglo @-@ Saxons named it Wæcelinga Stræt ( Watling Street ) and it was marked as such by Matthew Paris ' Schema Britannie in 1250 . The road continued to be an important thoroughfare , and is shown next to Faversham on Philip Symonson 's map of Kent published in 1596 .
The A2 road still carries traffic between Sittingbourne and Canterbury , though London bound traffic now takes the M2 motorway . The A299 Thanet Way provides access to the Isle of Thanet and the A251 Ashford Road is a local road to Ashford . The Mall is one of the main roads to the town centre from the A2 . It was built in the late 18th century as a dignified approach road , and attracted development of villas along its length .
Faversham railway station opened in 1858 . A former goods sheet built as part of the original railway works is now Grade I listed . Trains travel to London , terminating at either Victoria or St. Pancras International . In the other direction , trains travel either to Dover Priory ( via Canterbury East ) or to Ramsgate ( via Margate ) . Since 2009 Southeastern Highspeed links Faversham to High Speed 1 , Ebbsfleet International , and London 's Stratford International and London St Pancras stations .
The town is served by a number of buses . Arriva Southern Counties run services to Sittingbourne and Maidstone and Stagecoach in East Kent operates routes to Canterbury , Ashford Maidstone . Stagecoach in East Kent also run services to Whitstable . National Cycle Route 1 passes through the town , en route from Whitstable to Sittingbourne . Swale Borough Council have expressed concern over the lack of bus and cycle facilities in the town , when compared to road and rail , and there is a particular lack of public transport to nearby rural areas .
= = Education = =
There has been a school in Faversham since the 12th century . Archival evidence has shown this had become a grammar school by 1420 . In 1526 , John Cole , chaplain to Henry VII and Henry VIII and Warden of All Souls College , Oxford , established a new grammar school on the estate of Ewell Farm . The property fell into disuse after the dissolution of the abbey , and a replacement grammar school was not established until 1587 . The Wreights School , a commercial school , was founded in 1856 , while a corresponding girls ' school , The Gibbs School was established in 1883 . The two boys ' schools were amalgamated in 1920 , forming Queen Elizabeth 's Grammar School . The current school dates from 1967 , when the boys and girls schools were merged , forming the first co @-@ educational grammar school in Kent .
The Abbey School is a Business and Enterprise Academy formed in September 1983 by the amalgamation of the Ethelbert Road Boys School and Lady Capel School for Girls . It has over 1000 pupils and is located in the south of the town , beside the A2 London Road .
= = Sport = =
Faversham Town F.C. were formed in 1884 and compete in Division One South of the Isthmian League . They have a 2000 @-@ seat stadium to the south of the town and are the only team besides the England national football team to wear the 3 lions badge . The King George V playing fields are all that remain of the Mount Field , which in 1876 hosted a first @-@ class match between Kent and Hampshire County Cricket Club .
= Ivan Bagramyan =
Ivan Khristoforovich Bagramyan ( Armenian : Հովհաննես Քրիստափորի Բաղրամյան ; Russian : Ива ́ н Христофо ́ рович Баграмя ́ н ) , also known as Hovhannes Khachaturi Baghramyan ( Armenian : Հովհաննես Խաչատուրի ( alternatively , Քրիստափորի , Kristapori ) Բաղրամյան ; Russian : Оване ́ с Хачату ́ рович Баграмя ́ н ) ( 2 December [ O.S. 20 November ] 1897 – 21 September 1982 ) , was a Soviet military commander and Marshal of the Soviet Union of Armenian origin . During World War II , Bagramyan was the first non @-@ Slavic military officer to become a commander of a Front . He was among several Armenians in the Soviet Army who held the highest proportion of high @-@ ranking officers in the Soviet military during the war .
Bagramyan 's experience in military planning as a chief of staff allowed him to distinguish himself as a capable commander in the early stages of the Soviet counter @-@ offensives against Nazi Germany . He was given his first command of a unit in 1942 , and in November 1943 received his most prestigious command as the commander of the 1st Baltic Front . As commander of the Baltic Front , he participated in the offensives which pushed German forces out of the Baltic republics .
He did not immediately join the Communist Party after the consolidation of the October Revolution , becoming a member only in 1941 , a move atypical for a Soviet military officer . After the war , he served as a deputy member of the Supreme Soviets of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic and Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and was a regular attendee of the Party Congresses . In 1952 , he became a candidate for entry into the Central Committee and , in 1961 , was inducted as a full member . For his contributions during the war , he was widely regarded as a national hero in the Soviet Union , and continues to hold such esteemed status among Armenians .
= = Early life = =
Ivan Bagramyan was born to Armenian parents in the village of Chardakhlu , near Yelizavetpol ( modern Ganja , Azerbaijan ) , then a part of the Russian Empire . Hamazasp Babadzhanian , a fellow Armenian who was to become the chief marshal of the Soviet Armor corps , was born in the same village . While Bagramyan 's father , Khachatur , went to work all day at the railway station in Yelizavetpol , his mother , Mariam , stayed at home to take care of her seven children . Because his parents could not afford to send him to the local gymnasium , they decided to enroll him at a recently opened two @-@ year school in Yelizavetpol .
Graduating in 1912 , Bagramyan , whom everyone affectionately called Vanya , followed his father and his brothers in a path in rail work , attending the three @-@ year railway technical institute located in Tiflis . He graduated with honors and was slated to become a railway engineer within a few years when events in the First World War changed his life .
= = World War I = =
Bagramyan was well aware of the military situation at the Caucasus front during the first months of the world war . In the winter of 1914 @-@ 15 , the Imperial Russian Army was able to withstand and repel the Ottoman Empire 's offensive at Sarikamish , and to take the fight to its territory . Bagramyan also began reading harrowing reports in the Russian press of what was taking place against his fellow kinsmen across the border : the Ottomans had embarked on a campaign to annihilate systematically their Armenian subjects . He desperately attempted to join the military effort but because he was only seventeen and a railway mechanic , he was not liable to be drafted . This did not dissuade him from trying , as he later remarked , " My place was at the front . "
His opportunity came on 16 September 1915 , when he was accepted by the Russian Army as a volunteer . He was placed in the 116th Reserve Battalion and sent to Akhaltsikhe for basic training . With his training complete in December , he joined the Second Caucasus Frontier Regiment of the Russian Expeditionary Corps , which was sent to dislodge the Ottoman Turks in Persia . Bagramyan participated in several battles in Asadabad , Hamedan and Kermanshah , the Russian victories here sending Ottoman forces reeling toward Anatolia .
Learning about the exploits of the men in the outfit , the chief of staff of the regiment , General Pavel Melik @-@ Shahnazaryan , advised Bagramyan to return to Tiflis to enroll in the Praporshchik Military Academy . But in order to attend the school , Bagramyan needed to satisfy the academy 's requirement of having completed school at a gymnasium . This did not deter him and , after preparing for the courses in Armavir , he passed his exams and began attending the academy on February 13 , 1917 . He graduated in June 1917 and was assigned to the Third Armenian Infantry regiment stationed near Lake Urmia . But with the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government in the midst of the October Revolution of 1917 , his unit was demobilized .
However , with the creation of the newly established First Republic of Armenia in 1918 , Bagramyan enlisted in the Third Armenian Regiment of that country 's armed forces . From 1 April 1918 , that is , after the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk ( March 3 , 1918 ) with the Russian SFSR , he was in the First Armenian Cavalry Regiment , which put a halt to the Ottoman 3rd Army , which was bent on conquering the remains of the republic , in Karaurgan , Sarikamish and Kars . He most notably took part in the May 1918 Battle of Sardarapat , where the Armenian military scored a crucial victory against Turkish forces . He remained in the regiment until May 1920 .
= = Interwar years = =
Three years after the toppling of the Provisional Government by the Bolsheviks in October 1917 , the Red Army invaded the southern Caucasus republics of Azerbaijan , Georgia and Armenia . In May 1920 , Bagramyan , upset with the country 's social and political conditions , participated in a failed rebellion against the Dashnak @-@ led government of Armenia . He was jailed and sent to work in the fields for several months but was allowed to rejoin the military with the outbreak of the Turkish – Armenian War . But in December 1920 , Armenia was sovietized and the national army was subsequently disbanded . Bagramyan , however , chose to join the 11th Soviet Army and was appointed a cavalry regiment commander .
As life in Armenia grew relatively more stable under Soviet rule , Bagramyan sought to locate a woman he had met several years earlier , Tamara Hamayakovna . Tamara , who was at this time living in Nakhichevan with her family , had been married to an Armenian officer who had been killed during the Turkish @-@ Armenian war , leaving her with their one @-@ year @-@ old son , Movses . Bagramyan visited her and the two decided to get married at the end of 1922 . In addition to their son Movses , who went on to become a painter , they had a daughter , Margarit , who later became a doctor . Tamara remained at Bagramyan 's side until her death in 1973 .
In 1923 , Bagramyan was appointed commander of the Alexandropol Cavalry Regiment , a position he held until 1931 . Two years later , Bagramyan graduated from the Leningrad Cavalry School and , in 1934 , from the Frunze Military Academy . In his memoirs , Pyotr Grigorenko , a Ukrainian commander who attended Frunze , recalled how Bagramyan was expelled from the academy by his superiors after they had learned that he had been a secret member of the banned Dashnak Armenian nationalist party for more than a decade . Pending his arrest , Grigorenko described Bagramyan " deeply depressed , saying he only wished they 'd arrest him soon so that he could get it over with . " Grigorenko advised that he appeal the arrest warrant which Bagramyan reluctantly did and , with the help of Armenian politburo member Anastas Mikoyan , the arrest warrant was revoked and he accepted to be " rehabilitated . " From 1934 to 1936 , he served as the chief of staff of the 5th Cavalry Division , and from 1938 , he worked as a senior instructor and lecturer at the Military Academy of the Soviet General Staff . Concurrently , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had purged much of the Soviet officer corps of its veteran commanders . While fellow students from the military academy , Andrei Yeremenko and Georgy Zhukov , had seen their careers rise , Bagramyan 's had remained stagnant .
In 1940 , when General Zhukov was promoted to commander of the Kiev Military District in the Ukraine , Bagramyan wrote a letter asking to serve under his command . Zhukov agreed , and in December asked for his help writing a paper to be presented to the commanders of the Soviet Military Districts . Bagramyan 's paper , Conducting a Contemporary Offensive Operation , apparently impressed Zhukov , as he promoted Bagramyan to become the head of Operations for the Soviet 12th Army based in the Ukraine . Within three months however , Bagramyan , then a colonel , was appointed deputy chief of staff of the Southwestern Front , headquartered in Kiev .
= = World War II = =
= = = Ukraine = = =
In June 1941 , Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union . Unlike many of the border troops who were caught off guard by the offensive , Bagramyan and his commander , General Mikhail Kirponos , believed an invasion by Germany was inevitable . However , Kirponos chose to ignore Bagramyan 's viewpoint that the German offensive would employ the lightning speed Blitzkrieg tactics like those seen in the campaigns in Poland in 1939 and Western Europe in 1940 . Since the winter of 1939 – 40 , Bagramyan had been busy devising a battle plan that would counter threats from the western Ukraine , which was approved after numerous revisions on 10 May 1940 .
On the morning of 22 June , he was tasked with the overseeing of a transfer of a military convoy to Ternopol . While his column was passing the Soviet airfields near the city of Brody , German air strikes hit the aircraft on the ground . Several hours later , they arrived in Ternopol , having been strafed twice by the planes . Three days after the invasion , the plans for the counter @-@ offensive were implemented , but disorder engulfed the troops , and the counter @-@ attack collapsed . Bagramyan took part in the great tank battles in western Ukraine and the defensive operation around Kiev , in which Kirponos was killed and the entire Front captured by the Germans . He was one of a handful of senior officers who escaped from the encircled Front .
Bagramyan was then appointed chief of staff to Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and along with future Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev , then a political officer , coordinated the fighting around Rostov . In his memoirs , Khrushchev described Bagramyan as a " very precise person who reported on everything just as it was . How many troops we had , their positions , and the general situation . "
Khrushchev went on to detail an account where Marshal Semyon Budyonny , sent by the chief of the operations department from Moscow as a representative of STAVKA , arrived in Kiev to courtmartial Bagramyan , who vigorously protested and said that if he was an incapable staff officer , then he should instead be given a field unit to command . To Bagramyan 's astonishment , Budyonny went on to attempt to convince him to agree to his execution . Khrushchev remarked that the argument was sparked arbitrarily and had taken place after an " abundant feast with cognac " and that " in those days we didn 't take that kind of conversation seriously . " According to him , at the time however , the Soviet military was especially suspicious of the men in its ranks , itself judging that there were " enemies of the people ... everywhere , especially the Red Army . "
Bagramyan was instrumental in the planning of two Soviet counter @-@ offensives against the Germans , including the major push made by Soviet forces in December during the Battle of Moscow , and for this was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General . In the same month , he was made the chief of staff of a military operations group that would oversee three Army Groups : the Southern , the Southwestern and Bryansk Fronts . In March 1942 , he went along with Khrushchev and Timoshenko to Moscow to present the plans of a new counter @-@ offensive in the Ukrainian city of Kharkov to Stalin . Stalin , impressed with his plan , approved the operation and on April 8 , promoted Bagramyan as Chief of Staff of the Southwestern Front . On 12 May 1942 , armies of the Southwestern Front attacked Kharkov but the launch of the offensive came at an inopportune moment since they were attacking from the Barvenkovo Salient , a region that German forces were near closing .
While Soviet forces were initially successful in recapturing Kharkov , they found themselves trapped by the German army after the closing of Barvenkovo . On 18 May , Bagramyan asked Timoshenko to alter the plans but Timoshenko along with Stalin refused to approve his request . Soviet losses were heavy as the 6th , 9th and 57th armies ( approximately 18 – 20 divisions ) comprising a large portion of the Southwestern Front , were all destroyed and Bagramyan was removed from his post on 28 June by STAVKA . According to Khrushchev , Bagramyan was so devastated from the immense loss of men that after the operation was called off , " he burst into tears . His nerves cracked ... He was weeping for our army . " Held responsible for the failure of the operation and " poor staff work " , he was demoted to chief of staff of the Soviet 28th Army . Several days later , he wrote a letter to Stalin asking to " serve at the front at any capacity , however modest . " British military historian John Erickson contends that Bagramyan was unfairly scapegoated by Stalin in his attempts to " hunt for [ the ] culprits " of the mismanagement of operations .
= = = The 16th Army = = =
Though he had never led a fighting unit prior to the war , he was given his first command of an army in the Western Front as his superiors , and particularly Marshal Zhukov were impressed with his skills and capabilities as a staff officer . Zhukov , with the approval of STAVKA , appointed him commander of the 16th Army ( 2nd formation ) , ( July 1942 - April 1943 ) replacing its former commander , Konstantin Rokossovsky who had been sent to command the Bryansk Front . The 16th Army transferred its troops to the 5th Army , and its command and staff were moved to the second echelon of the Western Front were the Army took up command of part of the 10th Army 's troops , and its defensive positions . On 11 August , however , German forces mounted a surprise offensive on the southern flank of Western Front , splitting the 61st Army from the 16th Army which was not taking part in the Rzhev @-@ Sychevka Offensive operation . The German forces threatened Bagramyan 's left flank as he quickly moved his forces to counter their movements and halted them from advancing further on 9 September .
With the rest of the Eastern Front battles almost entirely focused on Stalingrad and the Germans ' attempts to advance to the Caucasus , the 16th Army was not called up to action until February 1943 . By then , the German 6th Army besieged in Stalingrad had been encircled and surrendered . The 16th Army at the time was composed of four divisions and one infantry brigade and in light of the new offensive , Bagramyan 's force was given two extra divisions , an infantry brigade , four tank brigades and several artillery regiments .
= = = Kursk = = =
As the battle of Stalingrad marked the turning point of the war , German forces reorganized for a new offensive in the summer of 1943 to attack the Soviet held Kursk salient in Russia . The German High Command was to deploy veteran units to destroy the salient , including the Ninth Army and the II SS Panzer Corps . STAVKA , already informed of the impending offensive , called for an advance toward the German defenses positioned near the town of Kozelsk , which would drive south with the help of the armies of the Central Front . The forces would then proceed to cut off a 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) gap that would effectively surround the Germans and cut if off from reinforcements . This was similar to Operation Uranus , where the Soviet Army encircled and trapped the Sixth Army in Stalingrad .
Bagramyan 's 11th Guards Army ( the renamed 16th Army ) was tasked to take part in the offensive and was given an additional three infantry divisions and two tank corps , a force composed of fifteen divisions . Bagramyan , however , argued to STAVKA that its planning was too audacious in the hopes of repeating a successful encirclement like that in Uranus . He claimed that his forces would be overstretched and would have difficulty in attacking the entrenched German positions in Bolkhov . To avoid a repetition of the failure in Kharkov the previous year , he instead asked that the 61st Army from the Bryansk Front aid his 11th Guards in destroying the German forces in Bolkhov , thus eliminating the Ninth Army 's protection from the north . He appealed to his front commander Vasily Sokolovsky as well the Bryansk 's M. A. Reyter , both of whom rejected his proposal . In April , STAVKA recalled the
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April 1958 issue . Arthur C. Clarke , another very successful British sf writer of the period , wrote relatively few short stories for the British market , but did publish " Who 's There " in the November 1958 New Worlds . Colin Kapp began his popular " Unorthodox Engineers " series with " The Railways up on Cannis " , in October 1959 . Other less well @-@ known writers who were prolific during the late 1950s included J. T. McIntosh , Kenneth Bulmer , and E. C. Tubb .
New Worlds has been credited with " shap [ ing ] the way science fiction developed " as a genre . It " did the most " of any magazine for British science fiction , helping to revive a nationalist style of speculative fiction in the 1950s ; Roger Luckhurst called it " the most important British sf journal " . Particularly influential were Clarke 's " Guardian Angel " ( published in 1950 ) , and the work of Brian Aldiss , John Brunner and J. G. Ballard . Mike Ashley argued that New Worlds and Science @-@ Fantasy were " the bedrock of high @-@ quality science fiction in Britain " . Female readership for the magazine was between 5 and 15 percent , according to surveys conducted during the 1950s . The magazine became increasingly popular among a younger demographic : readers 19 and under made up 5 percent of total readership in 1954 , 18 percent in 1958 , and 31 percent in 1963 . The same polls also showed an increase in the number of science and technology workers reading the magazine during that period . Among the best artists of this period were Brian Lewis , Gordon Hutchings , and Gerard Quinn , whose art is regarded by Ashley as comparable in style to Virgil Finlay 's work . However , in 1957 Carnell stopped using interior art , saying that " art work in the digest @-@ size magazines is as out @-@ of @-@ date as a coal fire " .
In Ashley 's view , the quality of New Worlds began to drop somewhat in the early 1960s . It still ran popular series such as White 's Sector General stories , and printed some well @-@ received stories such as Harry Harrison 's " The Streets of Ashkelon " , about a clash between an atheist ( the protagonist ) and a priest , on another planet . Because of the subject matter , it took six years for Harrison to find an editor willing to accept the story ; when Aldiss bought it for an anthology , Carnell agreed to print it in New Worlds , where it appeared in September 1962 . J.G. Ballard continued to publish in New Worlds , but was now sending his more conventional stories to the US magazines , and submitting his more experimental pieces to Carnell . Examples from 1961 to 1964 include " The Overloaded Man " , " The Subliminal Man " , " End @-@ Game " , and " The Terminal Beach " , with themes of psychological stress , and changes to the nature of perception and of reality .
= = = Moorcock = = =
When Roberts & Vinter made the decision to close down New Worlds in 1963 , Moorcock and Ballard considered publishing a new magazine that would be willing , as Carnell had been , to publish experimental material . Moorcock assembled a dummy issue , and later described his intentions : " It would be on art paper , to take good quality illustrations ; it would be the size of , say , Playboy so that it would get good display space on the newsstands ; it would specialise in experimental work by writers like [ William ] Burroughs and [ Eduardo ] Paolozzi , but it would be ' popular ' , it would seek to publicise such experimenters ; it would publish all those writers who had become demoralised by a lack of sympathetic publishers and by baffled critics ; it would attempt a cross @-@ fertilization of popular sf , science and the work of the literary and artistic avant garde . " Moorcock also wrote a letter to Carnell setting out his thoughts on what science fiction needed : " Editors who are willing to take a risk on a story and run it even though this may bring criticism on their heads . " The letter was published in the final Nova Publications issue , which also carried the announcement that Moorcock would be taking over from Carnell as editor of New Worlds , though Moorcock had been unaware he would be considered for the post when he wrote his letter .
Moorcock 's first issue , dated May / June 1964 , bore a cover by James Cawthorn illustrating the first instalment of Ballard 's novella " Equinox " ; Ballard also contributed a book review of William Burroughs ' Dead Fingers Talk , and stories by Brian Aldiss , Barrington Bayley , and John Brunner completed the issue . Moorcock 's editorial included a quote from a radio interview with William Burroughs to the effect that " If writers are to describe the advanced techniques of the Space Age , they must invent writing techniques equally advanced in order properly to deal with them . " Within the first few issues , Moorcock printed stories intended to demonstrate his editorial goals . The most controversial of these was Langdon Jones ' " I Remember , Anita ... " , which appeared in the September / October 1964 issue ; the story contained sex scenes that led to arguments in the magazine 's letter column , and some regular subscribers abandoned the magazines , though overall circulation increased .
Moorcock contributed a substantial amount of material , under his own name and under pseudonyms such as James Colvin ; some of these stories were fairly traditional , but contributions such as the Jerry Cornelius stories , which began with " Preliminary Data " in the August 1965 issue , were much more experimental . He also printed his novella " Behold the Man " in the September 1966 issue ; the story , about a time traveler who returns to the time of Christ , won him a Nebula Award the following year . Ballard also began to write some of his most controversial stories , including " You : Coma : Marilyn Monroe " in the June 1966 issue , and " The Assassination of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Considered as a Downhill Motor Race " , in March 1967 ; both had been previously published in Ambit , a literary magazine , in 1966 .
Many writers now found New Worlds to be a market in which they could publish experimental material . Charles Platt , David I. Masson , and Barrington Bayley were among the British writers in this group , and Moorcock also attracted work from US writers such as John Sladek , Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch . Zelazny 's contributions included " For a Breath I Tarry " in March 1966 , and Disch published several short stories and the novel Echo Round His Bones , which was serialized starting in the December 1966 and January 1967 issues . Disch commented that he had been unable to find a publisher for the novel in the US .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the term " New Wave " began to be applied to the more experimental work that Moorcock was publishing , and New Worlds was soon regarded as the leading publication in the New Wave movement . In addition to the experimental material , Moorcock attempted to keep the existing readership happy by publishing more traditional science fiction ; in the words of sf historian Colin Greenland , he " changed the contents of the magazine much more slowly than he pretended to " . Traditional sf stories bought by Moorcock include Vernor Vinge 's first story , " Apartness " , which appeared in June 1965 ; he also printed material from Bob Shaw , early stories by Terry Pratchett , and , in March 1965 , Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sunjammer " .
= = = Arts Council and after = = =
When Moorcock took over publication of New Worlds from Roberts & Vinter he changed the format from digest to a larger size with good quality paper that allowed better use of artwork . The first issue in this format , July 1967 , contained part one of Disch 's Camp Concentration , a novel which Disch had been unable to sell in the U.S. because of the explicitness of the language used by the protagonist . Disch afterwards recalled that some of the experimental language in the book was written in the knowledge that New Worlds was available as a market for unconventional fiction . Other new writers who appeared in the magazine include M. John Harrison and Robert Holdstock , both of whom appeared in the November 1968 issue . The December 1968 issue included Samuel R. Delany 's " Time Considered as a Helix of Semi @-@ Precious Stones " , and Harlan Ellison 's " A Boy and His Dog " appeared in April 1969 ; Ellison won a Nebula Award , and Delany both a Nebula and a Hugo , though it was not until the stories were reprinted in book form that they were widely noticed .
The July 1967 issue of New Worlds contained Pamela Zoline 's first story , " The Heat Death of the Universe " , which used entropy , a frequent theme in New Worlds , as a metaphor . The story is one of the best examples of the new approach Moorcock was taking with the magazine : in the words of critic Edward James , the goal was to " use science @-@ fictional and scientific language and imagery to describe perfectly ' ordinary ' scenes of life , and by doing so produce altered perceptions of reality in the reader " . " Inner space " , a term originally coined by J.B. Priestley , was also used to describe the focus of the stories Moorcock printed , in contrast to traditional science fiction 's focus on outer space , and James regards the term as " the watchword of the British New Wave , and the shibboleth by which one recognized those who had abandoned Gernsback and Campbell . " The methods and interests of these writers were quite different from those of traditional science fiction : the concern was with internal rather than external reality , and experimental techniques , unusual juxtapositions of material , and a focus on psychological concerns were the norm .
With the switch to anthology format , some of the more experimental material disappeared . In his editorials , Moorcock made it clear that he did not want to exclude traditional sf stories ; he wanted to eliminate the genre boundaries completely , and have science fiction treated as part of the mainstream of fiction . However , the quarterlies were labelled as science fiction since Sphere knew that would increase sales . The stories printed in the anthologies were generally downbeat . Some of the material had been intended for Sword & Sorcery , a magazine planned as a companion to Vision of Tomorrow , but which folded before its first issue appeared . New writers who appeared for the first time in the quarterly anthology series included Marta Randall ( under the name Marta Bergstrasser ) , Eleanor Arnason , Geoff Ryman , and Rachel Pollack ( as Richard A. Pollack ) .
Issue 212 reprinted a piece written by Moorcock and M. John Harrison that was a spoof issue of The Guardian ; it had been published in Frendz , an underground paper , in 1971 . The next two issues also contained mock newspaper stories , but issue 215 contained somewhat more conventional material , including a Jerry Cornelius story , written by Charles Partington . Issue 216 , the last of the late 1970s issues , reintroduced the mock news stories . The 1990s anthology series did not try to recapture the atmosphere or style of the 1960s or 1970s New Worlds . It contained some well @-@ received material , including stories by Moorcock , Paul Di Filippo , and Ian McDonald , though it was financially unsuccessful .
= = New Worlds and the " New Wave " = =
New Worlds ' greatest influence on science fiction came in the 1960s , with the " New Wave " that began with Moorcock 's polemical editorials . Moorcock asserted in 1965 that a writer of good sf " can learn from his predecessors , but he should not imitate them " ; and he was soon publishing stories that were quite different in technique and style from anything that had appeared before , not just in New Worlds itself , but in any of the sf magazines . Moorcock 's goal was to use the magazine to " define a new avant @-@ garde role " for the genre . New Worlds thus became the " ideological center of the [ New Wave ] movement to rejuvenate conjectural literature " .
The term " New Wave " did not meet with universal approval among those who were regarded as part of it . Brian Aldiss , for example , wrote to Judith Merril in 1966 that he suspected the term was " a journalistic invention of yours and Mike Moorcock 's " , and added " I feel I am no part of the New Wave ; I was here before ' em , and by God I mean to be here after they 've gone ( still writing bloody science fiction ) ! " Merril was a key advocate for the New Wave , and popularized it in her anthology England Swings SF , which appeared in 1968 ; she spent almost a year in London , living near Moorcock , when researching the anthology in 1966 – 1967 . Merril and writer Christopher Priest were among those who used the term " New Wave " to describe the work being done in New Worlds , but Aldiss was not the only writer to object to the term , and it never received a generally accepted definition . Critic Brian Attebery characterizes it as a " disruptive , existentially fraught and formally daring " style ; Peter Nicholls hesitates to define it but comments that " perhaps the fundamental element was the belief that sf could and should be taken seriously as literature " . In a 1967 interview , Ballard , one of the writers most closely associated with the New Wave , described modern U.S. sf as extrovert and optimistic , and contrasted it with " the new science fiction , that other people apart from myself are now beginning to write " , which he saw as " introverted , possibly pessimistic rather than optimistic , much less certain of its own territory . "
Whatever the exact definition of the term , between 1964 and 1966 , New Worlds was at the forefront of the New Wave movement . Two guest editorials in 1962 and 1963 ( " Which way to Inner Space ? " by Ballard and " Play with Feeling " by Moorcock ) were arguably the " first glimmerings " of New Wave ideas in sf magazines . Latham suggests that these were " the first volleys in the polemical offensive they would launch once [ Moorcock ] gained control of the magazine and installed [ Ballard ] as his resident visionary " . The response to the New Wave from critics and sf fans was varied . Christopher Priest called New Worlds a " New Wave prozine " , but lauded the talents of its writers and its experimental stories ( with the exception of Ballard 's The Crystal World , which he deemed " tedious and wearying " ) . Ian McAuley suggested the magazine 's editors were " plugging the ' inner @-@ space ' jazz for all its [ sic ] worth " . Mike Ashley argued that New Worlds was instrumental in promoting authors that would not otherwise have been published ( a suggestion with which Bould and Butler concur ) . Ballard was a particular focus of both praise and , more significantly , vehement criticism , and was vigorously defended by Moorcock . Peter Weston took an " even @-@ handed approach " by praising New Worlds in Speculation editorials , in contrast with his largely negative columnists . Beginning in 1966 , US fanzines began responding to New Worlds and its detractors , and the debate spread to the professional US magazines as well . Judith Merril praised Disch and Ballard 's contributions to New Worlds in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction , but Algis Budrys in Galaxy rebutted her viewpoint and condemned both authors . Frederik Pohl called New Worlds " damned dull " , advocating a return to adventure stories . American science fiction authors " were finding it increasingly difficult to avoid partisan alignments in the developing New Wave war " because of the preponderance of columns and letters in American magazines both for and against New Worlds and New Wave in general . Latham suggests that " the New Worlds editorial conclave was actively working within fandom to counteract the Old Guard assaults " .
By the end of the 1960s , New Worlds and the New Wave 's connection to and influence on science fiction was becoming tenuous . In the August 1969 issue , Platt asserted that " New Worlds is not a science @-@ fiction magazine " , and Moorcock likened it to an avant @-@ garde and experimental literary review . The sf world had lost interest in New Worlds , and it had become , in Ashley 's words , " a revolution running out of energy " . In the longer term , however , it proved influential , despite the lack of wide acceptance at the time : in the words of sf historian Brian Stableford , " the paths beaten by the New Worlds writers are now much more generally in use " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The following table shows the editorial succession at New Worlds , indicates which issues appeared from which publisher , and gives the format , page count and price of each issue : Note that dates in [ square brackets ] indicate the approximate date that an issue was released in cases where a month did not appear on the magazine itself .
There were US reprints of six of the New Worlds Quarterly anthology series . The first four were published by Berkley Books ; Avon Books picked up two more of the series after Berkley dropped it , but since the fifth volume had been missed by that time , Avon retitled volumes 6 and 7 as New Worlds Quarterly 5 and New Worlds Quarterly 6 .
= = = US editions = = =
A US reprint edition of New Worlds ran briefly in 1960 , published by Great American Publications , who at the time were the publishers of Fantastic Universe , edited by Hans Stefan Santesson . The first issue appeared in March 1960 ; it omitted Carnell 's name , and credited Santesson as editor . Although the fiction consisted entirely of reprints , with all but one story coming from the British New Worlds , this was not declared to the reader . Carnell was unhappy with the results of this attempt to break into the US market , but in the event Great American collapsed later that year and only five issues appeared , on a monthly schedule from March to July . The contents of the issues did not correspond to specific British issues : the majority were taken from New Worlds but one story was reprinted from Nova 's edition of Science Fiction Adventures , and three were taken from Fantastic Universe , which had ceased publication with its March 1960 issue .
Subsequently the British edition was released in the US essentially unchanged , with a cover date delayed by one month , starting with issue 99 ( October 1960 ) .
= = = Anthologies = = =
Several anthologies of stories from New Worlds have been published , including :
= Washington Park Court District =
The Washington Park Court District is a Grand Boulevard community area neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . Despite its name , it is not located within either the Washington Park community area or the Washington Park park , but is one block north of both . The district was named for the Park .
The district includes row houses built between 1895 and 1905 , with addresses of 4900 – 4959 South Washington Park Court and 417 – 439 East 50th Street . Many of the houses share architectural features . The neighborhood was part of the early twentieth century segregationist racial covenant wave that swept Chicago following the Great Migration . The community area has continued to be almost exclusively African American since the 1930s .
= = Architecture = =
Washington Park Court , which runs one @-@ way northbound from East 50th Street to East 49th Street , is a one @-@ city block @-@ long street located at 432 east in the Chicago street numbering system . Officially , it runs from 4900 south to 5060 south in the numbering system . The street and several adjacent homes at one end are recognized as a distinct district within the city , according to the City of Chicago Department of Planning and Development . In May 1990 , the district was one of ten that were under consideration for Chicago Landmark status , and it was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . The district was named for the Park , which was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted .
The T. G. Dickinson Real Estate Company , which created the subdivision in 1892 , mandated 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) setbacks for all properties and originally sold lots in small groups of two or three . Between 1895 and 1905 , the tone of the district became clear with the development of its row houses . In 1990 , the district contained forty @-@ nine row houses that span a wide variety of architectural styles including Classical Revival and Romanesque . As of 2004 , the district contained fifty @-@ one properties . The street hosts residential designs of architect Henry Newhouse and of developers Andrew and John Dubach . At least twenty @-@ five of the lots were developed by the Dubaches and at least twelve of the properties were designed by Newhouse . Their architectural contributions set the tone for the block , which uses mostly brick and limestone houses that share porch and cornice lines . Most houses have mansards or recessed roofs with bay fronts .
= = Demographic change = =
Between 1900 and 1934 the African American population in Chicago grew from 30 @,@ 000 to 236 @,@ 000 . The population was initially diluted in scattered places , but during this time , due to the change in the demographics of Chicago , it became concentrated in two large strips of land . The racial concentration was enforced by violence for few decades , until restrictive covenants became the preferred way to enforce segregation . Although they were previously rare , racially restrictive covenants among property owners that outlawed the purchase , lease , or occupation of their properties by African Americans became common in Chicago in the 1920s following the Great Migration , especially after the 1926 United States Supreme Court upheld racially restrictive covenants in Corrigan v. Buckley ( 271 U.S. 323 ( 1926 ) ) .
During the first half of the 20th Century , The Black Belt was the term for the African American neighborhood from 22nd Street to 31st Street along State Street on Chicago 's South Side . South Side local businessmen and the University of Chicago became alarmed at the prospect of poorer blacks moving from the Black Belt due to a combination of racial succession and economic decline . Because 85 % of Chicago was covenanted , most black neighborhoods were bounded by covenanted areas . The Washington Park Court Improvement Association changed its focus from neighborhood improvement projects , such as planting shrubs and cleaning streets , to upholding segregationist policies . When necessary , the organization resorted to violence to pursue its segregationist purpose , and between 1917 and 1921 , bombs were used to discourage encroachment into majority white neighborhoods . The bombs were used at the residences of African Americans as well as the properties of real estate agents and bankers .
Eventually the term Black Belt included the region from 39th Street to 95th Street between the Dan Ryan Expressway and Lake Michigan . Since the 1930 United States Census , the Grand Boulevard community area has been over 90 % African American . In both the 1960 and 1990 Census , the community area was over 99 % African American . As of the 2000 Census , the area was 98 @.@ 2 % African American and 0 @.@ 8 % Hispanic .
= A Retrospective ( Pink Martini album ) =
A Retrospective is the first compilation album by the American group Pink Martini , released in September 2011 in the United Kingdom and the following month in the United States , Australia and Canada . The album contains twenty @-@ one tracks from six studio albums . Guest artists include Michael Feinstein ( " How Long Will It Last ? " ) , French singer and songwriter Georges Moustaki ( " Ma Solitude " ) and director Gus Van Sant ( " Moon River " ) ; the compilation also features remixes by New York City disc jockey Johnny Dynell ( " Una Notte a Napoli " ) and Hiroshi Wada ( " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " ) .
Critical reception of the compilation album was positive overall ; many reviewers appreciated the album in its entirety but criticized select tracks . A Retrospective reached a peak position of number seven on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Composition = =
A Retrospective contains twenty @-@ one tracks totaling more than seventy minutes in length , some of which were previously unreleased . Tracks originally appearing on the group 's 1997 debut album Sympathique include Manuel Jiménez 's " ¿ Donde Estas Yolanda ? " , " La Soledad " , " Sympathique " , " Que Sera Sera " by Ray Evans and Jay Livingston , and " Amado Mio " . " Hang On Little Tomato " , " Una Notte a Napoli " , " Anna ( El Negro Zumbón ) " , " Lilly " and " Aspettami " first appeared on Hang On Little Tomato ( 2004 ) . The group 's 2007 album Hey Eugene ! included the song of the same name ; similarly , " Splendor in the Grass " was the title track of the 2009 album of the same name . The samba @-@ influenced version of " Auld Lang Syne " was the final track on Pink Martini 's 2010 holiday album Joy to the World . 1969 , the collaborative album with Saori Yuki first released in October 2011 , included Jorge Ben Jor 's " Mas que Nada " .
" Moon River " , originally by Henry Mancini and Johnny Mercer , and " The Man with the Big Sombrero " were previously unreleased . " Moon River " featured guest vocals by director Gus Van Sant , marking his singing debut . French singer @-@ songwriter Georges Moustaki provided vocals on " Ma Solitude " , and pianist and singer Michael Feinstein contributed to Max Lief and Joseph Meyer 's " How Long Will It Last ? " The compilation also features two remixed recordings : " Una Notte a Napoli " by New York City disc jockey Johnny Dynell , and an instrumental version of " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " by Hiroshi Wada . " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " originally appeared on Hang On Little Tomato .
Included with the album is a 48 @-@ page booklet of previously unseen Polaroid pictures taken by Thomas Lauderdale , along with postcards and posters from Pink Martini 's history . A deluxe hardbound CD book version was also available for purchase . The group promoted the release of A Retrospective and 1969 by touring throughout the United States , including a holiday special in Portland , Oregon featuring Saori Yuki as part of their Holiday Tour .
= = Reception = =
Overall , critical reception of the album was positive , though some reviewers criticized select tracks . Michael Upchurch of The Seattle Times wrote that the " A " before " Retrospective " in the album 's title was appropriate and that the compilation included highlights of the group 's career . The New Zealand Herald 's Lydia Jenkin thought the collection represented a standard Pink Martini concert set list by including a variety of sounds , languages and vocalists , each delivered with " class , passion and subtlety " . Jenkin awarded the album 3 @.@ 5 of 5 stars , complimenting the album overall but noting that some tracks featured less " elegant sophistication " or " imaginative " arrangements . Marion Pragt wrote a positive review for The Cambridge Student , believing the compilation incorporated various styles of music and reflected the group 's " cosmopolitan nature " . Pragt concluded by asserting that the album was " perfect for avid admirers and newcomers alike " .
Rave magazine 's Chad Parkhill rated the album three of four stars . Parkhill described " Auld Lang Syne " as " weirdly off @-@ kilter " and found Dynell 's remix to be " profoundly derivative " , but also called some of the previously unreleased material " wonderful " . Tom D 'Antoni of Oregon Music News called Van Sant 's performance " truly awful in execution " , but considered the album to be " simply sensational " overall . The Sydney Star Observer 's Nick Bond complimented the album 's artwork and packaging .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
A Retrospective reached a peak positive of number seven on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Release history = =
Release history adapted from Pink Martini 's official website .
= University of Surrey =
The University of Surrey is a public research university located within the county town of Guildford , Surrey , in the South East of England , United Kingdom . The university specialises in science , engineering , medicine and business . It received its charter on 9 September 1966 , and was previously situated near Battersea Park in south @-@ west London . The institution was known as Battersea College of Technology before gaining university status . Its roots , however , go back to the Battersea Polytechnic Institute , founded in 1891 to provide further and higher education for London 's poorer inhabitants .
The university conducts research on small satellites and has a high number of staff who are members of learned societies . The university has recently expanded into China by launching the Surrey International Institute with Dongbei University of Finance and Economics .
The university 's main campus is located on Stag Hill close to the centre of Guildford and adjacent to Guildford Cathedral . A second campus , at Manor Park , is located a short distance away and has been developed to expand upon existing accommodation , academic buildings and sporting facilities .
The university is a major centre for satellite and mobile communications research . In March 2014 , the British Prime Minister David Cameron announced a partnership between the University of Surrey , King 's College London and the University of Dresden for the development of 5G technology . The university is a member of the Association of MBAs , the European University Association and Association of Commonwealth Universities . The university is one of only eight universities to be ranked within the top 10 of all three major national league tables for 2016 . According to the figures revealed by the Higher Education Statistics Agency 2013 / 14 , the University of Surrey has the fourth highest percentage of graduates entering employment and / or further study within six months of graduation at 96 @.@ 9 % ( behind Lancaster University , Robert Gordon University and Arts University Bournemouth ) — higher than the University of Oxford ( 92 @.@ 6 % ) and the University of Cambridge ( 95 @.@ 2 % ) .
The university has 10 Fellows of the Royal Society , 21 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering , one Fellow of the British Academy and 6 Fellows of the Academy of Social Sciences .
= = History = =
= = = Battersea Polytechnic Institute = = =
The University of Surrey was preceded by the Battersea Polytechnic Institute which was founded in 1891 and admitted its first students in 1894 . Its aims were to provide greater access to further and higher education for some of the " poorer inhabitants " of London .
In 1901 , Evening Classes consisted of some of the following ; Mechanical Engineering and Building , Electrical Engineering , Chemical and other Trades , Physics and Natural Science , Maths , Languages , and Commercial subjects , Music . Special classes for Women in Domestic Economy subjects . Day Classes in Art , Science , Women 's subjects and Gymnastics . Classes in preparation for University and Professional Examinations . Also . Science day School for Boys and Girls , Commercial School for Girls , Training School for Domestic Economy and Training for Teachers .
The Institute focused on science and technology subjects , and from about 1920 taught some classes for University of London students . The Institute awarded University of London external degrees .
= = = Battersea College of Technology = = =
In 1956 , the Institute was among the first to receive the designation " College of Advanced Technology " and was renamed Battersea College of Technology . By the beginning of the sixties , the College had virtually outgrown its building in Battersea and had decided to move to Guildford . In addition to this , the Robbins Report of 1963 proposed that the Colleges of Advanced Technology , including Battersea , should expand and become degree @-@ awarding universities .
In 1965 , the university @-@ designate acquired a greenfield site in Guildford from Guildford Cathedral , Guildford Borough Council and the Onslow Village Trust .
= = = University = = =
On 9 September 1966 the University of Surrey was established by Royal Charter and by 1970 the move from Battersea to Guildford was complete .
Early visitors to the new campus were Led Zeppelin , who performed their very first gig at the university on 25 October 1968 .
Between 1982 and 2008 , the university became the trustee of the building of the Guildford Institute , using parts of the building for its adult education programme ad providing a university presence in the heart of Guildford . The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance ( formerly Associated Examining Board ) moved from Aldershot to its own headquarters building on the Stag Hill campus in 1985 .
The university marked its Silver Jubilee in 1991 , an event celebrated by the publishing of Surrey – The Rise of a Modern University by Roy Douglas and by a Service of Thanksgiving in Guildford Cathedral attended by HM The Queen in March 1992 .
The university celebrated its 35th anniversary year in May 2002 with a major event in Guildford Cathedral . It was also marked by the unveiling of the Surrey Scholar sculpture ( by Allan Sly FBS ) to mark the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen and as a gift to the people of Guildford . The Surrey Scholar is located at the bottom of Guildford High Street . Understanding the Real World , a visual history of the university , by Christopher Pick , was published to coincide with this anniversary .
In 2007 , the university saw a major increase in overall applications by 39 % compared with the previous year . This was followed by a further increase in applications of 12 % in 2008 .
In October 2008 , the university lost out to Royal Holloway in a bid to merge with London medical institute St George 's , University of London .
From September 2009 , the Guildford School of Acting became a subsidiary of the university and relocated from Guildford town centre to the university campus .
= = = Governance = = =
On 1 July 2005 , Sir Christopher Snowden became Surrey 's fourth Vice @-@ Chancellor and Chief Executive . Like his predecessors Dowling and Kelly , Snowden is a Fellow of the Royal Society . Sir Christopher stepped down in March 2015 to take up the Vice @-@ Chancellorship at the University of Southampton .
On 3 December 2015 it was announced that Professor G.Q. Max Lu would become the University 's fifth President and Vice @-@ Chancellor , taking up his appointment in April 2016 .
= = Campus = =
The university moved in 1968 to a new 30 ha ( 74 @-@ acre ) site on Stag Hill in Guildford , adjacent to Guildford Cathedral . A further 90 ha ( 222 acres ) allocated to the university remained undeveloped until 2005 . The new Manor Park campus , designed as a car @-@ free village , is 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 mi ) from the Stag Hill campus and on the other side of the A3 trunk road . It combines residences for students and staff , buildings for research and teaching , and sporting facilities .
The BBC 's local radio station for Surrey and North @-@ East Hampshire , BBC Surrey , has its studios on the campus . In addition the university has a student @-@ run medium wave radio station , Stag Radio .
In November 2007 , the university was given planning permission to build the Surrey Multifaith Centre . This will be the first building in Britain to have a Synagogue , Muslim Prayer Hall , Gurdwara and Chapel built separately under one roof .
On 8 July 2009 , a temporary Amigo convenience store opened in the BB Building on the campus , replacing the previous One Stop store which was situated near the library . The new store is operated by the Compass Group , and will see the University enjoy ' guaranteed rental income and share of turnover ' . The project is part of wider work which saw a new building , housing a larger shop and library extension , which opened on the One Stop site in April 2011 .
In September 2009 , the Guildford School of Acting moved into a new purpose built facility on the main Stag Hill campus as part of a strategic merger between the two organisations . The old Sports Centre has been converted into the Ivy Arts Centre , a performing arts facility housing a 200 @-@ seat theatre and studio and workshop space .
A £ 35 million research centre for the development of the first worldwide 5G network was scheduled to open in February 2015 .
= = = Surrey Sports Park = = =
In April 2010 , a £ 35 million new sports centre named the Surrey Sports Park opened .
The Surrey Sports Park is situated close to the main university campus on its Manor Park site . It houses a 50 @-@ metre Olympic @-@ size swimming pool , three multi @-@ sports halls , a squash centre , 700 square metres of fitness facilities , two artificial floodlit pitches , outdoor and indoor tennis courts , four real tennis courts and a climbing centre .
The 1 @,@ 000 seat indoor arena is home to Guildford Heat basketball team , who have been using the venue since 2010 following a move from their previous home at the Guildford Spectrum . Heat are one of the leading teams and former winners of the British Basketball League , the country 's top division .
It played host to all but 4 matches of the 2010 Women 's Rugby World Cup ( the semi finals , 3rd place play off and final were held at the Twickenham Stoop ) . It is also the official training facility for Harlequins rugby club , with plans to add a private gym for the club in addition to the already available facilities .
It will also be the home ground of UniS Old Boys F.C. , a football team for alumni of the university , which competes in the Surrey County Intermediate League ( Western ) , at the 12th level of the English football league system .
Surrey University participates in an annual sports festival called the Varsity Games . The university competes against other institutions such as Royal Holloway , University of London and Kingston University . Over the years , there has been stiff competition between Surrey and Kingston for the Varsity Cup , that has made both universities arch @-@ rivals at the Games .
= = Organisation = =
The academic activities of the university are divided into the following three faculties :
= = Academic profile = =
= = = Research = = =
The university conducts extensive research on small satellites , with its Surrey Space Centre and spin @-@ off commercial company , Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd . In the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise , the University of Surrey received a 5 * rating in the categories of " Sociology " , " Other Studies and Professions Allied to Medicine " , and " Electrical and Electronic Engineering " and a 5 rating in the categories of " Psychology " , " Physics " , " Applied Mathematics " , " Statistics and Operational Research " , " European Studies " , and " Russian , Slavonic and East European Languages " .
The new 5G Innovation Centre ( 5GIC ) at the University of Surrey has gained over £ 40m support from international telecommunications companies including Aeroflex , AIRCOM International , BBC , BT Group , EE ( telecommunications company ) , Fujitsu Laboratories of Europe , Huawei , Ofcom , Rohde & Schwarz , Samsung , Telefonica and Vodafone – and a further £ 11.6m from the Higher
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winter . Mating lasts between 30 min and 21 hours , with spawning usually taking place in August . Females carry the eggs on their pleopods ( appendages on the abdomen ) until they hatch directly into juvenile crabs , having passed through the larval stages inside the egg .
Potamon fluviatile is edible , as indicated by its alternative specific epithet edulis , and was known to the ancient Greeks ; it is probably this species which they depicted on medals found at Agrigento , Sicily . More recently , the species was depicted on the 5 ¢ coin in the last series of Maltese coins before the introduction of the Euro there in 2007 .
= = Ecology = =
Potamon fluviatile has a generalist diet , feeding on vegetable debris , scraping algae from surfaces , or preying on frogs , tadpoles , and various invertebrates , such as insect larvae , snails or worms . No predator seems to specialise on P. fluviatile , but a number of animals take it opportunistically , including rats , foxes , weasels , birds of prey and jays . The most significant predator may be mankind , with individual prospectors able to catch 3 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 in one season .
Adults occupy burrows , while smaller individuals shelter under stones . The entrances to the burrows may be more than 5 m ( 16 ft ) from the stream 's edge and are always above water level . The burrows may be more than 80 cm ( 31 in ) long , and probably serve to protect the crabs from extreme cold .
Potamon fluviatile is an aggressive species , mostly attacking with the larger right claw , since 90 % of individuals are right @-@ handed .
In the Tosco @-@ Emilian Apennines , P. fluviatile is only found south of the watershed , in contrast with the crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes , which occurs on both sides on the mountains . Although their ranges overlap , the two species do not inhabit the same water courses , apparently because the crab outcompetes the crayfish , which is therefore forced to live in less favourable locations where the crab cannot survive . Non @-@ indigenous crayfish may pose a greater threat to P. fluviatile than native crayfish , although the greatest threats remain pollution , overfishing and the draining of wetlands .
= = Distribution = =
The natural range of Potamon fluviatile is highly fragmented , and covers parts of many countries with a Mediterranean coastline . It is found in mainland Italy and on the Balkan Peninsula from Dalmatia to the Axios River in Greece . It is also found on a number of islands , including Sicily , Malta and Gozo , the Ionian Islands , Aegean Islands , Sporades and Andros in the Cyclades . Although the species as a whole is widespread , it is declining in numbers , and these insular populations are particularly vulnerable .
= = = Italy = = =
Potamon fluviatile is widely distributed in much of mainland Italy , especially in the provinces of Trento , Lombardy , Veneto , Liguria , Tuscany , Umbria , Lazio , Campania , Apulia , and Calabria , as well as on the island of Sicily . Although it used to be found as far north as Lake Garda , P. fluviatile no longer occurs north of the River Po .
In 1997 a population of P. fluviatile was discovered under the ruins of Trajan 's Forum in the heart of Rome , living in canals built by the Etruscans which connect to the Cloaca Maxima . Based on a genetic analysis , which demonstrated that these crabs were similar to those in Greece , researchers believe that they had been brought by the Greeks before the founding of the city , some 3000 years ago . The crabs ' unusual size , up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , and longevity ( up to 15 years ) are also interpreted as evidence of a long @-@ established population , by analogy with island gigantism .
= = = Malta = = =
On the island of Malta , Potamon fluviatile is rare and restricted to a few locations in the west of the island . On Gozo , there is a single population which inhabits a stretch of river only 700 metres ( 770 yd ) long .
= = = Balkans = = =
In the Balkan Peninsula , Potamon fluviatile is known to occur in Croatia , Montenegro , the Republic of Macedonia , Albania and Greece . There are four species of Potamon in the Balkans , and P. fluviatile is replaced by Potamon ibericum in northeastern Greece . In mainland Greece , P. fluviatile is found in the drainages of the Axios , Thyamis , Aheron and Arachthos , Pineiós , Piros @-@ Tethreas , Pamisos and Evrotas rivers .
In the Ionian Islands , P. fluviatile is known to occur at only one site on Corfu , as well as on Kefalonia , Lefkada and Zakynthos . In the Aegean Islands , it is found on Skiathos and Skopelos ( Sporades ) , on Euboea and Skyros , and at a single site on Andros in the Cyclades .
= = Taxonomy = =
Potamon fluviatile is at the western distributional limit of the genus Potamon . Other species in the genus occur through Eastern Europe and the Middle East , and across Central Asia as far east as northwestern India . The populations of P. fluviatile on the Peloponnese , Kefalonia , and Zakynthos may represent a separate , cryptic species , and the population from the Peloponnese was described in 2010 as P. pelops .
P. fluviatile was formerly divided into three subspecies : P. f. algeriense , P. f. berghetripsorum and P. f. fluviatile . The first two of these live in North Africa , and were later combined and separated from P. fluviatile as the species Potamon algeriense . By 1983 , the nominate subspecies ( equivalent to the current circumscription of the species P. fluviatile ) had been divided into six nationes , or " tribes " . Natio fluviatilis was found in northern Italy , natio tarantium in southern Italy , and nationes thessalonis , kühnelti and laconis were found in parts of Greece . The geographical distribution of natio leucosis was not reported , and it was suggested that a further ( undescribed ) tribe inhabited the Greek island of Andros . Despite this wealth of infraspecific taxa , they are rarely used by scientists , and some have questioned directly the value of defining infraspecific taxa within P. fluviatile . In 1990 , the population on Malta was described as a separate subspecies , Potamon fluviatile lanfrancoi , and that taxon has become a conservation icon in Malta following its legal protection in 1993 , although not all scientists recognise the taxon .
= BGM @-@ 75 AICBM =
The ZBGM @-@ 75 Advanced Intercontinental Ballistic Missile , also known as Weapons System 120A ( WS @-@ 120A ) , was a program to develop an intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) , proposed by the United States Air Force in the 1960s as a replacement for the LGM @-@ 30 Minuteman as the Air Force 's standard ICBM . Funding was not allocated for the program and the project was cancelled in 1967 .
= = Background = =
The Department of Defense began the STRAT @-@ X study on 1 November 1966 to evaluate a new ballistic missile proposal from the Air Force , which was designated the Advanced Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ( AICBM ) . The project was intended to provide a successor to the LGM @-@ 30 Minuteman ICBM then in United States Air Force service . The program was officially launched in April 1966 , and in June the project received the designation ZBGM @-@ 75 , the " Z " prefix indicating a project in the planning stage .
The specifications for the ZBGM @-@ 75 called for a large solid @-@ fuel @-@ powered missile , which would be fitted with between 10 and 20 multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles ( MIRVs ) . The missiles would be based in silo launchers , which were specified to be hardened by a factor of 10 over the existing silos used by Minuteman missiles . In addition , there was also a plan to develop a railroad @-@ based deployment system for the AICBM . Improvements in accuracy over existing missiles , combined with penetration aids under development to enhance the effectiveness of each missile , were expected to make the AICBM capable of defeating existing and projected Soviet anti @-@ ballistic missile systems .
= = Cancellation = =
Ultimately , the Navy won the STRAT @-@ X competition with the design that would become the Ohio @-@ class ballistic missile submarines . Nevertheless , the final report , issued in August 1967 , recommended that the ZBGM @-@ 75 also be developed . Accordingly , the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara that the ZBGM @-@ 75 be funded starting in Fiscal Year ( FY ) 1969 , with a projected entry into service by 1973 . This recommendation came after the Air Force had completed the preliminary studies on the missiles and the new , hardened silos . McNamara instead kept the missile in " advanced development " , which stopped all work on the project . Only development of the new super @-@ hardened silos was approved for funding ; these would be used by the Minuteman missiles . As a result , the missile 's development was cancelled . McNamara 's rationale for cancelling the program was the destabilizing influence of the new missile , which could have rendered existing Soviet anti @-@ ballistic missile defenses ineffective . McNamara saw relative parity between the two powers — the strategic basis for mutually assured destruction — as the best method to keep the Soviet Union in a position where it must negotiate with the United States .
After the cancellation of WS @-@ 120A , the Air Force made no further development of new ICBMs until 1972 . In that year the M @-@ X project was begun , which resulted in the development of the LGM @-@ 118 Peacekeeper . The Peacekeeper entered service in the mid @-@ 1980s and served until 2005 ; the Minuteman III is still in service , and has outlasted both of its planned replacements .
= Lactarius sanguifluus =
Lactarius sanguifluus , commonly known as the bloody milk cap , is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae . First described from France in 1811 , the species was given its current name by Elias Fries in 1838 when he transferred it to Lactarius . Found in Asia , Mediterranean Africa , and Europe , fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) grow scattered or in groups on the ground under conifers , especially Douglas fir . When bruised or cut , the fruit bodies ooze a blood @-@ red to purple latex that slowly turns greenish upon exposure to air . The caps are orangish to reddish @-@ brown , and become funnel @-@ shaped with age . The gills are pinkish to purplish . Different forms have been described from Italy , but these are not universally accepted as distinct . L. sanguifluus mushrooms are edible , and sold in rural markets of Europe and Asia . Fruit bodies grown in polluted soil , including roadsides subject to heavy traffic , can bioaccumulate toxic heavy metals . Several sterols and pigment have been isolated and identified from the mushrooms .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described by French mycologist Jean @-@ Jacques Paulet as Hypophyllum sanguifluum in 1811 . It was given its current name by Elias Magnus Fries when he transferred it to Lactarius in his 1838 work Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici . In 1892 , Otto Kuntze called it a Lactifluus , a genus that until 2010 was considered a synonym of Lactarius . Because Paulet 's 1811 type illustration of the species did not represent the typical morphology of the fruit bodies , Jorinde Nuytinck and Annemieke Verbeken designated an epitype in 2005 .
Giovanni Pacioni and Giorgio Lalli described the forms roseus and vinosus from Italy in 2003 ; roseus has a greyish @-@ whitish cap discolouration , while f. vinosus has a less clearly zonate cap that lacks green tones , and gills with a lilac @-@ pinkish sheen . However , form vinosus , originally described by Lucien Quélet as a variety ( Lactarius sanguifluus var. vinosus ) in 1881 , was invalid , because Quélet 's basionym was an illegitimate nomenclatural synonym of a species named in 1855 by Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla . Later authors did not agree with the delimitation of these forms as distinct taxa , suggesting that the alternations in appearance represent normal morphological variations brought about by differences in age , and environmental factors such as levels of sunlight and humidity . Lactarius vinosus has often been considered as a variety of L. sanguifluus , but morphological ( especially macroscopic characters and spore @-@ ornamentation ) and molecular evidence ( based on internal transcribed spacer @-@ sequencing ) has confirmed that they are separate species .
Lactarius sanguifluus is classified in the section Dapetes of the genus Lactarius . This section , which also includes other popular edible species such as L. deliciosus , and the less popular L. deterrimus , is characterized by mushrooms with orange or red latex that often impart a greenish stain on the flesh and gills , an often sticky cap , and association with conifers . The specific epithet sanguifluus is derived from the Latin words sanguis ( " blood " ) and fluus ( " flowing " ) .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies have convex caps with a central depression , reaching a diameter of 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) . The cap surface is smooth and sticky , and the margins are curved downward , even as the mushroom matures . Its color is pinkish @-@ buff to orangish , sometimes with patches of grayish or pale greenish @-@ gray , especially where the surface has been bruised . The somewhat crowded gills have an adnate to slightly decurrent attachment to the stipe . They are pale vinaceous with a pale pinkish @-@ buff edge . The cylindrical stipe measures 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) long by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Its smooth surface is colored pale pinkish @-@ buff to pale greyish @-@ buff , sometimes with brownish irregular dots . The flesh ranges from firm to fragile : in the stipe , it is soft and pale pinkish buff ; under the cap cuticle it is brick colored , or brownish @-@ red just above the gills . Its taste ranges from mild to slightly bitter , and it lacks any significant odor .
The spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoidal , measuring 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 5 by 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 8 µm . They feature surface ornamentations up to 0 @.@ 8 µm high and an almost complete reticulum comprising broad , rounded ridges . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are somewhat cylindrical , four @-@ spored , and measure 50 – 70 by 9 – 11 µm . The cap cuticle is an ixocutis ( made of gelatinous hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface ) up to 60 µm thick , with hyphae that are 2 – 6 wide that are usually branched and interwoven .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius vinosus , formerly considered a variety of L. sanguifluus , is quite similar in appearance . In general , L. vinosus can be distinguished by the more vinaceous @-@ red color ( lacking orange tones ) of its cap , stipe , and gills , the more distinctly downwards @-@ tapered stipe , and the more intense staining of the latex on the cap tissue . The two species can also be distinguished microscopically by differences in the ornamentation of their spore surfaces . L. vinosus has an incomplete reticulum on the spore surface , with ridges that have a wider degree of variation in thickness . Another potential lookalike , L. semisanguifluus , has a characteristic orange latex that turns wine @-@ red in 5 – 10 minutes after exposure to air . Compared to L. sanguifluus , the fruit bodies of L. semisanguifluus are smaller , have tinges of violet in the cap , and develop a greenish discolouration with age .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
An ectomycorrhizal species , Lactarius sanguifluus fruit bodies grow on the ground in association with pine trees on calcareous soils . L. sanguifluus is widely distributed in Himachal Pradesh in India , where it has been noted to grow in mixed coniferous forests , usually under the fern Onychium contiguum . It is widespread in Southern Europe , where it fruits between September and November ( extending to December in the southernmost regions of the continent ) . In the Netherlands , it was found in calcareous dunes , growing in a warm , sunny and sheltered place at the edge of a woods dominated in pine species . From Europe , it has also been recorded in Belgium , Estonia , Greece , Cyprus , France , Germany , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Poland , Russia , Spain , Slovakia , Sweden , and Switzerland . In Africa , the species has been collected in Morocco ; in Asia , it occurs in Vietnam and China . It is listed in the Red Data Book of the Ukraine , and appeared in a draft red list for Spain as an endangered edible species considered vulnerable due to uncontrolled commercial picking . To illustrate , a September 1998 newspaper report was cited , which reported that 82 @.@ 5 kg ( 182 lb ) of L. sanguifluus mushrooms picked in Poligny were seized from a van .
= = = Edibility = = =
The fruit bodies of Lactarius sanguifluus are edible , and choice . This was noted by Paulet in his original description of the species , who wrote : " This fungus is highly prized for use by those who are acquainted with it , it keeps well : I kept them for a whole year , it hardens without spoiling , then it takes on a taste of morels . The best way to eat is to cook it in the frying pan or on the grill with oil or butter & salt : it does not take long to cook " . The mushrooms are sold in rural markets in France , Spain , Turkey , and Yunnan Province , China . They are also collected by locals in the upper valley of the Serchio River in central Italy . In Spain , where the mushroom is esteemed as a culinary delicacy in Catalonian cuisine , it is known as niscalos or rovello . In Cyprus , it is known as γαιματάς ( meaning " the bloody one " ) and it is widely collected by the locals , but considered inferior to the saffron milk cap ( Lactarius deliciosus ) . In India , young specimens are consumed along with L. deliciosus ; and some consider L. sanguifluus to have a better flavor than its more well @-@ known relative . Its English common name is the " bloody milkcap " .
Fruit bodies can bioaccumulate heavy metals , including toxic ones , from polluted soil . For this reason , consuming mushrooms harvested from potentially contaminated sites — such as near roadsides subject to heavy traffic — is not recommended . In a Turkish study of various edible mushroom species collected from lawns , near roads , and the inner parts of forests , the fruit bodies of L. sanguifluus were determined to have accumulated high levels of zinc , manganese , nickel , cobalt , cadmium , and lead .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Lactarius sanguifluus contains a mixture of sterols . The predominant sterol is ergosterol ( 56 @.@ 6 % of total sterols ) , with lesser amounts of ergosterol derivatives , including ergost @-@ 7 @-@ en @-@ 3β @-@ ol , ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 3β @-@ ol , and ergosta @-@ 5 @,@ 7 @-@ dien @-@ 3β @-@ ol .
The latex contains sesquiterpene pigments with guaiane skeletons ; these include the compounds given the common names lactaroviolin and sangol . Some of these chemicals are thought to undergo enzymatic conversions when the fruit body becomes injured . Fruit body extracts have been shown to have some antimicrobial activity against Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative bacteria .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Dugan FM . ( 2011 ) . " Conspectus of World Ethnomycology " . St. Paul , Minnesota : American Phytopathological Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89054 @-@ 395 @-@ 5 .
Heilmann @-@ Clausen J , Verbeken A , Vesterholt J ( 2000 ) . The Genus Lactarius . Fungi of Northern Europe 2 . Denmark : Svampetryk . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 983581 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 .
Nuytinck J , Verbeken A ( 2005 ) . " Morphology and taxonomy of the European species in Lactarius sect . Deliciosi ( Russulales ) " . Mycotaxon 92 : 125 – 68 .
= Lily Cole =
Lily Luahana Cole ( born 27 December 1987 ) [ n 1 ] is an English actress and entrepreneur .
Cole pursued a modelling career as a teenager and was listed in 2009 by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s . She was booked for her first British Vogue cover at age 16 , named " Model of the Year " at the 2004 British Fashion Awards , and worked with many well @-@ known brands , including Alexander McQueen , Chanel , Louis Vuitton , Jean Paul Gaultier and Moschino . Her advertising campaigns have included Longchamp , Anna Sui , Rimmel and Cacharel .
Cole 's first leading role as an actress was as Valentina in the 2009 film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus . Her other film work includes Passages , a short directed by Shekhar Kapur and There Be Dragons , directed by Roland Joffé . In 2013 Cole founded impossible.com , a website that hosts wishes and requests for assistance .
= = Early life and education = =
Cole was born in Torquay , Devon to Patience Owen , an artist and writer , and Chris Cole , a fisherman and boat builder . She and her sister were raised by their mother in London .
Cole attended Hallfield Primary School , the Sylvia Young Theatre School , and St Marylebone School . At Latymer Upper School , where she completed her sixth form studies , she achieved A grades in her A @-@ levels in English , politics , and philosophy and ethics .
She gained a place to read Social and Political Sciences at King 's College , Cambridge in 2006 , deferring entry twice . In 2008 she switched to history of art and graduated in 2011 with a double first .
= = Modelling = =
= = = Magazines and fashion shows = = =
Cole was photographed in 2001 at age 13 by fashion photographer Mariano Vivanco . According to the Evening Standard in 2004 , her modelling career began in 2003 when she was approached in the street by Benjamin Hart of Storm Models . She signed with Storm and in 2003 was photographed by Steven Meisel for Italian Vogue . Her distinctive red hair attracted significant media attention . At the 2004 British Fashion Awards , she was named " Model of the Year " .
Cole worked with many prominent photographers , including Craig McDean , Nick Knight , Juergen Teller , Arthur Elgort , Irving Penn and Tim Walker . She has appeared on the covers of Playboy in France , Vogue , Citizen K , and V , among others . She featured on Vogue 's " best dressed " list in December 2005 , and had cover appearances on Numéro and Interview .
She modelled on the international runway circuit and at many fashion shows on behalf of Chanel , Shiatzy Chen , DKNY , Jean Paul Gaultier , Versace , Alexander McQueen , Jasper Conran , John Galliano and Louis Vuitton . She was nominated , for the second time , for the " Model of the Year " award at the 2007 British Fashion Awards . In December 2009 she was listed by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s . Cole made a cover appearance on the January 2010 issue of the Canadian Elle and opened Hermès 's winter 2010 / 2011 collection at Paris Fashion Week in March . Towards the end of 2010 , she featured in a documentary chronicling the career of Rolf Harris in which he painted her dressing up as Titania from A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
During the Closing Ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics , Cole was one of the British models wearing fashions created by British designers specifically for the event .
= = = Advertising = = =
Cole has appeared in advertising campaigns for Chanel , Christian Lacroix , Hermès , Longchamp , Cacharel , Topshop and Anna Sui cosmetics , as well as being the face for Moschino 's perfume " I Love Love " . In September 2007 , Cole was announced as the follow @-@ up model for Accessorize , taking the place of Claudia Schiffer , also designing a line of handbags for the collection .
Cole has been modelling for cosmetics company Rimmel London since October 2009 , as well as featuring in advertisements for jewellers Tiffany & Co . Along with Twiggy and others , Cole became a " face " of Marks and Spencer clothes advertising campaign , making her the youngest model to become involved in a campaign for the line .
She launched a campaign in June 2010 at Gatwick Airport for modelling agency , Storm Model Management . The campaign aims to find new modelling talent from people passing through the airport , with the agency hoping to re @-@ create the discovery of Kate Moss , who was spotted at JFK Airport in 1988 by the agency 's founder .
In March 2012 The Body Shop launched its Beauty With Heart campaign , naming Cole as its first ambassador .
= = Acting = =
= = = Films = = =
Cole made her acting debut as Polly in the 2007 comedy St. Trinian 's , a rework of the black and white films of the 1950s and ' 60s , alongside Rupert Everett , Colin Firth , Russell Brand , Jodie Whittaker and Stephen Fry .
Her first leading role came in Terry Gilliam 's 2009 fantasy film , The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus , playing Valentina , the teenage daughter of Christopher Plummer 's title character , Dr Parnassus , whom Parnassus has promised to the Devil ( Tom Waits ) upon her 16th birthday . Acting alongside Heath Ledger ( who died before filming had finished ) , Cole , in an interview for the Daily Telegraph admitted that , at times , she felt out of her depth in the role- saying “ I ’ d only done a couple of films and here I was surrounded by amazing actors like Christopher Plummer and Heath Ledger , and it was intimidating at times , ” also describing the role as " the biggest role I ’ ve ever done " .
Gilliam said of Cole : “ She has an amazing look and grasps what is required so very quickly . If she wants a career as an actress , she has a brilliant future ” . According to Mark Olsen of The Los Angeles Times , writing as Parnassus was released in the United States , " Cole brings a surprising well of emotional tenderness to her part as Valentina " , while Ryan Michael Painter wrote of the film on ' inthisweek.com ' that " all of the performances are delightful , particularly Cole 's as Valentina , proving that the haute couture model has more to offer this world than a pretty face " .
Cole appeared at the 34th Toronto International Film Festival in December 2009 to promote Parnassus . She was featured as herself in one episode of the online series T Takes , a series of short , improvised films published by The New York Times . Cole appeared as " Lettuce Leaf " , a celebrity supermodel in the 2009 film , Rage , directed by Sally Potter . Cole also played " Aline " in the 2011 film There Be Dragons .
In January 2010 , Cole gave an interview to the Canadian edition of Elle in which she expressed her desire to focus more on acting than on her modelling career , saying she " wouldn 't want to treat acting as a convenient thing to do now and again " , going on to mention her roles in the upcoming films There Be Dragons and Phantasmagoria : The Visions of Lewis Carroll and saying of her modelling " I 've been doing modelling for years and I feel like I 've taken out of it what I need to and I 'm ready for new things " and that " film asks for a much bigger emotional and intellectual commitment . " Cole had a part in Mary Harron 's The Moth Diaries , which was released in 2012 .
= = = Other roles = = =
Cole made a minor appearance in the music video for the Girls Aloud / Sugababes cover of " Walk This Way " in aid of the British telethon charity Comic Relief , in which she struts up and down a catwalk in " hilarious ways " , interspersed by the bands and several well @-@ known British television personalities . Cole had another minor role in Primal Scream 's 2008 video " Can ’ t Go Back " , in which she and other models featured in a horror @-@ style video based on the films of Dario Argento . The models , including Cole , are graphically " murdered " and " meet their ends in rather striking ways " with the aim of looking " hot even when dead " . Cole again starred in a music video for Sir Paul McCartney 's song Queenie Eye featuring a number of actors and musicians including Gary Barlow , James Corden , Jude Law and Johnny Depp .
It was reported in October 2009 that Cole would make her stage debut at the Old Vic Theatre in London 's West End at the theatre 's annual " 24 Hour Plays " held in November , but " scheduling commitments " forced her to pull out . Cole ultimately made her stage début at the ADC Theatre in Cambridge , as Nina in a student production of The Seagull .
She appeared in " The Curse of the Black Spot " , the third episode of the sixth series of science fiction series Doctor Who , in May 2011 . She played a Sea Siren .
Cole stars in the music video for Yeah Yeah Yeahs 2013 single " Sacrilege " as a woman burned alive by the many men and women that she 's had affairs with .
= = Charity work = =
= = = Overview = = =
Cole supports a variety of humanitarian and environmental causes . She is an ambassador for children 's charity Global Angels . She also supports the charity WaterAid , speaking for the organisation 's " End Water Poverty " campaign , and the Environmental Justice Foundation Cole has modelled a T @-@ shirt with the slogan " Save the Future " to fight child labour in the fashion industry for the Environmental Justice Foundation . Most recently Cole put a plaster cast bust of her torso on the auction site eBay to raise money for British telethon charity Comic Relief .
In December 2009 , Cole attended a party , hosted by Elton John for which guests were asked to design their ideal bar with the designs then sold at auction in aid of the Elton John AIDS Foundation .
In October 2010 , she helped launch the World Land Trust ’ s Emerald for Elephant Exhibition , which was designed to create awareness and raise important funds for the protection of the critically endangered Asian elephant .
In August 2012 , she was part of the judging panel at the Festival of Code , held at the culmination of Young Rewired State 2012 .
In 2013 , PETA cited her efforts to make consumers aware of animal products in cosmetics and declared her to be one of the " Sexiest Vegetarians " of the year .
= = = Environmental campaigning = = =
In 2005 Cole announced she would no longer model for De Beers after being alerted to the situation of the Kalahari Bushmen being evicted from their lands in Botswana .
Cole wrote the foreword for Tamsin Blanchard 's 2007 book Green Is The New Black , a guide to being fashionable while remaining eco @-@ friendly .
In 2013 it was announced that Cole would receive the Doctor of Letters for her " outstanding contribution to humanitarian and environmental causes " from the chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University , Professor Muhammad Yunus .
Cole was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party 's Caroline Lucas at the 2015 general election .
= = Business activities = =
Cole is the founder of socially networked gift economy website , impossible.com ; a website that promotes requests for and offering of gifts and assistance . Cole is also part @-@ owner of a London bookshop .
Cole was involved in creating an environmentally friendly knitwear company , The North Circular , which launched in 2009 . The North Circular products are hand knit in the UK with British yarns , from which 5 % of all profits , and all of Cole 's , are donated to the Environmental Justice Foundation . She launched a womenswear range for the company in February 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
On 28 February 2015 , Cole announced she was expecting her first child with partner Kwame Ferreira . Cole announced on 11 September 2015 that she had given birth to a daughter .
= = Filmography = =
= Gyromitra infula =
Gyromitra infula , commonly known as the hooded false morel or the elfin saddle , is a fungus in the family Helvellaceae . The dark reddish @-@ brown caps of the fruit bodies develop a characteristic saddle @-@ shape in maturity , and the ends of both saddle lobes are drawn out to sharp tips that project above the level of the fruit body . The stipe is white or flushed pale brown , smooth on the outside , but hollow with some chambers inside . It is found in the Northern Hemisphere , usually in the late summer and autumn , growing on rotting wood or on hard packed ground . G. infula is considered inedible as it contains the toxic compound gyromitrin , which , when metabolized by the body , is converted into monomethylhydrazine , a component of some rocket fuels . The toxin may be removed by thorough cooking . Gyromitra fungi are included in the informal category " false morels " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described in 1774 by German mycologist Jacob Christian Schäffer as Helvella infula ( the original genus spelling was Elvela ) . In 1849 , Elias Magnus Fries established the genus Gyromitra , distinguishing it from Helvella based on a gyrose hymenium ( marked with wavy lines or convolutions ) ; the genus was based on the type species Gyromitra esculenta . Later , in 1886 , French mycologist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to Gyromitra . The next few decades witnessed some lingering confusion as to the correct taxonomical placement of these fungi . In 1907 , Jean Boudier moved both G. esculenta and H. infula into a newly created genus he called Physomitra ; he retained the genus Gyromitra but " based it on an entirely different character so as to exclude from the genus the very species on which it was founded " . In an attempt to reconcile the confusion surrounding the naming and identity of the two mushrooms , Fred J. Seaver proposed that both were synonymous , representing variable forms of the same species . His suggestion was not adopted by later mycologists , who identified various differences between the two species , including fruiting time as well as macroscopic and microscopic differences .
The genus name is derived from the Greek words gyros / γυρος " round " and mitra / μιτρα " headband " ; the specific epithet is from the Latin infǔla , a heavy band of twisted wool worn by Roman officiants at sacrifices . It is known more commonly as the elfin saddle or the hooded false morel . Additionally , G. infula is a member of a group of fungi collectively known as " false morels " , so named for their resemblance to the highly regarded edible true morels of the genus Morchella . This group includes other species of the genus Gyromitra , such as G. esculenta ( brain mushroom ) , G. caroliniana ( beefsteak mushroom ) and G. gigas ( snow morel ) .
= = Description = =
The cap of the fruit body ( technically an apothecium ) is up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) high by 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide and is reddish brown , and somewhat saddle @-@ shaped with 2 – 4 lobes . It frequently develops blackish @-@ brown spots on the surface . During the development of the mushroom , the periphery of the cap grows into the stipe below , to form a hollow , roughly bell @-@ shaped structure with the fertile spore @-@ bearing surface ( the hymenium ) on the outside ; as the surface growth of the hymenium continues to expand even after joining to the stipe , the hymenium can no longer follow and it arches up into folds and pads . The stipe , typically between 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , can be various colors from reddish brown to whitish or even bluish , but is typically lighter colored than the cap . The stipe is minutely tomentose – covered with a layer of very fine hairs . The context is thin ( 1 – 2 mm ) and brittle . G. infula does not have any appreciable odor or taste .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Ascospores are ellipsoidal in shape , hyaline , smooth , thin @-@ walled , with dimensions of 17 – 22 by 7 – 9 µm . They are also biguttulate , containing two large oil droplets at either end . The spore @-@ producing cells , the asci , are roughly cylindrical , eight @-@ spored , operculate ( opening by an apical lid to discharge the spores ) and have dimensions of 200 – 350 by 12 – 17 | µm . The diameter of the club @-@ shaped paraphyses is 7 – 10 µm at the apex .
= = = Edibility = = =
This fungus is inedible , as it contains the toxic compound gyromitrin , which when digested is metabolized into monomethylhydrazine , a major component of rocket fuel . Although much of the gyromitrin may be removed by parboiling with generous volumes of water , consumption is not advisable due to possible long @-@ term health effects — there is evidence that even small doses of gyromitrin may have a cumulative carcinogenic effect .
= = = Similar species = = =
Gyromitra esculenta has a wrinkled surface ( similar to brainlike convolutions ) , not wavy or bumpy like G. infula . Gyromitra ambigua is very similar in appearance , and although it is usually not possible to discern between the two species without examining microscopic characteristics , G. ambigua is said to have more pronounced purple tints in the stipe . G. ambigua has larger spores that are about 22 – 30 µm long . The saddle @-@ shaped cap of G. infula might also lead to confusion with some species of Helvella , but these latter fungi typically have grayer colors and thinner , fluted stipes .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
This fungus can be found growing singly to scattered in or near coniferous woodland in autumn , often on rotten wood . It is also commonly found on packed ground , such as beside country roads , or in campgrounds . Associated conifers include Picea glauca , Picea mariana , Picea sitchensis , Pinus contorta , Pinus banksiana , Pinus monticola , Abies balsamea , Abies grandis , Pseudotsuga menziesii , Tsuga heterophylla , Larix occidentalis , Thuja plicata , as well as the deciduous tree species Populus balsamifera , Populus tremuloides , Acer macrophyllum , Alnus species , and Betula papyrifera .
Gyromitra infula is widely distributed throughout boreal , montane and coastal forests in North America . The North American range extends north to Canada and south to
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1959 , and came into force on 29 August 1959 as the Obscene Publications Act 1959 .
= = Act = =
The Act is relatively short , divided into 5 sections , the fifth covering the extent of the Act and its commencement date . Section 1 covers the test to determine if something is obscene ; an article is taken to be obscene if the entire article " is , if taken as a whole , such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely , having regard to all relevant circumstances , to read , see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it " . The test is based on " persons " ; DPP v Whyte [ 1972 ] AC 849 established that it was not sufficient for an individual to be depraved or corrupted , it must be that a significant number of people likely to read it would become corrupt . " article " is defined within Section 1 as anything containing material that is read or looked at , any sound recordings and any film or other picture record . A publisher , as used in the Act , is also defined in Section 1 ; " publisher " is taken to mean anyone who " distributes , circulates , sells , lets on hire , gives , or lends it , or who offers it for sale or for letting on hire " , or " in the case of an article containing or embodying matter to be looked at or a record , shows , plays or projects it " . The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended this section to include the transmission of the article electronically .
Section 2 covers the actual prohibition of publishing " obscene material " . Section 2 ( 1 ) creates a new offence , " publishing an obscene article " , which replaces the common law misdemeanour of " obscene libel " which was previously the crime . Somebody can be found guilty of this regardless of if it was done for profit or not . Where the article is a film , the consent of the Director of Public Prosecutions is required before a prosecution can commence . Section 2 ( 4 ) states that , where an article is obscene , no other common law charges should be brought , and it should instead be dealt with through the 1959 Act , intended to limit prosecutions to those crimes found in this Act . Section 2 ( 5 ) creates a defence of " innocent dissemination " ; if the publisher can prove that they did not anticipate any obscenity problems , and did not examine the article in question for such issues , they cannot be convicted .
Powers of search and seizure are covered by Section 3 , which also repealed the Obscene Publications Act 1857 . This section allows a Justice of the Peace , if satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to believe obscene publications are kept on certain premises for profit , to issue a warrant for that location . This warrant allows a police officer to enter the premises , search them and remove any suspect publications ; if such publications are found , the officer can also take records relating to the businesses trade . The articles must then be brought before a magistrate and either forfeited by the owners or returned . The owner , author or publisher of the articles , or the person from whom they were seized , may appear before the magistrate to argue why they should not be forfeited .
Section 4 creates the defence of public good , which applies both to prosecutions for publication of obscene materials and to the forfeiture proceedings described in Section 3 . This allows for a valid defence if the defendant can show that the publication of the materials was justifiable as for the " public good " , which is defined as " in the interests of science , literature , art or learning , or of other objects of general concern " . Experts and their testimony are admissible for determining the value of such publications . This section was initially treated very strictly by trial judges , but this attitude was reversed after the 1976 trial of the book Inside Linda Lovelace , where the jury found the publishers not guilty despite the judge saying that " if this isn 't obscene , members of the jury , you may think that nothing is obscene " . Three years later the Williams Committee recommended that restrictions on written pornography be lifted , and these restrictions have been largely abandoned .
= = Notable prosecutions under the Act = =
= = = Lady Chatterley 's Lover trial = = =
The first noted prosecution under the Obscene Publications Act was of Penguin Books in R v Penguin Books Ltd . [ 1960 ] for publishing Lady Chatterley 's Lover . The book , which contained the use of the words " fuck " and " cunt " multiple times , along with sexual scenes , was banned completely in England and Wales until the conclusion of the trial ; by the mid @-@ 1980s , it was on the school syllabus . Penguin Books relied on Section 4 's " public good " defence , with academics and literary critics such as E. M. Forster and Helen Gardner testifying at the trial that the book was one of literary merit . The trial at the Old Bailey eventually ended with a not guilty verdict , allowing the book to be openly published and sold in England and Wales for the first time since it was published in 1928 . This trial and its verdict is seen as heralding " a new wave of sexual ' morality ' for which the 1960s is now famous " . Graham Lord wrote that the case " was the first trumpet call of the permissive society , the moment many believe that British morality , manners and family life began seriously to deteriorate " .
= = = Schoolkids Oz trial = = =
In 1971 the editors of Oz were tried for publishing obscene materials , specifically the Schoolkids Oz issue . Oz was an underground magazine with a circulation of 40 @,@ 000 which aimed to challenge the " older generation 's outdated beliefs and standards of behaviour and morality " . For its 28th issue , 20 teenagers were invited to contribute and edit it . The published version was 48 pages long , with the front consisting of a sheet from the French erotic book Desseins Erotiques , which depicted four naked women licking each other and performing sex acts . Inside were articles about homosexuality , lesbianism , sadism and a cartoon strip which showed Rupert Bear " ravaging " a " gipsy granny " . John Mortimer acted for the defence , and after the longest obscenity trial in English legal history the defendants were convicted . After a three @-@ day hearing in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , this conviction was overturned ; the Court of Appeal recognised 14 errors of law and a large number of errors of fact in the trial judge 's summing up to the jury .
= = = Later cases = = =
Later cases have included :
1976 : the Inside Linda Lovelace obscenity trial ( found not guilty )
1991 : David Britton 's " Lord Horror " prosecution ( not prosecuted - banned under the act , but later overturned )
2009 : R v Walker where Darryn Walker was found not guilty under the Obscene Publications Act for posting a story entitled " Girls ( Scream ) Aloud " , a fictional written account on an internet erotic story site describing the kidnap , rape and murder of pop group Girls Aloud .
2010 : Gavin Smith who was charged after discussing his fantasies about spanking children . After the Crown Prosecution Service appealed the judge 's original ruling that there was no case to answer , he was subsequently convicted in 2012 .
2012 : R v Peacock where a man was unsuccessfully prosecuted for selling DVDs featuring BDSM , fisting and urolagnia .
= = Impact and assessment = =
The Act was found deficient in a variety of ways . Firstly , the test meant that " sting " operations where the police purchased " obscene " materials were not considered sufficient evidence of publication , since the police were not considered easy to " corrupt " due to their regular exposure to the materials . It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase , as those who actively sought out such material were deemed not likely to be corrupted by it . Secondly , the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication , since it was merely an invitation to treat . Thirdly , the courts held in Straker v DPP [ 1963 ] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to publish them , regardless of their obscene nature . As a result , the Act was amended by the Obscene Publications Act 1964 , which created the offence of " possessing obscene articles for publication or sale " and also extended " obscene materials " to cover photograph negatives . Another criticism levelled at both Acts was that they failed to define " obscene " properly , relying on the old , common law definition and giving no help to the judge or jury as to how to apply it properly . The National Campaign for the Repeal of the Obscene Publications Acts ( NCROPA ) was set up in 1976 by the actor David Webb ; it operated until the late 1990s .
= = = Current situation = = =
In 1996 there were 562 cases brought , in which 324 individuals were convicted . Even with this small number of trials , a third of convictions resulted in prison sentences , and only a small number of cases went to jury trials . The number of prosecutions has fallen , from 309 in 1994 , 131 in 1999 , 39 in 2003 to 35 in 2005 . This decline may be partly due to the behaviour of modern jurors , who are less likely to consider material as depraving and corrupting , and are reluctant to convict defendants for the private use of material amongst consenting adults . Another reason for the decline may be the range of alternative legislation which can now often be used in place of the Act . Suggestions given by the Crown Prosecution Service include :
Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 ( " extreme pornography " )
Protection of Children Act 1978
Video Recordings Act 1984 and 2010
Indecent Displays ( Control ) Act 1981
Customs Consolidation Act 1876 , Amendment Act 1887 ( Importation of Indecent and Obscene Material )
Children and Young Persons ( Harmful Publications ) Act 1955 .
The Act continues to have a significant impact in English law , as its precedents serve to provide a definition of obscenity that is used in other legal contexts . For instance , anything deemed likely to contravene the Act is prohibited from videos awarded an R18 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification . A list of the categories of material most commonly prosecuted under the Act is published by the Crown Prosecution Service .
= Luis Daoíz y Torres =
This name uses Spanish naming customs ; the first or paternal family name is Daoíz and the second or maternal family name is Torres .
Luis Daoíz y Torres ( Seville , 10 February 1767 – Madrid , 2 May 1808 ) was a Spanish artillery officer and one of the leaders of the Dos de Mayo Uprising that signalled the start of the Spanish War of Independence . Daoíz 's surname is derived from the town of Aoiz in Navarre and he was descended from a long line of Spanish gentry with soldiering associations dating to the Reconquista . Daoíz 's great grandfather married the daughter of the Count of Miraflores de los Angeles and Daoíz spent much of his early life in palaces owned by the family . He was born in Seville and , after receiving a Catholic education , trained at the Royal School of Artillery in Segovia . Daoíz saw action against the Moors in Spanish North Africa , where he was commended for his bravery and promoted to lieutenant . He also served against the French in the short @-@ lived War of the Roussillon where he was captured . After refusing to serve in the French army , he was imprisoned .
After his release he served on secondment to the Spanish Navy during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , participating in the Defence of Cadiz and on convoy duty to the Americas , for which he was rewarded with promotion to captain . He tired of the sea and rejoined his artillery regiment . His subsequent duties included assisting in the manufacture of new guns for the horse artillery , attending the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau with France and participating in the 1807 invasion of Portugal . He returned to Madrid in 1808 and was a leader of the Dos de Mayo Uprising in which he assisted civilians resisting French efforts to remove the royal family from Spain . His defence of the barracks at Monteleón was the only action that day in which the Spanish army fought the French and , although ultimately unsuccessful , it inspired the Spanish War of Independence . He died in the fighting and has been commemorated as a national hero .
= = Ancestry = =
Luis 's oldest known ancestor is Don Berenguer D 'Aoiz , who was named for the town of Aoiz in Navarre and fought in the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors . Members of the family subsequently served in the militia , including Don García Garcés D ´ Aoiz who fought at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 , a decisive Christian victory and a turning point in the Reconquista . Other ancestors fought in the 15th century Granada War , the 16th century conquest of Naples and in 17th century Flanders . Luis 's great grandfather , Joaquín D ´ Aoiz , was sheriff of Gibraltar in the mid @-@ 17th century when he was forced to hand the territory over to the British , the family subsequently moving to El Puerto de Santa María and changing their surname to Daoíz . Joaquín 's grandson Martin married Francisca Torres Ponce de León , daughter of the Count of Miraflores de los Angeles , in 1766 and their son Luis was born in a palace owned by the Miraflores family in Calle del Horno , Seville .
= = Early life = =
Luis Daoíz was born on 10 February 1767 and baptised the same day as " Luis Gonzaga Guillermo Escolástica Manuel José Joaquín Ana y Juan de la Soledad Daoíz Torres " . Daoíz lived for much of his childhood at the palace in Calle del Horno , spending some of his summers at a house in Calle Iglesia ( now renamed Calle de Daoíz ) in Mairena del Alcor . He was educated at the Colegio de San Hermenegildo Jesuit college in Seville up to the age of 15 , when his parents decided that he would become an officer in the Spanish Army , which their families considered a career suitable for a gentleman . Daoíz 's father was able to arrange the necessary paperwork for him to enter the elitist artillery corps which only permitted noblemen to take commissions .
Daoíz entered the Royal School of Artillery at Segovia as a cadet on 10 February 1782 and graduated as an ensign on 9 February 1787 . According to his entrance report he had a dark complexion , brown hair , large eyes and a small stature , being less than five feet tall . At the school Daoíz excelled at mathematics and sports , in particular saber fencing and was able to speak French , English , Italian and Latin in addition to his native Spanish . After graduation Daoíz was assigned to the Real Regimiento de Artillería ( Royal Regiment of Artillery ) at Puerto de Santa Maria . He was able to use a considerable private income from property and farms owned by his family around Gibraltar to supplement his official salary .
= = Army career = =
Daoíz volunteered to help defend Ceuta against the Moors in 1790 and was given command of an artillery battery . He remained in North Africa to assist with the defence of Oran in 1791 , spending part of the time with a unit of miners . Daoíz was commended by his superiors , including artillery Brigadier Andres Aznar , for his courage and zeal in the battles and was promoted to lieutenant on 28 February 1792 . After Spain joined the First Coalition against Revolutionary France , Daoíz participated in the War of Roussillon , in the Pyrenees , from March 1794 but was captured in a French counterattack on 25 November 1794 . He was held as a prisoner of war at Toulouse where he turned down an offer of freedom and a commission in the French Army , which was short of artillery officers . After the Peace of Basel ended the war between France and Spain on 22 July 1795 , Daoíz was released and made his way back to El Puerto de Santa Maria .
Spain signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1796 , allying itself with France against Great Britain and beginning the Anglo @-@ Spanish War . On 11 July 1797 Daoíz was placed in charge of a gunboat in the Defence of Cadiz , commanded by Admiral Jose de Mazarredo y Salazar , against the British blockading squadron . During the defence his gunboat , No. 5 , was involved in an attack on the British third @-@ rate HMS Powerful . Later that year he was seconded to the Spanish Navy , which was short of trained officers , for service aboard the 74 gun ship San Ildefonso . Daoíz sailed twice with the vessel to the Americas , escorting galleons . During this time he assisted the ship 's captain , Jose de Iriarte , by acting as a translator during negotiations with foreign officials and found time to write a short treatise on the instruction of soldiers and sailors . Whilst with the ship in Havana , Cuba , in November 1800 Daoíz was reading back issues of a gazette and was surprised to find that he had been promoted to captain on 4 March 1800 , whilst at sea . He did not enjoy the long trips away from Spain and requested a land based posting , serving initially as a lieutenant in the infantry before joining the newly formed 3rd Artillery Regiment of Seville on 7 July 1802 . Had he stayed aboard the San Ildefonso Daoíz may have seen action with the ship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
On 2 December 1803 Daoíz was ordered by General Godoy to be seconded to the Royal Bronze Foundry . There he sat on a committee , headed by Brigadier Maria Vicente Maturana , to decide the design and oversee the production of new light guns for the horse artillery . Daoíz agreed to wed a noblewoman from Utrera in 1807 , the marriage ceremony taking place in spring the next year . In 1807 Daoíz was commander of the Spanish artillerymen that attended the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau , an agreement between Spain and France to split up Portugal into three smaller states , and was part of the Franco @-@ Spanish force that invaded Portugal to enforce that treaty . He moved with his regiment to Madrid in 1808 and took command of a battery of the 2nd company ( some sources say 3rd company ) at the former palace of the Duke of Monteleón . He became known to the men under his command as " el Abuelo " ( " the grandfather " ) due to his relative age and good temperament .
= = Dos de Mayo = =
As part of the Treaty of Fontainebleau , French troops began to arrive in Spain and occupy strategic points . Marshal Joachim Murat was ordered to Madrid with 30 @,@ 000 troops and began taking control of the main palaces and barracks of the city , which had just 2 @-@ 4 @,@ 000 Spanish troops in its garrison . The presence of a French garrison was resented by much of the populace and Daoíz himself had to be restrained from fighting a duel with a French soldier he overheard insulting Spain in a tavern . On 2 May a crowd , hearing of French plans to send members of the Spanish royal family away to France , gathered outside the Royal Palace in Madrid to protest . It is not known how the fighting started , but the British consul , John Hunter , recorded that by 11 am French troops were firing musket volleys into the crowded square and fighting had spread across Madrid . French troops were dispatched to take possession of the Spanish barracks to secure their arms and ammunition .
Daoíz , the highest @-@ ranking officer at the Monteleón barracks found himself in command of just 4 officers , 3 NCOs and 10 men . He sought reinforcements at his regimental headquarters and returned with the 3rd company of the 2nd Battalion , a further 33 men and 2 officers . Daoíz 's orders from the local junta were to remain in the barracks and co @-@ operate with French forces but , after conferring with Captain Pedro Velarde y Santillán , he decided that the French troops were hostile to Spain and that they would defend the barracks against any French interference . By this time a large crowd of civilians had gathered at the barracks , requesting weapons with which to oppose the French , and Daoíz ordered the armoury opened to them . With 9 cannon , and 120 soldiers and armed civilians under his command , Daoíz now made arrangements for the defence of the barracks . A battery of 24 pounder guns were placed at the main gate facing into the street and were loaded with canister shot by their military and civilian crews . A small detachment of French stationed near the barracks were captured by Verlarde and their weapons and ammunition distributed to civilians .
According to Hunter , when the first French troops advanced up the street to take possession of the barracks they were fired upon and several were killed before they halted to await reinforcements and occupy neighbouring buildings . Soon the French commanding officer , General Joseph Lagrange , had around 2 @,@ 000 men in the area . French battalions , including a unit of Imperial Grenadiers , made two assaults on the guns , but both were repulsed , and the Spaniards captured a French colonel . A third wave of French troops reached the artillery lines and fired into the barracks , killing many of the defenders including Velarde , before charging with fixed bayonets . Hunter claimed that Daoíz , who had been shot in the hip , continued to issue orders despite his wound and was wounded twice more whilst fighting the French with his sabre . Daoíz is said to have been stabbed in the back with a bayonet and killed whilst approaching a French officer waving a white flag of truce . The dying Daoíz was dragged away by his men , who continued to fight within the barracks buildings before surrendering at the request of Spanish Captain @-@ General the Marquis de San Simón . The Spanish at Monteleón had held out against superior French numbers for around three hours . Daoíz was 41 years old when he died , and had over 26 years of continuous service in the Spanish Army .
= = Aftermath = =
The French surgeon is said to have insisted on treating Daoíz before tending to his own men , but his efforts were in vain and Daoíz was buried in the Church of St Martin alongside his men . Velarde , who spearheaded the uprising alongside Daoíz , was also killed , but another artillery officer , Lieutenant Ruiz , managed to escape . Members of the Junta went around the city asking for resistance to stop , and by 2am the next morning calm had been restored .
Marshal Murat convened a military tribunal , chaired by General Emmanuel Grouchy , that morning to summarily try and sentence anyone found in possession of a potential weapon . Many Spaniards lost their lives , and artist Francisco Goya , who witnessed the aftermath of the executions , painted his famous painting The Third of May 1808 to commemorate this event . The fighting and executions claimed at least 154 French and 409 Spanish lives and inspired resistance to the French across the country , signalling the start of the Spanish War of Independence . After Doaiz 's death his wife entered a convent in Seville .
= = Legacy = =
Daoíz is commemorated as a leader of the initial resistance against French rule in Spain and , along with Velarde , is remembered in many monuments across the country . The ashes of Daoíz and Velarde , with those of others involved in the Dos de Mayo uprising , were transferred to the Monumento a los Caidos por España in Madrid after its construction in 1840 . The monument originally served as a memorial to those who lost their lives on the Dos de Mayo but on 22 November 1985 King Juan Carlos I redesignated it in memory of all Spaniards who died in war and it now serves as Spain 's national Tomb of the Unknown Soldier .
In 1852 a plaque was erected on the spot where Daoíz 's house stood in Seville , being replaced in 1869 by a twice lifesize statue depicting the pivotal moment of the Dos de Mayo when Daoíz decided to disobey his orders and resist the French . A monument commemorating the " Martyrs of Liberty " who died on 2 and 3 May stands on the spot of Murat 's executions and contains representations of both Daoíz and Velarde . A monument to Daoíz also stands in Segovia , where he studied at the artillery academy and in Madrid the two statues of lions that stand outside of the Spanish Congress of Deputies building are popularly known as Daoíz and Velarde . The Premio Daoíz military honour is awarded once every five years to an artillery officer in the Spanish Army . The award in memory of Daoíz is for services to the nation in the preceding five years and the honorary sabre is presented by the monarch in a ceremony held at the Alcázar of Segovia on 2 May .
= Never 7 : The End of Infinity =
Never 7 : The End of Infinity is a visual novel video game developed by KID . It was originally published by KID on March 23 , 2000 , for the PlayStation under the name Infinity , and has since been released on multiple platforms . The game is the first title in the Infinity series , and is followed by Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity , Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity , 12Riven : The Psi @-@ Climinal of Integral , and Code _ 18 .
In the game , the player takes the role of Makoto Ishihara , a college student who attends a seminar camp on an island together with three other students ; he also befriends three other people who he meets on the island . The game takes place over the course of a week , and consists of the player reading the story , occasionally making choices that affect the direction of the plot ; on the sixth day , one of the female characters dies , and the game moves back in time to the beginning , letting the player use knowledge from the first set of six days to make new choices , to try to prevent the character 's death .
The game was directed by Takumi Nakazawa , planned and written by Kotaro Uchikoshi , and composed for by Takeshi Abo . Uchikoshi included science fiction elements in the game , but was unable to make heavy use of use them , as his superiors at KID thought that the game needed to focus on cute female characters in order to sell . Abo composed music based on his first impressions of reading the game 's story , with a focus on its " emotional flow " . Because of the science fiction and theoretical themes , he composed " geometric music " .
A reviewer at RPGFan praised the game for its plot , its intimate scope , and its music , while a writer for Famitsu found the game 's mood to be boring . As the science fiction elements were well received , later entries in the series gradually moved away from the dating theme and became more focused on science fiction . The PlayStation Portable version of the game was the 967th best selling video game of the year in Japan in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
Never 7 is a visual novel in which the player reads the story , and presses a button to advance through the text . At certain points , the player gets to make choices which affect the direction the plot proceeds in ; these choices involve choosing what location to move to , and what the player character should say , as well as subtler choices such as whether to look a girl in the eyes or to take her hand . The game is presented from a first @-@ person perspective , with pre @-@ rendered backgrounds and 2D character portraits accompanying the text . The visuals mostly consist of still images , but with characters often changing their expression while talking .
After six days have passed in the game 's story , the game moves back in time to the beginning , allowing the player to make new choices based on the knowledge they have gained through the first six days to try to prevent certain events . Depending on the choices the player makes , the game either ends on a " bad ending " on the sixth day , or continues into a " good ending " on the seventh day . When replaying parts of the game , the player is able to use a fast forward function to move past sections of text that they have already read . After finishing the game , a picture gallery and a music test are made available in an omake mode . The game also includes an " Append Story " mode in which the player can play new scenarios that are downloaded from the developer 's website .
In the Dreamcast version of the game , a meter on the system 's Visual Memory Unit shows how the player is doing with the female characters : it shows three blocks , which have hearts inside if the player is doing well . In the PlayStation Portable version , the player has access to a glossary , which explains various key words used in the game . In the Android version , players get points throughout the game , which can be used to unlock applications such as a calculator , a calendar , and mini @-@ games .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Never 7 takes place in the week of April 1 – 7 , 2019 . Makoto Ishihara , the protagonist , is a college student and truant who rarely attends his classes . As a result , he is forced to attend a seminar camp being held on a remote island in order to be allowed to pass to his next grade . Three other students are at the camp : Yuka Kawashima , the leader of the group ; Haruka Higuchi , a quiet girl who is an ace student ; and Okuhiko Iida , a wealthy playboy who is the heir of the Iida Financial Group . Makoto also meets three girls unrelated to the seminar camp : a wealthy girl named Saki Asakura ; and the sisters Kurumi and Izumi Morino , who are temporarily running the café Lunabeach on the island . The seven find they cannot leave the island due to a tropical cyclone that makes the boats unable to leave for a whole week , and become friends during the week .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins on April 1 , with Makoto awakening from a nightmare of a girl dying on April 6 with a bell in her hand . As the week goes on , he occasionally experiences premonitions of the future , all of which come true . Depending on the player 's choices , Makoto ends up getting close to one of the girls , and on April 5 , the story branches into different routes focusing on one of them . In each route , the girl Makoto was close to dies on April 6 with a bell in her hand . Afterwards , Makoto finds that he has traveled back in time to April 1 , retaining the memories of the previous six days . Concluding that he is trapped in an infinite loop , he vows to keep the girl alive and break free of the loop . He does so by rebuilding his relationships with her while dealing with the emotional problem troubling her . On April 6 , the girl ends up in a situation similar to when she died in the last loop , but Makoto saves her , breaking free of the loop and becoming her boyfriend .
After finishing Yuka , Haruka , Saki , and Kurumi 's routes , the player gets access to the Izumi Cure route , in which Makoto learns that Izumi and Okuhiko had deceived him into thinking that his premonitions were true . Makoto confronts Izumi , after which both he and Izumi fall off a cliff . They travel back in time , retaining their memories of the past six days . Makoto accepts that he has traveled through time , and Izumi reveals that she is the professor in charge of the seminar camp , and that the events of the past week were a science experiment ; she attempted to test the phenomenon known as Curé Syndrome , where if multiple people believe in a delusion and the delusion is spread to others , the delusion becomes reality . Makoto was the test subject of the experiment , which was meant to involve him having the delusion that he could have premonitions ; unexpectedly , he turned out to have real premonitions .
Izumi suggests that in the first six days , Makoto had been deceived by her and Okuhiko , but rather than believing in premonitions had believed he had traveled back in time . When Izumi died on April 6 , and Makoto had desired to travel back in time , Curé Syndrome manifested . She suggests that while he had thought that he was traveling back in time , he had only imagined a different past where events played out differently , as part of a delusion , and that he had given himself partial memories in the form of premonitions in each loop ; in the last loop , he would have given himself all his memories , other than the knowledge that he is experiencing a delusion . She says that once Makoto succeeds in saving her , he will break out of the delusion , and the six days in his delusion will become reality . Makoto refuses to believe her , claiming that everything around him is reality , but starts to doubt throughout the week . Depending on the player 's choices , the route branches into two endings . In one , the delusions appear to be changing reality , but are revealed to be a chain of coincidences . In the other , the delusions do change reality , and Makoto wakes up at the bottom of the cliff he fell down at the end of the last loop , badly wounded from having protected Izumi during the fall . It is left ambiguous as to what is real and what is a delusion , and whether Makoto has escaped to reality or still is trapped in his delusion .
= = Development = =
The game was directed by Takumi Nakazawa , while Kotaro Uchikoshi was the planner and scenario writer . Development began immediately after Uchikoshi 's first visual novel , Memories Off , was finished . He was unable to make heavy use of science fiction themes in Never 7 , as his superiors at KID told him that the game needed to include cute girl characters in order to sell ; he kept science fiction themes light , and the game was designed with a focus on dating game elements , with the main focus being to develop a relationship with a girl . The Dreamcast version included new scenarios not available in the PlayStation version .
The development team depicted reality in the world of Never 7 as subjective and relative rather than absolute . As such , for each route , that route 's history is the only one Makoto knows and the only one that is real to him ; the Curé syndrome only exists to him in the routes where it is mentioned . The bells were used as symbols for reality being relative , and were described by the development team as " vague existences " , saying that one cannot know if they exist or not . In the bad ending to Izumi 's route , the bells , which " should be fictional " remain while something that should exist disappears ; this was a metaphor for the idea that delusions become reality while reality becomes a delusion . The game 's title comes from how Makoto is unable to escape the infinite loop and reach April 7 , and how most of the seven characters die at some point during the game . It is also based on the belief that 7 is a lucky number . The development team did not want to confirm or deny whether the game 's world was connected to that of the Memories Off series , saying that while characters with similar names may appear , they wanted to leave the player to decide for themselves what the answer would be .
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Takeshi Abo , and features " geometric music " because of the game 's theoretical and science fiction elements . Prior to composing the music , he read through the game 's story , to understand the setting and each character 's personality as much as possible . He would write his impressions of the plot , with a focus on the " emotional flow " and the events that occur throughout the story ; he valued his first impressions as very important for this . According to Abo , this method takes longer time , but allows him to make better music with a stronger relation to the game 's world than if he had just designated different songs to different points of the game . Because he enjoyed the story , the music strongly reflects Abo 's own musical tastes . The opening and ending themes of the PlayStation Portable version , titled " Sen Oku no Hoshikuzu Furasu Yoru no Sora " and " Hokorobishi Hana " , respectively , were performed by the band Asriel .
= = Release = =
The game was originally released by KID for PlayStation under the title Infinity on March 23 , 2000 . A Neo Geo Pocket version titled Infinity Cure was released on November 23 , 2000 , also by KID . On December 21 , 2000 , KID released a Dreamcast version titled Never 7 : The End of Infinity ; this version was also released for Microsoft Windows on October 26 , 2001 , and for PlayStation 2 on May 22 , 2003 . On March 3 , 2005 , it was released for Macintosh computers through the " GameX for Mac " service . Cyberfront released it for PlayStation Portable on March 12 , 2009 , for Android on August 28 , 2012 , and for iOS on September 11 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
In reviews around the time of the game 's release , reviewers appreciated the science fiction themes of the game . Neal Chandran at RPGFan called the plot excellent , and appreciated how the game 's story is a " personal , character @-@ driven , emotive , human tale based around gentle romance " rather than an apocalyptic " beat @-@ the @-@ bad @-@ guy kind of story " . He also liked how the game 's interactivity is on a more personal scope than in adventure games and role @-@ playing games he had played . He found the game 's pacing and writing quality to be good , and liked the music , finding it to complement the mood of the game well . While he thought the game 's graphics were not " anything special " , he was impressed by the character designs , especially that of the character Haruka . A writer at Famitsu , however , called the game 's mood boring from start to end in their review of the PlayStation version .
The PlayStation Portable version was the 967th best selling video game of the year in Japan in 2009 , with 4 @,@ 250 copies sold .
= = = Legacy = = =
After Never 7 , four more Infinity games were made : Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity , Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity , 12Riven : The Psi @-@ Climinal of Integral , and Code _ 18 ; Nakazawa worked on Ever 17 and Remember 11 , and Uchikoshi worked on all except Code _ 18 . As the science fiction elements of Never 7 had been positively received by critics , Uchikoshi gradually focused more on science fiction and less on dating with each title , with Remember 11 not featuring any dating elements at all . Originally , Never 7 was not intended to be part of a series , but during the development of Ever 17 , it was decided to connect the worlds of the two games .
= The Boat Race 1956 =
The 102nd Boat Race took place on 24 March 1956 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former rower Kenneth Payne , Cambridge won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 36 seconds , the fourth quickest time in the history of the event . The victory took the overall record to 56 – 45 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1955 race by sixteen lengths , and led overall with 55 victories to Oxford 's 45 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by H. H. Almond ( who had rowed for the Light Blues twice , in the 1950 and 1951 races ) , J. R. F. Best , C. B. M. Lloyd ( three @-@ time Light Blue between 1949 and 1951 ) , J. R. Owen ( who took part in the race in 1959 and 1960 ) and H. R. N. Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) . Oxford 's coaches were A. G. S. Bailey , T. R. M. Bristow , Hugh Edwards ( who had rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races ) , P. Gladstone ( who rowed in 1950 and 1952 ) and A. D. Rowe ( who represented the Dark Blues in the 1948 and 1949 races ) . The race was umpired for the fifth time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
Both crews experienced a reasonable build @-@ up to the race in favourable conditions . According to the rowing correspondent of The Times , Oxford made gains on Cambridge during this time , although he conceded " it is unlikely that Cambridge are , as yet , unduly worried about the future " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 2 @.@ 5 lb ( 83 @.@ 5 kg ) , 7 @.@ 5 pounds ( 3 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew had two rowers with Boat Race experience , including bow E. V. Vine and number two J. G. McLeod , both of whom were taking part in their third consecutive race . Similarly , Cambridge saw two participants return in M. G. Baynes and K. A. Masser ( who was rowing in his third consecutive race ) . Three of the race participants were registered as non @-@ British , all representing Oxford : Vine , McLeod and Roderick Carnegie were all Australian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . In a south @-@ easterly wind and drizzle , the race was started by umpire Kenneth Payne at 11 : 30 a.m. Oxford out @-@ rated their opposition for the first minute , averaging 40 strokes per minute to Cambridge 's 37 , yet after a minute the Light Blues held a half @-@ length lead . With the Dark Blues continuing to stroke faster , the deficit was reduced to a quarter @-@ length by Craven Steps , which was passed in record time . By the Mile Post , and despite pushes from Oxford , the Light Blues were about half a length ahead .
A spurt at Harrods Furniture Depository saw them gain an extra half @-@ length before they passed under Hammersmith Bridge a length and a half ahead of Oxford . Although the Dark Blues were on the outside of the long bend in the river , they kept in touch , and prevented Cambridge from extending their lead . The Light Blues passed Chiswick Steps still with a length and a half lead as both crews faced a head wind going into Corney Reach . Along Dukes Meadow Cambridge started to tire and Oxford began to gain ; passing through the arches of Barnes Bridge , the Light Blues held a four @-@ second lead . Increasing their rate to 34 strokes per minute , Oxford 's stroke Mawer tried to pull them back into contention yet just as the boats began to overlap , Cambridge pushed on again to win by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 36 seconds . It was the fastest winning time since the 193
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's journey as they travel West again , contending with problems such as storms and dissent among the crew . Eventually , they reach America and are received by the natives . Madoc takes on one of the natives , Lincoya , as his guide when they begin to explore the area of the Mississippi River . As they continue to travel , they soon come to Aztlan , the original homeland of the Aztec nation , and Madoc discovers that the Aztecs require human sacrifices for their gods . Madoc decides to interfere with tribal affairs and stop two children from being taken by the Aztecs to be sacrificed . Following this , he encourages a peaceful tribe , the Hoamen , to take up arms against the Aztecs . To further protect the Hoamen , Madoc goes to the Aztec capital to deal with their king . While there , he is shown by the king how great the Aztecs are and how no one could stand against them . Madoc witnesses among the buildings and monuments piles of skulls and corpses along with other horrific scenes .
Unwilling to allow the Aztecs to continue their practices , Madoc instigates war between the Aztecs and the much smaller Hoamen nation . While the Aztecs bring a large army , Madoc is able to use Welsh technology and superior tactics to overcome them . The Hoamen are able to take many prisoners while the Aztec king contracts a mortal illness . Following the battle Madoc shocks the Aztecs by releasing the prisoners instead of sacrificing them , and provides leeches to help the Aztec king recover from his disease . This leads to a treaty between the Aztecs and the Hoamen which abolishes human sacrifice . The Aztec priests fear to stop the practice , so the Aztec king decides that his people will abandon their religion and take up a monotheistic religion based on a God of love .
The rest of the story involves Madoc returning to Wales to recruit more settlers for his colony . During this time , he meets with Owen Cyveilioc , a poet who tells Madoc to discuss the matter with the Congress of Bards . During the meeting , a young bard prophesies that Madoc would be like Merlin in America and that he is trying to recreate an Arthurian greatness . Afterward , he meets with Llewelyn , an individual trying to reclaim his title as Prince of Wales . Madoc tries and fails to convince him to come to America . Madoc returns to his original home , and there he stops an attempt to remove the body of Gwynned from a grave on holy ground . Instead , Madoc offers to take the corpse back with him to America where it could be buried without any worry . The rest of Madoc 's time back in Wales is spent trying to get his brother David , the king , to free another brother , Rodri , whom he has imprisoned . However , Rodri escapes after his release was promised . As Madoc sets out to return to the colony , they are met by Rodri 's boat . Rodri informs Madoc that he is working with Llewelyn to overthrow David and restore the rightful king . Although Madoc is upset by the potential warfare , he leaves with the promise by Llewlyn that Britain will be fine .
= = = Part two : Madoc in Aztlan = = =
The second part of the poem parallels the Iliad and follows the events in America after the first part . Madoc returns to America from Wales and finds that Caermadoc , the colony , is doing well . However , there are struggles with his people and the Aztecs because the Aztecs have turned back to their pagan gods . As such , the peace between the two groups ends while a shaman of the Hoamen people starts to convince the people to also worship pagan gods . The Hoamen begin to sacrifice children for their god by feeding them to a large snake . Madoc , angry , accuses a priest leading the sacrifices of being a traitor before killing both the priest and the snake . This feat brings the Hoamen back to Christianity .
The Aztec high priest , Tezozomoc , tells the people that they will not have the favour of their gods unless they kill the foreigners . Two warriors volunteer to capture a child to please their gods , and they return with Madoc and the child Hoel . Madoc is forced to fight other condemned men , until Madoc 's Welsh allies attack the city , allowing a woman , Coatel , to free Madoc and Hoel . At the same time the Aztec warrior Amalahta attacks Caermadoc , but is defeated by the Welsh women . When Madoc returns , he joins the Welsh and Hoamen forces , and the battle continues until Madoc kills the Aztec king , Coanocotzin .
The battle is followed by the Welshmen destroying the pagan temples while the Aztecs gather to appoint a new king . Games and events are established and follow after the battle . During the various events , a temple becomes covered in flames and idols to the pagan gods appear once again . This is followed by the Aztecs telling the Welsh to leave before attacking them . A battle takes place in the water surrounding the Aztec city on boats , and the superior Welsh ships are able to win . The Aztecs , unwilling to stop , turn to superstitious rituals and priests travel to a sacred mountain to make sacrifices . However , a sudden lava eruption kills the priests . This causes the Aztecs to believe that they do not have the support of their gods and they cease their fighting . Admitting defeat , the Aztecs leave the area and head south for Mexico .
= = Themes = =
During his time in Portugal , Southey cultivated a strong anti @-@ Catholic bias , and saw Catholic rituals as superstitious and pagan @-@ like . However , he did not limit his feelings to only Catholics , and he believed that Methodists and Calvinists were also superstitious and a political threat . He distrusted religious enthusiasm and any alteration of the mind away from reason . Southey wrote that Madoc , in following these beliefs , was about a " gentle tribe of savages delivered from priestcraft . " With such an intent , Southey also believed that he was dealing closely with history and scholarship . The footnotes within Madoc reinforce such an intent . He did not call it an epic like some of his other works . Instead , he argued that there was evidence that the story had a historical basis . The story , according to Southey , was that Madoc came from Britain to America to replace paganism with Christianity .
In terms of politics , Southey believed that war with the post @-@ revolution France was inappropriate when he first started composing Madoc . By the time the poem was finished , Southey was an advocate for a war against Napoleon 's government . Instead of supporting his own government in return , he was opposed to the government of Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger . The poem is also heavily grounded in Southey 's ideas on Pantisocracy , and it includes an earlier version of his democratic ideal within a mythic form . The connection between Wales and America within the poem alludes to Southey 's own plans to travel from Wales to settle in America to start a new societal system .
The endings of the two poems are the same but have opposite results : they both have a sunset and an exodus from the country , but the first deals with Wales and the second with the Aztec lands . The first is messianic and heralds a return of Wales 's greatness , and the second deals with a new country being created .
= = Reception = =
Southey intended Madoc to rival the works of Homer , and Coleridge believed that the poem would be better than the Aeneid . However , Madoc received mixed reviews from critics ; while one critic believed it was comparable to John Milton 's Paradise Lost , another felt that it was unreadable . In letter written by William Wordsworth on 3 June 1805 , he claimed that he was " highly pleased with it ; it abounds in beautiful pictures and descriptions happily introduced , and there is an animation diffused through the whole story though it cannot perhaps be said that any of the characters interest you much , except perhaps young Llewllyn whose situation is highly interesting , and he appears to me the best conceived and sustained character in the piece [ ... ] The Poem fails in the highest gifts of the poet 's mind Imagination in the true sense of the word , and knowledge of human Nature and human heart . There is nothing that shows the hand of the great Master " . He followed this with a letter on 29 July 1805 saying " Southey 's mind does not seem strong enough to draw the picture of a Hero . The character of Madoc is often very insipid and contemptible [ ... ] In short , according to my notion , the character is throughout languidly conceived " . Dorothy Wordsworth , William 's sister , wrote on 11 June 1805 to claim that " We have read Madoc with great delight [ ... ] I had one painful feeling throughout , that I did not care as much about Madoc as the Author wished me to do , and that the characters in general are not sufficiently distinct to make them have a separate after @-@ existence in my affection . "
A review by John Ferriar in the October 1805 Monthly Review argued , " It has fallen to the lot of this writer to puzzle our critical discernment more than once [ ... ] He has no contrived to manufacture a large quarto , which he has styled a poem , but of what description it is no easy matter to decide [ ... ] The poem of Madoc is not didactic , nor elegiac , nor classical , in any respect [ ... ] Respecting the manners , Mr. Southey appears to have been more successful than in his choice of the story . He has adhered to history where he could discover any facts adapted to his purpose ; and when history failed him , he has had resource to probability . " Ferriar continued with an attack on the Welsh names that appear within the poem : " we own that the nomenclature of his heroes has shocked what Mr. S. would call our prejudices . Georvyl and Rird and Rodri and Llaian may have charms for Cambrian ears , but who can feel an interest in Tezozomoc , Tlalala , or Ocelopan [ ... ] how could we swallow Yuhidthiton , Coanocotzin , and , above all , the yawnings jaw @-@ dislocating Ayayaca ? — These torturing words , particularly the latter , remind us so strongly of the odious cacophony of the Nurse and Child , that they really are not to be tolerated . "
An anonymous review in the Imperial Review in November 1805 stated , " something should be said of the language . This undoubtedly is not its chief excellence . The style , in many places , is trailing , flat , and uninteresting , — deficient both in strength and animation . The author seldoms avails himself of any artificial ornaments [ ... ] Though we feel ourselves compelled to make these observations , it is hardly necessary to add , that upon the whole we think very highly of this performance . " The review continues by comparing Madoc to Paradise Lost : " were the style adorned by a little artificial colouring , and enriched with all the allowable decorations of poetry , Madoc would hardly yield to Paradise Lost . As it stands , it is certainly the second heroic production in the English language . Its leading characteristics are not fire and sublimity , but tenderness and humanity . Milton astonishes the head — Southey touches the heart . The first we may admire — the last we can love . "
Jack Simmons , in his 1945 biography , believed that the poem was " the longest , the least successful , the most tedious " of Southey 's poems . In 1972 , Ernest Bernhardt @-@ Kabisch argued " Southey would perhaps have done well to have ended the poem here [ at the end of part one ] . In its larger framework of Welsh history , the American adventure and its clash of culture is interesting and is comparable in purpose and proportion , if not in power and dramatic nuance , to Odysses ' exotic flashback narrative at the court of Phaeacia . The Welsh narrative [ ... ] appeals to a variety of Romantic interests – patriotic and picturesque , sentimental and libertarian . And though , as always , thought tends to be commonplace and pathos shortwinded , the quality of the writing is almost uniformly high , and there are memorable and moving passages of description and rhetoric , as well as suggestive images " . He continued adding that " Southey 's epic thereby becomes , in fact , the crowning effort of eighteenth @-@ century English literature to deal poetically with the American Indian " .
In 1990 Northern Irish poet Paul Muldoon published his long poem Madoc : a Mystery , inspired by Southey 's work and the events surrounding it . Muldoon 's work takes as its premise the idea that Southey and Coleridge actually came to America to found their ideal state , and offers a multi @-@ layered poetic exploration of what might have happened . It won the 1992 Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize .
= 1865 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1865 Atlantic hurricane season included two landfalling hurricanes , with one that caused over 325 deaths . The first storm was reported on May 30 by ships in the western Caribbean . A month later , a storm hit southern Texas , and in late August , a storm paralleled the coastline of the Carolinas . The fourth storm of the season was also the longest @-@ lasting , forming east of the Lesser Antilles before hitting Guadeloupe and eventually moving ashore in Louisiana . In both of its major landfalls , the storm left many houses destroyed . There was confusion whether or not the fifth storm of the season was separate from the fourth storm , as both systems struck Louisiana in September . Another hurricane occurred in late September , before the final storm of the season developed north of Panama . The final hurricane struck Cuba and Key West , Florida before dissipating north of Bermuda on October 25 .
At one time , one hurricane researcher identified a tropical storm over Cuba in late August , although there was no evidence the storm actually existed . There was also a report of a hurricane over Louisiana on October 22 , although it is unknown if it was related to other storms in the season . There may have been additional unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
On May 30 , a tropical storm in the western Caribbean Sea wrecked a ship named the " Golden Rule " , which was sailing from New York to the east coast of Nicaragua . The ship first encountered the storm on May 29 , reporting high winds and heavy rainfall . After the wreck , the crew sailed to a nearby island , where they were rescued by two United States ships after 10 days . The winds were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , although the entire track of the storm is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
The second known storm of the season was reported near Brownsville , Texas on June 30 . Its existence is known based on a newspaper report in the New Orleans Times . The winds were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) ; however , it is a potentially unreliable estimate due to a lack of significant population providing observations . The entire track of the storm is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A ship off the coast of Hatteras , North Carolina sustained damage from a storm on August 20 . Further ship reports indicated the tropical storm maintained a general northeast track off the North Carolina coastline . On August 22 the storm made its closest approach to the state , and while remaining offshore it produced winds of around 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) along the coast . Around that time , the storm attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) over the ocean . On August 23 , high waves from the storm left one ship 's cargo a complete wreck . It was last observed on August 24 to the southeast of Nantucket .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The fourth tropical cyclone of the season , also the longest @-@ lasting , was first observed on September 6 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . A small cyclone , it tracked westward and struck Guadeloupe as a fully developed hurricane . Many residents in the small nearby island of Marie @-@ Galante evacuated to Guadeloupe , but some died in the attempt . In Îles des Saintes , the hurricane destroyed all but two buildings . Damage was similarly heavy in Basse @-@ Terre . The overall death toll was estimated at 300 , including 36 on Marie @-@ Galante . After moving through the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane moved through the Caribbean Sea , passing between Jamaica and Haiti and bypassing Cuba to the south . It curved northward in the Gulf of Mexico , moving ashore on September 13 near the border between Texas and Louisiana with an estimated atmospheric pressure of 969 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
Upon moving ashore , the hurricane produced high tides as far east as the mouth of the Mississippi River , in addition to as far inland as Calcasieu Lake , Louisiana . Three towns were destroyed , causing two of them to be abandoned . Across the state , there were 25 deaths , many of them in Leesburg . In neighboring Texas , damage was greatest in Orange , where 196 homes were destroyed out of the 200 in the town . The hurricane capsized 19 boats in the Sabine River , causing multiple deaths . The hurricane weakened over Louisiana and dissipated over Arkansas on September 14 . It was also known as the " Sabine River @-@ Lake Calcasieu Storm " .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A tropical storm struck the south @-@ central Louisiana coast on September 7 , while the previous system was located over the Caribbean . The storm wrecked a ship , and its winds were estimated around 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The track was incomplete , and there was a possibility that the storm was misreported as the previous hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On September 28 , a ship encountered a hurricane to the northeast of the Turks and Caicos islands . The winds in the hurricane extended far to the northwest , and high waves affected the southeast United States coast from Charleston , South Carolina to Cape Hatteras . The hurricane 's track is unknown .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
The final tropical cyclone of the season formed on October 18 , just north of the coast of Panama . The storm brushed the country 's coast with high waves for several days , causing $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1865 USD ) . Moving north @-@ northwestward , the storm intensified into a hurricane by October 21 over the western Caribbean . After turning more to the north , it struck Cuba , producing strong winds that destroyed the roof of the Belen College Observatory in Havana . In the city , the hurricane destroyed several boats and houses . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 78 inHg ) , suggesting winds of about 80 mph ( 135 km / h ) .
After crossing the island , the hurricane intensified further over the Florida straits until striking Key West , Florida , where peak winds were estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Its pressure was estimated at 969 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and the hurricane either sunk or washed every boat ashore at the harbor in Key West . Rainfall totaled 4 @.@ 10 in ( 104 mm ) over a three @-@ day period . In nearby Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas , the hurricane destroyed one building and damaged several others , killing one person . It later moved across the Florida mainland , weakening slightly . About a dozen ships encountered the hurricane across the western Atlantic , before the storm was last observed on October 25 north of Bermuda .
= Emigrant Trail in Wyoming =
The path followed by the Oregon Trail , California Trail and Mormon Trail ( collectively referred to as the Emigrant Trail ) spans 400 miles ( 640 km ) through the U.S. state of Wyoming . The trail entered from Nebraska on the eastern border of the state near the present day town of Torrington and exited on the western border near the towns of Cokeville and Afton . An estimated 350 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 settlers traveled on the trail through Wyoming between 1841 and 1868 . All three trails follow the same path through most of the state . The Mormon Trail splits at Fort Bridger and enters Utah , while the Oregon and California Trails continue to Idaho .
= = North Platte River = =
In the eastern plains , the Emigrant Trail follows the North Platte River into Wyoming . The trail follows the river upstream to Fort Laramie , a prominent military and trading post in the region . Prior to 1850 the northern side of the river was thought to be impassable beyond Fort Laramie , so the wagon trains that were traveling on the northern side of the river through Nebraska had to undertake a dangerous crossing at the fort . After crossing , trains on the main trail to the south of the river had to cross the North Platte again 100 miles ( 160 km ) upstream . In 1850 several wagon trains successfully blazed a path along the northern side of the river . This new route , which reduced the risk and expense of crossing the river twice , was preferred for all subsequent traffic on the northern side of the river . The northern route is sometimes called Child 's Route after Andrew Child who describe it in a guide book published in 1852 . Above Fort Laramie , Child 's Route follows the North Platte River through the present day town of Douglas , and near the site of Fort Fetterman which was built in 1867 . This is the point at which the Bozeman Trail turned north to the gold fields of Montana in the 1860s .
The southern route also follows the river along the edge of the Laramie Mountains to an area near the current towns of Casper and Glenrock . In 1847 , during the first Mormon emigration , Brigham Young established a ferry near present day Casper known as Mormon Ferry . The next year the ferry was moved a few miles downriver . The ferry was free for Latter Day Saints , but charged a toll for other users . The ferry was manned by groups of Mormons every summer from 1848 until 1852 . In 1853 John Baptiste Richard built a toll bridge near the ferry site , which would eventually put all ferries on the North Platte out of business . In 1859 , Louis Guinard built the Platte Bridge near the site of the original Mormon Ferry . Guinard also built a trading post at one end of the bridge which eventually became Fort Caspar .
Famous landmarks along the southern route included Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff , one of a number of locations along the trail in Wyoming where settlers carved their names .
= = Sweetwater River = =
Continuing upstream from Casper , the North Platte bends to the south . The original trail proceeded several miles along the river to Red Buttes , where a bend in the river formed a natural amphitheater dominated by red cliffs on the hill above . The river was easier to ford here for those who were unwilling or unable to pay to cross at one of the ferries downstream . This was the last good camp spot before leaving the river and entering the waterless stretch between the North Platte and the Sweetwater River . From here the settlers entered a difficult portion called Rock Avenue which moved from spring to spring across mostly alkaline soil and steep hills until it reached the Sweetwater River . Later settlers who had crossed to the northern side of the river at Casper would come to favor a route through a small valley called Emigrant Gap which headed directly to Rock Avenue , bypassing Red Buttes .
Upon arrival in the Sweetwater valley , the trail encounters one of the most important landmarks on the trail , Independence Rock . Independence Rock was named because settlers tried to reach it by July 4 ( Independence Day in the United States ) in order to help ensure that they will be at their destinations in California or Oregon before the winter snows come . Many of the travelers left their names on the rock , either carved or painted on with axle grease . It is estimated that more than 50 @,@ 000 signatures were inscribed on Independence Rock . Other notable landmarks along the Sweetwater valley include Split Rock , Devil 's Gate and Martin 's Cove , where , in November 1856 , the Martin Handcart Company was stranded by heavy snow until a rescue party from Salt Lake City arrived .
The trail continues west along the Sweetwater River eventually crossing the meandering river nine times , including three times within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section through a narrow canyon in the Rattlesnake Hills . Prior to the 6th crossing , the trail crossed an unusual location known as Ice Slough . A covering of peat like vegetation grew over a small stream . The stream froze in winter and didn 't thaw until early summer due to the insulating layer of vegetation . The ice was a welcome treat for settlers who were enduring temperatures over 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) in July . The trail crosses the Sweetwater three more times and encounters a large hill known as Rocky Ridge on the northern side of the river . This barren and rocky section lasted almost 12 miles ( 19 km ) , and was considered a major obstacle in the trail . The same storm in November 1856 that debilitated the Martin Handcart Company also stranded the Willie Handcart Company on the eastern side of the ridge . Before rescuers could arrive , 21 people died in freezing temperatures . Following Rocky Ridge , the trail descends one more time into the Sweetwater valley to the ninth and final crossing of the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch .
In 1853 , a new route named Seminoe cutoff was established on the southern side of the river . It was named after trapper Basil LaJeunesse who was referred to as Seminoe by the Shoshone Indians . The Seminoe cutoff split from the main trail at the 6th crossing and rejoined it at Burnt Ranch , bypassing both Rocky Ridge and four of the river crossings , which was an advantage in the early spring and summer during high runoff . The route was used extensively in the 1850s , especially by the Mormon companies .
Immediately after crossing the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch the trail crosses the continental divide at South Pass , unarguably the most important landmark on the entire trail . South Pass itself is an unimpressive open saddle between the Wind River Range to the north and the Antelope Hills to the south , but it represented a major milestone in the trip . In 1848 , Congress created the Oregon Territory which included all the territory in Wyoming west of the Continental Divide . Crossing South Pass meant that the settlers had truly arrived in the Oregon Territory , though their ultimate destination was still a great distance away . Nearby Pacific Springs offered the first water since the trail had left the Sweetwater River and marked the beginning of a relatively dry stretch of trail until the settlers reached the Green River more than 40 miles ( 64 km ) away .
= = Sandy River = =
Leaving Pacific Springs , the trail moves southwest alongside Pacific Creek for a short distance until it swoops to the west to intersect Dry Sandy creek , a small stream that is a tributary of the Little Sandy River which in turn flows into the Big Sandy River . True to its name , the water level on the Dry Sandy varied depending on the time of year and was often dry . South of the Dry Sandy ford , the trail split into two major sections , the main route which continues south to Fort Bridger , and the Sublette cutoff , which proceeds west directly to the Green River and Bear River valleys , bypassing Fort Bridger . The point at which the trails diverge is known as Parting of the Ways . 11 miles ( 18 km ) south the main trail fords the Little Sandy . Here , a secondary path to the Sublette cutoff leads from the Little Sandy Pony Express station that was based here during the emigration period . The main trail goes on to ford the Big Sandy near the present day town of Farson . The trail proceeds along the northern side of the Big Sandy to its confluence with the Green River . Fording the Green River was very risky , so most travelers used one of a number of ferries operating on the Green River , including the Lombard Ferry and the Robinson Ferry .
= = Fort Bridger = =
Continuing toward Fort Bridger from the Green River , the main trail crosses Hams Fork near Granger and followed Blacks Fork to Fort Bridger . Established in 1842 by legendary frontiersman Jim Bridger and his partner Louis Vasquez , Fort Bridger was a vital refueling post and a welcome rest after the particularly difficult journey from South Pass . Even after the Sublette cutoff was established , settlers destined for Oregon who were low on livestock and supplies would bypass the cutoffs and make the longer trip to Fort Bridger to restock . Fort Bridger is the point at which the Mormon Trail splits from the Oregon Trail and California Trail for good . The Mormon Trail continues southwest , fording the Bear River and crossing into Utah south of the current town of Evanston . The other trails turn and proceed northwest , crossing the Bear River Divide and into the Bear River valley on the western side of the state . The trail meets the Sublette cutoff near Cokeville and the rejoined trails follow the Bear River upstream and into Idaho , heading for Fort Hall .
= = Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff = =
The Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff was opened in 1844 by the Stephens @-@ Townsend @-@ Murphy Party led by mountain men Caleb Greenwood and Isaac Hitchcock . Hitchcock , an old trapper and one of the first of his kind to have been in California in 1832 , recommended that the wagon trail go due west from the Little Sandy and cross 40 miles ( 64 km ) of desert territory to the Green River and from there cross the ridge into the Bear River Valley , completely bypassing Fort Bridger and the crossing of Bear River Ridge . The route shaved about 85 miles ( 137 km ) and 7 days off the main route , but the decision to cross nearly 45 waterless miles before reaching the Green River was not one to be taken lightly . Settlers had to decide between time and the health of their livestock . A traveler in 1846 wrote :
We lay by preparing to Crossing the Cut off to Green river a distance of 40 miles without Wood or Water set out on the Journey at 3AM and landed on Green river the distance aforesaid at 3'Oclock of the 19th it being 24 hours drive
The route reached the height of popularity during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s when a desire to speed to the California gold fields outweighed the risks . The route was named the Sublette cutoff by Joseph Ware in his popular 1849 guide book to the trail after an individual named Solomon Sublette who told him about the route , and not William Sublette as is popular myth . The popularity of the guide book during the 1850s cemented the name , though most scholars today call it the Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff after its original discoverer .
As on the main route , several ferries operated where the cutoff crossed the Green River near the present day town of La Barge . Early settlers crossed the Names Hill Ford , which was barely passable when the water was low . Later The Names Hill Ferry offered a safer alternative . The nearby Mormon Ferry was located a mile upstream , and the Mountain Man Ferry operated during the Gold Rush days . West of the ford is its namesake , Names Hill , which is a prominent emigrant " recording area " with signatures and other carvings . One notable signature is James Bridger , 1844 , Trapper . It is unclear if the signature is authentic , since Bridger was known to be illiterate . The hill also features native American pictographs .
A secondary cutoff named the Slate Creek or Kinney Cutoff breaks from the main trail near the Lombard Ferry on the Green River , and meets the Sublette cutoff on Slate Creek Ridge at Emigrant Springs . This route was slightly longer than the Sublette , but had the advantage of only 10 waterless miles rather than the 45 endured on the Sublette trail .
= = Lander Cutoff = =
The Lander Road , located further north than the main trail to Fort Hall , also bypassed Fort Bridger and was about 85 miles ( 137 km ) shorter to Fort Hall . It was built under the supervision of Frederick W. Lander by federal contractors in 1858 — one of the first federally sponsored roads in the west . Lander 's Road officially was called the Fort Kearney , South Pass and Honey Lake Road and was a federally funded attempt to improve the Oregon and California trails . The little used Honey Lake part of the proposed route near the present states of Nevada and California border was improved in 1859 under Lander 's direction but did not go much beyond improving some watering holes — work ceased in 1860 . The " Lander Road " was the first section of the federally funded road through the future states of Wyoming and Idaho . Expeditions under the command of Frederick W. Lander surveyed a new route starting at Burnt Ranch following the last crossing of the Sweetwater River before it turned west over South Pass . The Lander Road followed the Sweetwater River further north , skirting the Wind River Range before turning west and crossing the continental divide north of South Pass .
The road crossed the Green River ( Utah ) near the present town of Big Piney , Wyoming and then passing over 8 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range near the head of the Grey 's River and then crosses another high pass across the Salt River Range before descending into Star Valley ( Wyoming ) . The trail entered Star Valley about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south of the present town of Smoot , Wyoming . From Smoot , the road then continued north about 20 miles ( 32 km ) down Star Valley west of the Salt River before turning almost due west at Stump Creek near the present town of Auburn , Wyoming and passing into the present state of Idaho and following the Stump Creek valley about ten miles ( 16 km ) northwest over the Caribou Mountains ( Idaho ) ( this section of the trail is now accessible only by US Forest Service path as the main road ( Wyoming Highway 34 ) now goes through Tincup canyon to get across the Caribous . ) After crossing the Caribou Range the road split , turning almost ninety degrees and progressing southwest to Soda Springs , Idaho or alternately heading almost due west and passing south of Grays Lake ( now part of the Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge ) to Fort Hall Idaho . The Lander Road had good grass , fishing , water and wood but was high , rough and steep in many places . Later , after 1869 , it was mostly used by ranchers moving their stock to and from summer grazing and / or markets . For maps of the Lander road in Wyoming and Idaho see NPS National Trail Map For more information visit Afton , Wyoming to see its Lander and Pioneer Museum .
By crossing the lush Wyoming and Salt River Ranges instead of circling via the deserts to the south , the route provided ample wood , grass and water for the travelers , and cut nearly 7 days off the total travel time for wagon trains going to Fort Hall . Despite the better conditions for livestock , the mountainous terrain and unpredictable weather made passage sometimes difficult and required continuing federally funded maintenance on the mountainous road — not a sure thing just before , during and after the American Civil War . Funds were appropriated in 1858 and 115 men ( hired in Utah ) completed the road in Wyoming and Idaho in 90 days , clearing timber and moving about 62 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 47 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth . The Lander 's road or cutoff opened in 1859 when it was extensively used . Records after 1859 are lacking and its use after that period are assumed to sharply decrease since the Sublette Cutoff , the Central Overland Route and other cutoffs were just about as fast or faster and were much less strenuous . Today the Lander cutoff road ( s ) are roughly followed by a series of county and Forest Service roads .
= SMS Grosser Kurfürst ( 1913 ) =
SMS Grosser Kurfürst was the second battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . Grosser Kurfürst ( or Großer Kurfürst ) served in the German Imperial Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in October 1911 and launched on 5 May 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 30 July 1914 , days before the outbreak of war between Germany and the United Kingdom . Her name means Great Elector , and refers to Frederick William I , the Prince @-@ elector of Brandenburg . Grosser Kurfürst was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Markgraf , and Kronprinz , Grosser Kurfürst took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The ship was subjected to heavy fire at Jutland , but was not seriously damaged . She shelled Russian positions during Operation Albion in September and October 1917 . Grosser Kurfürst was involved in a number of accidents during her service career ; she collided with König and Kronprinz , grounded several times , was torpedoed once , and hit a mine .
After Germany 's defeat and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Grosser Kurfürst and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and limited to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike her sister ships , Grosser Kurfürst was raised in 1938 for scrapping and subsequently broken up in Rosyth .
= = Construction and design = =
Grosser Kurfürst was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and built at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 4 . Her keel was laid in October 1911 and she was launched on 5 May 1913 . At her launching ceremony , Prince Oskar of Prussia christened the ship . Due to the heightening political tensions in Europe in mid @-@ 1914 , the final construction work was accelerated , so the first set of dockyard trials were conducted on 15 July , and fitting @-@ out work was completed by the 30th , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . Grosser Kurfürst cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .
Grosser Kurfürst displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines , each of which drove a propeller shaft and developed 44 @,@ 483 shp ( 33 @,@ 171 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 3 km / h ; 24 @.@ 4 mph ) . Steam was supplied by three oil @-@ fired and 12 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers operating at up to 16 atmospheres of pressure . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns for surface use and four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in July 1914 , Grosser Kurfürst underwent sea trials in the Baltic . The ship 's first combat operation was the Raid on Yarmouth on 2 – 3 November 1914 . The raid was conducted by the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group . Grosser Kurfürst and the other dreadnoughts sailed in distant support of Hipper 's force . After a brief bombardment , the German fleet withdrew back to port . On 7 December , Grosser Kurfürst sustained no damage when she accidentally rammed her sister König .
Her second operation , the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , followed on 15 – 16 December . On the evening of the 15th , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the fleet commander , that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back toward Germany .
On 22 January 1915 , Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of III Squadron were detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . They returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank . Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , the Kaiser removed von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Grosser Kurfürst then took part in several sorties into the North Sea . On 29 March , she sailed with the fleet out to Terschelling without any contact with the enemy . Another fleet advance occurred on 22 April , again without result . On 23 April , III Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of exercises lasting until 10 May .
Grosser Kurfürst participated in a fleet advance into the North Sea from 29 until 31 May which ended without combat . The ship covered a minelaying operation on 11 – 12 September off Texel . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October . Grosser Kurfürst ended the year with a two @-@ week training cruise in the Baltic , which lasted from 5 to 20 December . Another round of exercises in the Baltic followed on 18 – 23 January 1916 . Grosser Kurfürst went into drydock in Wilhelmshaven for periodic maintenance on 12 February . Work lasted until 3 March ; two days later the ship sailed for a sweep into the Hoofden , though this again failed to encounter any British forces . The fleet conducted another sortie on 23 March to the Amrun Bank , followed by another a month later to Horns Reef on 21 – 22 April .
On 24 – 25 April , Hipper 's battlecruisers conducted another bombardment of the English coast ; Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of the High Seas Fleet sailed in support . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 CET , and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Grosser Kurfürst was present during the fleet operation on 31 May and 1 June 1916 that resulted in the Battle of Jutland . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Grosser Kurfürst was the second ship in the German line , behind her sister König and followed by Markgraf and Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that resulted the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Grosser Kurfürst engaged the battlecruiser HMS Princess Royal at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yd ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Simultaneously , her secondary guns fired on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . The faster British ships began to pull away from their pursuers , and at 18 : 00 Grosser Kurfürst was forced to shift fire from Princess Royal to the battleship Valiant , though by 18 : 16 Valiant too had moved out of range . Grosser Kurfürst 's shells straddled Valiant four times and her gunners incorrectly claimed a hit on the British ship . The ship did not escape unscathed herself though ; at 18 : 09 she was hit by a 15 in ( 380 mm ) shell from either the battleships Malaya or Warspite . The shell struck the water some 30 to 60 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 to 18 @.@ 3 m ) from the ship and either ricocheted or exploded , impacting the hull approximately 85 ft ( 26 m ) from the bow . The hit caused no significant damage . During this period , she claimed three hits from her 15 cm battery on a destroyer , which was most likely Moorsom . At 18 : 22 , the ship briefly fired her secondary guns at the destroyer HMS Moresby at extreme range , without scoring a hit . At the same time , Grosser Kurfürst came back into range of the battleship Valiant , and engaged her with her two forward turrets . The ship fired for eight minutes , though her shots all fell short of their target .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to maneuver his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . Grosser Kurfürst and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . Grosser Kurfürst fired a pair of salvos at extremely close range from her main guns at the armored cruiser Defence , which , under heavy fire from several German capital ships , exploded and sank at 19 : 19 . Observers aboard the ship noted that both salvos hit Defence , though did not ascribe credit for the latter 's destruction to the hits . Grosser Kurfürst then shifted fire to the armored cruiser Warrior , which was heavily damaged and forced to withdraw . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Shortly thereafter , four British light cruisers from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron resumed the attacks on the crippled Wiesbaden ; the leading German battleships , including Grosser Kurfürst , opened fire on the cruisers in an attempt to drive them off . Grosser Kurfürst began firing at 20 : 07 , at ranges between 10 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 100 and 16 @,@ 500 m ) . Despite the heavy fire , the British cruisers managed to escape without serious damage . At around the same time , the British fleet came back into range and seven battleships took the V Division under heavy fire . Grosser Kurfürst was hit seven times , four hits occurring at 20 : 18 and 20 : 19 . Three of the hits were from the 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) guns of Marlborough , though her gunners incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . The remaining four hits came from the 15 @-@ inch guns of Barham or Valiant . One of the 15 @-@ inch shells destroyed the No. 2 port @-@ side 15 cm gun , and another struck the main belt and burst on impact . Though it did not penetrate the belt , it forced the plating in by as much as 13 in ( 33 cm ) for a length of some 26 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . Damage control teams managed to temporarily stop the resulting flooding , after approximately 800 t ( 79
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0 long tons ; 880 short tons ) of water had entered the ship . The flooding caused a list of 4 ° , though counter @-@ flooding efforts reduced it to less than a degree . As the battle continued , the flooding worsened , and by the time Grosser Kurfürst reached Helgoland the following morning , an estimated 3 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 950 long tons ; 3 @,@ 310 short tons ) of water had entered the ship . More hits were sustained , but these shells burst on impact and caused relatively minor damage .
The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away ; this turn reversed the order of the fleet and placed Grosser Kurfürst toward the end of the line . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 15th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line ; Grosser Kurfürst spotted six unidentified destroyers in the darkness . She engaged them with her 15 cm and 8 @.@ 8 cm guns while turning away to avoid any torpedoes that might have been launched . Grosser Kurfürst scored one 15 cm hit on the destroyer Nessus at a range of about 2 @,@ 200 yd ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , disabling one of Nessus 's boilers . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw .
The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Off Helgoland , Grosser Kurfürst had taken in so much water that she was forced to reduce speed . She fell out of formation , but later rejoined the fleet outside the Schillig roadstead . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Grosser Kurfürst went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 16 July . In the course of the battle , Grosser Kurfürst fired a total of 135 shells from her main battery and 216 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by eight large @-@ caliber shells , which killed fifteen men and wounded ten .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following completion of the repair work , Grosser Kurfürst conducted training maneuvers in the Baltic until 4 August . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original Jutland plan on 18 – 19 August . The battlecruiser squadron , however , had been reduced to only two operational ships — Von der Tann and Moltke — so Grosser Kurfürst , Markgraf , and the newly commissioned Bayern were temporarily transferred to the squadron . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . The British submarine J1 torpedoed Grosser Kurfürst some 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) northwest of Horns Reef . The torpedo destroyed the port @-@ side rudder and flooded the rudder rooms , though the ship maintained a speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . She returned to the AG Vulcan dockyard , where she was repaired from 10 November to 9 February . That same day , while in transit to Kiel , the ship ran aground off Krautsand in the Elbe river . Damage was minimal and the ship proceeded to unit training in the Baltic , but on the return to the North Sea on 4 March , she accidentally rammed Kronprinz . Her bow was pushed in , necessitating repairs in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven until 22 April .
Grosser Kurfürst rejoined the fleet on 23 April and conducted training with the rest of III Squadron in the Baltic from 17 May to 8 June . After returning to the North Sea the ship was assigned to security duties in the German Bight . Another round of exercises in the Baltic followed on 11 – 23 September . She then sailed to Putziger Wiek to prepare for Operation Albion , the planned conquest of the islands off Riga . On 12 October , Grosser Kurfürst took up a position in Tagga Bay off Cape Ninnast . But she struck a mine while maneuvering into firing position , which allowed around 280 t ( 280 long tons ; 310 short tons ) of water into the ship . Despite the mine damage , the ship continued with the bombardment of Russian coastal guns on the Cape . She was detached from the invasion force later that day ; she sailed to Wilhelmshaven via Kiel , where repairs were completed by 1 December .
Upon her return to service , Grosser Kurfürst resumed picket duties in the Bight . She was present during the abortive anti @-@ convoy operation on 23 – 25 April 1918 . While entering the lock outside Wilhelmshaven following the conclusion of the operation , the ship was damaged . She was back in dock for repairs from 27 April to 2 May . At the end of the month , Grosser Kurfürst ran aground just off the Helgoland 's north harbor . The ship 's port @-@ side propeller shaft was bent , necessitating repairs at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel from 2 – 9 June and 21 – 31 July . She finally rejoined the fleet on 12 August .
= = = Fate = = =
Grosser Kurfürst and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . On the 31st , Scheer ordered the fleet dispersed ; Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of III Squadron was sent to Kiel . On 4 November , the ship 's crew joined the general mutiny and hoisted the red flag of the Socialists . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that escorted the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Grosser Kurfürst sank at 13 : 30 ; unlike her sisters , she was ultimately raised on 29 April 1938 and sold for scrapping in Rosyth . Her bell was sold and was used for many years as a garden ornament . It was sold at auction in March 2014 and was bought by the National Museum of the Royal Navy , Portsmouth , Hampshire .
= Battle of Tripoli ( 1825 ) =
The Battle of Tripoli was a battle between the navies of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Vilayet of Tripoli on 26 September 1825 during the Sardinian @-@ Tripolitanian war of the same year . In order to resist Tripolitanian demands for increased tribute , the Sardinian king sent a squadron to force Tripoli to a favorable peace treaty . The Tripolitanians refused to change their demands and as a result the Sardinian squadron assaulted the city of Tripoli , sinking several vessels and landing a force to attack the city . Suffering heavy naval losses the Tripolitanian government quickly agreed to a favorable peace treaty with Sardinia , thus ending the war on favorable terms for the Sardinians .
= = Background = =
In August 1825 , the ruler of Tripoli , Yusuf Karamanli , had become enraged when the new Sardinian consul arrived without bringing tribute with him , as had previously been the custom . When learning that Sardinia 's King Charles Felix refused to give in and pay the request sum , the Tripolitanians expelled his consul and declared war on the Sardinian government on 7 August . Karamanli then began sending his corsairs out cruising against Sardinian merchant ships . To bring the Tripolitanians to terms , Charles Felix ordered a naval squadron to Tripoli under Francesco Sivori in his flagship , the frigate Commercio , along with Captain Luigi Sefra 's frigate Cristina , Giuseppe Zicavo 's corvette Tritone , and Maurizio Antonio Villarey 's brig Neriede . Sivori left and after being delayed due to poor weather at Tunis , arrived at Tripoli on 25 September .
Once his squadron arrived in Tripoli , Silvori sent the Tritone into the harbor under a flag of truce in order to begin negotiations with Karamanli 's government . With assurances from the resident British consul that they would be safe , Silvori went ashore on the 26th and met the Tripolitanian envoy , General Haggi Mohammed . Although negotiations at first seemed to be going well , the next day Karamanli sent a note with suggested terms that essentially abrogated the peace treaty that British Admiral Edward Pellew had negotiated on Sardinia 's behalf after the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816 . Seeing that Karamanli had no intention of offering acceptable terms , Sivori decided his best course of action would be to attack Tripoli . Before returning to his squadron Sivori managed to get the British consul to take under his protection what Sardinians remained in Tripoli . Salvori 's force had a significant advantage over the Tripolitanian fleet , which only had a 12 @-@ gun brig and a pair of 6 @-@ gun schooners defending the harbor . Despite the disadvantage in naval power , Karamanli had significant forces ashore and several forts and shore batteries defending the harbor . Upon returning to his vessel , Salvori gave Karamanli a four @-@ hour ultimatum that he would bombard the city unless better peace terms were offered by the Tripolitanians .
= = Battle = =
The four hours passed with no reply , and Salvori began formulating his plan of attack against Tripoli . Though the Sardinian commander had initially wished to use his squadron 's frigates in the assault on the city , the seas were too rough to ensure their safety close to shore , so he instead made plans to attack Tripoli using several boats from his squadron 's vessels . Sivori placed 260 men in ten boats separated into three divisions under the command of Commercio 's Lieutenant Giorgio Mamelli . One division would attack the Tripolitanian brig , another the schooners , and the third group of boats would assault the city 's dockyard and customs house to ensure no reinforcements could enter the harbor .
When the boats first started for the port , the Tripolitanians began firing upon them with their shore batteries . The shelling lasted until 11 : 00 PM and delayed the assault until 1 : 00 AM when the Nerid began escorting the boats in closer to shore . Though at first the second Sardinian attack was unnoticed by the Tripolitanians , a sentry sighted the approaching force at 2 : 30 AM . Despite resistance from the Tripolitanian fleet and forces ashore , Mamelli pushed his force onward through grapeshot and musket fire . He soon reached the Tripolitanian brig and had his force board her , killing its officers and captain as well as a large portion of its crew . A second section of boats assaulted the schooners , taking them by boarding . At the same time , the third section of Sardinian boats managed to force their way ashore despite heavy opposition , capturing the dockyard and routing its Tripolitanian defenders . At 3 : 30 AM Mamelli fired off two rockets to signal a retreat , and burned the Tripolitanian ships his force had captured .
= = Aftermath = =
By the end of the action the Tripolitanians had lost their three largest vessels and suffered heavy casualties , while the Sardinians only had two dead and five wounded . Later in the day while Sivori was making preparations for another attack on the city , a Dutch brig sailed out of port saluting him and signaling that it wished to communicate with him . Upon contacting the squadron , the brig 's captain sent Sivori the congratulatory remarks of the British consul at Tripoli . The Sardinian commander sent the Dutch vessel back into port with a message to Karamanli that if he did not commence negotiations , further military action would be taken against the city . Rather than suffer continued action from the Sardinians , Karamanli acceded to the Sardinian requests and sent an envoy out to the Sardinian squadron .
Upon negotiating with the Tripolitanian envoy , Sivori was able to get an agreement restoring the diplomatic situation to as it had been prior to the events that had sparked the hostilities . In order to ensure that Karamanli would abide by the terms of the treaty , the Sardinians included a provision that if the treaty were not ratified within four hours of its signing , Sardinian hostilities against Tripoli would recommence . Karamanli promptly acceded to the treaty upon receiving it and had the Sardinian consulate 's national colors raised and saluted by his forces . The next day Sivori upon invitation arrived at Karamanli 's palace , where he and his force were greeted with great respect and honor by the monarch . Though a stipulation was included in the peace treaty that required Sardinia to pay Tripoli 7 @,@ 000 gold francs , it was canceled and as a result the long practice of Sardinian tributary payments to the Tripolitanians finally ended .
= Jackie Evancho =
Jacqueline Marie " Jackie " Evancho ( / iːˈveɪŋkoʊ / ee @-@ VAYNG @-@ koh ; born April 9 , 2000 ) is an American classical crossover singer who gained wide recognition at an early age and , since 2009 , has issued an EP and five albums , including a platinum and gold album and three Billboard 200 top 10 debuts . She has made three solo Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) specials .
Between 2008 and 2010 , Evancho entered several talent competitions ; made singing appearances , including the US national anthem at a Pittsburgh Pirates baseball game and in concerts with Tim Janis and David Foster ; issued an independent album , Prelude to a Dream ; and attracted interest on YouTube . In 2010 , at the age of ten , she gained wider popularity with her 2nd @-@ place finish in the fifth season of America 's Got Talent . With the 2010 holiday release of her O Holy Night EP , Evancho became the best @-@ selling debut artist of 2010 , the youngest top @-@ 10 debut artist in US history and the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the US . She performed at the 2010 National Christmas Tree lighting in Washington , D.C. In 2011 , her first full @-@ length album , Dream With Me , produced by Foster , debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart , and she became the youngest top @-@ 5 debut artist in UK history . Billboard ranked Evancho the top Classical Albums Artist for 2011 . Later that year , Evancho released another album , Heavenly Christmas , and became the youngest person ever to give a solo concert at Lincoln Center in New York City as part of her Dream With Me Tour .
Evancho is the ambassador for Mission : Humane , a US Humane Society program that encourages children to help protect animals . A national cotillion organization listed her as one of the " ten best @-@ mannered people of 2011 " . From late 2012 to 2014 , she toured the US , performing songs from her 2012 album , Songs from the Silver Screen , which was Evancho 's third top @-@ ten album debut . In 2013 she headlined benefit concerts at Carnegie Hall , the LDS Conference Center and with Cirque du Soleil in Las Vegas for the One Drop Foundation . She also appeared in the 2013 Robert Redford film The Company You Keep and modelled for Guess Kids clothing . Evancho 's 2014 album , Awakening , was her fifth consecutive No. 1 release on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Since then she has toured in support of Awakening and released several singles and collaborations in between her public school studies . She is expected to release a new album in 2016 .
= = Family and early life = =
Evancho 's parents are Lisa and Michael Evancho . Her father operated a video security business until 2010 . She has an older sister Juliet , a younger brother Zachary , and a younger sister Rachel . She and her family are Catholic and reside in a suburb of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Evancho began her education in the Pine @-@ Richland School District public schools , but in 2010 , because of her touring schedule , she switched to cyber schooling . In 2014 she returned to public school . Evancho 's interests include playing the violin and piano , sewing , swimming , playing with her pets , drawing and archery .
Evancho saw the film version of the musical The Phantom of the Opera and liked it so much that her mother purchased the DVD ; Evancho began singing the songs around the family home . Her parents have said that they did not recognize that her voice was unusual until her first talent competition , which she entered just before her 8th birthday . In the competition , Kean Idol , Evancho finished in second place to a 20 @-@ year @-@ old opera singer . She began taking voice lessons , and her parents began receiving requests for her to sing at various events , churches and nursing homes , mostly in Pennsylvania . She also started a YouTube channel , sang in the Children 's Festival Chorus of Pittsburgh during its 2008 – 09 season , and performed the title role in a 2009 school musical version of Little Red Riding Hood .
In January 2009 , Evancho competed in Las Vegas in the 15th annual U.S.A. World Showcase Talent Competition , where she also finished in second place . She entered the 2009 Kean Idol contest and was again runner @-@ up . In 2009 talent contests , she won the Golden Ribby Award – WonderworldTV and the Talent Quest TV Show ( both in Massachusetts ) . Also in 2009 , she sang " Ave Maria " in composer and conductor Tim Janis 's PBS television special " Celebrate America " and performed in other concerts and TV shows with Janis , who sought her out after seeing her on YouTube . She made various singing appearances around Pennsylvania in 2009 and 2010 .
= = Career = =
= = = David Foster and Prelude to a Dream = = =
Evancho first caught record producer David Foster 's attention in 2009 . After sending a video to him , she was selected for the regional semifinals of his “ Hitman Talent Search Contest ” , finishing as runner @-@ up , and in October 2009 she sang in the " David Foster & Friends " concert at the Prudential Center in Newark , New Jersey .
In November 2009 , Evancho released her independent debut album , Prelude to a Dream . The album featured mainly covers of classical crossover songs such as " Con te partirò " , " The Prayer " , " To Where You Are " , " Concrete Angel " and " Amazing Grace " . It debuted on the Billboard 200 at No. 121 , and at No. 2 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart , in August 2010 , after Evancho 's first performance on America 's Got Talent . Evancho 's parents withdrew the album later in the same month , citing Evancho 's vocal progress since its release . Since Evancho 's success on America 's Got Talent , the album has become a collector 's item .
= = = America 's Got Talent = = =
After two earlier unsuccessful auditions for the show , Evancho was accepted as a contestant on the fifth season of the America 's Got Talent TV show ( AGT ) by placing first in its 2010 YouTube competition . On August 10 , 2010 , Evancho performed the aria " O mio babbino caro " in the show 's quarter @-@ final round . She received a standing ovation after her performance and was awarded a family trip to Universal Studios Florida for receiving the most fan votes of all the YouTube submissions to the show . Judge Howie Mandel said in his critique that the show sought to " find that one moment , that one gem , that one star from a place we 've never looked before . ... This is the moment . You 're the star . " After Evancho 's performance , commentators queried whether her performance had been lip @-@ synched . On the next evening 's live show , Evancho sang an impromptu voice exercise to demonstrate that the broadcast was of her live voice . In an interview , Mandel addressed the issue : " what people are ... really saying [ is ] that it 's really too good to be true . You are so perfect and so wonderful that people have never heard a talent like this . ... You 've got to take that as a compliment . ... Even if you don 't love that kind of music , you can 't deny that [ it ] is perfection . "
Her semifinal performance was " Time to Say Goodbye " , on August 31 , 2010 . She advanced to the Top 10 round where , on September 7 , 2010 , she performed " Pie Jesu " from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Requiem and was voted into the Final 4 . Pittsburgh leaders declared the following week " Jackie Evancho Week " in appreciation " for her positive representation of our city " showing " poise and determination well beyond her years " . Her final competition performance was of Gounod 's " Ave Maria " on September 14 . The following evening at the AGT season finale , Evancho sang " Time to Say Goodbye " together with guest artist Sarah Brightman ; then Evancho was announced as the runner @-@ up , finishing second to singer Michael Grimm . Many viewers and commentators felt that Evancho should have won , and even Grimm expressed surprise . The show brought Evancho wide exposure to American audiences , as up to 16 million viewers watched her performances each week . The finale show was AGT 's highest @-@ rated episode in three years . Evancho became one of the two most successful AGT alumni . She was a guest on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno a week after the finale , where she sang and gave her first late @-@ night interview with Jay Leno . Evancho was subsequently profiled and interviewed in the 2013 book Inside AGT : The Untold Stories of America 's Got Talent .
Evancho performed in 10 of the 25 cities in the America 's Got Talent : Live Tour from October 1 to November 5 , 2010 . On October 8 , 2010 , Evancho signed a record deal with SYCO music and Columbia Records . One week later , she performed in Las Vegas with David Foster . From June 2010 until mid @-@ 2011 , Evancho was coached by voice teacher Yvie Burnett , a mezzo @-@ soprano from Scotland , who has worked with many of the singers appearing on AGT . Tim Janis scheduled Evancho to perform in his show at Carnegie Hall in New York City on December 2 , 2010 , where she would have been the venue 's youngest female vocal soloist . During the AGT tour , however , her parents withdrew her from the Carnegie Hall event ; by the time of that event , Evancho had begun making promotional appearances for Columbia Records .
= = = O Holy Night = = =
Evancho 's first release on a major record label was a Columbia Records EP entitled O Holy Night . It was released on November 16 , 2010 and entered the Billboard 200 at No. 2 , making Evancho the top @-@ selling debut artist for 2010 and the youngest solo artist ever to debut in the top 10 . It also launched at No. 1 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart . It was No. 2 on Billboard 's Holiday Albums Chart . The album sold 239 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On December 10 , 2010 , the album was certified platinum by the RIAA , shipping in excess of a million copies in the US , making Evancho the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the US .
Evancho promoted the album on TV beginning with The Oprah Winfrey Show on October 19 , 2010 , where she sang " Pie Jesu " . Among several other talk shows , QVC appearances and holiday singing appearances , Evancho performed songs from the album and was interviewed on The Today Show and Fox & Friends , The View and Martha Stewart Living . In November 2010 , Evancho sang " O Holy Night " in the My Macy 's Holiday Parade in Pittsburgh and again on NBC 's Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree lighting special , Christmas in Rockefeller Center , where she also duetted with Katherine Jenkins , singing " Silent Night " . Such a duet had been anticipated since Piers Morgan commented on the similar appearance of the two singers . On December 9 , 2010 , Evancho performed at the National Christmas Tree lighting in Washington , D.C. , singing " O Holy Night " , where she met President Obama and his family . Also in December , she returned to the Tonight Show and performed at the 27th annual Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade , on ABC television .
In its 2011 year @-@ end charts ( including releases from November 2010 ) , Billboard ranked O Holy Night at No. 1 on its Classical Albums chart . It also ranked the album as the No. 15 best @-@ selling album of 2011 in the US . O Holy Night also ranked as the No. 31 Canadian Album of 2011 .
= = = Dream with Me = = =
Evancho 's second full @-@ length feature album ( her first on a major label ) , Dream with Me , produced by David Foster for Sony and Syco Music , was released on June 14 , 2011 . The album debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart , reached No. 1 on Billboard 's Classical Albums Chart , and was certified gold by the RIAA . The album also performed well internationally , with Evancho becoming the youngest artist ever to debut in the UK in the top 5 . The album includes 14 tracks ranging from popular songs ( " Angel " ) to classical arias ( " Ombra mai fu " ) , and original songs , including the title track , for which Evancho contributed to the lyrics . Evancho sings duets with Barbra Streisand ( " Somewhere " ) and Susan Boyle ( " The Prayer " ) . A deluxe edition of Dream with Me available only at the Target website includes four bonus tracks : " Someday " , " Mi Mancherai " , " The Impossible Dream " and " A Time For Us " . Allmusic gave the album 3 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of a possible five , commenting : " Dream with Me hits all of the right notes , though there are few surprises or big moments to be found ... resulting in a solid " official " debut from a rising star at the dawn of her career . " USA Today rated the album 2 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of four : " [ Evancho 's ] sweet , unblemished vocal tone and slow , careful vibrato hardly betray her young age . ... But Dream 's predictable and often bombastic odes to love and faith can undermine the tween 's most appealing quality : innocence . I 'd have preferred a little less pomp and Puccini and more youthful wonder . "
Evancho promoted the album on talk shows and at concerts in the US and in Toronto . She recorded a solo concert television special for the 2011 PBS Great Performances series that includes nearly the same songs as the album . The special , titled Dream With Me In Concert , was the most broadcast program of the year on the PBS network . Evancho was the youngest person ever to have a special on the series . It " became one of the most viewed specials in the 38 @-@ year @-@ history of the Great Performances series [ and ] raised record amounts of money for PBS stations . " The concert was co @-@ hosted by David Foster , who played the piano in the orchestra for many of the selections , while Conrad Tao played piano and violin , respectively , for two songs . The special was shown on PBS stations beginning in June 2011 and was released as a CD / DVD set in September 2011 , Dream With Me In Concert , reaching No. 1 on Billboard 's Top Music Video chart . Allmusic noted : " the concert version ... sounds nearly identical ( outside of the waves of applause ) to the studio album ... but the accompanying DVD , which features the heavily choreographed performance , as well as an extensive photo gallery and interviews with both Evancho and Foster , should provide enough eye and ear candy to appease fans of the gifted young vocalist until a proper follow @-@ up appears . " The Sun wrote that the " classical crossover set ... showcases the extraordinary beauty of the child 's pipes . "
In July 2011 , the singer began her first solo tour across the United States , to promote the album . It consisted of 18 performances with symphony orchestras , beginning with eight stops in the US during 2011 , including one with her hometown Pittsburgh Opera on October 16 . Evancho made her New York City solo concert debut at Avery Fisher Hall in November 2011 , becoming the youngest person ever to sing a solo concert at Lincoln Center . Her last appearance in 2011 was in Las Vegas on December 29 , 2011 , where Evancho headlined a concert with David Foster and Kenny G , featuring mostly songs from Dream With Me . In 2012 , she continued her US tour to promote the album , together with tenor Josh Page , who sang a duet of " The Prayer " with her and performed two solos to break up Evancho 's sets . After a concert in Tokyo in January 2012 with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra , she made seven concert stops from January to March 2012 in California and Utah . Evancho 's three February tour stops constituted the tenth top @-@ grossing tour reported by Billboard for the relevant week . In June 2012 , Evancho concluded the tour with performances on the East Coast .
On its 2011 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Dream With Me as the No. 2 best @-@ selling Classical Album for the year and as the No. 45 US album of 2011 . Dream With Me was listed on the Billboard 200 for 28 weeks and the Classical Albums chart for a total of 74 weeks . Billboard ranked Dream With Me In Concert the No. 21 music video album of 2011 and the No. 16 music video album of 2012 . Dream With Me In Concert was ranked on the Billboard.biz Top Music Video chart for 64 weeks . Dream With Me , and Foster 's production of the album , are discussed in detail in the 2013 Ph.D. dissertation of Evancho 's uncle , composer Matthew Evancho .
= = = Heavenly Christmas = = =
Evancho 's 2011 Christmas album , Heavenly Christmas , has twelve tracks and was produced by Rob Mounsey , who conducts the Orchestra of St. Luke 's on the album . The selections include traditional Christmas carols like " The First Noël " and " O Little Town of Bethlehem " , standards like " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " and " White Christmas " , and newer songs , such as " Walking in the Air " ( from the 1982 animated film The Snowman ) and " Believe " ( from the 2004 movie The Polar Express ) . The album was released on November 1 , 2011 , exclusively at Walmart in the US and at other US retailers in October 2012 .
The album entered the Billboard Classical Albums chart at No. 1 , the Holiday Albums chart at No. 3 , and the Billboard 200 at No. 16 , peaking at No. 11 . It peaked at No. 9 on the Canadian Albums chart . Allmusic 's review gives the album three stars , commenting , " Evancho 's vocals are impressive as always , and the arrangements are mostly tasteful , with only occasional moments of bombast " . The Salt Lake City Tribune rated the album " A- " , writing : " some of us are still taken aback when we hear such a strong , womanly voice float out of an 11 year @-@ old child . ... Her best offering is the cherubic ' Believe ' . " Christopher John Farley of The Wall Street Journal wrote , " when she sings , she sounds like she ’ s channeling a past life , a future self , or possibly an actual angel . "
As with her previous albums , Evancho made talk show appearances on all major television networks to promote Heavenly Christmas , singing " The First Noël " on The View and The Talk , and " Believe " on The Tonight Show . She gave concerts that featured songs from the album in December 2011 in Buffalo , New York ; Atlantic City , New Jersey ; and Pittsburgh , all with duet partner tenor Christopher Dallo . As of January 2012 , more than 300 @,@ 000 copies of Heavenly Christmas had been sold in the US . On its 2011 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Dream With Me as the No. 4 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year . It ranked the album No. 41 on the 2012 year @-@ end Canadian Albums chart .
= = = Songs from the Silver Screen = = =
Evancho 's fourth full @-@ length album , Songs from the Silver Screen , was released on October 2 , 2012 . The album is composed of 12 songs used in popular films , arranged by Bill Ross . The tracks range from the whimsical ( " Pure Imagination " from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory ) to Disney songs ( " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " from The Lion King and " I See the Light " from Tangled ) to inspirational anthems ( " My Heart Will Go On " from Titanic , featuring Joshua Bell , violin ) , to romantic standards ( " Some Enchanted Evening " from South Pacific ) . Other collaborations on the album are " The Summer Knows " from Summer of 42 , featuring Chris Botti , trumpet , and " Come What May " Moulin Rouge ! , featuring The Canadian Tenors . An Allmusic review awarded the album 3 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of five , stating that the CD " finds Evancho more than up to the task , displaying maturity and poise . "
A PBS Great Performances special called Jackie Evancho : Music of the Movies , filmed at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles , features nearly the same selections as the album . It was directed and co @-@ produced by David Horn and Humberto Gatica , and conducted and arranged by Bill Ross . The special aired on PBS stations beginning on August 11 , 2012 . A review of the special commented that the songs fit Evancho 's classical crossover style .
Evancho began a live 42 @-@ stop tour to promote the album in August 2012 , giving her first solo concert featuring songs from the album in Japan with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . She continued the tour in the US , appearing first with The Chamber Orchestra of Philadelphia . The first leg of the tour included concerts in two dozen North American cities between September 2012 and June 2013 . Evancho also appeared on television shows on NBC , ABC , CBS , Fox and CNN in October and November 2012 , where she sang songs from the album and was interviewed . She resumed touring from October 2013 to January 2014 , with appearances in a dozen more cities , and the last six concerts in the series were from April to August 2014 .
The album debuted at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 , No. 1 on the Classical Albums chart and No. 22 on the Canadian Albums chart . The debut made the 12 @-@ year @-@ old the second artist who ever " amassed three top 10 albums [ on the Billboard 200 ] at such a young age . " The album remained on the Billboard 200 for 13 weeks and appeared on the Billboard Classical Albums chart in 72 weeks . Songs from the Silver Screen was the No. 4 Classical Album of 2013 and the No. 36 Classical Album of 2014 .
= = = Awakening = = =
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amil Masood ( Arian Chikhlia ) . Masood and AJ also have an older brother , Inzamam Ahmed ( Paul Bhattacharjee ) . AJ is younger than Masood . AJ has been called " the black sheep " of the family and " a delinquent uncle " .
AJ and Masood had lost touch for three years prior to AJ 's arrival , and had fallen out because of an argument between Zainab and AJ 's wife Aliyah , said to be that Aliyah once made an obscene comment to her . AJ was described as " the polar opposite to his control freak sister @-@ in @-@ law [ Zainab ] " , and it was said that " sparks [ would ] fly in the Masood household as the battle lines are drawn [ between them ] . " Zainab thinks AJ is reckless and she has little time for him . Ganatra said that there is tension between AJ and Zainab , and although Zainab does not necessarily dislike AJ , she does not like that AJ gets Masood into trouble , and Zainab 's hatred for Aliyah does not help . Inside Soap called Zainab AJ 's arch rival and Jaci Stephen from the Daily Mail said AJ 's arrival was " Something else not to put a smile on Zainab 's face " though made it an " exciting week " for Masood .
AJ brings out a different side to Masood , which Ganatra said could " upset the status quo " . He said that AJ was brought in " to stir up Masood 's life , and that has exciting prospects " , and they would " get up to all sorts of shenanigans . " Presenter Kate Thornton , when interviewing Ganatra , said AJ was a " playmate " for Masood , while Wadia said that AJ brings the comedy back to Masood . Inside Soap 's Kate White called AJ " a world away from family man Masood " , while Soaplife said AJ is " not a good influence but he sure puts a smile on [ Masood 's ] face and a new spring in his step . " Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said that AJ 's influence on Masood is " infectious " . AJ 's arrival allows people to see what Masood was like before he married Zainab , as all that was known about him to that point was his life with her . Ganatra stated : " So by opening this door , you get to see what Masood was like in his childhood and as a teenager . Masood did have a naughty streak — he was in a band with his brother , and they got up to mischief . Masood [ ... ] has been put on the straight and narrow [ since ] . But prior to that , he was a teenager like any other — getting into trouble , and that was in cahoots with his brother AJ ! " Ganatra said that , as British Asians , Masood and AJ grew up going to clubs and getting into trouble with girls . Now , Masood sees AJ as somebody with " no responsibilities , no children and no stress of having to provide for a family " and as AJ suffers marrital problems , is feeling lonely and has no children , Ganatra said " they want each other 's lives , which is quite a nice dynamic to play . " He added that " AJ would love the stability of a family life like Masood 's , while Masood would love to pack his bags , get drunk and perhaps end up in a stranger 's bed . I 'm interested to see him bring out Masood 's naughty streak — and where that could take them ... " AJ is accepting of Syed 's homosexuality and his relationship with Christian Clarke ( John Partridge ) .
Sharma said that AJ would be an " unlikely saviour " for the Masood family when they find themselves in financial trouble . Although he called AJ the " family rebel " , he said that the character is " doing what he can to help out with the money problems [ because ] when the going gets tough , AJ will step in to help his loved ones — and while he will probably never take the conventional route , he 'll always get something sorted out in the end . " He gets a job , and then helps to lift the family 's spirits by organising a fireworks display , on which Sharma said , " AJ is just trying to help out his family in his own , dysfunctional way . " In November 2012 , Zainab makes a promise never to interfere in people 's lives , so AJ decides to use the opportunity to test her . Sharma explained : " He is ready to test her promise to the limits ! AJ knows exactly how to push all of Zainab 's buttons , and now he 's going to take full advantage of the fact that she won 't let herself be the control freak she normally likes to be ! " Jane Simon from the Daily Mirror said AJ is " thoroughly enjoying " testing Zainab 's new policy .
= = = Relationship with other characters = = =
In AJ 's first episode , he makes an enemy of Derek Branning when he and Masood crash a shopping trolley into his car . An insider said that AJ should be worried , explaining : " AJ is a bit of a talker and tries to blag his way out of the situation but that just makes things even worse . Derek is quick to rough him up a little to make him realise he 's not to be messed with . The confrontation really shocks AJ but he 's not going to be pushed around by some bullying bloke he 's just met . " The Daily Star said that " Derek is the one person AJ really shouldn 't make into an enemy " , while interviewer Phillip Schofield stated : " If you knock the wing mirror off Derek 's Jag you are in for trouble . "
On 11 September 2012 , it was reported that AJ would seduce Roxy Mitchell and they would spend the night together in Masood and Zainab 's house after an evening of drinking . At the time , it was unknown if it would be a one @-@ off or if a longer relationship would start . An insider from EastEnders told Inside Soap that Roxy and AJ are both looking for fun and they " hit it off " because she loves " a man who can make her laugh and AJ definitely ticks that box . " They added that they have " great chemistry " but said that as Roxy is sidetracked by another man , " AJ will have to fight for her affections " if he wants her . An insider also told the Daily Star that the two " can 't keep their hands off each other " and " Roxy is more than up for it . " They added that " Zainab would go mental if she knew what they were up to under her roof and it remains to be seen whether they can get away with it . Roxy is the last person who Zainab would want AJ to hook up with . [ ... ] Even Masood could not defend his brother this time as he had been pretty disrespectful . " Digital Spy also noted chemistry between AJ and Roxy , saying they " clearly enjoy each other 's company " . Tony Stewart from the Daily Mirror said the relationship between Roxy and AJ is " played for laughs " , contrasting with Roxy 's relationship with Michael Moon ( Steve John Shepherd ) .
Inside Soap expected AJ to be paired up with Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) , but actor Ricky Norwood , who plays Fatboy , spoke about his character 's rivalry with AJ over her in an interview with the magazine . He said , " There 's a little bit of rivalry building up between [ them ] . Fatboy can tell that AJ likes Denise . But at [ a party ] , AJ puts a [ song ] on for Denise , and it 's just totally wrong . [ ... ] Fatboy takes over and [ ... ] it gets a big response . " Inside Soap said that AJ does not know what makes Denise tick , while Sharma said " Denise isn 't a big fan of AJ at the moment ! " In 2013 , Inside Soap said they expected to see AJ paired with Bianca Jackson ( Patsy Palmer ) , saying , " He 's been trying his luck for some time , and surely there 's only so long Bianca can fend off AJ . If nothing else , he 'd be lots of fun around her kids , as AJ isn 't the most mature fella in Albert Square . " Vicky Prior from the Metro also hoped to see AJ find romance with Bianca .
= = = Departure = = =
On 24 September 2013 , it was announced that AJ , along with three other characters — Kirsty Branning ( Kierston Wareing ) , Poppy Meadow ( Rachel Bright ) and Carl White ( Daniel Coonan ) — had been axed from the series by the new executive producer Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins . It was reported that Treadwell @-@ Collins was " determined to get EastEnders back to its best " and a spokesperson confirmed the departures . Reports said that it was hoped the move would increase ratings , and a show source added that " [ Treadwell @-@ Collins ] didn 't feel the characters who are leaving fit with the direction he is taking the show so he quickly decided to write them out . He has only been in a month but he is already making big changes . He knows what he wants for EastEnders and is putting plans in place quickly . " Sharma filmed his final scenes before Christmas 2013 and the character 's final appearance was on 10 January 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Upon AJ 's arrival , Ally Ross of The Sun said : " New arrivals have included [ ... ] Masood 's supposedly funny and long @-@ lost brother AJ , who made the fatal mistake of arriving with the line : ' Do I look like a comedian ? ' No . You look like David Baddiel . Now kindly piss off " . Kay Ribeiro from Heat said , " We like new boy AJ . Not only is he a laugh [ ... ] but he 's providing light relief during [ Masood ] and [ Zainab ] ' s split , which is making us sad . " Laura Morgan from All About Soap hoped that AJ would become a permanent character after his initial appearances . In October 2012 , Allison Jones from Inside Soap said , " AJ has proved the perfect tonic for a family almost constantly dogged with crisis [ and ] his tenacious ability to wind up Zainab never fails to entertain ! AJ may have only been in Walford for a few months , but it already feels as if we 've known him for ages . " She also called Sharma and Ganatra , " a killer on @-@ screen pairing " . Nathan Bevan from Welsh newspaper Western Mail praised Sharma 's role in EastEnders , naming him as one of " 50 things you should look forward to in Wales " in 2013 , saying , " Anyone who injects a little sunshine into the ' Chekhov with a covered market ' drudgery of EastEnders should be automatically given an Outstanding Contribution to Broadcasting Award in our book . So well done Newport 's very own Phaldut Sharma who , since arriving in Walford as Masood Ahmed 's gregarious but aggro @-@ magnet brother AJ , has helped break up the unrelenting , bicker @-@ filled misery of Albert Square . " Bevan later said that Sharma has " shaken up the residents of Walford as the wise @-@ cracking , wheeler @-@ dealing AJ Ahmed " , adding , " He 's the gregarious , trouble @-@ magnet who 's brought some much needed sunshine to the sombre , squabble @-@ filled soapiness of Albert Square . " Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton.com said AJ was a " find " but thought the writers might not be sure what to do with the character . Vicky Prior from the Metro said AJ " has lit up the square with his gently laddish behaviour . "
After AJ and Derek fight in August 2012 , Emma Roberts from MSN Entertainment said it was one of the best fights of 2012 , scoring it 5 out of 5 and saying , " This is how soap fights should always be done ! It was like Walford turned into the wild west . " A writer from MSN TV said that AJ 's drunken kiss with Roxy was one of EastEnders ' 20 worst storylines of 2012 , asked if it was serious and said that it was only made a " little bit believable " because they were both drunk . In the episode broadcast on 2 November 2012 , AJ helps his family stand up to Danny Pennant ( Gary Lucy ) . Claire Crick from All About Soap called AJ the " highlight " of the episode , saying , " we never thought we 'd say this , but he 's really quite funny ! We loved how he rallied the family together to stand up to Danny " . AJ , who undertakes self @-@ defence classes in a storyline , was used as an example by a spokesperson for the show when EastEnders and other British soap operas were criticised in a study of 830 scenes over two weeks , made by Liverpool John Moores University Business School , who said that exercise was only shown or mentioned on four occasions .
Sharma has received two award nominations for his role of AJ : a British Soap Award for Sexiest Male , and an Inside Soap Award for Funniest Male , both in 2013 . He was not shortlisted for either award . After his departure was announced , James Lowe from All About Soap opined that he , and the other three characters cut from the show at the same time , were " the right people to go " . Yahoo ! TV UK said they were " a little bit disappointed " about AJ 's departure , because he " has been good value . "
= Back to the Egg =
Back to the Egg is the seventh and final studio album by the British @-@ American band Wings , released in 1979 on Columbia Records in America , and on Parlophone in the UK . Co @-@ produced by Chris Thomas , the album reflects band leader Paul McCartney 's embracing of contemporary musical trends such as new wave and punk , and marked the arrival of new Wings members Laurence Juber and Steve Holley . Back to the Egg adopts a loose conceptual theme around the idea of a working band , and its creation coincided with a period of considerable activity for the group , which included making a return to touring and work on several television and film projects .
Recording for the album began in June 1978 and lasted for almost a year . The sessions took place at Spirit of Ranachan Studios in Scotland , Lympne Castle in Kent , London 's Abbey Road Studios , and Replica Studio – the last of which McCartney built as an exact replica of Abbey Road 's Studio Two when the latter became unavailable . Wings returned to Abbey Road in March 1979 to complete the album , before filming a series of promotional videos in Lympne and elsewhere , for what became the Back to the Egg TV special .
Back to the Egg received unfavourable reviews from the majority of critics , with Rolling Stone magazine deriding it as " the sorriest grab bag of dreck in recent memory " . Although the album charted in the top ten around the world and was certified platinum in the United States , it was viewed as a commercial failure relative to previous Wings releases , particularly in light of the generous financial terms under which McCartney had signed with CBS @-@ owned Columbia Records . Of its singles – " Old Siam , Sir " , " Getting Closer " and " Arrow Through Me " – only " Getting Closer " made the top twenty in Britain or America . The song " Rockestra Theme " , recorded with a cast of guest musicians from bands such as the Who , Led Zeppelin and Pink Floyd , won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1980 .
Wings toured the UK in support of the album , but the planned world tour ended in January 1980 , when McCartney was arrested in Japan for possession of drugs . The group disbanded early the following year . Back to the Egg was reissued in 1993 , with bonus tracks , and in 2007 for iTunes , with the addition of Wings ' 1979 non @-@ album single " Goodnight Tonight " , in its extended form .
= = Background = =
Following the release of the album London Town ( 1978 ) , Wings band leader Paul McCartney hired two session musicians , drummer Steve Holly and lead guitarist Laurence Juber , to replace former members Joe English and Jimmy McCulloch . With the new line @-@ up – Wings ' sixth since its formation in 1971 – McCartney intended to record a raw rock and roll album and return to touring , for the band 's first concerts since their acclaimed Wings Over the World tour of 1975 – 76 . In addition , McCartney hoped to realise his longstanding plan of making a film adaptation of the Rupert the Bear cartoon series , for which he owned the commercial rights , and commissioned English playwright Willy Russell to write a feature film starring Wings .
Both Holly and Juber were recruited by Wings co @-@ founder and guitarist Denny Laine , who had appeared as a guest on The David Essex Show in 1977 when Juber was working as a guitarist in the house band . Holly , a neighbour of Laine 's , joined Wings in time to appear in the promotional video for London Town 's lead single , " With a Little Luck " , having turned down a position with Elton John 's band . According to Wings biographer Garry McGee , Juber and Holly each received a weekly sum equating to less than one @-@ fifth of that paid to McCartney , his wife Linda ( the band 's keyboard player ) and Laine .
For the new album , Back to the Egg , McCartney decided to collaborate in the studio with producer Chris Thomas , with whom he had begun working on the audio for two films documenting Wings ' last world tour : Wings Over the World , a television documentary , and the cinema release Rockshow ( 1980 ) . Thomas 's involvement would mark the first time that Wings had recorded with an outside producer since their 1973 single " Live and Let Die " , which George Martin had produced . Due to his recent work with the Pretenders and the Sex Pistols , Thomas brought a punk rock and new wave influence to Wings ' sound , matching McCartney 's desire to reflect contemporary musical trends .
= = Songs = =
Although London Town had featured a significant level of contribution from Laine as a songwriter , all bar one of the songs on Back to the Egg are credited to McCartney alone . The album was originally planned around a loose conceptual theme , about which authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write in their book Eight Arms to Hold You : " The idea was to have a theme of a working band , getting back on the road ... or ' back to the egg ' ( or protective shell ) of touring . " In the original LP format , the two album sides were labelled with the egg @-@ related titles " Sunny Side Up " and " Over Easy " .
= = = " Sunny Side Up " = = =
The album 's opening song is " Reception " , an instrumental , in which McCartney attempted to capture the effect of turning a radio dial and finding " about four stations at once " . The track features a guitar @-@ controlled synthesizer ( played by Juber ) over a funk @-@ inspired bassline , and spoken voices , including a reading of part of " The Poodle and the Pug " , from Vivian Ellis 's opera Big Ben ( 1946 ) . The next three songs – " Getting Closer " , " We 're Open Tonight " and " Spin It On " – adhere to the proposed album @-@ wide concept . Writing in Melody Maker in June 1979 , Mark Williams interpreted " Reception " as representing a radio being tuned in a car , whereby " the occupant is on his way to a gig , hence ' Getting Closer ' [ to the venue ] and , upon arrival , ' We 're Open Tonight ' " . The notion of live performance is then reflected in the sequencing of what Madinger and Easter term " heavier rock tracks such as ' Spin It On ' " .
McCartney had recorded a piano demo for " Getting Closer " in 1974 , at which point the song had a slower tempo . Author and Mojo contributor Tom Doyle describes Wings ' version as " power @-@ popping " and reminiscent of the English band Squeeze . The mellow " We 're Open Tonight " was written at the McCartneys ' farm in Campbeltown , Scotland , and was the album 's title track until Linda suggested Back to the Egg .
Another song composed in Scotland , the fast @-@ tempo " Spin It On " was an obvious acknowledgment of punk and new wave ; author Vincent Benitez terms it " McCartney @-@ esque whimsy on punk steroids " . Laine 's composition " Again and Again and Again " similarly has " echoes of the Clash " , according to McCartney biographer Howard Sounes . This song was originally two separate pieces , which Laine combined on McCartney 's recommendation .
Although credited to McCartney alone , " Old Siam , Sir " marked " the most collective band involvement " as regards songwriting , Madinger and Easter suggest . Similar in style to " Spin It On " , the song features a keyboard riff written by Linda and a Holly @-@ composed middle eight ; in addition , Laine helped McCartney complete the composition , an early version of which the previous incarnation of Wings had demoed in July 1976 . " Arrow Through Me " , a track more in keeping with McCartney 's melodic pop style , is a song written from the perspective of a rejected lover . With a musical arrangement that eschews guitar backing for synthesizer , Fender Rhodes piano and horns , Benitez views it as " reminiscent of the techno @-@ pop style of Stevie Wonder " .
= = = " Over Easy " = = =
Opening side two , " Rockestra Theme " was a composition that McCartney had first recorded in 1974 , on the same piano demo tape as " Getting Closer " . " Rockestra Theme " is an instrumental – except for the shouted line " Why haven 't I had any dinner ? " , which author Robert Rodriguez describes as a " deliberate evocation " of Glenn Miller 's 1940 single " Pennsylvania 6 @-@ 5000 " . Another rock track , " To You " includes a lyric aimed at a lover who has wronged the singer . The guitar solo on the recording provides an unusual aspect for a Wings song , in that Juber played the part through an Avonside harmonizer while McCartney simultaneously altered the harmonizer 's settings from the studio 's control room .
McCartney deemed the two gospel @-@ influenced pieces making up " After the Ball / Million Miles " as being of insufficient quality to merit inclusion as separate tracks ; " After the Ball " ends with a guitar solo , edited from parts played by McCartney , Laine and Juber , after which " Million Miles " consists of a performance by McCartney alone , on concertina . This is followed by another medley , " Winter Rose / Love Awake " , both portions of which McCartney had demoed at Rude Studio , his home studio at Campbeltown , in 1977 .
" The Broadcast " is another instrumental , designed to give the impression of several radio signals interlaced . Over a musical backing of piano , mellotron and gizmotron , it features readings taken from the plays The Sport of Kings by Ian Hay and The Little Man by John Galsworthy . As a return to the proposed working @-@ band concept , " So Glad to See You Here " , Rodriguez writes , " [ evokes ] the anticipation of a live act guaranteed to ' knock ' em dead ' " and so recalls Wings ' 1975 – 76 show @-@ opening medley " Venus and Mars / Rock Show " . During the outro , the band reprise a line from " We 're Open Tonight " . The album ends with a jazz @-@ inflected ballad , " Baby 's Request " , which McCartney wrote for American vocal group the Mills Brothers , after seeing them perform in the South of France during the summer of 1978 .
= = Production = =
The band first rehearsed material for Back to the Egg in London , at the offices of McCartney 's company MPL Communications in Soho Square , before carrying out further rehearsals in Scotland , in June 1978 . As on his other Wings recordings over 1978 – 79 , Thomas worked with Phil McDonald as his recording engineer , at McCartney 's insistence , rather than Bill Price , who was the producer 's preferred engineer .
= = = Recording and overdubbing = = =
= = = = June – July 1978 : Spirit of Ranachan Studios = = = =
The recording sessions for Back to the Egg began on 29 June 1978 at Spirit of Ranachan Studios – another , larger recording facility on the McCartneys ' Campbeltown farm – using equipment loaned from Mickie Most 's RAK Studio in London . The basic tracks were recorded with a spontaneity that had been absent in Wings ' past work , employing an approach that Juber has described as a " back @-@ to @-@ basics , garage band kind of feel " .
Sessions at Spirit of Ranachan lasted until 27 July , during which the band taped and added overdubs to " Arrow Through Me " , " Again and Again and Again " , " To You " , " Winter Rose " , " Old Siam , Sir " and " Spin It On " . Basic tracks were also completed for " Cage " , a song that remained in the proposed running order for the album until early in 1979 , " Crawl of the Wild " , " Weep for Love " , " Ballroom Dancing " and " Maisie " . These last three compositions would all appear on solo albums by members of Wings between 1980 and 1982 .
In addition , the band filmed a promotional video for the London Town single " I 've Had Enough " while in Scotland and , in early July , recorded demos of twelve pieces intended for the Rupert the Bear film soundtrack . In the case of the latter activity , none of these compositions were revisited for what became Rupert and the Frog Song ( 1984 ) .
= = = = September 1978 : Lympne Castle = = = =
After a break to allow for school summer holidays , recording recommenced on 11 September at Lympne Castle in Kent , using the RAK mobile recording equipment , as before . The choice of location was partly due to the castle 's proximity to the McCartneys ' property " Waterfall " , in Peasmarsh , East Sussex . During sessions lasting through to 29 September , the band recorded " We 're Open Tonight " , " Love Awake " , " After the Ball " , " Million Miles " , " Reception " and " The Broadcast " .
Recording took place mainly in the castle 's great hall , with Holly 's drum kit positioned in the fireplace . McCartney and Juber taped their acoustic guitar parts for " We 're Open Tonight " in a stairwell . Excerpted from books found in the library , the readings for " Reception " and " The Broadcast " were overdubbed in the kitchen and performed by the owners of Lympne Castle , Harold and Dierdre Margary .
= = = = October – December 1978 : Abbey Road Studios = = = =
Sessions moved to Abbey Road Studios in London on 3 October . That day , Wings joined with a supergroup of guest musicians , collectively known as " Rockestra " , to record the tracks " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here " . A camera crew led by Barry Chattington filmed the proceedings , and a 40 @-@ minute documentary , titled Rockestra , was later compiled from the footage . Equipment used for this session included 60 microphones , a pair of mixing consoles and a 16 @-@ track recording desk . James Honeyman @-@ Scott of the Pretenders , Hank Marvin of the Shadows , the Who 's Pete Townshend , Pink Floyd 's David Gilmour , Led Zeppelin 's John Paul Jones and John Bonham , and the Attractions ' Bruce Thomas all took part . Also among the line @-@ up was the horn section from Wings ' 1975 – 76 world tour , consisting of Howie Casey , Tony Dorsey , Thaddeus Richard and Steve Howard . Keith Moon was meant to participate , but he had died shortly before the session ; Jeff Beck and Eric Clapton were also scheduled to appear .
On 10 October , Wings taped " Getting Closer " at Abbey Road , along with a demo of " Baby 's Request " . McCartney had intended this recording of " Baby 's Request " for the Mills Brothers to use as a guide , but after they asked to be paid for recording the song , he instead included the demo on Back to the Egg . The band then continued with overdubs on these and other songs intermittently through October and November , finishing at Abbey Road on 1 December .
= = = = December 1978 – February 1979 : Replica Studio = = = =
Towards the end of the year , Wings also carried out overdubs at the newly built Replica Studio , located at MPL 's Soho Square offices . Frustrated at the impending unavailability of Abbey Road 's Studio Two – which studio owner and record company EMI needed for its other acts , besides Wings – McCartney had constructed an exact replica of Studio Two in the basement at MPL . Among the work done on Back to the Egg at Replica , the band replaced the final twenty seconds of " So Glad to See You Here " with what Madinger and Easter describe as " a reggae @-@ styled coda " , containing the " We 're Open Tonight " reprise .
Sessions continued there in January and February 1979 . During that time , the band recorded a non @-@ album single – the disco @-@ styled " Goodnight Tonight " , backed with " Daytime Nighttime Suffering " – as a release to coincide with the airing of the long @-@ delayed Wings Over the World special . While noting that McCartney and Laine 's relationship was beginning to unravel at this point , Sounes compares the freshness of these new recordings with the drawn @-@ out sessions for Back to the Egg and writes that the album " was now so overworked it might more aptly have been titled Over @-@ Egged " . Impatient at the amount of time being spent in the recording studio , Laine publicly admitted that he was " desperate " to go out on tour .
= = = Final overdubbing and mixing = = =
In March , Wings moved back to Abbey Road Studios to complete the album . Vocal overdubs were then added to " Winter Rose / Love Awake " and an orchestral @-@ sounding mellotron part to the end of " Getting Closer " . Having worked with the Black Dyke Mills Band in the 1960s , when he produced their 1968 single " Thingumybob " for Apple Records , McCartney invited the band down from Yorkshire to overdub brass accompaniment on " Winter Rose / Love Awake " .
While mixing the album during March , Wings finally discarded the song " Cage " , which had been sequenced as the second track , following " Reception " . The same alternative running order paired the Rockestra recordings at the end of side two , so that the album closed with the " We 're Open Tonight " coda . Holly later recalled that whereas beforehand the band had been confident that Back to the Egg would be a strong album , during the final mixing process " [ it ] dawned on us there might be problems " . At the last minute , " Baby 's Request " replaced " Cage " and the running order was revised , with the result that the working @-@ band concept became less pronounced .
= = Album artwork and promotional videos = =
The design for the album 's artwork was by Hipgnosis , the company responsible for previous Wings album covers such as Venus and Mars ( 1975 ) and the recent Wings Greatest compilation ( 1978 ) . The front cover depicts the five members of Wings in a room , looking down through space at Planet Earth through an open hatchway in the floor ; the picture was taken by photographer John Shaw at his London studio . Photos of the individual band members appeared on the back cover , credited to Linda and Paul McCartney .
Working with film company Keef & Co . , Wings filmed seven promotional videos for the album , which would later be compiled into the Back to the Egg TV special . Filming took place between 4 and 13 June , at locations including Lympne Castle 's main hall , a private airfield at Lympne , Camber Sands in East Sussex , and Keef & Co . ' s London studios . " Old Siam , Sir " , " Getting Closer " , " Spin It On " and " Arrow Through Me " were among the tracks for which videos were made .
= = Release = =
" Goodnight Tonight " had been issued on Columbia Records in America , marking McCartney 's break from EMI @-@ affiliated Capitol Records , although he and Wings remained with EMI 's Parlophone label in the UK . McCartney 's contract with Columbia made him the highest @-@ paid recording artist in the world . As an incentive for McCartney , Columbia 's parent company , CBS , had added to his publishing portfolio by giving him the highly profitable Frank Music catalogue – making McCartney the copyright holder to Guys and Dolls and other popular musicals by Frank Loesser .
Back to the Egg was released on 24 May 1979 in the US ( as Columbia FC @-@ 36057 ) , and on 8 June in the UK ( as Parlophone PCTC 257 ) . In Britain , " Old Siam , Sir " was the album 's first single , whereas " Getting Closer " was the choice in America ; in both cases , " Spin It On " was the B @-@ side . On 11 June , an album launch party took place inside Abbey Road 's Studio Two , which had been blacked @-@ out like a large frying pan , while tables carrying yellow parasols represented fried eggs sitting in the pan . Part of Chattington 's Rockestra documentary was screened during the event , the only public airing the film received .
The follow @-@ up singles , issued in August , were " Arrow Through Me " in the US and " Getting Closer " in the UK , the latter release a double A @-@ side with " Baby 's Request " . In some European countries , " Rockestra Theme " was released as a single .
Compared to the major commercial success of previous Wings albums , sales of Back to the Egg were disappointing , and none of its singles became significant hits . In the UK , " Old Siam , Sir " and " Getting Closer " climbed to number 35 and number 60 , respectively . On America 's Billboard Hot 100 chart , " Getting Closer " peaked at number 20 , and " Arrow Through Me " at number 29 . Back to the Egg reached number 6 in the UK and number 8 on the Billboard 200 , although US chart compilers Cashbox and Record World both listed it at number 7 . With heavy promotion from Columbia , the album sold over 1 million copies in America ; in Britain , retail outlets soon slashed its price in an attempt to dispense with their surplus of stock .
McCartney later reflected that for an act other than Wings , sales such as those for Back to the Egg would have been considered " very healthy " . Given CBS 's substantial investment in their new signing , Madinger and Easter write , the album 's apparent failure led to a period of " mutual finger @-@ pointing between Paul and Columbia Records " , lasting until his contract expired in 1985 .
= = Reception = =
Back to the Egg received predominantly negative reviews on release ; author Alan Clayson writes of the album receiving " a critical mauling as vicious as that for London Town " . In an especially unfavourable critique for Rolling Stone magazine , Timothy White described it as " the sorriest grab bag of dreck in recent memory " and lamented that none of the songs were " the least bit fleshed out " , with the listener instead given " an irritating display of disjointed images and unfocused musical snapshots " . After opining that , since 1970 , " this ex @-@ Beatle has been lending his truly prodigious talents ... to some of the laziest records in the history of rock & roll " , White wrote : " Who , one felt compelled to ask , is in charge here ? Back to the Egg provides the final , obvious answer : no one . "
Music critic Robert Christgau said of McCartney and the new Wings album : " When he 's on , Paulie 's abundant tunefulness passes for generosity . Here he 's just hoping something will stick . " In Melody Maker , Ray Coleman wrote that McCartney " seems to be on a treadmill of banality " . Coleman described " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here " as " creditable , rolling , raunchy and at least efficient , with Paul 's voice at its rocking best on the last named track " , but concluded : " This album gets Wings nowhere ... " Billboard 's reviewer gave Back to the Egg " Spotlight " status ( meaning " the most outstanding new product of the week 's releases and that with the greatest potential for top of the chart placement " ) and commented : " The music features typical McCartney fare of late with nothing here that will distinguish it as one of his classics . The arrangements , though , are interesting , encompassing a variety of styles . "
In a more positive assessment , for Creem magazine , Mitchell Cohen highlighted the album 's second side as " a collection of McCartney performances that string together like abbey roadwork " , and praised McCartney 's vocals relative to his past work , writing : " all of the current tracks are terser , sung better , have less of what I suppose would be called the recording artist 's equivalent of camera consciousness . " To NME critic Bob Woffinden , the attempt at an album @-@ wide concept was " a pretty half @-@ baked one " and Hipgnosis ' cover photo was " easily the album 's strongest point " . While identifying the songs as " particularly weak lyrically " , Woffinden concluded : " It was the familiar McCartney problem . He had every essential creative requirement , except the discipline required to knead the parts into a perfect whole . "
AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine views Back to the Egg as " a set of [ McCartney 's ] most undistinguished songs " that " have no spark whatsoever " , and bemoans " the weak sound of the record and Wings ' faceless performances " . Among McCartney biographers , Vincent Benitez writes that the songs are " uneven in quality " , and Howard Sounes describes the album as " a curate 's egg , good in parts , with token attempts at sounding contemporary " . Tom Doyle views " the new wave @-@ ish rockers " like " Spin It On " as " too smoothed out to be truly edgy " and the two spoken @-@ word tracks as " weird – and not in a good way " . Doyle considers that while Back to the Egg has its " moments of inspiration " , " There was too much material [ recorded during the sessions ] , and yet not enough of it to gel into a cohesive album . "
= = Aftermath and reissues = =
With the album falling well short of Columbia 's and McCartney 's expectations commercially , McCartney spent the remainder of summer 1979 recording in Peasmarsh and Campbeltown , without Wings , creating his solo album McCartney II ( 1980 ) . During November and December 1979 , US TV stations aired the 31 @-@ minute Back to the Egg special , as Wings undertook a nineteen @-@ show UK tour , the first leg of the proposed world tour . Among the songs in the setlist , they performed several tracks from Back to the Egg : " Getting Closer " , " Again and Again and Again " , " Old Siam , Sir " , " Spin It On " and " Arrow Through Me " .
The band were scheduled to tour Japan during January and February 1980 , but the concerts , together with their tour dates elsewhere in the world , were cancelled after McCartney was arrested for possession of drugs when entering the country . Around this time , " Rockestra Theme " won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance . Wings regrouped in October 1980 to finish off songs for the planned Cold Cuts album , a compilation that McCartney had suggested when CBS sought to recover part of its financial losses from Back to the Egg . The reunion with Wings was short @-@ lived and the band broke up in April 1981 .
On 20 June 1989 , by which time McCartney had returned to Capitol Records , Back to the Egg was released on CD in America . In August 1993 , Parlophone reissued the album as part of The Paul McCartney Collection with three bonus tracks : " Daytime Nighttime Suffering " , McCartney 's 1979 Christmas single " Wonderful Christmastime " , and the latter 's B @-@ side , " Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reggae " . Samples of " Reception " and " The Broadcast " appeared on the Fireman 's Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest ( 1993 ) album , a collaboration between McCartney and Youth . In 2007 , Back to the Egg was released on iTunes , with a remix of " Goodnight Tonight " as a bonus track .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul McCartney , except where noted .
= = = Original release = = =
Side one ( " Sunny Side Up " )
" Reception " – 1 : 08
" Getting Closer " – 3 : 22
" We 're Open Tonight " – 1 : 28
" Spin It On " – 2 : 12
" Again and Again and Again " ( Denny Laine ) – 3 : 34
" Old Siam , Sir " – 4 : 11
" Arrow Through Me " – 3 : 37
Side two ( " Over Easy " )
" Rockestra Theme " – 2 : 35
" To You " – 3 : 12
" After the Ball / Million Miles " – 4 : 00
" Winter Rose / Love Awake " – 4 : 58
" The Broadcast " – 1 : 30
" So Glad to See You Here " – 3 : 20
" Baby 's Request " – 2 : 49
= = = Reissues = = =
Bonus tracks
1993 The Paul McCartney Collection :
" Daytime Nighttime Suffering " – 3 : 23
" Wonderful Christmastime " – 3 : 49
" Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reggae " ( Johnny Marks ) – 1 : 48
2007 iTunes version :
" Goodnight Tonight " ( extended version ) – 7 : 16
= = Personnel = =
Wings and additional personnel per Benitez . Rockestra line @-@ up and production per sleeve .
Wings
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals , bass , acoustic and electric guitars , keyboards , concertina on " Million Miles " , piano and harpsichord on " Winter Rose "
Linda McCartney – keyboards , backing vocals
Denny Laine – lead vocal on " Again and Again and Again " , electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Laurence Juber – electric and acoustic guitars , guitar synthesizer
Steve Holley – drums , percussion
Additional personnel
Black Dyke Mills Band – horns on " Love Awake "
Dierdre Margary , Harold Margary – book readings
Rockestra line @-@ up on " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here "
Denny Laine , Laurence Juber , David Gilmour , Hank Marvin , Pete Townshend – guitars
Steve Holly , John Bonham , Kenney Jones – drums
Paul McCartney , John Paul Jones , Ronnie Lane , Bruce Thomas – basses
Paul McCartney , Gary Brooker , John Paul Jones – pianos
Linda McCartney , Tony Ashton – keyboards
Speedy Acquaye , Tony Carr , Ray Cooper , Morris Pert – percussion
Howie Casey , Tony Dorsey , Steve Howard , Thaddeus Richard – horns
Production
Paul McCartney and Chris Thomas – producers
Phil McDonald – engineer
Mark Vigars – assistant engineer
John Shaw – front cover photo
Linda McCartney , Paul McCartney – back cover photos
Hipgnosis – design
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Victory Road ( 2008 ) =
Victory Road ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on July 13 , 2008 at the Reliant Arena in Houston , Texas . It was the fourth event under the Victory Road name and the seventh event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , three of which were for championships .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion Samoa Joe defended the title against the challenger Booker T. The match ended in a no @-@ contest after interference from Sting and various security personnel , thus causing Joe to retain the championship . A Six Man Tag Team Full Metal Mayhem match was also featured at Victory Road , pitting the team of A.J. Styles , Christian Cage , and Rhino against the team of Kurt Angle and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Angle and Team 3D were the victors in the contest . The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match at the show , in which the champions The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) defeated Beer Money Incorporated . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) to retain the title . The final two rounds of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament took place at Victory Road . The third round featured a Four Team Twelve Man Elimination Tag Team match , which Team TNA won . The final round was a Four Way Ultimate X match , in which Team Mexico 's Volador Jr. defeated Team International 's Daivari , Team TNA 's Kaz , and Team Japan 's Naruki Doi .
Victory Road is remembered for the closing of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament . 25 @,@ 000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Victory Road had an attendance of 3 @,@ 000 people . Bob Kapur of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 7 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Chris Sokol .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The fourth installment under the Victory Road name was announced in January 2008 with a July 13 date attached . In May 2008 , TNA hoped to host a PPV event in Houston , Texas by the end of the year , the earliest timeframe being late summer . TNA issued a press release in late @-@ May 2008 revealing that Victory Road would be held at the Reliant Arena in Houston , Texas . Tickets for the show went on @-@ sale on May 30 . TNA released a poster to promote the event featuring the tagline " Houston , We Have a Problem " as well as Booker T and Samoa Joe . The final two rounds of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament were scheduled to take place at Victory Road . An online vote commenced at the start of the show to select a stipulation for a Six Man Tag Team match promoted for the show . The choices were Falls Count Anywhere match , Tables match , or Full Metal Mayhem .
= = = Storylines = = =
Victory Road featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Victory Road was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and the challenger Booker T. Joe and Booker T previously fought at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 8 in a King of the Mountain match for the title , which Joe won to remain champion . On the June 12 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Booker T claimed that Joe did not beat him at the event due to interference from Joe 's mentor Kevin Nash . This led to Nash stating that Joe could not beat Booker T in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . After this segment , Joe announced that Booker T and he would face at Victory Road for the title . Since Houston is Booker T 's hometown , TNA promoted the match as him attempting to win the championship for the people of Houston . On the July 10 episode of Impact ! , Sting proclaimed that he did not know which of the two would win at Victory Road , but that he would be there to watch .
The predominate storyline heading into the event was the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle , both members of The Angle Alliance . On the February 14 episode of Impact ! , TNA held the scripted wedding of Angle 's real @-@ life wife Karen Angle and Styles despite Angle and Karen still being married on @-@ screen . Afterwards , Karen and Angle separated in the storyline on the March 13 episode of Impact ! . TNA continued to build the situation with Angle attempting to reconcile with Karen on the May 15 episode of Impact ! . Karen refused Angle 's request on the May 22 episode of Impact ! , leading to Angle turning on and assaulting Styles later in the episode due to his jealousy of the affection Karen showed for Styles . This led to a match between the two at Slammiversary which Styles won after a distraction by Karen . The two faced in a Lumberjack match on the June 12 episode of Impact ! , which Angle won before it ended in a brawl between Styles , Angle , Tomko , Christian Cage , Rhino , Abyss , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Afterwards , Team 3D and the team of Cage and Rhino became involved in the feud with Team 3D joining Angle , while Cage and Rhino sided with Styles . Team 3D then injured both Cage and Rhino in the narrative , with Rhino being knocked out on the June 19 episode of Impact ! , while on the June 26 episode of Impact ! Cage was slammed through a glass table by Brother Ray . Rhino returned from injury on the July 3 episode of Impact ! , challenging Team 3D and Angle to a Six Man Tag Team match at Victory Road , while teasing at adding Full Metal Mayhem rules to the bout . TNA promoted the match for the event afterwards .
The conclusion to the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was held at Victory Road with two matches completing the final two rounds . The World X Cup was a tournament consisting of teams competing against each other for points . There were four teams each made up of four men , with three teams representing a country and one representing TNA . These teams were Team TNA ( Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Curry Man , and Kazarian ) , Team Japan ( Masato Yoshino , Milano Collection A.T. , Naruki Doi , and Puma ) , Team Mexico ( Averno , Rey Bucanero , Último Guerrero , and Volador Jr . ) , and Team International ( Alex Koslov , Daivari , Doug Williams , and Tyson Dux ) . The World X Cup began on the June 19 episode of Impact ! , with round one being tag team matches worth one point each . Round one concluded on the June 26 episode of Impact ! . Round two was standard wrestling matches worth two points each on the July 3 and July 10 episodes of Impact ! . The fourth round was announced on the June 19 episode of Impact ! to take place at Victory Road in an Ultimate X match . The The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that the third round of the tournament would be a multi @-@ man team elimination match consisting of the wrestlers not competing in the fourth round .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match by The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) against James Storm and Robert Roode . On the June 12 episode of Impact ! , Roode and Storm teamed to face LAX for the World Tag Team Championship . The match was originally won by Roode and Storm before being restarted due to interference . LAX won the restart to retain the championship . After the bout , Roode and Storm assaulted LAX and their manager Héctor Guerrero . Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a title defense at Victory Road between LAX and Roode and Storm under " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack rules on the June 19 episode of Impact ! . TNA announced on the June 26 episode of Impact ! that a contest was being held with the winner getting a free trip to participate in the match as a lumberjack .
= = Event = =
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Victory Road featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast , with Frank Trigg providing commentary for the Full Metal Mayhem match only . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Velvet Sky , SoCal Val , Héctor Guerrero , Salinas , Jackie Moore , Raisha Saeed , Abyss , Johnny Devine , Sharmell , and Sting all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The show opened with the third round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament . It was a Four Team Twelve Man Elimination Tag Team match between Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , and Curry Man of Team TNA , Masato Yoshino , Milano Collection A.T. , and Puma of Team Japan , Averno , Rey Bucanero , and Último Guerrero of Team Mexico , and Alex Koslov , Doug Williams , and Tyson Dux of Team International . The bout lasted 24 minutes and 16 seconds . The rules of this encounter involved only two wrestlers in the ring at all times , with any member of any team being allowed to tag in at any time . Members of each team were eliminated until only one team remained , that team was considered the winner and earned three points in the World X Cup . The match came down to Shelley of Team TNA and Yoshino of Team Japan . Shelley won the bout by pinning Yoshino after forcing Yoshino back @-@ first onto the mat with his signature Automatic Midnight maneuver .
The second match pitted Gail Kim against Angelina Love . Love was accompanied to the ring by Velvet Sky . The duration of the match was 6 minutes and 13 seconds . Early in the bout , Kim held Love in a Figure @-@ Four Leglock submission hold around a ringpost , which she was forced to release by the referee . Later , Kim slammed Love back @-@ first onto the mat with her signature Happy Ending maneuver and followed with the pinfall for the win .
Sonjay Dutt fought Jay Lethal in the next bout on the card . Lethal was accompanied to the ring by SoCal Val . The contest lasted 8 minutes and 24 seconds . Dutt was the victor in the encounter by using a roll @-@ up pinning maneuver on Lethal while he was distracted by Val .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match by LAX against James Storm and Robert Roode — now known as Beer Money Incorporated — in the fourth match of the show . LAX were accompanied to the ring by Salinas and Héctor Guerrero , while Storm and Roode were accompanied by Jackie Moore . In a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match , people are chosen from the audience to take part in the encounter by standing around the ring with straps , in which their primary purpose is to make sure all the participants remain in the ring . If the participants do not remain in the ring , then the fans that are chosen are supposed to hit them with the straps until they re @-@ enter . Roode was whipped twice during the encounter ; the first when he was thrown to the ringside area , while the second was when he fell to the outside . LAX won the match at 10 minutes and 6 seconds when Hernandez pinned Roode following LAX 's signature 5150 tag team maneuver .
The TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was defended by Taylor Wilde against Awesome Kong next in a bout that lasted 4 minutes and 51 seconds . Kong was accompanied by Raisha Saeed to the ring . Wilde won the match with a victory roll pin on Kong to retain the championship . After the bout , Kong and Saeed assaulted Wilde until Abyss came to her defense .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fourth and final round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was next involving one member of each respective team in a Four Way Ultimate X match . The encounter was between Daivari of Team International , Kaz of Team TNA , Naruki Doi of Team Japan , and Volador Jr. of Team Mexico . In an Ultimate X match , two steel cables are attached to four steel supports in such a way that they form an " X " above the ring . At the center of this " X " an item is hung , which must be retrieved by a participant to win the match . In this bout , the item hanging above the ring was an enlarged red " X " which symbolized four points in the World X Cup . During the encounter , Kaz ascended one of the steel supports before jumping off towards the center of the ring and slamming his leg onto Daivari , who was holding onto the cables . This action forced both of them to fall and crash onto the ring mat below . Afterwards , Volador Jr ascended the cables and retrieved the " X " to win the match and four points for Team Mexico at 10 minutes and 58 seconds . With this victory , Team Mexico won the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament with seven points , compared to six by Team TNA , and three by Team Japan and Team International , respectively . Team Mexico were awarded a trophy for their victory after the bout by Mike Tenay and TNA Spanish commentator Willie Urbina .
A Six Man Tag Team Full Metal Mayhem match followed pitting the team of Kurt Angle and Team 3D against A.J. Styles , Christian Cage , and Rhino . The duration of the contest was 15 minutes and 55 seconds . In this bout , the only way to win was by pinfall or submission , all weapons were legal and encouraged , and there were no disqualifications . Cage ascended the steel supports left behind from the Ultimate X match during the bout to jump off in an aerial splash onto both members of Team 3D and Angle . Each participant of the match was forced through a table during the bout except Angle . Rhino was the first by Team 3D , followed by Cage also by Team 3D . Each member of Team 3D were then forced through a table by Styles . After this , Johnny Devine interfered in the encounter on Team 3D 's behalf by attempting to hit Styles with a kendo stick , only to be kicked in the head by Styles . Later , Styles laid Angle on a table and ascended a ladder . At this time , Frank Trigg interfered by hitting Styles over the head with the kendo stick , allowing Angle to force Styles through the set @-@ up table with his signature Olympic Slam maneuver for the pinfall victory .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which then @-@ champion Samoa Joe defended the title against the challenger Booker T. Joe 's forehead was cut open during the match after being thrown into a pair of steel ring steps . Booker T also had his forehead cut open during the contest . Several referees were knocked out by Joe in the storyline throughout the encounter , to the point that security was sent down to the ring to restrain Joe . Booker T 's legitimate wife Sharmell then interfered in the bout , attempting to get someone to stop Joe as he applied his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold on Booker T. Sting then entered the arena and went to the ring to calm down Joe , who listened at first , before giving Sting the
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finger and continuing his assault on Booker T. Sting retaliated by bashing Joe in the gut and over the back with a baseball bat . Booker T then covered Joe , while Sharmell counted the pinfall before the two left the arena with the title belt , leaving the outcome a mystery before being ruled a no @-@ contest at 15 minutes and 14 seconds .
= = Reception = =
A total of 3 @,@ 000 people attended Victory Road , while the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 25 @,@ 000 people bought the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Bob Kapur rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Chris Sokol . The 7 out of 10 was higher than the 5 out of 10 given to the 2009 edition by Chris and Bryan Sokol . Victory Road 's rating was the same as the one received by Slammiversary the month prior by Jon Waldman . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) The Great American Bash PPV event on July 20 , Victory Road fared better as The Great American Bash received a 6 out of 10 from Dave Hillhouse .
Kapur discussed in his review how the main event of a show can impact the rest of the event . He stated that " a confusing , overbooked fustercluck " main event , such as the one at Victory Road , " can leave a bad taste in your mouth after it ’ s over , even if everything else was pretty solid . " He went on to say that based on the crowd reaction the " finish seemed to dampen the enthusiasm of what was otherwise a really good show , " and that it was " unfortunate , because everything leading up to that point was good to great . " Kapur gave the main event a 3 out of 10 , while the Full Metal Mayhem match and the World Tag Team Championship both received a 7 out of 10 . The third round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was given a 9 out of 10 , while the final round received an 8 out of 10 .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the event . He felt the main event had a " good start to what might have been a decent match " but stated that it was " far from a satisfying finish " for the price . Keller felt the Full Metal Mayhem bout was a " clustermess of a match , " but at the same time was " entertaining start to finish . " As for the World Tag Team Championship match , he said that it felt " anticlimactic " and that having the fans at ringside was more of a " distraction " than a " payoff . " Regarding the World X Cup , Keller said the third round bout was a dream match for some with " lots of cool spots from start to finish , " but that it had " little context early " and was more just a " bunch of spots . " He also said that the " last ten minutes was better without as many people tagging in and out somewhat indiscriminately . " As for the final round , Keller commented that " it had some spectacular ( and ridiculously dangerous looking ) spots , " but that it ended up " feeling short for a match of that caliber . "
James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter , reviewed the show live from the arena . He said the main event had a " terrible terrible finish " which " killed the crowd . " He also commented that it was one of the " worst finishes " he had " ever seen . " Caldwell stated that the Full Metal Mayhem match had " lots of crazy spots " and that A.J. Styles received a " superstar pop coming out to the ring " from the audience that " carried on throughout the match " . He felt the World Tag Team Championship match was an " OK tag match . " As for the World X Cup , Caldwell stated that the third round bout was " entertaining yet quite long " and that the " crowd was super into Sabin and Shelley . " He also said that after the match settled into " one @-@ on @-@ one action " it " turned into a pretty good match . " The final round was seen by Caldwell as " one of those rinse and repeat spot fest matches until Kaz busted out the big double foot stomp on Daivari that popped the crowd . " Overall , he called it a " one spot match . "
= = Aftermath = =
Brother Devon injured his ankle during the Full Metal Mayhem match , while Kaz injured his hip due to his jump during the Ultimate X match . Devon was later diagnosed with a deep sprain of the Achilles tendon .
Everyone used as lumberjacks in the TNA World Tag Team Championship bout were legitimate fans from the Houston area , while only the national winner from the promoted contest was not from Houston .
After Victory Road , Samoa Joe and Booker T continued their rivalry over the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 17 episode of Impact , Management Director Jim Cornette demanded that Booker T give the championship back to Joe , who was recognized as the official champion by TNA . Booker T refused this demand , while Joe also declined the offer as he felt he did not deserve to hold the title due to being pinned at the event . Due to these feelings , Cornette instead scheduled a rematch between the two for the championship at TNA 's next PPV event Hard Justice on August 10 . On the July 24 episode of Impact ! , Joe challenged Booker T to contest their rematch in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match , which Booker T accepted after adding that weapons would be allowed in the match . Joe defeated Booker T at the event to retain the championship .
A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle went on to face each other in a Last Man Standing match at Hard Justice . This bout was announced on the July 31 episode of Impact ! , when Styles challenged Angle to a match at Hard Justice to end their rivalry . This was due to Angle assaulting Styles from behind earlier in the episode . Styles defeated Angle at the event .
On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , Team 3D cost Cage and Rhino the chance to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship in a match against Beer Money Incorporated . After the match , Cage challenged Team 3D to a New Jersey Street Fight at Hard Justice , which Team 3D accepted . Cage and Rhino were the victors in the contest at the event .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship went on to be defended by LAX at Hard Justice against Beer Money Incorporated . On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , Beer Money Incorporated defeated Cage and Rhino to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the August 7 episode of Impact ! , Beer Money Incorporated forced Homicide through a glass table , injuring his eye in the storyline . Beer Money Incorporated defeated LAX to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship at the event .
After Victory Road , Sonjay Dutt and Jay Lethal had another match at Hard Justice , this time the match was promoted as Black Tie Brawl and Chain match . Lethal won the encounter at the event . Also featured at Hard Justice was a Six Woman Tag Team match , pitting the team of Gail Kim , Taylor Wilde , and ODB against the team of Awesome Kong and The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) . The team of Kim , Wilde , and ODB were the victors of the contest at the show .
= = Results = =
World X Cup Elimination match
1 . ^
= Asama @-@ Sansō incident =
The Asama @-@ Sansō incident ( あさま山荘事件 , Asama sansō jiken ) was a hostage crisis and police siege in a mountain lodge near Karuizawa , Nagano prefecture , Japan that lasted from February 19 , 1972 to February 28 , 1972 . The police rescue operation on the final day of the standoff was the first marathon live television broadcast in Japan , lasting 10 hours and 40 minutes .
The incident began when five armed members of the United Red Army ( URA ) , following a bloody purge that left 14 members of the group plus one bystander dead , broke into a holiday lodge below Mount Asama , taking the wife of the lodge @-@ keeper as a hostage . A standoff between police and the URA radicals took place , lasting ten days . The lodge was a natural fortress , solidly constructed of thick concrete on a steep hillside with only one entrance , which , along with their guns , enabled the hostage @-@ takers to keep police at a distance .
On February 28 , the police stormed the lodge . Two police officers were killed in the assault , the hostage was rescued and the URA radicals were taken into custody . The incident contributed to a decline in popularity of leftist movements in Japan .
= = Background = =
Japan 's leftist student movement in the 1960s pervaded Japan 's universities , and , by late in the decade , had become very factionalized , competitive , and violent . After a series of incidents in which leftist student groups attacked and injured or killed law enforcement officials and the general public , Japan 's national police agency cracked down on the student groups , raiding their hideouts and arresting dozens in 1971 and 1972 . Attempting to conceal themselves from the police , a core group of radicals from the URA retreated to a compound in Gunma Prefecture during the winter of 1972 .
In the second week of February 1972 at the compound , URA 's chairman Tsuneo Mori and vice @-@ chairman Hiroko Nagata ( sometimes referred to as Yoko Nagata ) initiated a violent purge of the group 's members . In the purge , Nagata and Mori directed the deaths by beating of eight members and one non @-@ member who happened to be present . Six other members were tied to trees outside where they froze to death in the frigid mountain winter air . On February 16 , police arrested Mori , Nagata , and six other URA members at the compound or at a nearby village . Five others , armed with rifles and shotguns , managed to escape , fleeing on foot through the mountains towards Karuizawa in nearby Nagano prefecture . The five fugitives were Kunio Bandō , 25 , a graduate of Kyoto University , Masakuni Yoshino , 23 , a senior at Yokohama National University , Hiroshi Sakaguchi , 25 , a dropout of Tokyo Suisan University , Jirō Katō , 19 , and his brother Saburō Katō , 16 .
= = Incident = =
Sighting the police pursuit near the community of Karuizawa on February 19 , the five radicals took refuge in a vacation lodge called Asama Sansō ( Asama Mountain Villa ) owned by Kawai Musical Instruments Manufacturing . The radicals entered the lodge and discovered Yasuko Muta , the 31 @-@ year @-@ old wife of the lodge 's caretaker . She was the only person in the building , as her husband was walking the dog and the lodge 's guests had gone ice skating . The radicals took Muta hostage at gunpoint and barricaded the building .
The lodge 's structure made it a stronghold . The lodge , named after nearby Mount Asama , was a three @-@ story wood and concrete edifice built into the side of the hill atop an exposed base of steel @-@ reinforced concrete . The upper floor was slightly larger than the two below , giving the lodge a mushroom appearance . The building towered over the steep , snow @-@ covered slopes below and the lodge 's windows had heavy outer storm shutters . The building 's maze @-@ like floor plan and narrow staircases made it easy for the defenders to block off movement inside the building . The radicals would spend most of their time on the uppermost floor , which contained a kitchen , dining room , tatami @-@ mat sleeping room , and a commanding view of the surrounding valley and hills . The radicals placed large pieces of furniture and futon bedding around the doors and windows and secured them in place with wire . When Muta 's husband returned and saw the barricades he realized what had happened and quickly notified police . The police immediately set up roadblocks and surrounded the lodge to cut off any avenues of escape for the radicals inside .
The police decided to wait to see if the radicals would surrender on their own . After three days without a surrender offer from the hostage @-@ takers , the police shut off the electricity to the lodge and set up loudspeakers from which the parents of several of the radicals implored them to surrender , to no avail . One of the participating parents ' son had been killed in the purge incident , but both the police and the parent were unaware of this because the full extent of the purge had not yet become known .
On February 25 , the police began to prepare to assault the lodge . A wrecking ball crane with an armored driver 's compartment was positioned near the building and police armed themselves with ladders , heavy mallets , and chainsaws . Muta 's husband implored the radicals by loudspeaker to release his wife , but was ignored . On February 27 , the police used a baseball pitching machine to bombard the building with rocks to keep the hostage @-@ takers awake all night .
The police moved into position for the assault at 8 a.m. on February 28 and issued a final ultimatum an hour later , which went unheeded by the radicals . At 10 a.m. the wrecking @-@ ball crane began to batter the lodge 's walls . The police cautiously approached the building and began to break through the barricades . By noon , the police had occupied the two lower floors , isolating the radicals and Muta on the top floor .
The police experienced difficulty in breaching the radicals ' defenses on the top floor and hours later had not made much headway . The police directed high @-@ pressure water hoses at the top floor , gouging out large holes in the building 's walls and drenching the radicals and Muta with cold water . During this time , the radicals kept up continuous gunfire on the assaulting police and threw homemade bombs at them . Two policemen , Shigemitsu Takami , 42 , and Hisataka Uchida , 47 , were shot and killed and 15 other policemen were injured . A civilian observer who intruded into the area without police permission was also shot , reportedly by the radicals , and fatally wounded .
As darkness fell , the police breached the top floor 's barricades and captured one of the Katō brothers . The remaining four radicals burrowed into a pile of futon bedding and refused to surrender . As the police approached them , Kunio Bandō shot one of the policemen , Masahiro Endō , in the eye . Endō lost his eye but survived . Eventually , at 6 : 15 p.m. , 280 hours after the incident began , the remaining four radicals were taken into custody and Muta was rescued . Muta was cold but uninjured and told police that her captors had not mistreated her , although they had tied her to a bed during most of the standoff . That same evening , despondent over his son 's behavior , Kunio Bandō 's father hanged himself in his home in Ōtsu , a city near Kyoto .
= = Media coverage = =
Throughout the stand @-@ off , the incident was extensively covered by Japanese broadcast media , which gave frequent reports and updates . Muta 's photo was shown repeatedly on television .
At 9 : 40 a.m. on February 28 , public broadcaster NHK began live , continuous coverage of the siege that lasted until 8 : 20 p.m. that night . Ratings for NHK 's non @-@ stop coverage averaged 50 @.@ 8 % and peaked at 89 @.@ 7 % at 6 : 26 p.m. Vehicle traffic was noticeably lighter throughout the day in Tokyo .
= = Aftermath = =
The five radicals were charged on six counts : two murders , one attempted murder , obstructing police in the execution of their duties , violation of the Swords and Firearms Control Law , and illegal confinement . Four were sentenced to long prison terms and Hiroshi Sakaguchi was sentenced to death . On 24 June 2013 , the Supreme Court of Japan rejected an appeal from Sakaguchi for a retrial , leaving Sakaguchi on death row awaiting execution .
On August 8 , 1975 the Japanese government released Kunio Bandō and flew him to asylum in Libya in response to demands from Japanese Red Army members who had stormed the American and Swedish embassies in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia and taken 53 hostages . Bandō later is believed to have assisted in the hijacking of Japan Airlines Flight 472 from Paris to Tokyo in 1977 , forcing the jet to land in Dhaka . Bandō remains at large and reportedly spent time between 1997 and 2007 in Russia , China , the Philippines , and Japan .
Yasuko Muta remained in the Karuizawa area , working at another lodge . She refused to speak any further about her ordeal since her initial statements to the police and press after she was rescued .
The incident , along with the Lod Airport massacre which occurred several months later , and several hijackings , contributed to an intense social backlash among the population of Japan against radical student leftist groups . After the incident , the leftist movement in Japan greatly decreased in numbers and enjoyed much less popular support . A 2007 film by Kōji Wakamatsu about the incident titled United Red Army won the Japanese Eyes Best Picture award at the October 2007 Tokyo International Film Festival .
= = = Books = = =
Schreiber , Mark ( 1996 ) . Shocking Crimes of Postwar Japan . Tuttle Publishing . ISBN 4 @-@ 900737 @-@ 34 @-@ 8 .
= = = Movies = = =
Totsunyûseyo ! Asama sansô jiken ( The Choice of Hercules ) at the Internet Movie Database – Masato Harada ( 2002 )
Jitsuroku rengô sekigun : Asama sansô e no michi ( United Red Army - The Path to Asama Mountain Lodge ) at the Internet Movie Database - Kōji Wakamatsu ( 2007 )
= = = Web = = =
Japan Times ( October 31 , 1997 ) . " Death @-@ row convict wins libel case " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Kyodo News ( May 26 , 1998 ) . " Court dismisses death @-@ row inmates ' translation appeals " . FindArticles . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Kyodo News ( February 27 , 2003 ) . " Wanted radical Kunio Bando was in Philippines in 2000 : sources " . BNet . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Nakamura , Akemi ( February 1 , 2008 ) . " Film looks at ' 72 Asama ultraleftists " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 12 @-@ 24 .
Nakamura , Akemi ( March 20 , 2008 ) . " ' We did not leave anything positive , ' says ex @-@ radical " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
NHK . " Asama @-@ Sanso Incident " . 50 Years of NHK Television . NHK . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Pulvers , Roger ( February 11 , 2007 ) . " Mammon and myopia : Japan 's governing ' 70s legacy " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Schilling , Mark ( March 20 , 2008 ) . " The final days of revolutionary struggle in Japan " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
= = = Japanese Wikipedia = = =
坂口弘 Hiroshi Sakaguchi
永田洋子 Hiroko Nagata
森恒夫 Tsuneo Mori
坂東國男 Kunio Bandō
= 2010 Sylvania 300 =
The 2010 Sylvania 300 was a stock car racing competition that took place on September 19 , 2010 . Held at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon , New Hampshire , the 300 @-@ lap race was the twenty @-@ seventh in the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series , as well as the first in the ten @-@ race Chase for the Sprint Cup , which ended the season . Clint Bowyer of the Richard Childress Racing team won the race ; Denny Hamlin finished second and Jamie McMurray came in third .
Brad Keselowski won the pole position , although he was almost immediately passed by Tony Stewart at the start of the race . Many Chase for the Sprint Cup participants , including Jimmie Johnson , Kurt Busch , and Hamlin , were in the top ten for most of the race , although some encountered problems in the closing laps . Stewart was leading the race with two laps remaining but ran out of fuel , giving the lead , and the win , to Bowyer . There were twenty @-@ one lead changes among eight different drivers , as well as eight cautions during the race .
The race was Bowyer 's first win in the 2010 season , and the third of his career . The result advanced Bowyer to second in the Drivers ' Championship , thirty @-@ five points behind Hamlin and ten ahead of Kevin Harvick , although he fell to twelfth in the standings after receiving a post @-@ race penalty . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , thirty @-@ two points ahead of Toyota and seventy @-@ four ahead of Ford , with nine races remaining in the season . Attendance was 95 @,@ 000 , while 3 @.@ 68 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
New Hampshire Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks that hold NASCAR races . The standard track at New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn oval track , 1 @.@ 058 miles ( 1 @.@ 703 km ) long . Its banking in the turns varies from two to seven degrees , while the front stretch , the finish line , and the back stretch are all banked at one degree .
Before the race , Denny Hamlin led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 060 points , followed by Jimmie Johnson with 5 @,@ 050 . Kevin Harvick and Kyle Busch were tied for third place with 5 @,@ 030 points , and Kyle 's older brother Kurt Busch had 5 @,@ 020 points . Tony Stewart , with 5 @,@ 010 points , was tied with Greg Biffle , and Jeff Gordon , Carl Edwards , Jeff Burton , Matt Kenseth and Clint Bowyer rounded out the top twelve with 5 @,@ 000 points each . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 188 points , twenty @-@ nine points ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 120 points , was fifteen points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third place . Mark Martin was the race 's defending champion .
A number of drivers competing in the 2010 Chase for the Sprint Cup entered the race optimistic about their chances of winning the championship . Biffle argued that he , Burton , or Stewart were " capable of winning it " . Johnson , who already had eighteen previous wins in the Chase , observed that " those 10 races in the Chase is its own world . The people act and react differently under pressure , and for the last four years we have done a great job in that environment . " Hamlin commented , " Reliability is the only thing we need to work on . It 's taken us out of the last three Chases , not being reliable . You have to have it to be the champion . " Ray Evernham also opined on Hamlin , " I think Denny knows that he has the talent to win the championship . I think that he 's got focus right now and a good , veteran crew chief in Mike Ford . If Toyota gives him the speed , he could be a threat . "
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , and the second 50 minutes . The final session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Stewart was fastest , placing ahead of Edwards in second and Marcos Ambrose in third . A. J. Allmendinger was scored fourth , and Kyle Busch placed fifth . David Ragan , Johnson , Brad Keselowski , Biffle , and Hamlin rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session .
Forty @-@ five drivers attempted to qualify ; due to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Keselowski clinched his first pole position in the Sprint Cup Series , with a time of 28 @.@ 515 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Bowyer . Stewart qualified third , Jamie McMurray took fourth , and Juan Pablo Montoya started fifth . Johnson , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified twenty @-@ fifth , while Harvick was scored in twenty @-@ seventh . The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Jeff Green and Johnny Sauter . Once qualifying concluded Keselowski said , " I felt I got a shot at the pole before I qualified but you never really know . When I ran the lap I knew I gave up a little bit of time right in the middle of both corners but I had a plan going into it and stuck to it and it worked . I ’ m really proud of that lap . "
On Saturday morning , Stewart was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Sam Hornish , Jr. in second , and McMurray in third . Ryan Newman was fourth quickest , and Bowyer took fifth . Kurt Busch , who ended up receiving a penalty for using extra tires , managed sixth . Mark Martin , Johnson , Kasey Kahne , and Montoya followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Hamlin was scored sixteenth fastest , while Harvick was scored in twenty @-@ fourth . McMurray paced the final practice session , with Jeff Gordon and Johnson following in second and third respectively . Stewart was fourth fastest , ahead of Montoya and Bowyer . Hamlin was scored seventh , Kahne eighth , Dale Earnhardt , Jr. ninth , and David Reutimann tenth . Other Chase drivers included Kyle Busch in twenty @-@ first and Kenseth in thirtieth .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the twenty @-@ seventh of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2010 season , began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were partly cloudy with an air temperature around 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Jonathan DeFelice , president of St. Anselm College in Goffstown , New Hampshire , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Anthony Gargiula performed the national anthem , and Mark Corcoran , VP of Industrial and Commercial Sales for Sylvania , gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , two drivers had to move to the rear of the grid due to unapproved changes : David Gilliland because of an engine change , and Andy Lally because of a transmission change .
Keselowski retained his pole position lead into the first corner , with Bowyer behind him . One lap later , Stewart passed Keselowski to become the new race leader ; Montoya passed Keselowski for the second position on the next lap . By lap eight , Stewart had a lead of over one second . After starting the race in twelfth , Kurt Busch moved up to ninth position by lap nine . Paul Menard , who started in eighth , fell to eleventh position by lap twelve . After losing two positions early , Bowyer moved back up into third position by passing Keselowski . By the nineteenth lap , Johnson had moved up eight positions to seventeenth , and Harvick had moved up seven positions to twentieth .
Earnhardt , who began the race in thirty @-@ second , had moved up ten positions to twenty @-@ second by lap 22 . Two laps later , Bowyer passed Montoya for second position . Scott Speed spun sideways and collided with the wall four laps later , causing the first caution of the race . On lap 28 , Robby Gordon moved into the lead for one lap , delaying his pit stop until lap 29 . Once the race resumed , Bowyer regained the lead followed by McMurray in second . McMurray led the next lap , but Bowyer reclaimed the lead on lap 32 . Three laps later , Kyle Busch , in seventh place , collided with the wall , but escaped with minor damage . A collision involving Ambrose and Menard occurred on lap 39 and prompted the second caution .
Most drivers stayed on the track during the caution , allowing Bowyer to remain the leader on the restart . On lap 48 , Michael McDowell drove to the garage because of engine problems . Five laps later , Bowyer led the race , with McMurray 1 @.@ 3 seconds behind him . Landon Cassill went to the garage due to failing brakes on lap 56 . Johnson moved into sixth , as Edwards passed McMurray five laps later for second . By lap 64 , Bowyer 's lead was over 3 @.@ 5 seconds .
Four laps later , Johnson passed Keselowski to claim fifth position . On the 81st lap , Earnhardt , Jr. moved into seventh after passing David Reutimann and Stewart . Two laps later , Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton passed Reutimann for ninth and tenth respectively . During lap 90 , Earnhardt passed Keselowski for sixth , as Johnson claimed fourth from McMurray . After 93 laps , Bowyer 's lead was over five seconds . Two laps later , green flag pit stops began , as Montoya was the first to pit . On lap 98 , Edwards became the new leader after Bowyer came into the pits . One lap later , Kurt Busch became the new leader , followed by Jeff Gordon and Robby Gordon . On lap 102 , Bowyer reclaimed the lead as the previous leaders made their stops . Bobby Labonte and Casey Mears were unable to continue the race after their pit stops .
On lap 113 , Burton moved up to sixth , while Jeff Gordon passed Earnhardt for eleventh . Allmendinger fell to twenty @-@ fifth after pit stops due to having run out of fuel on his way onto pit road . Three laps later , both Jeff Gordon and Earnhardt had passed Reutimann for tenth and eleventh respectively . By lap 120 , Bowyer had a lead of about four seconds over Edwards . Four laps later , Harvick passed Montoya for fourteenth . On lap 132 , Keselowski fell to ninth after being passed by Kurt Busch and Hamlin . On lap 147 , Bowyer 's lead of over seven seconds was reduced to nothing when the pace car moved on track . During the caution , which was caused by debris , most of the leaders made pit stops .
Bowyer maintained his lead on the restart . On lap 153 , Kyle Busch moved into tenth position by passing Jeff Gordon . Seven laps later , Burton claimed fourth . On the 162nd lap , Ryan Newman moved up to eleventh , as Keselowski fell to twelfth . Two laps later , Jeff Gordon passed Kyle Busch to move into ninth , while Stewart passed Burton for fourth . On lap 177 , Montoya passed Kyle Busch for tenth position . Afterward , Kyle Busch fell to twelfth after being passed by Newman . By lap 192 , Bowyer had a 3 @.@ 5 second lead over McMurray . One lap later , Montoya passed Kurt Busch for ninth . On lap 199 , Harvick moved into fifteenth position . Two laps later , Hamlin passed Jeff Burton to claim fifth .
On lap 206 , Martin 's car suffered a flat tire and the fourth caution was given as a result . Bowyer led on the restart , although he was passed by Stewart within one lap . On lap 213 , Hamlin spun sideways , prompting the fifth caution . Despite remaining undamaged , Hamlin fell from fourth to twenty @-@ second position . Stewart led on the restart , as Jeff Gordon claimed second from Bowyer . By lap 221 , a sixth caution came out as Kurt Busch , Johnson , and Kyle Busch all spun sideways . After the accident , Johnson fell to twenty @-@ fourth ; Stewart maintained his lead on the restart . Five laps later , Matt Kenseth spun out , causing the seventh caution . Stewart led the drivers back to the green flag , but was overtaken by McMurray one lap later .
On lap 241 , the pace car came out for the eighth and final caution , after Joey Logano collided with the outside wall . McMurray led on the restart , but Stewart reclaimed the lead on lap 247 . Seven laps later , Johnson was forced to pit due to a loose wheel . By lap 257 , Stewart had a lead of over one second . Five laps later , Hamlin claimed sixth from Harvick . During the 263rd lap , Bowyer passed McMurray for second . Four laps later , Newman passed Kyle Busch for tenth position . After 269 laps , Stewart lead was over Bowyer was 1 @.@ 6 seconds . Six laps later , Hamlin moved into fifth position after passing Earnhardt . During lap 290 , Hamlin passed McMurray for third . With two laps remaining , Stewart and Burton both ran out of fuel , handing the lead back to Bowyer . Bowyer maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2010 season . Hamlin finished second , ahead of McMurray in third , Earnhardt in fourth , and Harvick in fifth .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Bowyer appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first win of the season in front of 95 @,@ 000 people who attended the race . Bowyer also earned $ 248 @,@ 250 in race winnings . Stewart took his last @-@ minute loss of the race with good humor , saying , " We went down swinging . I think I ran me out of fuel . " In the subsequent post @-@ race press conference , Hamlin said , " First thing I asked is how many cars on the lead lap , because I wanted to see how bad our day was going to be . I set a goal ( of ) top 15 , and then it was top eight and then top six and , ' Holy cow , we can win this thing . ' We just made a heck of a charge at the end . " Bowyer was delighted with his victory : " [ Crew chief ] Shane [ Wilson ] built a brand new race car and we came here and we were fast right off the truck , and everybody had a lot of confidence , a pep in their step . And we showed it from the time we unloaded to qualifying , practice , we were one of the fastest cars here . That ’ s what it takes to run at this level , to be a part of that Chase , if we can go and continue to have as much fun as we did this weekend . I know it ’ s the key , I know it is to my success . "
Johnson was candid about his performance : " We had a decent car and ran in the top five and top 10 but just didn 't end up finishing there . " Harvick was somewhat more upbeat , saying , " We didn 't have a great day . We didn 't have a great weekend , honestly , and ( fifth ) says a lot about this team . If we keep doing that on our bad days , we will be in good shape . " The race result left Hamlin leading the Driver 's Championship with 5 @,@ 230 points . Bowyer , who finished first , moved to second on 5 @,@ 195 , ten points ahead of Harvick and twenty @-@ seven ahead of Kyle Busch . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 197 points . Toyota remained second with 165 points . Ford followed with 123 points , fourteen points ahead of Dodge in fourth . 3 @.@ 68 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , fifty @-@ eight minutes and twenty @-@ two seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 477 seconds .
Although Bowyer 's car passed initial inspection , NASCAR announced that they had " discovered issues with the car in a more thorough inspection at its research and development center " . Three days after the race , two teams were given penalties : Richard Childress Racing for Bowyer 's car , and Whitney Motorsports for McDowell 's car . Richard Childress Racing 's penalty , for unauthorized alterations to the rear bodywork of Bowyer 's car , included a $ 150 @,@ 000 fine and a six race suspension for Wilson , and the loss of 150 owner and driver points for Richard Childress and Bowyer respectively . RCR 's car chief , Chad Haney , was placed on probation until December 31 , 2010 , and suspended from NASCAR until November 3 , 2010 . Whitney Motorsports ' penalty was for engine exhaust valves that did not meet NASCAR 's weight requirements . The penalties for that included a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine and six race suspension for Jeremy Lafaver , while both McDowell and owner Dusty Whitney lost 50 driver and owner points respectively .
Childress and Bowyer were both upset with the penalties and almost immediately announced plans to appeal . Bowyer argued the penalties to be too severe , saying , " I don 't think the penalty fits the crime . Sixty @-@ thousandths of an inch , folks . Grab a quarter out of your pocket . Less than the thickness of that quarter right there is worth a 150 @-@ point fine ? " He also argued that his car could have been damaged slightly after the race as his car was pushed by a wrecker after it ran out of gas on its way to victory lane . " Is it possible that a two @-@ ton wrecker could bend the quarter @-@ panel 60 @-@ thousandths of an inch ? You have to ask yourself that . " The team lost the initial appeal , forcing them to make a final appeal to NASCAR National Commissioner John Middlebrook . As a result of the final appeal , Wilson 's fine was reduced to $ 100 @,@ 000 while he and Haney 's suspensions were reduced from six to four races ( they were allowed to work with the team during the appeal process ) ; however , the points penalty administered to Bowyer and his team was upheld .
Asked if he thought Bowyer could still win the championship after this setback , Stewart argued , " It 's possible for sure . The biggest thing is going to be going to the race track and having that stress of not having his crew chief , not having his car chief and those are two key people on a race weekend ... I can promise you that Childress has the resources to cover this ... it 's definitely possible , but everyone else is going to have to have trouble . " Bowyer did not lose the victory title for the race itself ; NASCAR vice president of competition , Robin Pemberton , commented , " We don 't consider taking away the win . If you ask some , they would consider a 150 @-@ point penalty with only nine races to go in the Chase a pretty hefty penalty . "
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Trapper Nelson =
Vince " Trapper " Nelson ( born Vincent Nostokovich or Natulkiewicz around 1909 ) was an American trapper , hunter , and zoo founder . Though he was born in New Jersey , and lived in Mexico and Texas , he is best known for establishing a homestead @-@ turned @-@ zoo on the shore of the Loxahatchee River in Florida . Filled with exotic and wild animals , his zoo was a popular tourist spot in the 1940s and 1950s , visited by local and national celebrities . Because of this , he became known locally as " Tarzan of the Loxahatchee " .
The zoo was eventually shut down by State health inspectors in 1960 . After his zoo was closed , Nelson became a hermit and suffered from undiagnosed health problems . In 1968 , he was found dead from a gunshot wound in his cabin by a friend . His death was ruled a suicide . Nelson 's campsite is now known as the Trapper Nelson Zoo Historic District in Jonathan Dickinson State Park , Hobe Sound , Florida .
= = Early life = =
Trapper Nelson was born Vincent Nostokovich ( or Natulkiewicz ) to Polish immigrant parents in Trenton , New Jersey , in 1908 or 1909 . As a boy , to earn money he began trapping animals such as muskrats in the marshes of New Jersey . His parents did not speak English , so Nelson would often assist them in translating to make sure they were not taken advantage of . However , when his mother died and his father remarried , Nelson ran away from home , heading west .
Hopping freight trains , Nelson first ended up in Colorado , then eventually in Mexico . While there , he was arrested by the Federales under suspicion of gunrunning . He spent time in a Mexican jail and was later released . Nelson later claimed his release was because he " wrecked their food budget . "
After his release Nelson headed back east with 10 cents to his name . He made money for food by gambling with other road bums until he made it to southern Florida , where he , his step brother Charles Nelson and friend John Dykas set up camp .
= = Settlement on the Loxahatchee = =
Nelson and his partners settled on the beach by the Jupiter Inlet in Palm Beach County , Florida , in the late 1920s . Bessie DuBois , wife of John DuBois , recalled seeing him for the first time in 1927 or 1928 . The DuBoises owned a restaurant that Nelson would frequent , and Bessie made note of his eccentric eating habits : " He would order a pie — not a piece of pie , mind you , but a pie — and he 'd eat the whole thing right in front of me . " He ate ice cream by the half @-@ gallon , and there were stories that he once ate 18 eggs for breakfast .
Things did not stay peaceful for long . On December 17 , 1931 , Charles Nelson shot partner John Dykas in the back , killing him . Trapper Nelson , angered by his step @-@ brother 's actions , testified against him at the trial for Dykas ' murder . Charles was given a 20 @-@ year sentence at Raiford Prison . Disillusioned with civilization , Nelson withdrew from the beach , settling deep in the woods on the Loxahatchee River that same December . Using what little money he had and money borrowed from his sister , he bought 800 acres .
Physically imposing at 6 ' 4 " and 240 pounds , he lived by trapping , hunting , and fishing in what was then wild country . He made money by selling the furs of the animals he trapped , and ate the meat , starting rumors that he ate everything from opossums to stray house cats . He acquired extensive land holdings , bidding on tax auctions during the Great Depression . He would on occasion bid against Judge C. E. Chillingworth , the judge who had handed down his step @-@ brother 's sentence , and the two eventually became friends . When Chillingworth was murdered in the 1950s , Charles Nelson was briefly considered a suspect .
Trapping could only bring Nelson income seasonally , and as south Florida became a popular tourist destination , he came up with a new way to earn money . He eventually developed a zoo on his property in the 1930s , calling it " Trapper Nelson 's Zoo and Jungle Gardens " . His camp and zoo became popular tourist attractions . Tours along the river from West Palm Beach would stop there for lunch and stretch breaks , and Nelson shared the profits with the boat captains . Locally prominent people and celebrities alike visited , including boxing champion Gene Tunney and actor Gary Cooper , to see his animals , watch Nelson wrestle alligators , and buy souvenirs .
With his new fame came notoriety . He was known locally as the " Tarzan of the Loxahatchee " , and cared for the locals ' exotic pets . He would trap troublesome wild animals , and provided others for parties and events . Rumors were started about his handsomeness , his eating habits ( Bessie DuBois denied he ate raw possum ) , and his romantic exploits . It was told that he courted heiresses and countesses from wealthy Palm Beach , and that one conquest was a direct descendant of President James Monroe .
Nelson finally married in 1940 in an attempt to avoid the draft for World War II . His plan failed and he was drafted anyway . He joined the Military Police in Texas , but while training , he tore a muscle in his leg and was transferred to Camp Murphy , which was very close to his land .
= = Decline = =
Upon his return to the Loxahatchee , Nelson discovered that his wife had a new lover . He divorced his wife , and after that Nelson bought cars for the women he wooed , paying for them in installments to ensure they would stay for at least a while .
Focusing again on his zoo , he found that property values were skyrocketing . Nelson got a subscription to the Wall Street Journal and added more and more land to his sprawling camp . Shortly after he began his forays into real estate , a health inspector declared his zoo unhygienic and demanded he install lavatories . Nelson did , but the Health Department found them " unsatisfactory " , and in 1960 he was forced to close his zoo . With no income , the taxes on the land became too much for him , and he ended up borrowing $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 800 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) to pay them .
Nelson already had a deep @-@ seated mistrust of the government , and the closing of his zoo was , to him , enough to confirm his paranoia . He became more and more closed off . He began to dam the river leading to his camp to keep boats away , and installed fences and padlocks to discourage land travelers . He put up signs around his land reading " Danger : Land Mines " . As added discouragement , he kept a 12 @-@ gauge shotgun with him at all times .
He began to develop severe stomach pains , refused to see a doctor . He distrusted them because his brother @-@ in @-@ law had died after having a pacemaker installed . It was speculated among friends that the pains were from cancer , but they could have been an acid condition .
By the 1960s Nelson had become so reclusive that he would not let even trusted friends visit him without first sending a postcard to ask his permission . He ventured into town once a week to check his mail at the post office , and would sometimes buy steaks , but for the most part he remained holed @-@ up in his cabin . Years later , his nephew recalled his uncle 's change in personality : " During the last 10 years , his eyes seemed to lose their sparkle . He became a lonely man , and a rather sick one . "
= = Death = =
In July 1968 , Nelson failed to appear for a planned meeting with an old friend . John DuBois , at whose house the meeting was supposed to take place , became worried and drove to Nelson 's camp . When he surveyed the campsite , everything appeared to be in order , until he got to Nelson 's chickee .
Nelson was found dead in his cabin from a shotgun blast to his stomach on July 30 , 1968 . The Coroner 's Office ruled it a suicide , and the Martin County Sheriff 's Office deemed it a " pretty clear @-@ cut case " . However , many Florida locals had their doubts . " If it were [ sic ] a suicide , why did [ n 't ] he do a head shot instead of a chest shot ? " asked Bessie DuBois . The theory was that he stuck the shotgun in the ground , leaned over and pulled the trigger , even though it would have taken considerable effort and flexibility on Nelson 's part .
It was undeniable that Nelson had enemies . Floridian trappers envied his skill and viewed him as an outsider because he was from New Jersey . The State wanted to develop his land into condominiums and golf courses . Shortly before his death , a man who repaired one of Nelson 's jeeps found out he was sick and had not seen a doctor in six months . The man took him to a doctor who prescribed him painkillers . A neighbor , and the last man to see Nelson alive , speculated : " I guess it would be possible for someone to sneak up on him . Ordinarily it would be impossible ... but if he were doped up , well that would be different . "
Some friends considered suicide a possibility , however . His stomach pains may have taken a substantial part in a decision to end his life . An executor of Nelson 's will said he had told his sister that he would " rather die than be an invalid . "
= = Legacy = =
A few months after Nelson 's death , the state traded land for Nelson 's estate , which became part of Jonathan Dickinson State Park . The site is now known as the Trapper Nelson Zoo Historic District . After the land was converted to a park , but still unopen to the public , the camp was often vandalized . One of Nelson 's tool sheds was burned down ; the arsonist attempted to burn other buildings but was unsuccessful .
In April 1984 , park rangers discovered Nelson 's " treasure " : a hiding place in his chimney held 5 @,@ 005 coins , totaling $ 1 @,@ 829 @.@ 46 . The coins ranged in date from the 1890s to the 1960s . A thorough search of the camp was conducted before revealing the find to the public , but nothing more was found .
The camp still stands today , with his cabin , a guest cabin , a chickee shelter , docks , a boathouse , and assorted cages from his zoo . There are also fruit trees that he planted , including surinam cherry , Java plum and wild almond .
= Ontario Highway 70 =
King 's Highway 70 , commonly referred to as Highway 70 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , which provided a shorter route from Highway 6 and Highway 21 in Springmount to Highway 6 in Hepworth . The route , which now forms part of Highway 6 , was 15 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 4 mi ) long and travelled in a southeast – northwest direction west of Owen Sound . The route followed an early trail blazed by deputy surveyor Charles Rankin in 1842 that was upgraded to a modern road in the 1920s . Highway 70 was designated in 1965 and renumbered as Highway 6 in 1997 . Another Highway 70 existed near Kenora between 1937 and 1959 before being renumbered as Highway 71 . This designation was applied along the newly opened Heenan Highway , shortly after the Department of Highways ( DHO ) began numbering routes in northern Ontario . However , a series of renumberings in 1960 led to the entire length becoming part of Highway 71 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 70 was a short highway that travelled in a northeast – southwest direction between the communities of Springmount , near Owen Sound , and Hepworth . The 15 @.@ 1 km ( 9 @.@ 4 mi ) route , now part of Highway 6 , passes through an equal mixture of farmland and forests , aside from the community of Shallow Lake , located at approximately the midpoint of the route . At its southern terminus is the only wrong @-@ way concurrency in Ontario , between Highway 6 and Highway 21 . The road continues south of the intersection between these highways as Grey County Road 18 , which serves as a bypass of Owen Sound . At its northern terminus , the route curves to the west and enters Hepworth ; Highway 70 ended at the intersection of Queen Street and Bruce Street . From there , Highway 6 continued north through the Bruce Peninsula .
= = History = =
Rainy River – Kenora
The Highway 70 designation was first used along the Heenan Highway , connecting the Rainy River region to Kenora to provide the first Canadian road link to an area previously accessible only from the United States . In 1922 , Kenora MPP Peter Heenan and Dr. McTaggart approached the government to lobby for construction of a road between Nestor Falls and Kenora . Nestor Falls was the northernmost point accessible by road from the Rainy River area . Heenan would become the Minister of Lands and Forests in Mitch Hepburn 's cabinet . This provided the impetus for construction to begin in 1934 . Unlike previously built roads in the area , the Fort Frances – Kenora Highway , as it was known prior to its opening , was constructed through the rugged terrain of the Canadian Shield . Rocks , forests , lakes , muskeg , and insects served as major obstacles during construction of the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) highway , which progressed from both ends . By late 1935 , the only remaining gap in the road was the Sioux Narrows Bridge . Construction on this bridge was underway by March 1936 ; it was rapidly assembled using Douglas fir from British Columbia as the main structural members . The bridge was completed on June 15 , 1936 , completing the link between Fort Frances and Kenora .
On July 1 , 1936 , premier Mitch Hepburn attended a ceremony in front of the Rainy Lake Hotel in Fort Frances . On a rainy afternoon , at 5 : 30 p.m. , Peter Heenan handed Hepburn a pair of scissors with which to cut the ribbon crossing the road and declare the highway open . Hepburn , addressing the crowd that was gathered , asked " What would you say if we call it the Heenan Highway , what would you think of that ? " . The crowd cheered and Hepburn cut the ribbon .
The Heenan Highway was assumed by the DHO shortly after its merger with the Department of Northern Development . Following the merger , the DHO begin assigning trunk roads throughout northern Ontario as part of the provincial highway network . The portion lying within Kenora District was designated as Highway 70 on September 1 , while the portion within Rainy River District was designated on September 29 .
The original route of Highway 70 split in two south of Finland ; Highway 70 turned east to Off Lake Corner , then south to Emo , while Highway 70A turned west to Black Hawk then south to Barwick . The northern end of the highway was also concurrent with Highway 17 for 21 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 5 mi ) into Kenora , and the southern end concurrent with Highway 71 for 37 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) between Emo and Fort Frances . During 1952 , the highway was extended south from its split to Highway 71 , midway between Barwick and Emo . By 1953 , the new road was opened and informally designated as the new route of Highway 70 . The old routes were decommissioned on February 8 , and the new route designated on March 10 , 1954 .
Throughout the mid to late 1950s , a new highway was constructed west from Thunder Bay towards Fort Frances . Initially this road was designated as Highway 120 . In 1959 , it was instead decided to make this new link a westward extension of Highway 11 ; a major renumbering took place on April 1 , 1960 : Highway 11 was established between Rainy River and Fort Frances , Highway 71 was truncated west of the Highway 70 junction , and the entirety of Highway 70 was renumbered as Highway 71 .
Bruce Peninsula
On April 22 , 1965 , the DHO recycled the Highway 70 designation , providing a shorter route for traffic between the Bruce Peninsula and Owen Sound . The new highway followed an existing Grey County road through Shallow Lake - the Southwest Diagonal . It was surveyed in 1854 by Ontario 's deputy surveyor , Charles Rankin , to provide a short route between the undeveloped Sydenham ( now Owen Sound ) and Hepworth townsites . This route passed through a large swamp and as a result remained an unimproved one lane trail up until the 1920s . By the time the road was designated as a provincial highway , it was a paved two lane route . On April 1 , 1997 , Highway 6 was decommissioned south of Hepworth to Highway 21 . The entire length of Highway 70 was subsequently renumbered Highway 6 to rectify the discontinuity .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 70 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . This table covers the routing of Highway 70 between 1965 and 1997 ; for the iteration near Kenora see Highway 71
= Myrmecia nigrocincta =
Myrmecia nigrocincta , commonly known as the jumper ant or jumping jack , is an ant of the genus Myrmecia . The species was first described by Frederick Smith in 1858 . Colonies of this ant are abundant in eastern Australia . Ants of this species are known for their ability to jump several inches , and they also have a powerful , venomous sting . Rather than foraging on the ground , M. nigrocincta prefer to forage in trees where they are known to pollinate certain flowers .
This ant is a large species , some workers can grow to over 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in length . They have a distinctive pattern of orange @-@ red and black which distinguishes them from other Myrmecia species . M. nigrocincta possess the gamergates gene which allows workers to reproduce , either in the presence of a queen or in a colony where the queen is missing . Life expectancy of a worker ant is over one year . They are known to enslave ants of other species as workers for their colony , and they are aggressive when attacking intruders .
= = Distribution = =
Abundant in eastern Australia , M. nigrocincta ants prefer temperate bushlands , and are usually located in dry to semi @-@ dry forests and sclerophyll woodlands . The species is found in the eastern states of Australia , mostly on the coastal plains where much suitable dry forest habitat can be found . They prefer tropical climates and warm temperatures . They can also be found in other types of habitat at elevations ranging from 80 - 1 @,@ 220 metres ( 262 ft - 4 @,@ 000 ft ) .
M. nigrocincta colonies have been recorded from Cairns , Atherton , Mackay , Mt . Tamborine , Brisbane , Blackall Range and Fletcher in Queensland . In New South Wales , this ant occurs in Lismore , Dorrigo , Armidale and Sydney ( notably in the suburbs of Heathcote and Como ) , while in Victoria it is found in Trafalgar and Millgrove . Several colonies have also been recorded in South Australia .
= = Taxonomy = =
M. nigrocincta was first identified by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 , after syntype workers were collected and described in his work Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum part VI . In a study on phylogenetic relationships among species group of the genus Myrmecia , four species with an occipital carina including M. nigrocincta were found to form a paraphyletic and basal assemblage , while other Myrmecia species lacking an occiptal carina were shown to have a supported monophyletic assemblage . The type specimen is located in the British Museum .
= = Description = =
Ants of genus Myrmecia are generally referred to as " bulldog ants " and M. nigrocincta , like other species in the genus , has elongated mandibles . M. nigrocincta ants are primarily black and orange @-@ red in colour . They have mandibles which are either black or yellow depending on where the ants are found . The gaster , head , legs and mesonotum are black while the pronotum , propodeum , petiole and post @-@ petiole are red . The ant has linear ridges along the front of its head . It also has apical spurs on the tibia of both its middle leg and hind leg . The legs are thin and become more slender away from the body . M. nigrocincta can be distinguished from other species in the Myrmecia genus by the bi @-@ coloured thorax and post @-@ petiole which are yellowish @-@ red and black and the yellowish @-@ red node .
The workers are 13 to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) long , the males 16 to 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) while the female ( queen ) is 17 to 19 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 to 0 @.@ 75 in ) . The development of the queen 's wings is rudimentary and the stubby , reduced wings render the queen flightless .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
M. nigrocincta is an accomplished jumper with leaps ranging from 3 to 4 inches ( 76 to 102 mm ) . It has good vision and can be observed running amongst plants and leaves , occasionally jumping from one branch to another . It is mostly found foraging on plants , trees , and other vegetation , but it sometimes forages on the ground . It propels its jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs .
M. nigrocincta ants are diurnal and do not hibernate . They are omnivores , and feed on other insects including caterpillars and spiders , as well as honey water . M. nigrocincta has been observed to prey on the larvae of imperial hairstreak butterflies , even jumping while carrying them . Predators of the M. nigrocincta ( and the Myrmecia genus as a whole ) includes spiders , birds , lizards , mammals and other predatory invertebrates , including assassin bugs and Redbacks . The ants have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis and are considered as a possible pollination vector for E. regnans trees . Although Senna acclinis is self @-@ compatible , the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict capacity to effect pollination .
These ants live in nests in sandy soil which sometimes have a mound , which resembles a molehill . M. nigrocincta ants labor to conceal their nests using twigs and leaves . Depending on the type of habitat in which the colony is located , they decorate the nest with plant material and gravel . Other materials that are used to camouflage M. nigrocincta colonies include dry leaves , rocks , vegetation , and twigs . Nests are beside a clump of grass or bush or at the base of a tree .
The colonies of M. nigrocincta ants are monogyne , i.e. they have only one queen per colony . The queen is semi @-@ claustral , meaning that during the founding of the new colony , the queen has to forage so that she has enough food to raise her brood . Colonies have between 400 and 1200 individuals and are thus considered to be " large " colonies . M. nigrocinta is known to enslave Leptomyrmex and other species of ants .
The worker and scout M. nigrocincta ants use pheromones for communication . They are quick to defend their nests and may react aggressively even to a shadow crossing their nest . Wheeler ( 1922 ) describes the reaction of M. nigrocincta to the disturbance of their nest as " they bound out of their small mound nest in a series of short hops like Lilliputian cavalry galloping to battle . " The ants aggressively defend their colony , causing multiple bites and wilingly sacrificing themselves to protect the queen and the colony .
= = Life cycle = =
M. nigrocincta is a gamergate species , which allows female workers to be fertile , and these are then able to reproduce in both queenless and queenright ( colonies with a queen ) colonies . This means a colony which loses its queen can still thrive in the absence of the queen . In laboratory colonies of M. nigrocincta where there was no queen present , worker @-@ laid eggs were reared to mature males , showing that workers are highly fertile . The average life expectancy of an adult worker M. nigrocincta ant is 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 2 years , with a maximum expectancy of 1 @.@ 3 years ( 400 or more days ) . Larvae collected from M. nigrocincta are 4.7mm in length but increase to 9.7mm when matured .
= = Venom = =
M. nigrocincta ants have highly venomous stings which are painful and produce intense burning sensations . The sensations last for many days and the sting itches . If left untreated , the sting may develop into an ulcer . The venom of a closely related species , M. pilosula is amongst the strongest of the Formicidae and contains active ingredients such as acid and alkaline phosphatases , hyaluronidase , as well as phospholipases A2 and B. In a 2011 Australian ant allergy venom study , the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis , it was shown that 265 of the 376 participants taking part of the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species . Of these , 176 reacted to the M. pilosula , 15 to M. nigrocincta , three to M. ludlowi , and 56 to other Myrmecia ants . The study concluded that four main groups of Australian ants were responsible for causing anaphylaxis . Besides Myrmecia species , these included the green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) .
= Action of 31 July 1793 =
The Action of 31 July 1793 was an inconclusive engagement between a British Royal Navy frigate and French frigate off the New Jersey coastline in the first year of the French Revolutionary Wars . The British captain , George Courtenay of HMS Boston , had arrived off New York City on 28 May and deliberately disguised his ship as a French vessel , fooling a French officer into coming aboard and making him a prisoner of war . Courtenay then sent a message into New York , where he knew a French frigate lay at anchor , challenging the French captain to battle within the next three days . The challenge was accepted and widely disseminated throughout the city , so that when Captain Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ François Bompart of Embuscade sailed out to meet Courtenay on the morning of 31 July , the shore was crowded with thousands of sightseers .
The engagement between the ships was fiercely contested , but the smaller and more lightly armed Boston seemed to be taking the more serious damage when at 6 : 20 Captain Courtenay was thrown to the deck . What happened next has been subject to debate , with the second @-@ in @-@ command , Lieutenant John Edwards claiming that Courtenay had been killed and he was thrown overboard as was the custom at the time . However rumours subsequently circulated that Courtenay had only been knocked unconscious when Edwards gave the order to jettison him , a story that his family credited and was later taken up by the contemporary historian Edward Pelham Brenton , although historian William James subsequently defended Edwards ' actions . With Courtenay gone , Boston continued to suffer severe damage until just after 07 : 00 , when the remaining officers ordered all surviving sails set and the British ship attempted to escape . Although Bompart pursued , by 08 : 00 the strain had proved too much for his ship and he fell back . After a close encounter with French ships in the Delaware River , Boston eventually escaped to St John 's , Newfoundland while Embuscade refitted in New York .
= = Background = =
In February 1793 the newly formed French Republic declared war on Great Britain , extending the French Revolutionary Wars that had begun the year before on the continent . The French Navy was in a state of upheaval due to the social consequences of the French Revolution , and as a result found itself at a disadvantage to the Royal Navy , which had been preparing for war since June 1792 . In response , the French sent several frigate squadrons to sea , including their newest ships and best sailors and officers in an attempt to disrupt British commerce in the early stages of the war . One such squadron was sent in April 1793 to the United States , carrying the French ambassador to the United States , Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt . After the ambassador disembarked , the
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@-@ ray structure showing a complex between a diaminocarbene and potassium HMDS . This complex was formed when excess KHMDS was used as a strong base to deprotonate the formamidinium salt . Removing lithium ions resulting from deprotonation with reagents such as LDA can be especially problematic . Potassium and sodium salt by @-@ products tend to precipitate from solution and can be removed . Lithium ions may be chemically removed by binding to species such as cryptands or crown ethers .
Metal free carbenes have been prepared in several ways as outlined below :
= = = = Dechalcogenation = = = =
Another approach of preparing carbenes has relied on the desulfurisation of thioureas with potassium in THF . A contributing factor to the success of this reaction is that the byproduct , potassium sulfide , is insoluble in the solvent . The elevated temperatures suggest that this method is not suitable for the preparation of unstable dimerising carbenes . A single example of the deoxygenation of a urea with a fluorene derived carbene to give the tetramethyldiaminocarbene and fluorenone has also been reported :
The desulfurisation of thioureas with molten potassium to give imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes or diaminocarbenes has not been widely used . The method was used to prepare dihydroimidazole carbenes .
= = = = Vacuum pyrolysis = = = =
Vacuum pyrolysis , with the removal of neutral volatile by @-@ products ( CH3OH , CHCl3 ) , has been used to prepare dihydroimidazole and triazole based carbenes :
Historically the removal of chloroform by vacuum pyrolysis of d adducts was used by Wanzlick in his early attempts to prepare dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes but this method is not widely used . The Enders laboratory has used vacuum pyrolysis of a c adduct to generate a triazolium @-@ 5 @-@ ylidene c .
= = = = Bis ( trimethylsilyl ) mercury = = = =
Bis ( trimethylsilyl ) mercury ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Hg @-@ Si ( CH3 ) 3 reacts with chloro @-@ iminium and chloro @-@ amidinium salts to give a metal @-@ free carbene and elemental mercury . For example , ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Hg @-@ Si ( CH3 ) 3 + R2N = C ( Cl ) -NR2 + Cl − → R2N @-@ C : -NR2 + Hg ( l ) + ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Cl
= = = = Photochemical decomposition = = = =
Persistent triplet state carbenes have been prepared by photochemical decomposition of a diazomethane product via the expulsion of nitrogen gas , at a wavelength of 300 nm in benzene .
= = = Purification = = =
Stable carbenes are very reactive , and so the minimum amount of handling is desirable using air @-@ free techniques . However , provided rigorously dry , relatively non @-@ acidic and air @-@ free materials are used , stable carbenes are reasonably robust to handling per se . By way of example , a stable carbene prepared from potassium hydride can be filtered through a dry celite pad to remove excess KH ( and resulting salts ) from the reaction . On a relatively small scale , a suspension containing a stable carbene in solution can be allowed to settle and the supernatant solution pushed through a dried membrane syringe filter . Stable carbenes are readily soluble in non @-@ polar solvents such as hexane , and so typically recrystallisation of stable carbenes can be difficult , due to the unavailability of suitable non @-@ acidic polar solvents . Air @-@ free sublimation as shown right can be an effective method of purification , although temperatures below 60 ° C under high vacuum are preferable as these carbenes are relatively volatile and also could begin to decompose at these higher temperatures . Indeed , sublimation in some cases can give single crystals suitable for X @-@ ray analysis . However , strong complexation to metal ions like lithium will in most cases prevent sublimation .
= Traumatic brain injury =
Traumatic brain injury ( TBI ) , also known as intracranial injury , occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain . TBI can be classified based on severity , mechanism ( closed or penetrating head injury ) , or other features ( e.g. , occurring in a specific location or over a widespread area ) . Head injury usually refers to TBI , but is a broader category because it can involve damage to structures other than the brain , such as the scalp and skull .
TBI is a major cause of death and disability worldwide , especially in children and young adults . Males sustain traumatic brain injuries more frequently than do females . Causes include falls , vehicle accidents , and violence . Prevention measures include use of technology to protect those suffering from automobile accidents , such as seat belts and sports or motorcycle helmets , as well as efforts to reduce the number of automobile accidents , such as safety education programs and enforcement of traffic laws .
Brain trauma can occur as a consequence of a focal impact upon the head , by a sudden acceleration / deceleration within the cranium or by a complex combination of both movement and sudden impact . In addition to the damage caused at the moment of injury , brain trauma causes secondary injury , a variety of events that take place in the minutes and days following the injury . These processes , which include alterations in cerebral blood flow and the pressure within the skull , contribute substantially to the damage from the initial injury .
TBI can cause a host of physical , cognitive , social , emotional , and behavioral effects , and outcome can range from complete recovery to permanent disability or death . The 20th century saw critical developments in diagnosis and treatment that decreased death rates and improved outcome . Some of the current imaging techniques used for diagnosis and treatment include computed tomography and MRIs ( magnetic resonance imaging ) . Depending on the injury , treatment required may be minimal or may include interventions such as medications , emergency surgery or surgery years later . Physical therapy , speech therapy , recreation therapy , occupational therapy and vision therapy may be employed for rehabilitation . Counseling , supported employment , and community support services may also be useful .
= = Classification = =
Traumatic brain injury is defined as damage to the brain resulting from external mechanical force , such as rapid acceleration or deceleration , impact , blast waves , or penetration by a projectile . Brain function is temporarily or permanently impaired and structural damage may or may not be detectable with current technology .
TBI is one of two subsets of acquired brain injury ( brain damage that occur after birth ) ; the other subset is non @-@ traumatic brain injury , which does not involve external mechanical force ( examples include stroke and infection ) . All traumatic brain injuries are head injuries , but the latter term may also refer to injury to other parts of the head . However , the terms head injury and brain injury are often used interchangeably . Similarly , brain injuries fall under the classification of central nervous system injuries and neurotrauma . In neuropsychology research literature , in general the term " traumatic brain injury " is used to refer to non @-@ penetrating traumatic brain injuries .
TBI is usually classified based on severity , anatomical features of the injury , and the mechanism ( the causative forces ) . Mechanism @-@ related classification divides TBI into closed and penetrating head injury . A closed ( also called nonpenetrating , or blunt ) injury occurs when the brain is not exposed . A penetrating , or open , head injury occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the dura mater , the outermost membrane surrounding the brain .
= = = Severity = = =
Brain injuries can be classified into mild , moderate , and severe categories . The Glasgow Coma Scale ( GCS ) , the most commonly used system for classifying TBI severity , grades a person 's level of consciousness on a scale of 3 – 15 based on verbal , motor , and eye @-@ opening reactions to stimuli . In general , it is agreed that a TBI with a GCS of 13 or above is mild , 9 – 12 is moderate , and 8 or below is severe . Similar systems exist for young children . However , the GCS grading system has limited ability to predict outcomes . Because of this , other classification systems such as the one shown in the table are also used to help determine severity . A current model developed by the Department of Defense and Department of Veterans Affairs uses all three criteria of GCS after resuscitation , duration of post @-@ traumatic amnesia ( PTA ) , and loss of consciousness ( LOC ) . It also has been proposed to use changes that are visible on neuroimaging , such as swelling , focal lesions , or diffuse injury as method of classification . Grading scales also exist to classify the severity of mild TBI , commonly called concussion ; these use duration of LOC , PTA , and other concussion symptoms .
= = = Pathological features = = =
Systems also exist to classify TBI by its pathological features . Lesions can be extra @-@ axial , ( occurring within the skull but outside of the brain ) or intra @-@ axial ( occurring within the brain tissue ) . Damage from TBI can be focal or diffuse , confined to specific areas or distributed in a more general manner , respectively . However , it is common for both types of injury to exist in a given case .
Diffuse injury manifests with little apparent damage in neuroimaging studies , but lesions can be seen with microscopy techniques post @-@ mortem , and in the early 2000s , researchers discovered that diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) , a way of processing MRI images that shows white matter tracts , was an effective tool for displaying the extent of diffuse axonal injury . Types of injuries considered diffuse include edema ( swelling ) and diffuse axonal injury , which is widespread damage to axons including white matter tracts and projections to the cortex . Types of injuries considered diffuse include concussion and diffuse axonal injury , widespread damage to axons in areas including white matter and the cerebral hemispheres .
Focal injuries often produce symptoms related to the functions of the damaged area . Research shows that the most common areas to have focal lesions in non @-@ penetrating traumatic brain injury are the orbitofrontal cortex ( the lower surface of the frontal lobes ) and the anterior temporal lobes , areas that are involved in social behavior , emotion regulation , olfaction , and decision @-@ making , hence the common social / emotional and judgment deficits following moderate @-@ severe TBI . Symptoms such as hemiparesis or aphasia can also occur when less commonly affected areas such as motor or language areas are , respectively , damaged .
One type of focal injury , cerebral laceration , occurs when the tissue is cut or torn . Such tearing is common in orbitofrontal cortex in particular , because of bony protrusions on the interior skull ridge above the eyes . In a similar injury , cerebral contusion ( bruising of brain tissue ) , blood is mixed among tissue . In contrast , intracranial hemorrhage involves bleeding that is not mixed with tissue .
Hematomas , also focal lesions , are collections of blood in or around the brain that can result from hemorrhage . Intracerebral hemorrhage , with bleeding in the brain tissue itself , is an intra @-@ axial lesion . Extra @-@ axial lesions include epidural hematoma , subdural hematoma , subarachnoid hemorrhage , and intraventricular hemorrhage . Epidural hematoma involves bleeding into the area between the skull and the dura mater , the outermost of the three membranes surrounding the brain . In subdural hematoma , bleeding occurs between the dura and the arachnoid mater . Subarachnoid hemorrhage involves bleeding into the space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater . Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs when there is bleeding in the ventricles .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms are dependent on the type of TBI ( diffuse or focal ) and the part of the brain that is affected . Unconsciousness tends to last longer for people with injuries on the left side of the brain than for those with injuries on the right . Symptoms are also dependent on the injury 's severity . With mild TBI , the patient may remain conscious or may lose consciousness for a few seconds or minutes . Other symptoms of mild TBI include headache , vomiting , nausea , lack of motor coordination , dizziness , difficulty balancing , lightheadedness , blurred vision or tired eyes , ringing in the ears , bad taste in the mouth , fatigue or lethargy , and changes in sleep patterns . Cognitive and emotional symptoms include behavioral or mood changes , confusion , and trouble with memory , concentration , attention , or thinking . Mild TBI symptoms may also be present in moderate and severe injuries .
A person with a moderate or severe TBI may have a headache that does not go away , repeated vomiting or nausea , convulsions , an inability to awaken , dilation of one or both pupils , slurred speech , aphasia ( word @-@ finding difficulties ) , dysarthria ( muscle weakness that causes disordered speech ) , weakness or numbness in the limbs , loss of coordination , confusion , restlessness , or agitation . Common long @-@ term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are changes in appropriate social behavior , deficits in social judgment , and cognitive changes , especially problems with sustained attention , processing speed , and executive functioning . Alexithymia , a deficiency in identifying , understanding , processing , and describing emotions occurs in 60 @.@ 9 % of individuals with TBI . Cognitive and social deficits have long @-@ term consequences for the daily lives of people with moderate to severe TBI , but can be improved with appropriate rehabilitation .
When the pressure within the skull ( intracranial pressure , abbreviated ICP ) rises too high , it can be deadly . Signs of increased ICP include decreasing level of consciousness , paralysis or weakness on one side of the body , and a blown pupil , one that fails to constrict in response to light or is slow to do so . Cushing 's triad , a slow heart rate with high blood pressure and respiratory depression is a classic manifestation of significantly raised ICP . Anisocoria , unequal pupil size , is another sign of serious TBI . Abnormal posturing , a characteristic positioning of the limbs caused by severe diffuse injury or high ICP , is an ominous sign .
Small children with moderate to severe TBI may have some of these symptoms but have difficulty communicating them . Other signs seen in young children include persistent crying , inability to be consoled , listlessness , refusal to nurse or eat , and irritability .
= = Causes = =
The most common causes of TBI in the U.S. include violence , transportation accidents , construction , and sports . Motor bikes are major causes , increasing in significance in developing countries as other causes reduce . The estimates that between 1 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 8 million traumatic brain injuries each year are a result of sports and recreation activities in the US . In children aged two to four , falls are the most common cause of TBI , while in older children traffic accidents compete with falls for this position . TBI is the third most common injury to result from child abuse . Abuse causes 19 % of cases of pediatric brain trauma , and the death rate is higher among these cases . Although men are twice as likely to have a TBI . Domestic violence is another cause of TBI , as are work @-@ related and industrial accidents . Firearms and blast injuries from explosions are other causes of TBI , which is the leading cause of death and disability in war zones . According to Representative Bill Pascrell ( Democrat , NJ ) , TBI is " the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . " There is a promising technology called activation database @-@ guided EEG biofeedback , which has been documented to return a TBI 's auditory memory ability to above the control group 's performance
= = Mechanism = =
= = = Physical forces = = =
The type , direction , intensity , and duration of forces all contribute to the characteristics and severity TBI . Forces that may contribute to TBI include angular , rotational , shear , and translational forces .
Even in the absence of an impact , significant acceleration or deceleration of the head can cause TBI ; however in most cases a combination of impact and acceleration is probably to blame . Forces involving the head striking or being struck by something , termed contact or impact loading , are the cause of most focal injuries , and movement of the brain within the skull , termed noncontact or inertial loading , usually causes diffuse injuries . The violent shaking of an infant that causes shaken baby syndrome commonly manifests as diffuse injury . In impact loading , the force sends shock waves through the skull and brain , resulting in tissue damage . Shock waves caused by penetrating injuries can also destroy tissue along the path of a projectile , compounding the damage caused by the missile itself .
Damage may occur directly under the site of impact , or it may occur on the side opposite the impact ( coup and contrecoup injury , respectively ) . When a moving object impacts the stationary head , coup injuries are typical , while contrecoup injuries are usually produced when the moving head strikes a stationary object .
= = = Primary and secondary injury = = =
A large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event ; rather than improving after being hospitalized , some 40 % of TBI patients deteriorate . Primary brain injury ( the damage that occurs at the moment of trauma when tissues and blood vessels are stretched , compressed , and torn ) is not adequate to explain this deterioration ; rather , it is caused by secondary injury , a complex set of cellular processes and biochemical cascades that occur in the minutes to days following the trauma . These secondary processes can dramatically worsen the damage caused by primary injury and account for the greatest number of TBI deaths occurring in hospitals .
Secondary injury events include damage to the blood – brain barrier , release of factors that cause inflammation , free radical overload , excessive release of the neurotransmitter glutamate ( excitotoxicity ) , influx of calcium and sodium ions into neurons , and dysfunction of mitochondria . Injured axons in the brain 's white matter may separate from their cell bodies as a result of secondary injury , potentially killing those neurons . Other factors in secondary injury are changes in the blood flow to the brain ; ischemia ( insufficient blood flow ) ; cerebral hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen in the brain ) ; cerebral edema ( swelling of the brain ) ; and raised intracranial pressure ( the pressure within the skull ) . Intracranial pressure may rise due to swelling or a mass effect from a lesion , such as a hemorrhage . As a result , cerebral perfusion pressure ( the pressure of blood flow in the brain ) is reduced ; ischemia results . When the pressure within the skull rises too high , it can cause brain death or herniation , in which parts of the brain are squeezed by structures in the skull . A particularly weak part of the skull that is vulnerable to damage causing extradural haematoma is the pterion , deep in which lies the middle meningeal artery , which is easily damaged in fractures of the pterion . Since the pterion is so weak , this type of injury can easily occur and can be secondary due to trauma to other parts of the skull where the impact forces spreads to the pterion .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is suspected based on lesion circumstances and clinical evidence , most prominently a neurological examination , for example checking whether the pupils constrict normally in response to light and assigning a Glasgow Coma Score . Neuroimaging helps in determining the diagnosis and prognosis and in deciding what treatments to give .
The preferred radiologic test in the emergency setting is computed tomography ( CT ) : it is quick , accurate , and widely available . Follow @-@ up CT scans may be performed later to determine whether the injury has progressed .
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) can show more detail than CT , and can add information about expected outcome in the long term . It is more useful than CT for detecting injury characteristics such as diffuse axonal injury in the longer term . However , MRI is not used in the emergency setting for reasons including its relative inefficacy in detecting bleeds and fractures , its lengthy acquisition of images , the inaccessibility of the patient in the machine , and its incompatibility with metal items used in emergency care . A variant of MRI since 2012 is High definition fiber tracking ( HDFT ) .
Other techniques may be used to confirm a particular diagnosis . X @-@ rays are still used for head trauma , but evidence suggests they are not useful ; head injuries are either so mild that they do not need imaging or severe enough to merit the more accurate CT . Angiography may be used to detect blood vessel pathology when risk factors such as penetrating head trauma are involved . Functional imaging can measure cerebral blood flow or metabolism , inferring neuronal activity in specific regions and potentially helping to predict outcome . Electroencephalography and transcranial doppler may also be used . The most sensitive physical measure to date is the quantitative EEG , which has documented an 80 % to 100 % ability in discriminating between normal and traumatic brain @-@ injured subjects .
Neuropsychological assessment can be performed to evaluate the long @-@ term cognitive sequelae and to aid in the planning of the rehabilitation . Instruments range from short measures of general mental functioning to complete batteries formed of different domain @-@ specific tests .
= = Prevention = =
Since a major cause of TBI are vehicle accidents , their prevention or the amelioration of their consequences can both reduce the incidence and gravity of TBI . In accidents , damage can be reduced by use of seat belts , child safety seats and motorcycle helmets , and presence of roll bars and airbags . Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes . In addition , changes to public policy and safety laws can be made ; these include speed limits , seat belt and helmet laws , and road engineering practices .
Changes to common practices in sports have also been discussed . An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI . Due to the possibility that repeatedly " heading " a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury , the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has been proposed . Improved equipment design can enhance safety ; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk . Rules against dangerous types of contact , such as " spear tackling " in American football , when one player tackles another head first , may also reduce head injury rates .
Falls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways ; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs ; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children . Playgrounds with shock @-@ absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also prevent head injuries . Child abuse prevention is another tactic ; programs exist to prevent shaken baby syndrome by educating about the dangers of shaking children . Gun safety , including keeping guns unloaded and locked , is another preventative measure . Studies on the effect of laws that aim to control access to guns in the United States have been insufficient to determine their effectiveness preventing number of deaths or injuries .
Recent clinical and laboratory research by neurosurgeon Julian Bailes , M.D. , and his colleagues from West Virginia University , has resulted in papers showing that dietary supplementation with omega @-@ 3 DHA offers protection against the biochemical brain damage that occurs after a traumatic injury . Rats given DHA prior to induced brain injuries suffered smaller increases in two key markers for brain damage ( APP and caspase @-@ 3 ) , as compared with rats given no DHA . “ The potential for DHA to provide prophylactic benefit to the brain against traumatic injury appears promising and requires further investigation . The essential concept of daily dietary supplementation with DHA , so that those at significant risk may be preloaded to provide protection against the acute effects of TBI , has tremendous public health implications . ”
Furthermore , acetylcysteine has been confirmed , in a recent double @-@ blind placebo @-@ controlled trial conducted by the US military , to reduce the effects of blast induced mild traumatic brain and neurological injury in soldiers . Multiple animal studies have also demonstrated its efficacy in reducing the damage associated with moderate traumatic brain or spinal injury , and also ischemia @-@ induced brain injury . In particular , it has been demonstrated through multiple studies to significantly reduce neuronal losses and to improve cognitive and neurological outcomes associated with these traumatic events . Acetylcysteine has been safely used to treat paracetamol overdose for over forty years and is extensively used in emergency medicine .
= = Treatment = =
It is important to begin emergency treatment within the so @-@ called " golden hour " following the injury . People with moderate to severe injuries are likely to receive treatment in an intensive care unit followed by a neurosurgical ward . Treatment depends on the recovery stage of the patient . In the acute stage the primary aim of the medical personnel is to stabilize the patient and focus on preventing further injury because little can be done to reverse the initial damage caused by trauma . Rehabilitation is the main treatment for the subacute and chronic stages of recovery . International clinical guidelines have been proposed with the aim of guiding decisions in TBI treatment , as defined by an authoritative examination of current evidence .
= = = Acute stage = = =
Certain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others ; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center . Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen supply , maintaining adequate blood flow to the brain , and controlling raised intracranial pressure ( ICP ) , since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly brain herniation . Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of seizures . Some data supports the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to improve outcomes .
Neuroimaging is helpful but not flawless in detecting raised ICP . A more accurate way to measure ICP is to place a catheter into a ventricle of the brain , which has the added benefit of allowing cerebrospinal fluid to drain , releasing pressure in the skull . Treatment of raised ICP may be as simple as tilting the patient 's bed and straightening the head to promote blood flow through the veins of the neck . Sedatives , analgesics and paralytic agents are often used . Hypertonic saline can improve ICP by reducing the amount of cerebral water ( swelling ) , though it is used with caution to avoid electrolyte imbalances or heart failure . Mannitol , an osmotic diuretic , appears to be equally effective at reducing ICP . Some concerns ; however , have been raised regarding some of the studies performed . Diuretics , drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system , may be used to treat high intracranial pressures , but may cause hypovolemia ( insufficient blood volume ) . Hyperventilation ( larger and / or faster breaths ) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict ; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP , but it potentially causes ischemia and is , therefore , used only in the short term . Administration of corticosteroids is associated with an increased risk of death , and so it is recommended that they not be given routinely .
Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation may be used to ensure proper oxygen supply and provide a secure airway . Hypotension ( low blood pressure ) , which has a devastating outcome in TBI , can be prevented by giving intravenous fluids to maintain a normal blood pressure . Failing to maintain blood pressure can result in inadequate blood flow to the brain . Blood pressure may be kept at an artificially high level under controlled conditions by infusion of norepinephrine or similar drugs ; this helps maintain cerebral perfusion . Body temperature is carefully regulated because increased temperature raises the brain 's metabolic needs , potentially depriving it of nutrients . Seizures are common . While they can be treated with benzodiazepines , these drugs are used carefully because they can depress breathing and lower blood pressure . TBI patients are more susceptible to side effects and may react adversely or be inordinately sensitive to some pharmacological agents . During treatment monitoring continues for signs of deterioration such as a decreasing level of consciousness .
Traumatic brain injury may cause a range of serious coincidental complications that include cardiac arrhythmias and neurogenic pulmonary edema . These conditions must be adequately treated and stabilised as part of the core care for these patients .
Surgery can be performed on mass lesions or to eliminate objects that have penetrated the brain . Mass lesions such as contusions or hematomas causing a significant mass effect ( shift of intracranial structures ) are considered emergencies and are removed surgically . For intracranial hematomas , the collected blood may be removed using suction or forceps or it may be floated off with water . Surgeons look for hemorrhaging blood vessels and seek to control bleeding . In penetrating brain injury , damaged tissue is surgically debrided , and craniotomy may be needed . Craniotomy , in which part of the skull is removed , may be needed to remove pieces of fractured skull or objects embedded in the brain . Decompressive craniectomy ( DC ) is performed routinely in the very short period following TBI during operations to treat hematomas ; part of the skull is removed temporarily ( primary DC ) . DC performed hours or days after TBI in order to control high intracranial pressures ( secondary DC ) has not been shown to improve outcome in some trials and may be associated with severe side @-@ effects .
= = = Chronic stage = = =
Once medically stable , people may be transferred to a subacute rehabilitation unit of the medical center or to an independent rehabilitation hospital . Rehabilitation aims to improve independent function at home and in society and to help adapt to disabilities and has demonstrated its general effectiveness , when conducted by a team of health professionals who specialise in head trauma . As for any person with neurologic deficits , a multidisciplinary approach is key to optimising outcome . Physiatrists or neurologists are likely to be the key medical staff involved , but depending on the person , doctors of other medical specialties may also be helpful . Allied health professions such as physiotherapy , speech and language therapy , cognitive rehabilitation therapy , and occupational therapy will be essential to assess function and design the rehabilitation activities for each person . Treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression may involve mental health professionals such as therapists , psychologists , and psychiatrists , while neuropsychologists can help to evaluate and manage cognitive deficits .
After discharge from the inpatient rehabilitation treatment unit , care may be given on an outpatient basis . Community @-@ based rehabilitation will be required for a high proportion of people , including vocational rehabilitation ; this supportive employment matches job demands to the worker 's abilities . People with TBI who cannot live independently or with family may require care in supported living facilities such as group homes . Respite care , including day centers and leisure facilities for the disabled , offers time off for caregivers , and activities for people with TBI .
Pharmacological treatment can help to manage psychiatric or behavioral problems . Medication is also used to control post @-@ traumatic epilepsy ; however the preventive use of anti @-@ epileptics is not recommended . In those cases where the person is bedridden due to a reduction of consciousness , has to remain in a wheelchair because of mobility problems , or has any other problem heavily impacting self @-@ caring capacities , caregiving and nursing are critical . The most effective research documented intervention approach is the activation database guided EEG biofeedback approach , which has shown significant improvements in memory abilities of the TBI subject that are far superior than traditional approaches ( strategies , computers , medication intervention ) . Gains of 2 @.@ 61 standard deviations have been documented . The TBI 's auditory memory ability was superior to the control group after the treatment .
= = Prognosis = =
Prognosis worsens with the severity of injury . Most TBIs are mild and do not cause permanent or long @-@ term disability ; however , all severity levels of TBI have the potential to cause significant , long @-@ lasting disability . Permanent disability is thought to occur in 10 % of mild injuries , 66 % of moderate injuries , and 100 % of severe injuries . Most mild TBI is completely resolved within three weeks , and almost all people with mild TBI are able to live independently and return to the jobs they had before the injury , although a portion have mild cognitive and social impairments . Over 90 % of people with moderate TBI are able to live independently , although a portion require assistance in areas such as physical abilities , employment , and financial managing . Most people with severe closed head injury either die or recover enough to live independently ; middle ground is less common . Coma , as it is closely related to severity , is a strong predictor of poor outcome .
Prognosis differs depending on the severity and location of the lesion , and access to immediate , specialised acute management . Subarachnoid hemorrhage approximately doubles mortality . Subdural hematoma is associated with worse outcome and increased mortality , while people with epidural hematoma are expected to have a good outcome if they receive surgery quickly . Diffuse axonal injury may be associated with coma when severe , and poor outcome . Following the acute stage , prognosis is strongly influenced by the patient 's involvement in activity that promote recovery , which for most patients requires access to a specialised , intensive rehabilitation service . The Functional Independence Measure is a way to track progress and degree of independence throughout rehabilitation .
Medical complications are associated with a bad prognosis . Examples are hypotension ( low blood pressure ) , hypoxia ( low blood oxygen saturation ) , lower cerebral perfusion pressures and longer times spent with high intracranial pressures . Patient characteristics also influence prognosis . Factors thought to worsen it include abuse of substances such as illicit drugs and alcohol and age over sixty or under two years ( in children , younger age at time of injury may be associated with a slower recovery of some abilities ) . Other influences that may affect recovery include pre @-@ injury intellectual ability , coping strategies , personality traits , family environment , social support systems and financial circumstances .
Life satisfaction has been known to decrease for individuals with TBI immediately following the trauma , but evidence has shown that life roles , age , and depressive symptoms influence the trajectory of life satisfaction as time passes .
= = Complications = =
Improvement of neurological function usually occurs for two or more years after the trauma . For many years it was believed that recovery was fastest during the first six months , but there is no evidence to support this . It may be related to services commonly being withdrawn after this period , rather than any physiological limitation to further progress . Children recover better in the immediate time frame and improve for longer periods .
Complications are distinct medical problems that may arise as a result of the TBI . The results of traumatic brain injury vary widely in type and duration ; they include physical , cognitive , emotional , and behavioral complications . TBI can cause prolonged or permanent effects on consciousness , such as coma , brain death , persistent vegetative state ( in which patients are unable to achieve a state of alertness to interact with their surroundings ) , and minimally conscious state ( in which patients show minimal signs of being aware of self or environment ) . Lying still for long periods can cause complications including pressure sores , pneumonia or other infections , progressive multiple organ failure , and deep venous thrombosis , which can cause pulmonary embolism . Infections that can follow skull fractures and penetrating injuries include meningitis and abscesses . Complications involving the blood vessels include vasospasm , in which vessels constrict and restrict blood flow , the formation of aneurysms , in which the side of a vessel weakens and balloons out , and stroke .
Movement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor , ataxia ( uncoordinated muscle movements ) , myoclonus ( shock @-@ like contractions of muscles ) , and loss of movement range and control ( in particular with a loss of movement repertoire ) . The risk of post @-@ traumatic seizures increases with severity of trauma ( image at right ) and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas . People with early seizures , those occurring within a week of injury , have an increased risk of post @-@ traumatic epilepsy ( recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma ) . People may lose or experience altered vision , hearing , or smell .
Hormonal disturbances may occur secondary to hypopituitarism , occurring immediately or years after injury in 10 to 15 % of TBI patients . Development of diabetes insipidus or an electrolyte abnormality acutely after injury indicate need for endocrinologic work up . Signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism may develop and be screened for in adults with moderate TBI and in mild TBI with imaging abnormalities . Children with moderate to severe head injury may also develop hypopituitarism . Screening should take place 3 to 6 months , and 12 months after injury , but problems may occur more remotely .
Cognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention ; disrupted insight , judgement , and thought ; reduced processing speed ; distractibility ; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning , planning , problem @-@ solving , and multitasking . Memory loss , the most common cognitive impairment among head @-@ injured people , occurs in 20 – 79 % of people with closed head trauma , depending on severity . People who have suffered TBI may also have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken or written language , or with more subtle aspects of communication such as body language . Post @-@ concussion syndrome , a set of lasting symptoms experienced after mild TBI , can include physical , cognitive , emotional and behavioral problems such as headaches , dizziness , difficulty concentrating , and depression . Multiple TBIs may have a cumulative effect . A young person who receives a second concussion before symptoms from another one have healed may be at risk for developing a very rare but deadly condition called second @-@ impact syndrome , in which the brain swells catastrophically after even a mild blow , with debilitating or deadly results . About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury ( CTBI ) , which causes cognitive , behavioral , and physical impairments . Dementia pugilistica , the severe form of CTBI , affects primarily career boxers years after a boxing career . It commonly manifests as dementia , memory problems , and parkinsonism ( tremors and lack of coordination ) .
TBI may cause emotional , social , or behavioral problems and changes in personality . These may include emotional instability , depression , anxiety , hypomania , mania , apathy , irritability , problems with social judgment , and impaired conversational skills . TBI appears to predispose survivors to psychiatric disorders including obsessive compulsive disorder , substance abuse , dysthymia , clinical depression , bipolar disorder , and anxiety disorders . In patients who have depression after TBI , suicidal ideation is not uncommon ; the suicide rate among these persons is increased 2- to 3 @-@ fold . Social and behavioral symptoms that can follow TBI include disinhibition , inability to control anger , impulsiveness , lack of initiative , inappropriate sexual activity , asociality and social withdrawal , and changes in personality .
TBI also has a substantial impact on the functioning of family systems Caregiving family members and TBI survivors often significantly alter their familial roles and responsibilities following injury , creating significant change and strain on a family system . Typical challenges identified by families recovering from TBI include : frustration and impatience with one another , loss of former lives and relationships , difficulty setting reasonable goals , inability to effectively solve problems as a family , increased level of stress and household tension , changes in emotional dynamics , and overwhelming desire to return to pre @-@ injury status . In addition , families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping , problem solving and communication . Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption
= = Epidemiology = =
TBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social , economic , and health problem . It is the number one cause of coma , it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma , and is the leading cause of brain damage in children and young adults . In Europe it is responsible for more years of disability than any other cause . It also plays a significant role in half of trauma deaths .
Findings on the frequency of each level of severity vary based on the definitions and methods used in studies . A World Health Organization study estimated that between 70 and 90 % of head injuries that receive treatment are mild , and a US study found that moderate and severe injuries each account for 10 % of TBIs , with the rest mild .
The incidence of TBI varies by age , gender , region and other factors . Findings of incidence and prevalence in epidemiological studies vary based on such factors as which grades of severity are included , whether deaths are included , whether the study is restricted to hospitalized people , and the study 's location . The annual incidence of mild TBI is difficult to determine but may be 100 – 600 people per 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Mortality = = =
In the US , the case fatality rate is estimated to be 21 % by 30 days after TBI . A study on Iraq War soldiers found that severe TBI carries a mortality of 30 – 50 % . Deaths have declined due to improved treatments and systems for managing trauma in societies wealthy enough to provide modern emergency and neurosurgical services . The fraction of those who die after being hospitalized with TBI fell from almost half in the 1970s to about a quarter at the beginning of the 21st century . This decline in mortality has led to a concomitant increase in the number of people living with disabilities that result from TBI .
Biological , clinical , and demographic factors contribute to the likelihood that an injury will be fatal . In addition , outcome depends heavily on the cause of head injury . In the US , patients with fall @-@ related TBIs have an 89 % survival rate , while only 9 % of patients with firearm @-@ related TBIs survive . In the US , firearms are the most common cause of fatal TBI , followed by vehicle accidents and then falls . Of deaths from firearms , 75 % are considered to be suicides .
The incidence of TBI is increasing globally , due largely to an increase in motor vehicle use in low- and middle @-@ income countries . In developing countries , automobile use has increased faster than safety infrastructure could be introduced . In contrast , vehicle safety laws have decreased rates of TBI in high @-@ income countries , which have seen decreases in traffic @-@ related TBI since the 1970s . Each year in the United States , about two million people suffer a TBI , approximately 675 @,@ 000 injuries are seen in the emergency department , and about 500 @,@ 000 patients are hospitalized . The yearly incidence of TBI is estimated at 180 – 250 per 100 @,@ 000 people in the US , 281 per 100 @,@ 000 in France , 361 per 100 @,@ 000 in South Africa , 322 per 100 @,@ 000 in Australia , and 430 per 100 @,@ 000 in England . In the European Union the yearly aggregate incidence of TBI hospitalizations and fatalities is estimated at 235 per 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Demographics = = =
TBI is present in 85 % of traumatically injured children , either alone or with other injuries . The greatest number of TBIs occur in people aged 15 – 24 . Because TBI is more common in young people , its costs to society are high due to the loss of productive years to death and disability . The age groups most at risk for TBI are children ages five to nine and adults over age
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= = Preparations = =
In Japan , the threat of the typhoon caused airlines to cancel 145 flights , mostly in and around Okinawa . About 50 American army bases in Okinawa were closed , and non @-@ essential workers were told to remain home .
Before Maemi made landfall in South Korea , officials issued flood warnings along the Nakdong River due to dams opening floodgates . About 25 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate , either to schools or relatives ' houses . The Korea Meteorological Administration advised travelers to take precaution in advance of the storm . Ferry and airplane services were canceled to Jeju island , stranding residents ahead of the Chuseok holiday .
Officials in Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East issued a storm warning , noting the potential for strong winds and heavy rainfall .
= = Impact = =
= = = Japan = = =
Typhoon Maemi first affected the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , where gusts reached 266 km / h ( 166 mph ) , and sustained winds reached 152 km / h ( 94 mph ) . For 16 hours , excluding the 2 – hour passage of the eye , the pressure fell to 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the second @-@ lowest on record on the island after Typhoon Sarah in 1959 , and at the time the fourth lowest in all of Japan . The typhoon produced heavy rainfall on Miyako @-@ jima totaling 470 mm ( 19 in ) , of which 402 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 85 in ) fell in 24 hours , breaking the daily record . Also on the island , 58 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 30 in ) fell in one hour , and 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) fell in just 10 minutes . On the island , Maemi damaged 104 buildings , including two severely damaged houses . The storm damaged roads in 36 locations and caused a power outage , affecting about 20 @,@ 900 people , or 95 % of the island . One person on Miyako @-@ jima died after being struck by flying glass .
News agencies considered Maemi the strongest typhoon to affect Okinawa since 1968 . Elsewhere in Okinawa Prefecture , wind gusts reached 109 km / h ( 69 mph ) in Nago . On Ishigaki Island , strong winds damaged houses and crops , while high tides flooded low @-@ lying buildings . Across the region , 94 people were injured , mostly from broken glass .
Shortly before Maemi made its final landfall , it produced wind gusts of 167 km / h ( 104 mph ) at Izuhara , a Japanese island halfway between South Korea and Japan . Along the southwest coast of Japan , a weather station in Hirado reported gusts of 113 km / h ( 70 mph ) . The typhoon resulted in heavy rainfall on the Japanese main island of Kyushu , reaching 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) at a station in Miyazaki Prefecture . Rainfall @-@ induced landslides in Nagasaki forced 191 people to evacuate their homes . Heavy rainfall also caused landslides in Ōita Prefecture , and Kōchi Prefecture , where several roads were closed . The threat of the storm caused schools to close in Yamaguchi Prefecture . The storm spawned an F1 tornado in Kōchi that damaged several houses and flipped over a car , injuring a woman inside . As an extratropical storm , Maemi left 2 @,@ 500 people in Hokkaido without power after producing gusts of 108 km / h ( 67 mph ) in Hakodate . Wind gusts reached 116 km / h ( 72 mph ) in Akita , the third @-@ highest September wind gust at the station . A falling tree in Sapporo killed one person and injured two others . High waves damaged fisheries and 54 ships in Matsumae alone , and nationwide 262 ships were damaged . Rough seas also killed one person in Akita Prefecture . The typhoon destroyed 1 @,@ 498 homes across the country and flooded 363 others . The storm also damaged 9 ha ( 22 acres ) of fields . In total , Maemi killed three people and injured 107 in Japan , two severely . Overall damage totaled ¥ 11 @.@ 3 billion ( JPY , $ 96 million USD ) .
= = = South Korea = = =
When Typhoon Maemi struck South Korea , it caused heavy rainfall that peaked at 453 mm ( 17 @.@ 8 in ) . Rainfall reached 401 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 81 in ) in Namhae County , and 255 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) on Jeju Island . The rain was less widespread and caused less flooding than Typhoon Rusa , which struck the country a year prior , but damage from Maemi was heavier due to strong winds . On Jeju Island , Maemi produced a wind gust of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , both setting records for the country . The winds broke the record of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) set by Typhoon Prapiroon in 2000 , and the pressure was 1 @.@ 5 mbar lower than that during Typhoon Sarah in 1959 , which was one of the strongest storms to strike South Korea after Maemi . On the South Korean mainland , the Pusan International Airport reported wind gusts of 143 km / h ( 89 mph ) . Winds in Busan reached 154 km / h ( 96 mph ) , the second @-@ highest wind speed for the city after Typhoon Thelma in 1987 . Due to high winds , five nuclear power plants were shut down automatically , but were ultimately unaffected .
In South Korea , damage was heaviest in South Gyeongsang Province , where 71 people were killed . Damage was particularly heavy in Busan , as well in as Yecheon , Ulsan , and Daegu . In Busan , strong winds wrecked 11 lifting cranes , each weighing about 900 tons , which injured five people and killed two in one incident . Many shipyards in the region were closed , and initial reports estimated it would take a year to fully reopen the Busan port . The estimated damage to the Busan port was about $ 50 million ( USD ) , causing cargo capacity to be cut by 20 % . High waves turned a large ship on its side in Busan , and in Ulsan the waves knocked an offshore shipbuilding plant into a petroleum facility , damaging them both . Sixteen people were killed in Busan .
High tides flooded hundreds of houses along the coast , particularly in areas without seawalls . In Masan , the storm caused 12 fatalities when it flooded an underground shopping center . On Jeju Island to the south of the country , Maemi destroyed sets of the Korean drama TV series All In , and wrecked 32 houses . Two people were killed on the island , one of whom while attempting to secure his boat . Throughout the country , 465 boats were damaged or beached . The heavy rainfall caused mudslides , one of which in Chungcheong derailed a train , injuring 28 aboard . Mudslides closed several roads , and damaged five rail lines in ten locations . Nationwide , the storm damaged 2 @,@ 278 roads and bridges , as well as nearly 40 @,@ 000 cars . Intense rainfall also caused flooding along the Nakdong River , reaching a flood stage of 5 @.@ 06 m ( 16 @.@ 6 ft ) near Busan . There , the river produced a discharge of about 13 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 460 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , strong enough to destroy a section of the Gupo bridge . Along a tributary of the Nakdong River , floods destroyed a dyke near Daegu . Maemi also flooded 37 @,@ 986 ha ( 93 @,@ 870 acres ) of fields before the fall harvest , causing widespread damage to the rice crop . On Ulleungdo island off the eastern coast , Maemi washed away the primary road and many houses , killing three . Residents there complained about the lack of advance warning .
Typhoon Maemi left about 1 @.@ 47 million electric customers without power around the country , causing ₩ 12 @.@ 9 billion ( KRW , $ 11 @.@ 61 million USD ) in damage to power companies . Widespread damage interrupted mobile and cell phone service . United States military bases in the country sustained about $ 4 @.@ 5 million in damage . Nationwide , Maemi destroyed about 5 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 13 @,@ 000 homes and businesses , leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 150 businesses in Gangwon Province were destroyed by Typhoon Rusa in 2002 , only to be destroyed again by Maemi when they were rebuilt . Insured damages from Maemi were estimated at ₩ 650 billion ( KRW , $ 565 million ) , mostly property damage . The insured damage was over four times the amount of insured damage from Typhoon Rusa the year prior . Overall damage was estimated at ₩ 5 @.@ 52 trillion ( KRW , $ 4 @.@ 8 billion USD ) . By comparison , this total was ₩ 2 @.@ 52 trillion ( KRW , $ 1 @.@ 9 billion USD ) less than Rusa ; the discrepancy between the insured and overall damage was due to Maemi causing heavier industrial damage , while Rusa caused more damage overall . The storm killed 117 people throughout South Korea .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Although the typhoon prompted the PAGASA to hoist warnings — and in spite of initial concerns that the cyclone would enhance monsoonal rainfall — Maemi did not cause any damage in the Philippines .
While recurving east of Taiwan , Maemi dropped significant rainfall , peaking at 227 @.@ 5 mm ( 8 @.@ 96 in ) in Ilan County . The rains helped ease drought conditions and replenished parched reservoirs .
In North Korea , Maemi produced about 186 mm ( 7 @.@ 32 in ) of rainfall , although further details of the storm 's effects there were unknown due to press censorship .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , South Korean President Roh Moo @-@ hyun declared the entire of the country excluding Seoul and Incheon as special disaster areas , after touring the storm damage in Busan . The government provided tax breaks and allocated ₩ 1 @.@ 4 trillion ( KRW , $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ) in assistance to the affected residents , after an additional budget was passed in late September 2003 . This included ₩ 100 billion ( KRW , $ 90 million USD ) in immediate funds for search and rescue missions . After the storm , residents complained they did not receive adequate warning and not enough coastal areas were evacuated , which led to the high death toll . Widespread damage and continued flooding caused traffic jams in the days following the storm . A damaged rail line prompted operators to provide alternate bus service . Landslides throughout the country forced travelers to use alternate routes . By three days after the storm , most damaged roads and highways were reopened . About 33 @,@ 000 members of the South Korean Army were deployed to assist in relief efforts , such as clearing roads and delivering aid to storm victims . Workers quickly restored power to 95 % of customers within 24 hours . The government installed four new cranes for the Busan port , and assisted operators to ensure exports would not be delayed . Heavy crop damage caused fruit and vegetable prices to rise , and fish and crop exports rose 9 @.@ 2 % on average . The rice harvest was the lowest in 23 years , due to the storm and a government effort to limit production . To assist farmers , the government increased purchases in federal contracts . Three government @-@ run banks provided low @-@ rate loans for businesses damaged by the storm . Residual flooding from Maemi contributed to an outbreak of conjunctivitis in the southern portion of the country . To prevent additional outbreaks , the Korean National Institute of Health sent 1 @,@ 000 workers to storm @-@ damaged areas . The Korea Stock Exchange fell 1 @.@ 8 % due to fears that storm damage would disrupt exports .
For the month of September 2003 , the Korea Electric Power Corporation waived electric bills for residents who lost their homes , and cut bills in half for residents and businesses who lost power . The South Korean government allowed companies to increase premiums for car insurance by 3 @.@ 5 % due to the widespread car damage . Due to storm damage , 34 companies were forced to temporarily close . Loss of production and disruptions were expected to subtract 0 @.@ 5 % from the forecast economic growth in 2003 . The Consumer Confidence Index dropped to its lowest level in five years , largely due to the typhoon damage and weakened economic conditions . Following the strikes of Rusa and Maemi in consecutive years , the South Korean government worked on disaster management and mitigation programs . In March 2004 , the government passed the " Emergency and Safety Management Basic Act " , largely due to the storm as well as the Daegu metro fire , which effectively set up a nationwide emergency management system . The Gupo bridge damaged during the storm was repaired in 2007 .
Although the South Korean government did not request international aid , several countries sent aid to the country . A few days after Maemi struck , the United States Agency for International Development sent $ 50 @,@ 000 ( USD ) to the Korean Red Cross . Later , the government of Japan sent ¥ 9 @.@ 5 million ( $ 85 @,@ 000 USD ) worth of supplies to South Korea , including sleeping mats , generators , and water units . Taiwan also provided $ 100 @,@ 000 in aid . The Republic of Korea National Red Cross utilized 700 volunteers and 200 staff members to distribute food and blankets to 8 @,@ 190 houses , while local offices provided over 5 @,@ 500 meals . Members of Food for the Hungry delivered food and clothing to storm @-@ damaged residents in Masan .
As a result of the damage and deaths caused by the storm , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Maemi in 2006 and replaced it with Mujigae .
= Ghost in the Shell ( video game ) =
Ghost in the Shell is a cyberpunk @-@ themed third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Exact and Production I.G for the PlayStation . A part of the larger Ghost in the Shell media franchise , it utilizes the same English voice cast as the feature film of the same name , although the two do not share a story continuity . The game was first released in July 1997 , along with soundtrack albums , an artbook and a guidebook .
The game 's story and art design were written and illustrated by Masamune Shirow , the author of the original manga . Ghost in the Shell 's plot revolves around a recruit of Public Security Section 9 as he investigates and combats the Human Liberation Front . The player controls a Fuchikoma , a robotic fighting vehicle capable of traversing walls and ceilings .
The game received mainly positive reviews . It was praised for its graphics , animation , music and unusual wall @-@ climbing mechanics , as well as living up to the name of the series . However , it received criticism for its tedious and repetitive gameplay and low difficulty . Fifteen years after its release , Game Informer listed Ghost in the Shell as one of the best manga and anime @-@ based games .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls a spider @-@ shaped think tank robot , known as Fuchikoma , that is able to jump , thrust forward , strafe to the side , climb walls , and hang upside @-@ down from ceilings . The camera auto @-@ adjusts its position when scaling walls and ceilings for easy maneuvering , and automatically switches between first and third @-@ person perspectives depending on the environment , although the player can stay in first @-@ person view at will .
The Fuchikoma is equipped with twin machine guns and guided missiles . Both weapons have unlimited ammunition , however up to six missiles can be launched at once after a charge time . Grenades can be found throughout missions and a maximum of three can be carried at a time . Enemies vary from humanoid robots to helicopters and sport an array of firearms and explosives . Some stages of the game are governed by a time limit . Seventeen cutscenes can be unlocked throughout the missions and depending on the player 's score in training mode . Once unlocked , the cutscenes can be reviewed on the options menu .
The training mode contains six stages to learn the basic game elements . The first five stages introduce the player to targets in various settings and using the controls effectively , with the sixth being a battle against another Fuchikoma . The twelve missions that compose the story take place in different environments , including a warehouse complex , a sewer , the city highways , and the enemy base inside of a skyscraper . The missions display a variety of gameplay objectives : the first mission is a raid ; the third level is an Explosive Ordnance Disposal mission that involves the elimination of bombs attached to red barrels ; the fourth level is a sea chase on a boat ; the fifth level is a game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the player having to locate a boss wearing thermoptical camouflage ; and the game 's final boss fight ends with a free fall battle down the skyscraper under a timer .
= = Plot = =
The plot follows the members of Public Security Section 9 , mainly consisting of Major Motoko Kusanagi , Chief Aramaki , Batou , Togusa , Ishikawa , Saito , and a nameless male , the Rookie , controlled by the player . The game 's story is told using mission briefings and animated cutscenes .
After the terrorist organization known as the Human Liberation Front claims responsibility for blowing up the Megatech Body Corporation building , Section 9 is sent to resolve the situation . Section 9 is able to trace the terrorists ' communications and find their location in the bay area ; however , it is a trap . Chief Aramaki later announces that the leader of the Human Liberation Front is a mercenary known as Zebra 27 . Ishikawa then reports that the Energy Ministry is interested in files relating to Zebra ; Aramaki orders further investigation .
The Rookie 's skill is put to the test , leading chase missions and surviving an ambush . Eventually , the Human Liberation Front 's secret base is discovered in Aeropolis II tower by following the enemy supply line , along with the terrorists ' intentions of using a nuclear reactor . Ishikawa informs Aramaki that an official of the Energy Ministry named Sawamura has been in contact with Zebra and is connected to Megatech Body Corporation . While conducting the raid on the enemy 's base , the reactor begins to overload . In order to shut it down , squad leader Motoko Kusanagi attempts to remove the protective barrier from an access point nearby , as the rest of the team search for the other building 's control room . After disarming the reactor , Kusanagi locates the leader on top of the tower . Batou and Togusa encounter obstacles that prevent them from moving to the top , leaving the Rookie as the only available member . Once he reaches the top , he engages the leader in combat and defeats him in a free fall battle off of the tower .
After the mission , it is revealed that Sawamura planned to collect bribes from Megatech in exchange for covering up a defect in the nuclear reactor , which was going to explode , and presenting it as a terrorist attack ; however , Zebra seized the reactor to take it over and wanted to extort money from Sawamura . Kusanagi declares the entire experience a training exercise for the Rookie and acknowledges his cleverness , but criticizes his overdependence on the Fuchikoma .
= = Development = =
The concept for the Fuchikoma came from one climactic scene of the film : the battle between Motoko Kusanagi and the big spider @-@ like tank in the museum of paleontology . Based on this tank design , mecha creators Shōji Kawamori and Atsushi Takeuchi made a smaller version , designed for one person , that would be used by the police . Thus , the player becomes the pilot of one of these combat machines .
The game was in development for one and a half years , and involved the work of several divisions , being Kenji Sawaguchi and Tetsuji Yamamoto the total director and producer respectively . The programming was done by Exact , known for the Jumping Flash ! series . Ghost in the Shell was designed and targeted to a mature audience ; developers did not make Motoko playable to prevent the game appearing to be a character @-@ based game for children . The original manga 's creator Masamune Shirow was the main designer of the characters and mecha for the game .
At Production I.G , Hiroyuki Kitakubo directed the animation scenes , wrote the screenplay and did the storyboards ; Toshihiro Kawamoto was animation supervisor and a character designer . The scenes are noticeably different when compared to the film namesake directed by Mamoru Oshii , because the game is colored using a full digital technique . The scenes are a combination of cel animation and backgrounds that were rendered in three dimensions to ensure smooth transitions for the camera movement . Adobe Photoshop was used to add the finishing details to the scenes .
The Japanese voicing of the game was done by a different cast than the film 's : Motoko Kusanagi was played by Hiromi Tsuru , Batou by Shinji Ogawa , Chief Aramaki by Soichi Ito , Ishikawa by Kiyoshi Kobayashi , Togusa by Hirotaka Suzuoki , Saito by Nobuyuki Hiyama , and the Fuchikoma were voiced by Katsue Miwa . The English localization was dubbed by the same cast used for the original movie , although the game does not specify the respective roles in the credits . Motoko was voiced by Mimi Woods , Batou by Richard Epcar , Aramaki by William Frederick , and Togusa by Christopher Joyce ; the roles of Bob Papenbrook , Wendee Lee , Jimmy Krakor and Julie Maddalena are not reliably known .
= = Release and promotion = =
The game was originally released in Japan by Sony Computer Entertainment on July 17 , 1997 . The following day , a launch party was held at the Yebisu Garden Hall : the Megatech Body Night . The event featured the game 's music artists Takkyu Ishino , Joey Beltram and Mijk van Dijk performing live , and a Fuchikoma robot appeared . All who bought tickets received a papercraft kit of the Fuchikoma and ten posters of the game were raffled . A Japanese demo disc was also released with the first mission playable .
The first edition of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine was published in October 1997 and featured the game on its cover . The game was released in North America by THQ on October 31 , 1997 , and in Europe by Sony Computer Entertainment on July 1 , 1998 . THQ 's producer Don Nauert said that aside from dubbing and changing the button configuration , the English localization of the game was not modified nor censored .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack albums for the game were titled Ghost in the Shell : Megatech Body , named after the cybernetic body manufacturer in the Ghost in the Shell series . The albums were produced by Takkyu Ishino and feature techno tracks by other composers including Mijk van Dijk . Two versions of the albums were released by Sony Music Entertainment Japan on July 17 , 1997 : Megatech Body CD . , a standard single disc ; and Megatech Body CD . , Ltd . , a limited two @-@ disc edition . Megatech Vinyl . Ltd. was a limited two LP record set scheduled to be released .
= = = = Track listing = = = =
= = = Related media = = =
Kodansha released three books and one video about the game . Ghost in the Shell Official Art Book was published on July 4 , 1997 ; the artbook contains concept designs , scenes and commentary . Two guidebooks were published : Ghost in the Shell : Basic File on July 17 , 1997 , and Ghost in the Shell : Master File on August 29 , 1997 . The video , Making of Game Ghost in the Shell All of Digital Animation , features interviews with the animation staff ; it was released on VHS on April 22 , 1998 . A LaserDisc was also released in 1998 that included interviews on side A and the in @-@ game cutscenes on side B.
= = Reception = =
Ghost in the Shell gained an aggregate rating of 78 @.@ 50 % at GameRankings , which would be a mostly positive metascore . AllGame praised the graphics , sound and gameplay ; the review stated , " Even with plenty of eye candy and strong audio , a game is nothing without actually being fun to play and as you 've probably guessed , Ghost in the Shell supplies the fun , whether you 're familiar with the license or not . " GameSpot rated the game as good , eulogizing the controls as " simple ... most people will take to them like a fish to water " and praising the animation sequences . GameFan reviewers cited the game 's unique wall @-@ scaling mechanics and noted how it lives up to the name of the Ghost in the Shell series . IGN said that the game was great , faithful to its manga counterpart , stating that " the techno music , including tracks from artists like Derrick May and Hardfloor , is superb , " but adding that " the levels aren 't incredibly difficult , and don 't really encourage replay . " Super GamePower reviewed the game short after the movie was released in Brazil , stating that the opening animation was better than the drawing of the film . In Russia , Velikij Drakon lauded the orientation system , the game graphics and the overall design , highlighting the unlockable animation scenes . NowGamer praised the gameplay mechanics but criticized the option to unlock , stating , " The tremendous feeling of agility you get from Ghost In The Shell and the slick weapons is where the fun comes from . But it ’ s a tough game and playing for more scenes of new footage will not be compelling enough for a country in which anime is a cult industry and not a national fixation . "
GamePro did not find the game worthy of its name , although the cutscenes were praised , stating , " The cinemas at the opening of the game and between each level are stunning ; however , the game graphics , particularly buildings and enemies , are lackluster at best . The sound effects are bland , and there are no weapon power @-@ ups to be found . Put that all together and you get a very generic game . " Next Generation criticized the game for being tedious , but recognized that it is still an enjoyable game . Computer and Video Games offered similar criticism , declaring that " it was too repetitive to become anything more than a good game . " Edge criticized the gameplay features such as camera control and boss difficulty . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers criticized the game for its easy bosses and its repetitive and short gameplay value . Famitsu liked the battles but complained about the Fuchikoma attaching to walls when not intended .
The Herald @-@ News praised the game for being original and worth playing , unlike other movie adaptations . In 2013 , Game Informer listed Ghost in the Shell as one of the best anime and manga @-@ based games released in English , and the best of the franchise 's titles ; the other seven games in the list were released more than six years after Ghost in the Shell .
= University of Toronto =
The University of Toronto ( U of T , UToronto , or Toronto ) is a public research university in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , situated on the grounds that surround Queen 's Park . It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King 's College , the first institution of higher learning in the colony of Upper Canada . Originally controlled by the Church of England , the university assumed the present name in 1850 upon becoming a secular institution . As a collegiate university , it comprises twelve colleges , which differ in character and history , each retaining substantial autonomy on financial and institutional affairs . It has two satellite campuses located in Scarborough and Mississauga .
Academically , the University of Toronto is noted for influential movements and curricula in literary criticism and communication theory , known collectively as the Toronto School . The university was the birthplace of insulin and stem cell research , and was the site of the first practical electron microscope , the development of multi @-@ touch technology , the identification of Cygnus X @-@ 1 as a black hole , and the theory of NP @-@ completeness . By a significant margin , it receives the most annual scientific research funding of any Canadian university . It is one of two members of the Association of American Universities located outside the United States , the other being McGill University .
The Varsity Blues are the athletic teams representing the university in intercollegiate league matches , with particularly long and storied ties to gridiron football and ice hockey . The university 's Hart House is an early example of the North American student centre , simultaneously serving cultural , intellectual and recreational interests within its large Gothic @-@ revival complex .
The University of Toronto has educated two Governors General of Canada and four Prime Ministers of Canada , four foreign leaders , fourteen Justices of the Supreme Court , and has been affiliated with ten Nobel laureates .
= = History = =
The founding of a colonial college had long been the desire of John Graves Simcoe , the first Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Upper Canada . As an Oxford @-@ educated military commander who had fought in the American Revolutionary War , Simcoe believed a college was needed to counter the spread of republicanism from the United States . The Upper Canada Executive Committee recommended in 1798 that a college be established in York , the colonial capital .
On March 15 , 1827 , a royal charter was formally issued by King George IV , proclaiming " from this time one College , with the style and privileges of a University ... for the education of youth in the principles of the Christian Religion , and for their instruction in the various branches of Science and Literature ... to continue for ever , to be called King 's College . " The granting of the charter was largely the result of intense lobbying by John Strachan , the influential Anglican Bishop of Toronto who took office as the first president of the college . The original three @-@ storey Greek Revival school building was constructed on the present site of Queen 's Park .
Under Strachan 's stewardship , King 's College was a religious institution that closely aligned with the Church of England and the British colonial elite , known as the Family Compact . Reformist politicians opposed the clergy 's control over colonial institutions and fought to have the college secularized . In 1849 , after a lengthy and heated debate , the newly elected responsible government of Upper Canada voted to rename King 's College as the University of Toronto and severed the school 's ties with the church . Having anticipated this decision , the enraged Strachan had resigned a year earlier to open Trinity College as a private Anglican seminary . University College was created as the nondenominational teaching branch of the University of Toronto . During the American Civil War , the threat of Union blockade on British North America prompted the creation of the University Rifle Corps , which saw battle in resisting the Fenian raids on the Niagara border in 1866 .
Established in 1878 , the School of Practical Science was precursor to the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , which has been nicknamed Skule since its earliest days . While the Faculty of Medicine opened in 1843 , medical teaching was conducted by proprietary schools from 1853 until 1887 , when the faculty absorbed the Toronto School of Medicine . Meanwhile , the university continued to set examinations and confer medical degrees during that period . The university opened the Faculty of Law in 1887 , and it was followed by the Faculty of Dentistry in 1888 , when the Royal College of Dental Surgeons became an affiliate . Women were admitted to the university for the first time in 1884 .
A devastating fire in 1890 gutted the interior of University College and destroyed thirty @-@ three thousand volumes from the library , but the university restored the building and replenished its library within two years . Over the next two decades , a collegiate system gradually took shape as the university arranged federation with several ecclesiastical colleges , including Strachan 's Trinity College in 1904 . The university operated the Royal Conservatory of Music from 1896 to 1991 and the Royal Ontario Museum from 1912 to 1968 ; both still retain close ties with the university as independent institutions . The University of Toronto Press was founded in 1901 as the first academic publishing house in Canada . The Faculty of Forestry , founded in 1907 with Bernhard Fernow as dean , was the first university faculty devoted to forest science in Canada . In 1910 , the Faculty of Education opened its laboratory school , the University of Toronto Schools .
The First and Second World Wars curtailed some university activities as undergraduate and graduate men eagerly enlisted . Intercollegiate athletic competitions and the Hart House Debates were suspended , although exhibition and interfaculty games were still held . The David Dunlap Observatory in Richmond Hill opened in 1935 , followed by the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies in 1949 . The university opened satellite campuses in Scarborough in 1964 and in Mississauga in 1967 . The university 's former affiliated schools at the Ontario Agricultural College and Glendon Hall became fully independent of the University of Toronto and became part of University of Guelph in 1964 and York University in 1965 , respectively . Beginning in the 1980s , reductions in government funding prompted more rigorous fundraising efforts . The University of Toronto was the first Canadian university to amass a financial endowment greater than C $ 1 billion .
= = Grounds = =
The university grounds lie about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the Financial District in Downtown Toronto , and immediately south of the neighbourhoods of Yorkville and The Annex . The site encompasses 71 hectares ( 180 acres ) bounded mostly by Bay Street to the east , Bloor Street to the north , Spadina Avenue to the west and College Street to the south . An enclave surrounded by university grounds , Queen 's Park , contains the Ontario Legislative Building and several historic monuments . With its green spaces and many interlocking courtyards , the university forms a distinct region of urban parkland in the city 's downtown core . The namesake University Avenue is a ceremonial boulevard and arterial thoroughfare that runs through downtown between Queen 's Park and Front Street . The Spadina , St. George , Museum , and Queen 's Park stations of the Toronto rapid transit system are located in the vicinity .
The architecture is epitomized by a combination of Romanesque and Gothic Revival buildings spread across the eastern and central portions of campus , most of them dating between 1858 and 1929 . The traditional heart of the university , known as Front Campus , is located near the centre of the campus in an oval lawn enclosed by King 's College Circle . The centrepiece is the main building of University College , built in 1857 with an eclectic blend of Richardsonian Romanesque and Norman architectural elements . The dramatic effect of this blended design by architect Frederick William Cumberland drew praise from European visitors of the time : " Until I reached Toronto , " remarked Lord Dufferin during his visit in 1872 , " I confess I was not aware that so magnificent a specimen of architecture existed upon the American continent . " The building was declared a National Historic Site of Canada in 1968 . Built in 1907 , Convocation Hall is recognizable for its domed roof and Ionic @-@ pillared rotunda . Although its foremost function is hosting the annual convocation ceremonies , the building serves as a venue for academic and social events throughout the year . The sandstone buildings of Knox College epitomizes the North American collegiate Gothic design , with its characteristic cloisters surrounding a secluded courtyard .
A lawn at the northeast is anchored by Hart House , a Gothic @-@ revival student centre complex . Among its many common rooms , the building 's Great Hall is noted for large stained @-@ glass windows and a long quotation from John Milton 's Areopagitica that is inscribed around the walls . The adjacent Soldiers ' Tower stands 143 feet ( 44 m ) tall as the most prominent structure in the vicinity , its stone arches etched with the names of university members lost to the battlefields of the two World Wars . The tower houses a 51 @-@ bell carillon that is played on special occasions such as Remembrance Day and convocation . North of University College , the main building of Trinity College displays Jacobethan Tudor architecture , while its chapel was built in the Perpendicular Gothic style of Giles Gilbert Scott . The chapel features exterior walls of sandstone and interiors of Indiana Limestone , and was constructed by Italian stonemasons using ancient building methods . Philosopher 's Walk is a scenic footpath that follows a meandering , wooded ravine , the buried Taddle Creek , linking with Trinity College , Varsity Arena and the Faculty of Law . Victoria College is on the eastern side of Queen 's Park , centred on a Romanesque main building made of contrasting red sandstone and grey limestone .
Developed after the Second World War , the western section of the campus consists mainly of modernist and internationalist structures that contain laboratories and faculty offices . The most significant example of Brutalist architecture is the massive Robarts Library complex , built in 1972 and opened a year later in 1973 . It features raised podia , extensive use of triangular geometric designs and a towering fourteen @-@ storey concrete structure that cantilevers above a field of open space and mature trees . Sidney Smith Hall is the home to the Faculty of Arts and Science , as well as a few departments within that faculty . The Leslie L. Dan Pharmacy Building , completed in 2006 , exhibits the high @-@ tech architectural style of glass and steel by British architect Norman Foster .
= = Governance and colleges = =
The University of Toronto has traditionally been a decentralized institution , with governing authority shared among its central administration , academic faculties and colleges . The Governing Council is the unicameral legislative organ of the central administration , overseeing general academic , business and institutional affairs . Before 1971 , the university was governed under a bicameral system composed of the board of governors and the university senate . The chancellor , usually a former governor general , lieutenant governor , premier or diplomat , is the ceremonial head of the university . The president is appointed by the council as the chief executive .
Unlike most North American institutions , the University of Toronto is a collegiate university with a model that resembles those of the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford in Britain . The colleges hold substantial autonomy over admissions , scholarships , programs and other academic and financial affairs , in addition to the housing and social duties of typical residential colleges . The system emerged in the 19th century , as ecclesiastical colleges considered various forms of union with the University of Toronto to ensure their viability . The desire to preserve religious traditions in a secular institution resulted in the federative collegiate model that came to characterize the university .
University College was the founding nondenominational college , created in 1853 after the university was secularized . Knox College , a Presbyterian institution , and Wycliffe College , a low church seminary , both encouraged their students to study for non @-@ divinity degrees at University College . In 1885 , they entered a formal affiliation with the University of Toronto , and became federated schools in 1890 . The idea of federation initially met strong opposition at Victoria University , a Methodist school in Cobourg , but a financial incentive in 1890 convinced the school to join . Decades after the death of John Strachan , the Anglican seminary Trinity College entered federation in 1904 , followed in 1910 by St. Michael 's College , a Roman Catholic college founded by the Basilian Fathers . Among the institutions that had considered federation but ultimately remained independent were McMaster University , a Baptist school that later moved to Hamilton , and Queen 's College , a Presbyterian school in Kingston that later became Queen 's University .
The post @-@ war era saw the creation of New College in 1962 , Innis College in 1964 and Woodsworth College in 1974 , all of them nondenominational . Along with University College , they comprise the university 's constituent colleges , which are established and funded by the central administration and are therefore financially dependent . Massey College was established in 1963 by the Massey Foundation as a college exclusively for graduate students . Regis College , a Jesuit seminary , entered federation with the university in 1979 .
In contrast with the constituent colleges , the colleges of Knox , Massey , Regis , St. Michael 's , Trinity , Victoria and Wycliffe continue to exist as legally distinct entities , each possessing a separate financial endowment . While St. Michael 's , Trinity and Victoria continue to recognize their religious affiliations and heritage , they have since adopted secular policies of enrolment and teaching in non @-@ divinity subjects . Some colleges have , or once had , collegiate structures of their own : Emmanuel College is a college of Victoria and St. Hilda 's College is part of Trinity ; St. Joseph ’ s College had existed as a college within St. Michael 's until it was dissolved in 2006 . Ewart College existed as an affiliated college until 1991 , when it was merged into Knox College . Postgraduate theology degrees are conferred by the colleges of Knox , Regis and Wycliffe , along with the divinity faculties within Emmanuel , St. Michael 's and Trinity , including joint degrees with the university through the Toronto School of Theology .
= = Academics = =
The Faculty of Arts and Science is the university 's main undergraduate faculty , and administers most of the courses in the college system . While the colleges are not entirely responsible for teaching duties , most of them house specialized academic programs and lecture series . Among other subjects , Trinity College is associated with programs in international relations , as are University College with Canadian studies , Victoria College with Renaissance studies , Innis College with film studies and urban studies , New College with gender studies , Woodsworth College with industrial relations and St. Michael 's College with Medievalism . The faculty teaches undergraduate commerce in collaboration with the Rotman School of Management . The Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering is the other major direct @-@ entry undergraduate faculty .
The University of Toronto is the birthplace of an influential school of thought on communication theory and literary criticism , known as the Toronto School . Described as " the theory of the primacy of communication in the structuring of human cultures and the structuring of the human mind " , the school is rooted in the works of Eric A. Havelock and Harold Innis and the subsequent contributions of Edmund Snow Carpenter , Northrop Frye and Marshall McLuhan . Since 1963 , the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology of the Faculty of Information has carried the mandate for teaching and advancing the Toronto School .
Several notable works in arts and humanities are based at the university , including the Dictionary of Canadian Biography since 1959 and the Collected Works of Erasmus since 1969 . The Records of Early English Drama collects and edits the surviving documentary evidence of dramatic arts in pre @-@ Puritan England , while the Dictionary of Old English compiles the early vocabulary of the English language from the Anglo @-@ Saxon period .
The Munk School of Global Affairs encompasses the university 's various programs and curricula in international affairs and foreign policy . As the Cold War heightened , Toronto 's Slavic studies program evolved into an important institution on Soviet politics and economics , financed by the Rockefeller , Ford and Mellon foundations . The Munk School is also home to the G20 Research Group , which conducts independent monitoring and analysis on the Group of Twenty , and the Citizen Lab , which conducts research on Internet censorship as a joint founder of the OpenNet Initiative . The university operates international offices in Berlin , Hong Kong and Siena .
The Dalla Lana School of Public Health is a Faculty of the University of Toronto that originated as one of the School of Hygiene begun by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1927 . The School went through a dramatic renaissance after the 2003 SARS crisis and it is now the largest public health school in Canada , with more than 750 faculty , 800 students , and research and training partnerships with institutions throughout Toronto and the world . With more than $ 39 million in research funding per year , the School supports discovery in global health , tobacco impacts on health , occupational disease and disability , air pollution , inner city , circumpolar health , and many other pressing issues in population health .
The Faculty of Medicine is affiliated with a network of ten teaching hospitals , providing medical treatment , research and advisory services to patients and clients from Canada and abroad . A core member of the network is University Health Network , itself a specialized federation of Toronto General Hospital , Princess Margaret Cancer Centre , Toronto Western Hospital , and Toronto Rehabilitation Institute . Physicians in the medical institutes have cross @-@ appointments to faculty and supervisory positions in university departments . The Rotman School of Management developed the discipline and methodology of integrative thinking , upon which the school bases its curriculum . Founded in 1887 , the Faculty of Law 's emphasis on formal teachings of liberal arts and legal theory was then considered unconventional , but gradually helped shift the country 's legal education system away from the apprenticeship model that prevailed until the mid @-@ 20th century . The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education is the teachers college of the university , affiliated with its two laboratory schools , the Institute of Child Study and the University of Toronto Schools . Autonomous institutes at the university include the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics , the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies and the Fields Institute .
= = = Library and collections = = =
The University of Toronto Libraries is the third @-@ largest academic library system in North America , following those of Harvard and Yale , measured by number of volumes held . The collections include more than ten million bound volumes , 5 @.@ 4 million microfilms , 70 @,@ 000 serial titles and 1 million maps , films , graphics and sound recordings . The largest of the libraries , Robarts Library , holds about five million bound volumes that form the main collection for humanities and social sciences . The Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library constitutes one of the largest repositories of publicly accessible rare books and manuscripts . Its collections range from ancient Egyptian papyri to incunabula and libretti ; the subjects of focus include British , European and Canadian literature , Aristotle , Darwin , the Spanish Civil War , the history of science and medicine , Canadiana and the history of books . Most of the remaining holdings are dispersed at departmental and faculty libraries , in addition to about 1 @.@ 3 million bound volumes that are held by the colleges . The university has collaborated with the Internet Archive since 2005 to digitize some of its library holdings .
Housed within University College , the University of Toronto Art Centre contains three major art collections . The Malcove Collection is primarily represented by Early Christian and Byzantine sculptures , bronzeware , furniture , icons and liturgical items . It also includes glassware and stone reliefs from the Greco @-@ Roman period , and the painting Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach the Elder , dated from 1538 . The University of Toronto Collection features Canadian contemporary art , while the University College Art Collection holds significant works by the Group of Seven and 19th century landscape artists .
= = = Reputation = = =
The University Ranking by Academic Performance places the University of Toronto 2nd in the world in research performance . The Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2015 ranks the University of Toronto at 19th place globally and 1st in Canada , while the QS World University Rankings of 2015 placed the university at 34th in the world and 2nd in Canada . In the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2014 , the University of Toronto is placed at 24th in the world and 1st in Canada . It ranked 25th worldwide in the 2012 report compiled by Human Resources & Labor Review on graduate performance , 9th worldwide in the 2010 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities , 14th in the High Impact Universities ranking , 14th in a New York Times employment survey in 2013 , and 2nd globally in the University Ranking by Academic Performance of 2014 @-@ 2015 . In 2011 , the university received a grade of A- for environmental sustainability from the Sustainable Endowments Institute . The university has placed first among Canada 's research universities in the annual ranking by Research Infosource since 2001 . In 2011 , the University of Toronto was named by Newsweek as one of the top three schools outside of the United States . In 2014 , it was also ranked
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14th in the world by the U.S. News & World Report ’ s Best Global Universities Ranking .
The University of Toronto ranked as the nation 's top medical @-@ doctoral ( category ) university in Maclean 's magazine for eleven consecutive years between 1994 and 2004 . Since 2009 , it has joined 22 other national institutions in withholding data from the magazine , citing continued concerns regarding methodology . In 2013 , the Faculty of Law was named the top law school in Canada by Maclean 's for the seventh consecutive year .
= = Research = =
Since 1926 , the University of Toronto has been a member of the Association of American Universities , a consortium of the leading North American research universities . The university manages by far the largest annual research budget of any university in Canada , with sponsored direct @-@ cost expenditures of $ 878 million in 2010 . The federal government was the largest source of funding , with grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research , the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council amounting to about one @-@ third of the research budget . About eight percent of research funding came from corporations , mostly in the health care industry .
The first practical electron microscope was built by the physics department in 1938 . During World War II , the university developed the G @-@ suit , a life @-@ saving garment worn by Allied fighter plane pilots , later adopted for use by astronauts . Development of the infrared chemiluminescence technique improved analyses of energy behaviours in chemical reactions . In 1963 , the asteroid 2104 Toronto is discovered in the David Dunlap Observatory in Richmond Hill and is named after the university . In 1972 , studies on Cygnus X @-@ 1 led to the publication of the first observational evidence proving the existence of black holes . Toronto astronomers have also discovered the Uranian moons of Caliban and Sycorax , the dwarf galaxies of Andromeda I , II and III , and the supernova SN 1987A . A pioneer in computing technology , the university designed and built UTEC , one of the world 's first operational computers , and later purchased Ferut , the second commercial computer after UNIVAC I. Multi @-@ touch technology was developed at Toronto , with applications ranging from handheld devices to collaboration walls . The AeroVelo Atlas , which was the first to win the Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition in 2013 , was developed by the university 's team of students and graduates and was tested in Vaughan .
The discovery of insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921 is considered among the most significant events in the history of medicine . The stem cell was discovered at the university in 1963 , forming the basis for bone marrow transplantation and all subsequent research on adult and embryonic stem cells . This was the first of many findings at Toronto relating to stem cells , including the identification of pancreatic and retinal stem cells . The cancer stem cell was first identified in 1997 by Toronto researchers , who have since found stem cell associations in leukemia , brain tumors and colorectal cancer . Medical inventions developed at Toronto include the glycaemic index , the infant cereal Pablum , the use of protective hypothermia in open heart surgery and the first artificial cardiac pacemaker . The first successful single @-@ lung transplant was performed at Toronto in 1981 , followed by the first nerve transplant in 1988 , and the first double @-@ lung transplant in 1989 . Researchers identified the maturation promoting factor that regulates cell division , and discovered the T cell receptor , which triggers responses of the immune system . The university is credited with isolating the genes that cause Fanconi anemia , cystic fibrosis and early @-@ onset Alzheimer 's disease , among numerous other diseases . Between 1914 and 1972 , the university operated the Connaught Medical Research Laboratories , now part of the pharmaceutical corporation Sanofi @-@ Aventis . Among the research conducted at the laboratory was the development of gel electrophoresis .
The University of Toronto is the primary research presence that supports one of the world 's largest concentrations of biotechnology firms . More than 5 @,@ 000 principal investigators reside within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the university grounds in Toronto 's Discovery District , conducting $ 1 billion of medical research annually . MaRS Discovery District is a research park that serves commercial enterprises and the university 's technology transfer ventures . In 2008 , the university disclosed 159 inventions and had 114 active start @-@ up companies . Its SciNet Consortium operates the most powerful supercomputer in Canada .
= = Athletics = =
The 44 sports teams of the Varsity Blues represent the university in intercollegiate competitions . The two main leagues in which the Blues participate are Canadian Interuniversity Sport for national competitions , and the auxiliary Ontario University Athletics conference at the provincial level . The athletic nickname of Varsity Blues was not consistently used until the 1930s ; previously , references such as " Varsity " , " The Big Blue " , " The Blue and White " and " The Varsity Blue " also appeared interchangeably . The Blue and White is commonly played and sung in athletic games as a fight song .
North American ( gridiron ) football traces its very origin to the University of Toronto , with the first documented football game played at University College on November 9 , 1861 . The Blues played their first intercollegiate football match in 1877 against the University of Michigan , in a game that ended with a scoreless draw . Since intercollegiate seasons began in 1898 , the Blues have won four Grey Cup , two Vanier Cup and 25 Yates Cup championships , including the inaugural championships for all three trophies . However , the football team has hit a rough patch following its last championship in 1993 . From 2001 until 2008 , the Blues suffered the longest losing streak in Canadian collegiate history , recording 49 consecutive winless games . This was preceded by a single victory in 2001 that ended a run of 18 straight losses . The site of Varsity Stadium has served as the primary playing grounds of the Varsity Blues football and soccer programs since 1898 . It also served as the venue for archery during the 2015 Pan American Games .
Formed in 1891 , the storied Varsity Blues men 's ice hockey team has left many legacies on the national , professional and international hockey scenes . Conn Smythe played for the Blues as a centre during his undergraduate years , and was a Blues coach from 1923 to 1926 . When Smythe took over the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1927 , the familiar blue @-@ and @-@ white sweater design of the Varsity Blues was adopted by his new team . Blues hockey competed at the 1928 Winter Olympics and captured the gold medal for Canada . At the 1980 Winter Olympics , Blues coach Tom Watt served as co @-@ coach of the Canadian hockey team in which six players were Varsity grads . In all , the Blues have won the CIS University Cup national hockey title ten times , last in 1984 . Varsity Arena has been the permanent home of the Blues ice hockey programs since it opened in 1926 . In men 's basketball , the Varsity Blues have won 14 conference titles , including the inaugural championship in 1909 , but have not won a national title . In swimming , the men 's team has claimed the national crown 16 times since 1964 , while the women 's team has claimed the crown 14 times since 1970 . Established in 1897 , the University of Toronto Rowing Club is the oldest collegiate rowing club in Canada . It earned a silver medal for the country in the 1924 Summer Olympics , finishing second to Yale 's crew .
The back campus of University College was used for field hockey during the 2015 Pan American Games and the field was renamed Pan Am / Parapan Am Fields for the duration of the Pan American Games .
= = Culture and student life = =
In the heart of social , cultural and recreational life at the University of Toronto lies Hart House , the sprawling neo @-@ Gothic student activity centre that was conceived by alumnus @-@ benefactor Vincent Massey and named for his grandfather Hart . Opened in 1919 , the complex established a communitarian spirit in the university and its students , who at the time kept largely within their own colleges under the decentralized collegiate system . At Hart House , a student can read in the library , dine casually or formally , have a haircut , visit the art gallery , watch a play in the theatre , listen to a concert , observe or join in debates , play billiards , or go for a swim and find a place to study , all under the same roof and within the span of a day . The confluence of assorted functions is the result of a deliberate effort to create a holistic educational experience , a goal summarized in the Founders ' Prayer . The Hart House model was influential in the planning of student centres at other universities , notably Cornell University 's Willard Straight Hall .
Hart House resembles some traditional aspects of student representation through its financial support of student clubs , and its standing committees and board of stewards that are composed mostly of undergraduate students . However , the main students ' unions on administrative and policy issues are the University of Toronto Students ' Union , Association of Part @-@ time Undergraduate Students and the Graduate Students ' Union . Student representative bodies also exist at the various colleges , academic faculties and departments .
The Hart House Debating Club employs a debating style that combines the American emphasis on analysis and the British use of wit . Smaller debating societies at Trinity , University and Victoria College have served as initial training grounds for debaters who later progress to Hart House . The club won the World Universities Debating Championship in 1981 and 2006 . The North American Model United Nations hosts an annual Model United Nations conference on campus , while the United Nations Society participates in various North American and international conferences . The Toronto chess team has captured the top title six times at the Pan American Intercollegiate Team Chess Championship . The Formula SAE Racing Team won the Formula Student European Championships in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 .
= = = Greek life = = =
The University of Toronto is home to the first collegiate fraternity in Canada , Zeta Psi , whose Toronto chapter has been active since 1879 . Because few other Canadian universities in the 19th century were deemed comparable to their American counterparts in repute , age and secularity , most early American fraternities chose to open their first international chapter at the University of Toronto , including Delta Kappa Epsilon , Sigma Chi , Delta Upsilon , Phi Delta Theta , Phi Kappa Sigma , Phi Gamma Delta , Psi Upsilon , Alpha Delta Phi , Beta Theta Pi , Pi Kappa Phi , Lambda Phi Epsilon , Sigma Nu , Theta Delta Chi , Alpha Kappa Nu , Alpha Omicron Pi , Delta Delta Delta , Alpha Kappa Delta Phi and Lambda Chi Alpha . Other Greek @-@ letter societies include Alpha Gamma Delta , Alpha Phi , Alpha Sigma Nu , Delta Phi Nu , Gamma Phi Beta , Kappa Alpha Society , Delta Psi Delta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , Pi Beta Phi , Sigma Pi , and Alpha Epsilon Pi . A secret society known as Episkopon has operated from Trinity College since 1858 .
= = = Theatre and music = = =
Hart House Theatre is the university 's student amateur theatre , generally producing four major plays every season . As old as Hart House itself , the theatre is considered a pioneer in Canadian theatre for introducing the Little Theatre Movement from Europe . It has cultivated numerous performing @-@ arts talents , including Donald Sutherland , Lorne Michaels , Wayne and Shuster and William Hutt . Three members of the Group of Seven artists ( Harris , Lismer and MacDonald ) have been set designers at the theatre , and composer Healey Willan was director of music for fourteen productions . The theatre also hosts annual variety shows run by several student theatrical companies at the colleges and academic faculties , the most prominent of which are U.C. Follies of University College , Skule Nite of the Faculty of Engineering , and Daffydil of the Faculty of Medicine , the latter in its hundredth year of production in 2010 – 2011 .
The main musical ensembles at Hart House are the orchestra , the chamber strings , the chorus , the jazz choir , the jazz ensemble and the symphonic band . The Jazz at Oscar 's concert series performs big band and vocal jazz on Friday nights at the period lounge and bar of the Hart House Arbor Room . Open Stage is the monthly open mic event featuring singers , comics , poets and storytellers . The Sunday Concert is the oldest musical series at Hart House ; since 1922 , the series has performed more than 600 classical music concerts in the Great Hall , freely attended by the university community and general audiences . The public may also screen midday events held at noon , when concerts are recited prior to formal debut .
= = = Student media = = =
The Varsity is one of Canada 's oldest student @-@ run newspapers , in publication since 1880 . The paper was originally a daily broadsheet , but has since adopted a compact format and is now weekly with three summer issues . Hart House Review , a literary magazine , publishes prose , poetry , and visual art from emerging Canadian writers and artists . The Newspaper is an independent student @-@ run community newspaper , published weekly since 1978 . CIUT @-@ FM is the university 's campus radio station , while the University of Toronto Television broadcasts student @-@ produced content . Students at each college and academic faculty also produce their own set of journals and news publications . University College 's The Gargoyle was an early training ground for such notables as journalist Naomi Klein , and musician / comedian Paul Shaffer . Victoria University 's Acta Victoriana is the oldest active literary journal in Canada , and provided first publication credits to such literary figures as Margaret Atwood and Northrop Frye .
Members of the student press have contributed to activist causes on several notable occasions . At the height of debate on coeducation in 1880 , The Varsity published an article in its inaugural issue voicing in favour of admitting women . In 1895 , the university suspended the editor of The Varsity for breach of collegiality , after he published a letter that harshly criticized the provincial government 's dismissal of a professor and involvement in academic affairs . University College students then approved a motion by Varsity staff member William Lyon Mackenzie King and boycotted lectures for a week . After Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau decriminalized homosexuality throughout Canada in 1969 , a medical research assistant placed an advertisement in The Varsity seeking volunteers to establish the first university homophile association in Canada .
= = = Residences = = =
Each college at the University of Toronto operates its own set of residence halls and dining halls clustered in a different area of the campus . Innis , New , St. Michael 's , Trinity , University , Victoria , and Woodsworth colleges reserve most of their dormitories for their undergraduate students within the Faculty of Arts and Science , while setting a portion available to students from the professional and postgraduate faculties . Massey College is exclusively for graduate students , while Knox and Wycliffe Colleges mainly house graduate theology students . Annesley Hall of Victoria College , a National Historic Site , was the first university residence for women in Canada . After St. Hilda 's College became coeducational in 2005 , Annesley Hall and Loretto College of St. Michael 's College are the last remaining women 's halls at the university .
As campus residences accommodate just 6 @,@ 400 students in all , the university guarantees housing only for undergraduates in their first year of study , while most upper @-@ year and graduate students reside off @-@ campus . Traditionally , the adjacent neighbourhoods of The Annex and Harbord Village are popular settling grounds for University of Toronto students , forming a distinct student quarter enclave . In 2004 , the university purchased and converted a nearby hotel into the Chestnut Residence , which houses students from all colleges and faculties . There are also numerous fraternity houses and student housing cooperatives , where boarders pay reduced rent for assuming housekeeping duties .
= = = Student strikes = = =
There have been four student strikes at the University of Toronto by members of CUPE 3902 . The most recent strike was for four weeks in 2015 ( February 27 to March 27 ) . Graduate and undergraduate student teachers ( teaching assistants , course instructors , invigilators , and TA trainers ) went on strike to raise the minimum funding package to a level above the poverty line and to eliminate the tuition paid by fourth @-@ year students outside the funding package .
= = Notable people = =
In addition to Havelock , Innis , Frye , Carpenter and McLuhan , former professors of the 20th century include Frederick Banting , Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter , Robertson Davies , John Charles Fields , Leopold Infeld and C. B. Macpherson . Ten Nobel laureates studied or taught at the University of Toronto . As of 2006 , University of Toronto academics accounted for 15 of 23 Canadian members in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ( 65 % ) and 20 of 72 Canadian fellows in the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( 28 % ) . Among honorees from Canada between 1980 and 2006 , University of Toronto faculty made up 11 of 21 Gairdner Foundation International Award recipients ( 52 % ) , 44 of 101 Guggenheim Fellows ( 44 % ) , 16 of 38 Royal Society fellows ( 42 % ) , 10 of 28 members in the United States National Academies ( 36 % ) and 23 of 77 Sloan Research Fellows ( 30 % ) .
Alumni of the University of Toronto 's colleges , faculties and professional schools have assumed notable roles in a wide range of fields and specialties . In government , Governors General Vincent Massey and Adrienne Clarkson , Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King , Arthur Meighen , Lester B. Pearson and Paul Martin , and 14 Justices of the Supreme Court have all graduated from the university , while world leaders include President of Latvia Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga , Premier of the Republic of China Liu Chao @-@ shiuan and President of Trinidad and Tobago Noor Hassanali . Economist John Kenneth Galbraith , political scientist David Easton , historian Margaret MacMillan , philosophers David Gauthier and Ted Honderich , anthropologist Davidson Black , social activist Ellen Pence , sociologist Erving Goffman , psychologists Endel Tulving , Daniel Schacter , and Lisa Feldman Barrett , physicians Norman Bethune and Charles Best , geologists Joseph Tyrrell and John Tuzo Wilson , mathematicians Irving Kaplansky and William Kahan , physicists Arthur Leonard Schawlow and Bertram Brockhouse , religion scholar Amir Hussain , architect James W. Strutt , engineer Gerald Bull , computer scientists Alfred Aho and Brian Kernighan , and astronauts Roberta Bondar and Julie Payette are also some of the most well @-@ known academic figures from the university .
In business , University of Toronto alumni include Rogers Communications ' Ted Rogers , Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank 's W. Edmund Clark , Bank of Montreal 's Bill Downe , Scotiabank 's Peter Godsoe , Barrick Gold 's Peter Munk , BlackBerry 's Jim Balsillie , AGF 's Blake Goldring eBay 's Jeffrey Skoll and Fiat S.p.A. ' s Sergio Marchionne . In literature and media , the university has produced writers Stephen Leacock , John McCrae , Rohinton Mistry , Margaret Atwood and Michael Ondaatje , film directors Arthur Hiller , Norman Jewison , David Cronenberg and Atom Egoyan , actor Donald Sutherland , screenwriter David Shore , television producer and writer Hart Hanson , musician Paul Shaffer , journalists Malcolm Gladwell , Naomi Klein and Barbara Amiel .
= Sheryl Crow ( album ) =
Sheryl Crow is the second studio album by the American singer Sheryl Crow , released on September 24 , 1996 by A & M Records . Unlike its predecessor Tuesday Night Music Club , which was written by a casual collective formed by Crow and several other musicians , Sheryl Crow was entirely produced by Crow , who wrote most of the songs alone or with only one collaborator . Most of the album was recorded at Kingsway Studio in New Orleans , Louisiana . The album covers topics of American life , relationship breakups , and moral and ethical issues , while encompassing a variety of music genres such as rock , blues , alternative rock , country , and folk .
Sheryl Crow was a commercial success , being certified 3 × platinum by the RIAA and 3 × platinum by the BPI . It also reached No. 6 on the US Billboard Top 200 chart and produced five singles , including the international hit " If It Makes You Happy " . The album received very positive reviews from critics , who praised its intricate production and Crow 's louder and more assured singing . At the 39th Annual Grammy Awards , the album was awarded Best Rock Album and Crow received the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance award for " If It Makes You Happy " . Retrospectively , it is often regarded as one of Crow 's best albums .
= = Background and recording = =
Sheryl Crow is the follow @-@ up to Sheryl Crow 's 1993 album Tuesday Night Music Club , which was written by a group of musicians known as the " Tuesday Music Club " . The group existed as a casual collective formed by Crow and musicians Bill Bottrell , David Baerwald , Kevin Gilbert , Brian MacLeod , David Ricketts , and Dan Schwartz . The album was a commercial success and produced several hit singles , including " All I Wanna Do " , " Strong Enough " , and " Leaving Las Vegas " . It was certified 7 × Platinum in the United States and 2 × Platinum in the United Kingdom . Crow was also awarded Best New Artist , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , and Record of the Year at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards .
Tensions between Crow and other members of the group began to arise following Crow 's performance of " Leaving Las Vegas " on the Late Show with David Letterman in March 1994 . Crow offhandedly agreed with the host when she was asked if the track was autobiographical , even though it was primarily written by Baerwald and based on the book of the same name by his friend John O 'Brien . As a result , several members of the Tuesday Music Club group felt betrayed , and O 'Brien himself committed suicide three weeks later . Nevertheless , O 'Brien 's parents insisted that Crow had nothing to do with the tragedy , noting that he " was just mad about it [ ... ] But the problems that drove him toward the end were – you know , that 's a long , long bloody trip . "
After Tuesday Night Music Club , Crow wanted to prove her authority as a musician . According to her , " My only objective on this record was to get under people 's skin , because I was feeling like I had so much shit to hurl at the tape . " Work on the new album began at Toad Hall in Pasadena , California , the same studio where Tuesday Night Music Club was recorded , but sessions were soon relocated to New Orleans , Louisiana because Crow " was feeling ghosts in that room " . Bottrell was designated to produce the record and co @-@ wrote three songs that would appear on the album , but eventually left because he could not sort out his differences with Crow . As a result , Crow took over production duties and wrote most of the songs alone or with only one collaborator . She also played most of the instruments on the album , including bass and guitar work and nearly all the keyboard parts . Most of the album was recorded at Kingsway Studio in New Orleans , although Crow would later return to Los Angeles to complete work at The Sound Factory and Sunset Sound . Audio mastering took place at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland , Maine .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Sheryl Crow was described as a combination of rock , blues , alternative rock , country , folk , and light hip hop loops . Unlike its predecessor , it also features a more off @-@ balance production and a richer instrumentation , with " lots of fuzz , wurlitzer , hammond , moog . Nothing extreme , perhaps , but almost psychedelic when joined to big mainstream melodies " , one critic explained . The album covers topics of American life , relationship breakups , and moral and ethical issues , among others . For example , " Home " is a folk ballad where Crow recounts the emotional difficulties of a deteriorating relationship , while " Superstar " deals with a woman fantasizing about stardom . The song " A Change Would Do You Good " , which features hand claps and organ licks , is about the need to escape a constricted life .
The opening track , " Maybe Angels " , was described as " a cryptic ode to UFOs and government conspiracies that plays like an X @-@ Files theme song . " Crow explained that the song is " an extraterrestrial yarn that finds Kurt Cobain joining John Lennon in heaven 's winged choir " . The track " Redemption Day " is a protest against the US indifference to the Bosnian War . It was inspired when Crow visited the country as part of a USO trip with Hillary and Chelsea Clinton . The song was later covered by Johnny Cash , appearing on his 2010 posthumous record American VI : Ain 't No Grave . The track " Hard to Make a Stand " references abortion , while " Love Is a Good Thing " criticizes Walmart 's gun sales policy with the lyrics " Watch out sister / Watch out brother / Watch our children as they kill each other / with a gun they bought at the Wal @-@ Mart discount stores . " The song caused some controversy , resulting in Walmart banning sales of the album at their stores .
The album 's lead single , " If It Makes You Happy " , underwent several different arrangements before being turned into a rock song . According to musician Jeff Trott , who co @-@ wrote the song along with Crow , " It started off as a twangy , David Lynch @-@ esque sort of thing . Then [ ... ] we played it like punk rock , really fast , as well as country and funky . You know , you get a song and put clothes on it to see what looks good and what doesn 't , and usually when you find the right one it 's pretty obvious . With that song it was real obvious ! " Trott initially wrote the song when he was a member of Pete Droge 's backing band , but Crow added a second verse and strengthened the melody . Sheryl Crow also has contributions by notable musicians . For example , " Sweet Rosalyn " features saxophone by Steve Berlin of Los Lobos , while " Everyday Is a Winding Road " features harmony vocals by Neil Finn of Crowded House .
= = Release = =
Sheryl Crow was released on CD and cassette formats on September 24 , 1996 . The album reached No. 6 on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 143 @,@ 000 copies in the first two weeks of release . As of January 2008 , the album had sold 2 @.@ 4 million units in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan and has been certified 3 × platinum by the RIAA . In the United Kingdom , Sheryl Crow reached No. 5 on the UK Albums Chart and was certified 3 × platinum by the BPI . Unlike the American edition , the British edition of the album contains the bonus track " Free Man " . Sheryl Crow also reached top ten in Austria , Belgium , New Zealand , Sweden and Switzerland . In Europe , it was certified platinum by the IFPI . A special edition of the album , entitled Sheryl Crow - Signature Tour Edition , was released in Australia and Japan in 1997 . It contains the bonus tracks " Sad Sad World " and an alternate version of " Hard to Make a Stand " as well as a bonus CD with six songs recorded live at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London on November 26 , 1996 . This 2CD set was also released as Sheryl Crow - Special Edition in the United Kingdom in 1997 .
The song " If It Makes You Happy " was released as the lead single on September 20 , 1996 and became an international hit , peaking at No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and selling 82 @,@ 000 units in the first two weeks of release . It was also a success in the United Kingdom , where it reached No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart . Other countries where the single charted include Australia , Canada , France , New Zealand and Switzerland . A music video was made for the song under the direction of Keir McFarlane . " Everyday Is a Winding Road " was released on November 8 , 1996 as the album 's second single . The song was also a success , reaching No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 12 on the UK Singles Chart . The tracks " Hard to Make a Stand " , " A Change Would Do You Good " , and " Home " were released as the album 's last three singles . " A Change Would Do You Good " was a modest success , peaking at No. 16 on the Mainstream Top 40 and No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Sheryl Crow received general acclaim from most music critics . Eric Weisbard of Spin praised the album 's production , stating that the record " goes much further " than its predecessor and that its " bigger beats and dirtier guitar / keyboard effects [ work ] well with Crow 's literate hippie @-@ chick persona " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated similar pros , commenting : " If there 's such a thing as a professional lo @-@ fi album , Sheryl Crow is it . " He also noted Crow 's louder and more assured singing , concluding that she " doesn 't expose that much of herself [ ... ] she 's an emotional centrist . But at the very least , she 's building a bridge to a lasting career " . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , J.D. Considine praised Crow 's vocals , especially on " If It Makes You Happy " , which he felt was probably the album 's best song .
Despite the praise , the last third of the album was considered the weakest part and the song " Ordinary Morning " was considered a poor choice for a closer . Rolling Stone editor David Fricke also criticized the album for being underdeveloped and lacking originality , and unfavorably compared the song " Hard to Make a Stand " to " Tumbling Dice " by the Rolling Stones and " Sweet Jane " by the Velvet Underground . In February 1997 , Sheryl Crow was ranked at number 26 in The Village Voice 's 1996 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . At the 39th Annual Grammy Awards , the album was awarded Best Rock Album and Crow received the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance award for the song " If It Makes You Happy " .
Retrospectively , AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine referred to the album as " a postmodern masterpiece of sorts -- albeit a mainstream , post @-@ alternative , postmodern masterpiece . It may not be as hip or innovative as , say , the Beastie Boys ' Paul 's Boutique , but it is as self @-@ referential , pop culture obsessed , and musically eclectic . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine highlighted the album 's " quirky , stream @-@ of @-@ conscious lyrics " and elaborate sound collages , stating that " none of [ Crow 's ] other full @-@ length albums have been as consistent , immaculately produced or distinctly modern . " In 1999 , Rolling Stone selected Sheryl Crow as one of the essential albums of the decade . In 2002 , the mamazine also ranked it at number 44 in its list of Women in Rock : The 50 Essential Albums . In 2003 , the album was featured in the Vital Pop : 50 Essential Pop Albums list by Slant Magazine . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly magazine placed the album at number 39 in their list of Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= ? ( film ) =
? ( also written Tanda Tanya , meaning Question Mark ) is a 2011 Indonesian drama film directed by Hanung Bramantyo . It stars Revalina Sayuthi Temat , Reza Rahadian , Agus Kuncoro , Endhita , Rio Dewanto , and Hengky Sulaeman . The theme is Indonesia 's religious pluralism , which often results in conflict between religious beliefs , represented in a plot that revolves around the interactions of three families , one Buddhist , one Muslim , and one Catholic . After undergoing numerous hardships and the deaths of several family members in religious violence , they are reconciled .
Based on Bramantyo 's experiences as a mixed @-@ race child , ? was meant to counter the portrayal of Islam as a " radical religion " . Owing to the film 's theme of religious pluralism and controversial subject matter , Bramantyo had difficulty finding backing . Eventually , Mahaka Pictures put forth Rp 5 billion to fund the production . Filming began on 5 January 2011 in Semarang .
Released on 7 April 2011 , ? was a critical and commercial success : it received favourable reviews and was viewed by more than 550 @,@ 000 people . Also screened internationally , it was nominated for nine Citra Awards at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one . However , several Indonesian Muslim groups , including the Indonesian Ulema Council and Islamic Defenders Front , protested against the film because of its pluralist message .
= = Plot = =
? focuses on interfaith relations in Indonesia , a country where religious conflicts are common , and there is a long history of violence and discrimination against Chinese Indonesians . The storyline follows three families living in a village in Semarang , Central Java : the Chinese @-@ Indonesian Buddhist Tan Kat Sun ( Hengky Sulaeman ) and his son Hendra ( Rio Dewanto ) , the Muslim couple Soleh ( Reza Rahadian ) and Menuk ( Revalina S. Temat ) , and the Catholic @-@ convert Rika ( Endhita ) and her Muslim son Abi .
Sun and Hendra run a Chinese restaurant that serves pork , which is forbidden for Muslims , although the restaurant has many Muslim clients and staff . To ensure good relations with his Muslim employees and customers , Sun uses special utensils for the preparation of pork , which he does not permit to be used for other dishes , and allows his staff time for prayers ; he also gives them a holiday during Eid ul @-@ Fitr , the largest Muslim holiday . One of his employees is Menuk , who supports her unemployed husband Soleh . Rika is Menuk 's friend and is involved with the unsuccessful Muslim actor Surya ( Agus Kuncoro ) .
Already in his 70s , Sun falls ill , and the restaurant is taken over by Hendra , who decides it will serve exclusively pork , alienating Muslim customers . Hendra comes into conflict with Soleh over Menuk , as Hendra had previously dated her . Menuk becomes increasingly depressed after Soleh tells her that he plans to divorce her , and they are driven apart . Rika feels stressed as a result of how she has been treated by her neighbours and family after converting to Catholicism from Islam ; Abi is also facing ostracism . Meanwhile , Surya and Doni ( Glenn Fredly ) are competing for Rika 's affections . Surya is upset over his failure to find a good acting job .
Soleh joins the Islamic charitable group Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) , hoping to gain confidence . Though he is initially reluctant to protect the security of a church , he ends up sacrificing his life when he discovers a bomb has been planted in a Catholic church . He rushes out with the bomb , which explodes outside the church , killing Soleh , but away from the worshippers . Sun dies when the restaurant , which did not close to honour Eid ul @-@ Fitr , is attacked by a group of Muslims . After the attack , Hendra reads the 99 Names of Allah and converts to Islam ; he attempts to approach Menuk , although it is unclear if she will accept him . Surya receives an offer from Rika to play the role of Jesus in her church 's Christmas and Easter pageants , which he accepts for a high fee after hesitating due to fears that it will be against his religion ; after the pageant he reads Al @-@ Ikhlas in a mosque . Rika is able to obtain her parents ' blessing for her conversion .
= = Cast = =
Revalina S. Temat as Menuk , a religious Muslim woman who wears a hijab and is married to Soleh . Menuk works at Tan Kat Sun 's restaurant alongside her would @-@ be suitor , Sun 's son Hendra . According to Temat , Menuk married Soleh , whom she did not love , instead of Hendra because Soleh was Muslim .
Reza Rahadian as Soleh , Menuk 's unemployed Muslim husband , who wishes to be a hero for his family . He eventually joins the Banser branch of the Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) and is tasked with protecting places of worship from possible terrorist attacks . He dies in the process of removing a bomb from a church full of worshippers .
Endhita as Rika , a young divorcée , mother of one , and Catholic convert . Because of her divorce and conversion , she is often looked down upon by her neighbours . She also comes into conflict with her son Abi , who did not convert with her , over her faith . Endhita received a nomination at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival for Best Supporting Actress for her role , but lost to Dewi Irawan of Sang Penari ( The Dancer ) .
Agus Kuncoro as Surya , a young Muslim actor and Rika 's boyfriend . His inability to secure more than bit parts provokes financial desperation and an existential crisis . He eventually lands the lead role as Jesus at Rika 's Easter and Christmas pageants . Kuncoro received a nomination at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival for Best Supporting Actor for his role , but lost to Mathias Muchus of Pengejar Angin ( The Wind Chaser ) .
Rio Dewanto as Hendra ( Ping Hen ) , the son of Tan Kat Sun and Lim Giok Lie . He constantly argues with his parents , especially about running the restaurant . He falls in love with Menuk , but she rejects him since he is not Muslim . After the death of his father , he converts to Islam .
Hengky Sulaeman as Tan Kat Sun , a Chinese @-@ Indonesian restaurant owner , husband of Lim Giok Lie and father of Hendra . Sun 's health is poor health , but he keeps a positive attitude .
Edmay as Lim Giok Lie , wife of Tan Kat Sun and mother of Hendra . She often gives advice to Menuk .
Glenn Fredly as Doni , a Catholic youth in love with Rika .
David Chalik as Wahyu , a Muslim religious leader and adviser to Surya .
Dedy Soetomo as the pastor of Rika 's church .
= = Production = =
? was directed by Hanung Bramantyo , who is of mixed Chinese @-@ Javanese descent . He decided to direct a pluralist @-@ themed film based on his own experiences as a mixed @-@ race child . He chose the title ? to avoid protests upon the film 's release , saying that if it had been named Liberalism or Pluralism there would be protests by opponents of those ideologies , and that he could not think of a better title . The individual characters are based on people Bramantyo has known or read about . His goal in making the film was to " clarify misleading arguments about Islam " and counter the portrayal of Islam as a " radical religion " . In a pre @-@ release press conference , Bramantyo said that ? was not meant to be commercial , but to make a statement . The film , his fourteenth , is one of several Islam @-@ themed movies he has directed , after the polygamous romantic drama Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( The Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and the biopic Sang Pencerah ( The Enlightener ; 2009 ) .
Fearing that the theme of pluralism would be taken as a " battle cry " , some investors abandoned their commitments ; Bramantyo was also unable to find support from mainstream studios . Before screening the film for the Indonesian Film Censor Board , several scenes were cut , including one in which a pig 's head was displayed in the window of Sun 's restaurant ; other scenes that raised commentary were kept , although trimmed . Prior to the film 's release , Bramantyo consulted about twenty people , including several religious leaders , in an attempt to ensure that the film was not offensive . Titien Wattimena was brought in to work further with the script ; she put more emphasis on the message of tolerance .
Mahaka Pictures , owned by the same group as the predominantly Muslim Republika , co @-@ produced the film with Dapur Film . The director of Mahaka Pictures , Erick Thohir , stated that his company had assisted with production because he " was disturbed by the fact that Indonesian films have declined in quality " . He was willing to work with Bramantyo , as he found that the latter had proven to be a skilled director of religious films through his earlier work . Filming began on 5 January 2011 in Semarang ; Bramantyo later described the city as a good example of tolerance in action . The film reportedly cost Rp 5 billion ( US $ 600 @,@ 000 ) to produce . Two songs by the Indonesian band Sheila on 7 , " Pasti Kubisa " ( " Sure I Can " ) and " Kamus Hidupku " ( " Dictionary to My Life " ) were used in the soundtrack , while Satrio Budiono and Saft Daultsyah handled sound editing .
Mulyo Hadi Purnomo , based in Semarang , was tasked with casting the minor roles . Bramantyo contacted the main cast members directly . Agus Kuncoro , who had acted in Sang Pencerah and was known for playing in Islamic @-@ themed films , agreed to play Surya in ? immediately after reading the script . Singer Glenn Fredly was interested in playing Doni because he considered the character , an ultra @-@ conservative Catholic , an interesting role , given the sensitive religious situation in the country . Revalina S. Temat , who had appeared in Bramantyo 's 2009 film Perempuan Berkalung Sorban ( The Girl With the Keffiyeh Around Her Neck ) , found her role as Menuk interesting and more serious than her recent work in horror films . Endhita , whom Bramantyo called for the role , expressed interest as soon as she received an outline of the plot .
= = Themes and style = =
Ade Irwansyah , writing for Tabloid Bintang , notes that the film is a " microcosm " of Indonesia , which has numerous religious groups that often come into conflict . Irwansyah writes that Bramantyo intended for viewers to think of the religious conflicts that happen daily , and how to deal with differences in culture and beliefs , while Bramantyo has called the film his own personal interpretation of the country 's religious situation . The film critic Eric Sasono noted this was apparent from the film 's tagline , " Is it still important that we are different ? " , and suggested that Bramantyo feared that Indonesia was becoming a monolithic state . According to Sasono , the conflict in ? is settled when the characters begin believing that all religions are good , and all praise God ; thus , all religious conflict would end if people were to accept other beliefs .
The Jakarta Globe describes the film as a " study of the role and state of Islam in modern Indonesian society " . Sasono noted that the Muslim majority in the film did not have their motives shown explicitly , be it for the use of the racist term " Cino " or for attacking Sun 's restaurant . After comparing the actions of Muslim groups in ? and Asrul Sani 's films Al Kautsar ( 1977 ) and Titian Serambut Dibelah Tujuh ( Titian Serambut , Divided by Seven ; 1982 ) , Sasono suggested that Bramantyo may have been expressing a fear that these groups no longer needed provocateurs to attack others . He notes that a scene in which a Catholic priest is stabbed by two men on a motorcycle reflects a September 2010 case in Bekasi , which had become a national issue . He further describes the camera angles as vulgar , abandoning subtlety , but suggests that they made the work more dramatic ; he indicates that this was readily apparent with a scene in which part of a mosque falls apart .
= = Release = =
? debuted at Gandaria City in South Jakarta on 31 March 2011 , with a wide release on 7 April . Its release coincided with a contest sponsored by a local cellular service provider that called on viewers to decide the best name to describe the events shown in the film ; it was said that the best name to be submitted would be used on the DVD release , but this was ultimately not done . Within five days of its premiere , ? had been seen by almost 100 @,@ 000 people . ? had been watched by more than 550 @,@ 000 people by mid @-@ September . The film was also shown internationally . At the sixth Indonesian Film Festival in Australia , ? was screened to full theatres on 25 August 2011 as the festival 's closing film . According to Bramantyo , the film was also screened in Vancouver and Paris , receiving positive feedback .
A novelisation of the film , entitled Harmoni Dalam Tanda Tanya ( Harmony in Tanda Tanya ) and published by Mahaka Publishing , was released in December 2011 . Written by Melvy Yendra dan Adriyati , it further expanded the background of the film , including the relationship between Hendra and Menuk . On 21 February 2012 , ? was released on DVD by Jive ! Collection , after passing the censorship board in January . The DVD featured Indonesian audio , Indonesian and English subtitles , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , and a gallery of photographs from production . In a preface on the DVD 's liner notes , Ronny P. Tjandra of Jive ! Collection wrote that viewers should view the film with open hearts , as the conflicts within reflected actualities in society .
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to ? was favourable . Indah Setiawati of The Jakarta Post wrote that the film was a " gallant attempt to promoted [ sic ] moderate Islam and reveal the sensitive issues in the country in a casual way " , and that viewers should " get ready to burst into laughter and break down in tears " . Aguslia , writing for Tempo , said that it was better than the 2010 Citra Award winner 3 Hati Dua Dunia , Satu Cinta , which had similar themes . Kartoyo DS , reviewing for Suara Karya after a press screening , praised the plot , visuals , and music .
Benny Benke , writing for the Semarang @-@ based daily Suara Merdeka , found that Bramantyo had used ? to portray tolerance in Indonesia without making the subject seem cliché ; however , he considered some scenes , such as Hendra 's conversion , overdone . Frans Sartono , reviewing for the historically Catholic daily Kompas , considered the film heavily didactic but ultimately interesting , because its social commentary was much needed , considering Indonesia 's religious turmoil . He also noted that the characters were driven to their actions by worldly needs and not religion .
= = = Controversy = = =
After the release of ? , the conservative Islamic Defenders Front ( Front Pembela Islam , or FPI ) demonstrated against the film , owing to its pluralist message . Banser , the youth wing of the NU , also protested the film , taking offence to a scene in which Banser members are paid to do their charitable duties ; they insisted that they are not . Meanwhile , the head of the Center For Culture of the Indonesian Ulema Council ( Majelis Ulama Indonesia , or MUI ) Cholil Ridwan stated that " the film clearly propagates religious pluralism " , which the MUI had previously declared haraam ( forbidden ) in 2005 . Protests also erupted when SCTV announced plans to show ? during Eid al @-@ Fitr in 2011 ; the FPI organised a demonstration in front of the station 's office , in which hundreds of its members called for further cuts to the film . The network later decided against showing the film in a decision which was heavily criticised and seen as " giving in " to the FPI .
In response to the criticism of ? , Minister of Culture and Tourism Jero Wacik expressed that the film would be best titled Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ( " Unity in Diversity " , the Indonesian national motto ) , and that its depiction of inter @-@ ethnic and interfaith tolerance reflected Indonesia 's " national character " . Yenny Wahid , a religious activist and daughter of former president and noted pluralist Abdurrahman Wahid , said that ? had " succeeded in conveying the ideas of pluralism in Indonesia " , and that critics should not look at it in fragments . Although initially tweeting that the protests were free promotion , Bramantyo later entered discussions with the MUI and agreed to cut some scenes to avoid protests . In an October 2011 interview , he said he was " bewildered " that the film was poorly received by Muslims .
= = Awards = =
? received 9 nominations at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one Citra Award for Best Cinematography . Together with Ifa Isfansyah 's Sang Penari and Benni Setiawan 's Masih Bukan Cinta Biasa ( Still Not Normal Love ) , it was the most @-@ nominated film of the year ; however , ? received the least Citra Awards of the three . Sang Penari won two of the awards for which ? had been nominated , including Best Director , while Masih Bukan Cinta Biasa took Best Sound and Kamila Andini 's The Mirror Never Lies bested ? for Best Original Story . In 2012 ? was nominated for three awards at the Bandung Film Festival , winning none ; all three awards were taken by The Mirror Never Lies .
= German Type U 66 submarine =
The Type U 66 was a class of five submarines or U @-@ boats operated by the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The class is alternately referred to as the U @-@ 66 @-@ class or the Type UD . The class was built by Germaniawerft of Kiel to their 506d design as the U @-@ 7 @-@ class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The five boats were sold to the Imperial Germany Navy at the beginning of World War I when it was thought impossible for the submarines to reach the Mediterranean for delivery to Austria @-@ Hungary .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , after competitively evaluating six submarines of three foreign designs , selected the Germaniwerft 506d or Type UD design over a design from Whitehead & Co. for the U @-@ 7 class . The boats , numbered U @-@ 7 to U @-@ 11 , were designed to be 228 feet ( 69 m ) long and displace between 695 and 885 tonnes ( 684 and 871 long tons ) when surfaced and submerged . They were to be armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun . For propulsion the design called for twin diesel engines for surface running and twin electric motors for subsurface movement . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered the boats in February 1913 and construction began on the first boats in November .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy became convinced that delivery of the still @-@ unfinished submarines to the Mediterranean via Gibraltar would be impossible . As a result , they sold the five boats to the Imperial German Navy in November 1914 . The German Navy assigned the numbers U @-@ 66 to U @-@ 70 to the five submarines and had them redesigned and reconstructed to their specifications . These changes , which included a larger deck gun , increased the displacement of the U @-@ boats by almost 100 tonnes ( 98 long tons ) surfaced and nearly 50 tonnes ( 49 long tons ) submerged .
All five boats saw active service , and four sank 18 or more ships . Only U @-@ 68 , sunk six days into her first war patrol in March 1916 , had no successes . Two other boats , U @-@ 66 and U @-@ 69 disappeared in 1917 . The remaining two U @-@ boats , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 70 , were surrendered to the United Kingdom and were broken up by 1921 .
= = Background = =
In 1904 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , after allowing the navies of other countries to pioneer submarine developments , ordered the Austrian Naval Technical Committee ( German : Marinetechnisches Komitee or MTK ) to produce a submarine design . When the Navy rejected the January 1905 MTK design and other designs submitted as part of a public competition as impracticable , they instead opted to order two submarines each of designs by Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland for a competitive evaluation .
Based on the trials results , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy determined the characteristics that the next generation of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines should have . They were looking for a double @-@ hulled submarine of about 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ) displacement with diesel propulsion . They also wanted a surface speed of 16 – 18 knots ( 30 – 33 km / h ; 18 – 21 mph ) , and for the boat to be armed with between three and five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for the U @-@ 7 class over the Type 48 design submitted by Whitehead & Co . , primarily because of the lower cost . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
= = Design = =
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 228 feet ( 69 m ) long overall with a beam of 20 feet 8 inches ( 6 @.@ 30 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 78 m ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ; 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged .
The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 26 deck gun .
= = Construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's 1 February 1913 order , the first two boats , U @-@ 7 and U @-@ 8 , were laid down at Germaniawerft on 1 November . U @-@ 9 was laid down at the end of December , and the final two boats , U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 were both begun in February 1914 . Construction of the boats was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months .
None of the submarines were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , the five boats of the class were transferred to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 after the advance payment of 2 million Kronen had been returned . Germaniawerft was then awarded Kriegsauftrag D , hence the type was known as UD .
After their purchase , the boats were assigned the numbers U @-@ 66 to U @-@ 70 , and the class became known as the U 66 type . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
U @-@ 66 was launched on 22 April 1915 , the first of the class , and was followed by the other four about one every three weeks , with the last boat , U @-@ 70 , hitting the water on 20 July . The boats were all completed and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy between July and September .
= = Service career = =
All the boats of the U @-@ 66 class saw active service , and all but one boat , U @-@ 68 , had wartime successes ; U @-@ 69 and U @-@ 70 both sank over 100 @,@ 000 tons of Allied shipping . U @-@ 68 was sunk by the British Q @-@ ship HMS Farnborough in March 1916 , and was the first boat of the class to be lost during the war . U @-@ 69 and U @-@ 66 were lost in July and September 1917 , respectively . U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 70 both survived the war and were surrendered to the United Kingdom in November 1918 , and both were broken up by 1921 .
= = Boats in class = =
= = = SM U @-@ 66 = = =
U @-@ 66 , the lead boat of the class , was laid down on 1 November 1913 ( yard number 203 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 22 April 1915 . She was commissioned on 23 July 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Thorwald von Bothmer . During the war , she sank 25 ships totaling 69 @,@ 967 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The two largest ships she sank were the British steamers Powhatan ( 6 @,@ 117 GRT ) and Bay State ( 6 @,@ 583 GRT ) , both sunk in 1917 . U @-@ 66 was last heard from on 3 September 1917 when she reported her position in the North Sea . Her fate is officially unknown . British records suggest that U @-@ 66 may have struck a mine or been sunk by destroyers , this is not borne out by German records .
= = = SM U @-@ 67 = = =
U @-@ 67 was laid down on 1 November 1913 ( yard number 204 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 15 May 1915 . She was commissioned on 4 August 1915 under the command of Korvettenkapitän Erich von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski . U @-@ 67 sank a total of 18 ships ( 39 @,@ 937 GRT ) and damaged a further three ( 14 @,@ 766 GRT ) . U @-@ 67 was surrendered to the United Kingdom on 20 November 1918 and was broken up at Fareham in 1921 .
= = = SM U @-@ 68 = = =
U @-@ 68 was laid down on 31 December 1913 ( yard number 205 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 1 June 1915 . She was commissioned on 17 August 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Güntzel . Six days into her first war patrol , U @-@ 68 encountered the British Q @-@ ship HMS Farnborough ( Q @-@ ship number five ) off Dingle and was sunk with all hands . U @-@ 68 sank no ships during her brief service career .
= = = SM U @-@ 69 = = =
U @-@ 69 was laid down on 7 February 1914 ( yard number 206 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 24 June 1915 . She was commissioned on 4 September 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ernst Wilhelms . During her service career , U @-@ 69 sank 31 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of 102 @,@ 875 , the largest among them , the 13 @,@ 441 @-@ ton armed merchant cruiser Avenger . U @-@ 69 was last heard from on 11 July 1917 when she reported being off the coast of Norway . Her fate is officially unknown , even though British reports credit her sinking to destroyer HMS Patriot . The dates in German records , however , do not support this claim .
= = = SM U @-@ 70 = = =
U @-@ 70 was laid down on 11 February 1914 ( yard number 207 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 20 July 1915 . She was commissioned on 22 September 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Otto Wünsche . During the war , Wünsche and U @-@ 70 sank one warship , the British sloop Rhododendron , and 53 civilian ships totaling 137 @,@ 775 GRT . Among the civilian ships was Southland , at 11 @,@ 899 GRT , one of the largest ships hit by U @-@ boats during the war . U @-@ 70 also damaged four ships of 20 @,@ 369 GRT . U @-@ 70 was surrendered to the British on 20 November 1918 and was broken up at Bo 'ness in 1919 – 20 .
= Times Square Ball =
The Times Square Ball is an LED geodesic sphere located in New York City 's Times Square . Located on the roof of One Times Square , the ball is a prominent part of a New Year 's Eve celebration in Times Square Commonly known as the ball drop , where the ball descends 141 feet ( 43 m ) in 60 seconds down a specially designed flagpole , beginning at 11 : 59 : 00 p.m. ET , and resting at midnight to signal the start of the new year . In recent years , the festivities have been preceded by live entertainment , including performances by musicians .
The event was first organized by Adolph Ochs , owner of The New York Times newspaper , as a successor to a series of New Year 's Eve fireworks displays he held at the building to promote its status as the new headquarters of the Times , while the ball itself was designed by Artkraft Strauss . First held on December 31 , 1907 , to welcome 1908 , the ball drop has been held annually since , except in 1942 and 1943 in observance of wartime blackouts .
The ball 's design has also been updated over the years to reflect improvements in lighting technology ; the original design was made from wood and iron and lit with 100 incandescent light bulbs , while its current incarnation features a computerized LED lighting system and an outer surface consisting of triangle @-@ shaped crystal panels . Since 2009 , the current ball has been displayed atop the building year @-@ round , while the original , smaller version of the current ball that was used in 2008 is on display at Times Square 's visitor center .
The event is organized by the Times Square Alliance and Countdown Entertainment , a company led by Jeff Strauss , and is among the most notable New Year 's celebrations internationally : it is attended by at least 2 million spectators yearly , and is nationally televised as part of New Year 's Eve specials broadcast by a number of networks and cable channels . The prevalence of the Times Square ball drop has inspired similar " drops " at other local New Year 's Eve events across the country ; while some use balls , some instead drop objects that represent local culture or history .
= = Events = =
= = = Event organization = = =
To facilitate the arrival of attendees , Times Square is closed to traffic on beginning in the late afternoon on New Year 's Eve . The square is then divided into different viewing sections referred to as " pens " , into which attendees are directed sequentially upon arrival . Security is strictly enforced by the New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) , even more so since the 2001 @-@ 02 edition in the wake of the September 11 attacks . Attendees are required to pass through security checkpoints before they are assigned a pen , and are prohibited from bringing backpacks or alcohol to the event .
= = = Event Music = = =
Imagine - John Lennon ( rendition )
Auld Lang Syne - Guy lombardo and His Royal Canadians
New York New York - Frank Sinatra
What A Wonderful World - Louis Armstrong
America the Beautiful - Ray Charles
God Bless the U.S.A - Lee Greenwood
Somewhere Over the Rainbow - Israel Kamakawiwo 'Ole
= = = Festivities = = =
Festivities formally begin in the early evening with the raising of the ball at around 6 : 00 p.m. ET . Party favors are also distributed to attendees , which have historically included large balloons , hats , and other items branded with the event 's corporate sponsors . The hours before the drop are preceded by hourly countdowns for the arrival of the new year in other countries , along with live music performances by popular musicians . Some of these performances are organized by , and aired on New Year 's Eve television specials which are broadcast from Times Square .
The drop itself occurs at 11 : 59 p.m. — the last minute of the year , and is ceremonially " activated " by a dignitary or celebrity joined on @-@ stage by the current Mayor of New York City . The conclusion of the drop is followed by fireworks shot from the roof of One Times Square , along with the playing of " Auld Lang Syne " by Guy Lombardo , " Theme from New York , New York " by Frank Sinatra , " America the Beautiful " by Ray Charles , " What a Wonderful World " by Louis Armstrong , and " Over the Rainbow " by IZ .
Since the 1996 New Year 's Eve celebration , the current Mayor of New York City has been joined by a special guest , selected yearly to recognize their community involvement or significance , in ceremonially " activating " the ball drop by pressing a button , resembling a smaller version of the ball itself , at exactly one minute to midnight . The button itself does not actually trigger the drop ; that is done from a control room , synchronized using a government time signal . Special guests who have activated the ball drop have included :
1996 – 1997 : Oseola McCarty
1997 – 1998 : A group of five winners from a school essay contest honoring New York City 's centennial
1998 – 1999 : Chinese gymnast Sang Lan ( who was injured during the 1998 Goodwill Games and was being rehabilitated in New York City )
1999 – 2000 : Dr. Mary Ann Hopkins from Doctors Without Borders
2000 – 2001 : Muhammad Ali
2001 – 2002 : Rudy Giuliani and Judith Nathan ; activating the drop was also Giuliani 's final act as mayor . Michael Bloomberg officially became the new Mayor of New York City upon the beginning of 2002 , and took his oath of office shortly after midnight
2002 – 2003 : Christopher and Dana Reeve
2003 – 2004 : Cyndi Lauper , along with Shoshana Johnson , the first female American prisoner of war belonging to an ethnic minority
2004 – 2005 : Secretary of State Colin Powell
2005 – 2006 : Jazz musician Wynton Marsalis
2006 – 2007 : A group of eight United States Armed Forces members
2007 – 2008 : Karolina Wierzchowska , a valedictorian of the NYPD 's academy who also served in the Iraq War
2008 – 2009 : Bill and Hillary Clinton
2009 – 2010 : Twelve students from New York City high schools on the U.S. News & World Report " America 's Best High Schools Top 100 ' Gold Medal ' List "
2010 – 2011 : Former Staff sergeant Salvatore Giunta
2011 – 2012 : Lady Gaga
2012 – 2013 : The Rockettes
2013 – 2014 : U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor .
2014 – 2015 : Cuban @-@ American musician Jencarlos Canela and a group of refugees who emigrated to New York City , in partnership with the International Rescue Committee
2015 – 2016 : Hugh Evans
= = = = " Imagine " performance = = = =
Since the 2005 – 06 edition of the event , the drop has also been directly preceded by the playing of John Lennon 's song " Imagine " ; the original recording was previously used . It was replaced by a live performance by a pop musician for 2011 .
2010 – 2011 : Taio Cruz
2011 – 2012 : Cee @-@ Lo Green
2012 – 2013 : Train
2013 – 2014 : Melissa Etheridge
2014 – 2015 : O.A.R.
2015 – 2016 : Jessie J
= = = Cleanup = = =
After the conclusion of the festivities and the dispersal of attendees , cleanup is performed overnight to remove confetti and other debris from Times Square before it is re @-@ opened to the public the following morning . Few traces of the previous night 's celebration remain after the cleanup
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y Cil , where the Precambrian pillow lavas are exposed , revealing how they have been contorted over time .
= = = Y Rhiw = = =
The mountain @-@ top hamlet of Y Rhiw is 3 @.@ 9 miles ( 6 @.@ 3 km ) to the east . There are fine views of Llŷn towards Snowdonia ( Welsh : Eryri ) . On the slopes of Mynydd Rhiw is a late Stone Age burial chamber , and Neolithic quarries . Nearby on Mynydd y Graig are three hillforts , several hut circles and terraced fields that are thought to date from the late Iron Age ; in 1955 a Bronze Age cinerary urn was uncovered in the village .
Plas yn Rhiw , owned by the National Trust , is an early @-@ 17th century house that was restored by the Keating sisters in 1939 , with advice from Clough Williams @-@ Ellis . It is believed that the house is on or near the site of an earlier defended house , built by Meirion Goch in the 10th century to prevent incursions by Vikings into Porth Neigwl .
Bwlch y Garreg Wen at Y Rhiw , built in 1731 , is a croglofft cottage , a type of agricultural worker 's house found in Llŷn .
= = Transport = =
Aberdaron lies at the western end of the B4413 road . The road runs east to Llanbedrog , where it connects with the A499 Pwllheli to Abersoch road .
Bardsey Boat Trips ( Welsh : Mordeithiau Enlli ) operates passenger ferries between Porth Meudwy and Bardsey Island . These are supplemented by Enlli Charters , who sail between Pwllheli and the island . At low tide , the ferry boat has to be hauled up to the boathouse by tractor before passengers can disembark .
Buses are provided by two companies . Service 17 is operated by Nefyn Coaches , with six Monday to Saturday return journeys on the Pwllheli – Llanbedrog – Mynytho – Nanhoron – Botwnnog – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Penygroeslon – Rhoshirwaun – Aberdaron route . Two of the Aberdaron bound journeys divert through Bryn @-@ croes . Arriva Buses Wales provide a late night return journey on Saturdays . Service 17 is supplemented by Nefyn Coaches service 17b , running return journeys twice a day , Monday to Saturday , largely over the same route , but with diversions to serve Penllech and Llangwnnad towards Aberdaron , or Penycaerau and Y Rhiw heading back to Pwllheli .
The irregular Nefyn Coaches service 8b has an early morning weekday Nefyn – Tudweiliog – Llangwnnadl – Penygroeslon – Rhydlios bus , which operates only during school holidays . On Wednesdays throughout the year , a return journey runs the Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd – Aberdaron – Penycaerau – Y Rhiw – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedrog – Pwllheli route . On other weekdays a Nefyn – Tudweiliog – Llangwnnadl – Penygroeslon – Aberdaron – Uwchmynydd bus runs . On Wednesdays during school terms , an afternoon journey runs on the Y Rhiw – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedgrog – Pwllheli route . At weekends , a Saturday morning bus operates Nefyn – Dinas – Rhos @-@ ddu – Brynmawr – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Pant – Uwchmynydd . This then makes a journey through the heart of Llŷn on the Uwchmynydd – Porth Or – Rhydlios – Pant – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Brynmawr – Rhos @-@ ddu – Dinas – Llaniestyn – Garnfadryn – Rhyd @-@ y @-@ clafdy – Efailnewydd – Pwllheli route , returning in the afternoon . It completes the day retracing its steps over the Uwchmynydd – Pant – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Brynmawr – Rhos @-@ ddu – Dinas – Nefyn route .
On weekdays other than Wednesdays , Nefyn Coaches service 334 runs a morning Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd – Aberdaron – Penygroeslon – Llangwnnadl – Tudweiliog – Nefyn route . A second journey at midday operates from Uwchmynydd over the same route to Nefyn , and on to Pwllheli . Each weekday , an early evening bus runs the Penygroeslon – Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd route , while on Wednesdays during school holidays an afternoon Rhydlios – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedrog – Pwllheli bus runs .
The nearest railway station is at Pwllheli , 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) to the east , on the Cambrian Coast Line ( Welsh : Lein Arfordir y Cambria ) to Machynlleth . Services are provided by Arriva Trains Wales ( Welsh : Trenau Arriva Cymru ) , with some trains continuing to Shrewsbury and Birmingham .
= = Public services = =
Water and sanitation are provided by Dŵr Cymru ( English : Welsh Water ) , owned by Glas Cymru , a company limited by guarantee . The electricity distribution company is Scottish Power , a subsidiary of the Basque utility Iberdrola .
Welsh Ambulance Services ( Welsh : Gwasanaethau Ambiwlans Cymru ) provide ambulance and paramedic services ; and North West Wales NHS Trust ( Welsh : Ymddiriedolaeth GIG Gogledd Orllewin Cymru ) is responsible for hospital services . The nearest community hospital is Ysbyty Bryn Beryl at Pwllheli ; for 24 @-@ hour accident and emergency services the nearest provision is at Ysbyty Gwynedd in Bangor . The general provision of health services is the responsibility of Gwynedd Local Health Board ( Welsh : Bwrdd Iechyd Lleol Gwynedd ) .
Law enforcement is the responsibility of North Wales Police ( Welsh : Heddlu Gogledd Cymru ) , formed in 1967 as Gwynedd Constabulary . North Wales Fire and Rescue Service ( Welsh : Gwasanaeth Tân ac Achub Gogledd Cymru ) was created in 1996 by the merger of the Gwynedd and Clwyd fire brigades ; it provides public protection services , operating out of the fire station at Abersoch .
= = Education = =
In the early 19th century there was a school for poor children , which moved in a four @-@ year cycle between Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys , Bryncroes and Y Rhiw . The Elementary Education Act 1870 provided for local school boards , but was opposed by the established church . The process of establishing boards was lengthy , and the government had to enforce the regulations in Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw ; the national school opened at Y Rhiw in 1877 and had 74 pupils on its register ; it closed in 1965 .
Primary education is now provided by Ysgol Crud y Werin in Aberdaron , which has 54 pupils , and by Ysgol Llidiardau in Rhoshirwaun , established in 1880 , which has 21 pupils . At the last inspection of Ysgol Crud y Werin , by Estyn in 2008 , there were no pupils entitled to free school meals , and 84 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the main spoken language ; Welsh is the main medium of teaching . Ysgol Llidiardau was last inspected in 2009 ; 18 per cent of pupils were entitled to free school meals and 36 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the predominant language . Secondary school pupils mainly attend Ysgol Botwnnog .
= = Culture = =
Aberdaron is a predominantly Welsh @-@ speaking community ; 75 @.@ 2 per cent of the population speak the language . A mobile library visits a number of sites in the community each week ; and Llanw Llŷn , a papur bro published in Abersoch , serves the area ; the local English newspapers are the Caernarfon and Denbigh Herald , published in Caernarfon ; and the Cambrian News , published in Aberystwyth . Summer harp recitals and concerts are held in St Hywyn 's Church ; Gŵyl Pen Draw 'r Byd ( English : The Land 's End Festival ) is a yearly event which includes beach side concerts and competitions on the shore , with an evening concert at Morfa Mawr Farm ; Gŵyl Pentre Coll ( English : The Lost Village Festival ) , a festival of contemporary acoustic music , has been held since 2008 at Felin Uchaf in Rhoshirwaun ; and a local eisteddfod , Eisteddfod Flynyddol Uwchmynydd , is held at Ysgol Crud y Werin .
The poet R. S. Thomas was vicar of St Hywyn 's Church from 1967 to 1978 ; when he retired he lived for some years in Y Rhiw . An ardent Welsh nationalist who learnt to speak Welsh , his poetry was based on his religious faith . In 1995 he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature , and he was widely regarded as the best religious poet of his time . The subject of one of Thomas 's poems , Richard Robert Jones , better known as " Dic Aberdaron " , was born in the village in 1780 . Despite very little formal education , he is said to have been fluent in 14 languages , and spent years travelling the country accompanied by his books and his cat .
William Rowlands won a prize at the National Eisteddfod in 1922 , for an adventure story written for boys . The book , Y Llong Lo ( English : The Coal Ship ) was published in 1924 , and told the story of two boys who stow away on one of the ships that brought coal to Porth Neigwl . The South African poet Roy Campbell published The Flaming Terrapin , written in a " croglofft cottage " above Porth Ysgo , in 1922 ; he was considered to be one of the best poets of the period between the two world wars . Considered one of the most significant Welsh poets of the 15th century , Dafydd Nanmor , in Gwallt Llio , compared the striking yellow colour of the rocks at Uwchmynydd , covered by golden hair lichen , to the colour of his loved one 's hair . Lewys Daron , a 16th @-@ century poet best known for his elegy to friend and fellow poet Tudur Aled , is thought to have been born in Aberdaron .
Yorkshire @-@ born poet Christine Evans lives half the year on Bardsey Island and spends the winters at Uwchmynydd . She moved to Pwllheli as a teacher and married into a Bardsey Island farming family . On maternity leave in 1976 , she started writing poems ; her first book was published seven years later . Cometary Phrases was Welsh Book of the Year 1989 and she was the winner of the inaugural Roland Mathias Prize in 2005 .
Edgar Ewart Pritchard , an amateur film @-@ maker from Brownhills , produced " The Island in the Current " , a colour film of life on Bardsey Island , in 1953 ; a copy of the film is held by the National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales . A candle lantern , discovered in 1946 in a cowshed at Y Rhiw , is now displayed in St Fagans National History Museum ; and Iron Age pottery found at Castell Odo is on display at Gwynedd Museum and Art Gallery in Bangor .
Dilys Cadwaladr , the former school teacher on Bardsey Island , in 1953 became the first woman to win the Crown at the National Eisteddfod for her long poem Y Llen ; and artist Brenda Chamberlain twice won the Gold Medal for Art at the Eisteddfod ; some of the murals she painted can still be seen on the walls of Carreg , her island home from 1947 to 1962 . Wildlife artist Kim Atkinson , whose work has been widely exhibited in Wales and England , spent her childhood on the island and returned to live there in the 1980s .
Since 1999 , Bardsey Island Trust has appointed an Artist in Residence to spend several weeks on the island producing work which is later exhibited on the mainland . A Welsh literary residence was created in 2002 ; singer @-@ songwriter Fflur Dafydd spent six weeks working on a collection of poetry and prose . Her play Hugo was inspired by her stay , and she has produced two novels , Atyniad ( English : Attraction ) , which won the prose medal at the 2006 Eisteddfod ; and Twenty Thousand Saints , winner of the Oxfam Hay Prize , which tells how the women of the island , starved of men , turn to each other .
It was tradition for Bardsey Island to elect the " King of Bardsey " ( Welsh : Brenin Enlli ) , and from 1820 onwards he would be crowned by Baron Newborough or his representative ; the crown is now kept at Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool , although calls have been made for it to return to Gwynedd . At the outbreak of the First World War , the last king , Love Pritchard , offered himself and the men of the island for military service , but he was refused as he was considered too old at the age of 71 ; Pritchard took umbrage , and declared the island to be a neutral power . In 1925 Pritchard left the island for the mainland , to seek a less laborious way of life , but died the following year .
Owen Griffith , a qualified pharmacist from Penycaerau , who was known as the " Doctor of the Wild Wart " , used a traditional herbalist remedy to cure basal cell carcinoma , also known as rodent ulcer ; the remedy had supposedly been passed on to the family 300 years earlier by an Irish tinker . In 1932 a woman died while receiving treatment and , even though the inquest into her death found that no blame was apportioned to the treatment , the Chief Medical Officer for Caernarfonshire vociferously condemned the treatment in the press . Former patients came out in support of the pharmacist , and petitions were sent to the Department of Health demanding that a medical licence be granted to Griffith and his cousin .
There are several folk tales of the Tylwyth Teg , the fairy people who inhabited the area and an invisible land in Cardigan Bay . One tells of a farmer from Aberdaron who was in the habit of stepping outside his house before retiring to bed . One night he was spoken to by a stranger , who asked why the farmer was annoyed by him . The farmer , confused , asked what the stranger meant and was told to stand with one foot on the stranger 's . This he did , and could see another house , just below his own , and that all the farm 's slops went down the chimney of the invisible house . The stranger asked if the farmer would move his door to the other side of the house , which the farmer subsequently did , walling up the original door ; from that day , the farmer 's livestock flourished , and he became one of the most prosperous men in the area .
= = Religion = =
A church was founded in Aberdaron in the 6th century by Saint Hywyn , a follower of Saint Cadfan ; it was a significant institution , a monastery and centre of religious learning , rather than simply a place of worship for the locals . The present double @-@ naved St Hywyn 's Church ( Welsh : Eglwys Hywyn Sant ) , built in 1137 and known as the " Cathedral of Llŷn " , stands above the shore and was on the pilgrim route to Bardsey Island . It contains a 12th century Romanesque arched door , and a square bell turret . The church was extended in 1417 and abandoned in 1841 , when the locals decided to build a new church , Eglwys Newydd , in the village ; the new building , however , proved unpopular and the congregation returned in 1906 . Inside is a display about the life and works of the poet , Ronald Stuart Thomas ; and in the churchyard stand Y Meini Feracius a Senagus ( English : The Veracius and Senacus Stones ) , the tombstones of two 5th century Christian priests , found in the 18th century on farmland near Mynydd Anelog . In 2008 the church became the centre of controversy when the local vicar blessed a gay civil partnership , after approval by the local church council ; the vicar was reprimanded by Barry Morgan , the Archbishop of Wales ( Welsh : Archesgob Cymru ) . Referring to the archbishop 's protests , the vicar stated " There was a bit of a to @-@ do about it " .
The church at Llanfaelrhys is the only one in the United Kingdom dedicated to Saint Maelrhys , the cousin of both Saint Cadfan and Saint Hywyn , who accompanied them to Wales from Brittany . Legend attributes the building of the church to a trader who landed a cargo of flour near Aberdaron during a famine ; he used the profit from his sale to construct a small church for the locals . Much of the building is medieval ; the font dates back to the 15th century ; and there are plain hard wooden benches on the north side ; on the south side are 19th century wooden box pews . The graveyard contains the graves of the three Keating sisters , who restored Plas yn Rhiw .
St Aelrhiw 's Church at Y Rhiw was built in 1860 on the footings of an earlier church . It consists of a small nave and short chancel ; aisles to the north and south ; and has boulder @-@ built walls and a slate roof . The churchyard contains the graves of some of the bodies that were washed up at Porth Neigwl during the First World War . Above Porth Iago is the site of the ancient St Medin 's Church ; now just a mound in the middle of a field , it was the parish church of Bodferin .
One of the first Non @-@ conformists in the area was Morgan Griffith of Y Rhiw . In 1745 he was brought before the court in Pwllheli , where he was jailed for failing to renounce his beliefs . After his release he returned to Y Rhiw and began to preach again . Re @-@ arrested , he was returned to a prison ship in England , where he subsequently died . Two of the earliest non @-@ conformist chapels in the Llŷn Peninsula were established at Penycaerau , in 1768 , and Uwchmynydd , in 1770 ; the Congregationalists opened Cephas Independent Chapel in 1829 ; and Capel Nebo was built at Y Rhiw in 1813 ; the Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1832 at Capel Pisgah . By 1850 there were eight non @-@ conformist chapels in Aberdaron ; five in Y Rhiw ; and one on Bardsey Island ; but more were to be built . The Calvinistic Methodists opened Capel Tan y Foel ; and Capel Bethesda , the Baptist chapel at Rhoshirwaun , was built in 1904 . Aberdaron is also home to a Seventh @-@ day Adventist youth camp named Glan @-@ yr @-@ afon , located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village centre .
At the 2001 census 73 @.@ 9 per cent of the population claimed to be Christian and 15 @.@ 0 per cent stated that they had no religion .
= = Sport = =
Aberdaron hosts numerous sailing regattas featuring clinker built boats unique to the area ; there is a popular regatta every August where the races are open to everyone . Sea angling trips are operated from Porth Meudwy , fishing for pollock , coley and mackerel ; wrasse , bass , mullet and gurnard are also possible . Bass and coley can be caught from the rocks at Porth Iago ; and wrasse , pollock and mackerel are plentiful . Access is difficult at Uwchmynydd , but pollock , mackerel , wrasse and conger are caught ; huss are plentiful ; and ling are found occasionally .
The village is a popular walking centre and lies on the Llŷn Coastal Path ( Welsh : Llwybr Arfordir Llŷn ) , which runs 84 miles ( 135 km ) from Caernarfon to Porthmadog . Kayaking is possible from both Aberdaron and Porth Neigwl , and the south @-@ facing " sunshine coast " is a major attraction ; there are camping facilities for canoeists on the shores of Porth Neigwl . Tidal streams are generally weak , although landing conditions are tricky when there is wind or swell from the south .
The area has excellent diving . Underwater visibility at Bardsey Island extends to 66 feet ( 20 m ) and there is a rich variety of sea life ; it is considered some of the best diving in Gwynedd . The Ynysoedd Gwylanod are particularly popular , and the wreck of the Glenocum , in Bae Aberdaron , is excellent for novices , having a maximum depth of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) ; an extremely large conger eel lives in the lower section of the boiler openings . There is spectacular diving at Pen y Cil , where there is a slate wreck and an unusual cave dive ; nearby Carreg Ddu is an isolated rocky island in Bardsey Sound , although care must be taken as there are strong currents .
Bathing is popular along the coast . Aberdaron Beach , facing south west , is sandy , gently shelving and safe ; it received a Seaside Award in 2008 . Porthor also attracts bathers , and has sands which squeak when walked on ; the beach at Porth Neigwl was awarded a Green Coast Award in 2009 ;
Aberdaron Beach is a surfing and bodyboarding location for surfers of all levels , although it can be dangerous at high tide when the waves break directly onto boulders underneath the cliff . The better surfers head for the northern end .
= = Climate = =
Being situated at the west coast of the UK , Aberdaron has a distinct maritime climate , with mild winters and cool summers . That is not to say that extremes cannot occur . In fact , some extraordinary temperature extremes have been recorded :
On 2 August 1995 , Aberdaron equaled the highest ever August minimum temperature in Wales , at 22 ° C , after recording the record high temperature for the village of 29 @.@ 2 ° C on the same day
On 20 December 1998 , the maximum temperature at Aberdaron was below average at 5 ° C. The very next day , the highest January temperature ever observed in the UK was recorded there , at 20 @.@ 1 ° C. Yet the average temperature for that day was just 6 @.@ 4 ° C
On 9 July 2009 , Aberdaron equaled the lowest ever temperature for the UK for July , at -2.5 ° C
All of the record lows except for November and December were recorded in 2009 , and they were all below freezing .
Despite the fact that Aberdaron can have quite extreme weather , the number of frosts per year is very low , at around 7 @.@ 2 days per year . This is comparable with coastal areas of Devon and Cornwall . The region , England NW and Wales N , averages 52 @.@ 3 days , with December alone exceeding the average yearly amount of frost for Aberdaron . The village is generally quite windy throughout the year , particularly in Autumn and Winter . Sunshine amounts are lower than the UK average . Rainfall is well below the Wales average .
= The Boat Race 2009 =
The 155th Boat Race took place on 29 March 2009 . Oxford 's crew was the heaviest in the event 's history and which featured five Olympic rowers , including silver medallist Colin Smith and bronze medallist George Bridgewater . Cambridge took an early lead , only to be caught and overtaken by Oxford who won the race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis , while Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2008 race by six lengths , while Cambridge led overall with 79 victories to Oxford 's 74 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the fifth consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) weighed an average of 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than the Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) , making them the heaviest in Boat Race history . Oxford fielded five rowers who had featured at the 2008 Summer Olympics : Colin Smith won silver for Great Britain , while Ante Kušurin rowed for Croatia , New Zealander George Bridgewater won a bronze in the coxless pair , Sjoerd Hamburger rowed for The Netherlands , and Tom Solesbury for Great Britain . Cambridge 's crew contained five returning Blues to Oxford 's three .
The crews for the race were as follows :
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Cambridge 's cox Dowbiggin raised her hand to indicate that she was not ready to start just as Umpire Boris Rankov started the race . This allowed Oxford the initiative and they took an early lead . Cambridge slowly edged their way back into contention , and held a half @-@ a @-@ length lead at the two @-@ mile mark . At St Paul 's School , Cambridge were two @-@ thirds of a length ahead before a series of oar clashes and umpire warnings forced the boats apart . A larger clash , between Cambridge 's Monaghan and Oxford 's Smith , took place by Chiswick Eyot before Oxford made the better recovery and quickly pushed out to secure a clear @-@ water lead . Cambridge failed to threaten , and Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
In the reserve race , Isis defeated Goldie by four lengths , completing the race in a time of 17 minutes 24 seconds , for their second consecutive win . Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , hosted at Henley on 22 March 2014 .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's boat club president Colin Smith said " it 's a great , great feeling " . He continued : " The difference between the two crews today was our power , aggression and stickability " . Cambridge 's Australian international Cubasch said " it 's really devastating . Sometimes you 'd be happy with a silver but here it 's dead last . " His coach , Chris Nilsson , admitted " at the end of the day , the stronger crew with the more power came through " . Oxford coach Sean Bowden said " We just said ' get to halfway , and head for home ’ , and they did a really good job " .
= Music of Xenosaga =
The Xenosaga ( ゼノサーガ ) series is a series of science fiction role @-@ playing video games developed by Monolith Soft and published by Namco Bandai on the PlayStation 2 . The series began with the 2002 release of Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht , which was followed in 2004 by Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse and in 2006 by Episode III : Also sprach Zarathustra . The music of Xenosaga includes the soundtracks to all three chapters , as well as the music for its spin @-@ off media . These include Xenosaga Freaks , a set of minigames set between the first two chapters , Xenosaga I & II , a Nintendo DS remake of the first two chapters , and Xenosaga : The Animation , an anime series covering the events of the first game . Episode I was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , Episode II was split between Yuki Kajiura and Shinji Hosoe , and Episode III was composed by Kajiura alone . Xenosaga Freaks reused some of the music of Episode I by Mitsuda while also including new work by Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , while Xenosaga I & II and Xenosaga : The Animation used new pieces composed by Kousuke Yamashita .
Episode I sparked the release of two versions of its soundtrack album as well as a single , Episode II received two soundtrack albums , and Episode III received one . Xenosaga Freaks and Xenosaga : The Animation each also sparked the release of a soundtrack album . In addition to the albums , Episode I saw the release of a book of orchestral sheet music as well as a book of piano sheet music ; Episode II had only a book of piano sheet music . Music from the series has been played multiple times in concerts , especially that of the first two games .
= = Main series = =
= = = Episode I = = =
The first episode in the series was Xenosaga Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht , released in 2002 . Designed as a spiritual successor to Xenogears , the game was worked on by much of the same staff , including the composer Yasunori Mitsuda . For the game , Mitsuda composed a score that is mostly orchestral in nature , using the London Philharmonic Orchestra for several tracks . Other pieces include vocal tracks by the Metro Voices choir , piano solos by Yasuharu Nakanishi , and performances by the Gen Ittetsu Strings . The game 's theme songs , " Pain " and " Kokoro " , were sung by Celtic singer Joanne Hogg of the band Iona , with whom Mitsuda had previously worked for the soundtrack to Xenogears . The vocal songs throughout the soundtrack range from choral to opera to a capella , while the tone of the soundtrack overall has been described as being " serious , sometimes dark , heavy and even haunting at times " . At one point in the development process , Mitsuda planned to use a separate person to orchestrate his compositions after an early piece proved unworkable and had to be scrapped , causing him to lose confidence in his own ability . After working for several months , however , he regained his confidence and decided to work as his own orchestrator , a decision which he feels improved him as a composer .
The first release of the soundtrack as an album was the Xenosaga Original Soundtrack , released by DigiCube on March 6 , 2002 . The two @-@ disc album includes every piece from the game 's soundtrack , with a total length of 1 : 58 : 42 across its 45 tracks . Two years later , on May 19 , 2004 , Mitsuda released another version of the soundtrack through his Sleigh Bells label titled Xenosaga Episode I. This version features two new tracks — " World to be Born " and " Pain ~ piano version ~ " — as well as re @-@ recordings of some of the tracks . The playlist order was also changed between the two versions , with Episode I grouping the tracks by style , rather than in rough chronological order within the game like the original album . Mitsuda explained in the liner notes for the album that he felt that separating the two styles presented a different impression of the music that allowed the listener to greater appreciate the atmosphere of the pieces . In addition to the two albums , a single , " Kokoro " , was released for the game 's theme songs . Published by DigiCube , the disc includes " Pain " and " Kokoro " from the original soundtrack as well as a piano rendition of Kokoro and instrumental versions of both songs . The album has a total length of 23 : 55 , and was released on February 6 , 2002 .
The Original Soundtrack album reached # 38 on the Japan Oricon charts and was well received by reviewers . IGN termed it one of Mitsuda 's best soundtracks to date , calling it " near genius with nearly every passing track " . They especially praised the wide range of emotions present in the soundtrack . GameSpy agreed in their review of the game , saying that " the music is rich , full , varied , and underscores the cinemas and battle sequences excellently " . RPGFan , in their review of the Xenosaga Original Soundtrack album , said that the album works well as a stand @-@ alone album apart from the game , and that it has few , if any , bland or mediocre tracks . They repeated their praise for the soundtrack in their review of Xenosaga Episode I , though they felt that the two new tracks were not very impressive additions . " Kokoro " reached # 61 and received praise as well , for its emotional intensity and lyrics .
Original soundtrack track list
Episode I track list
= = = Episode II = = =
The second episode of the series , Xenosaga Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse , was released in 2004 . Mitsuda did not return to compose the soundtrack ; instead , Yuki Kajiura and Shinji Hosoe were brought into the project . Kajiura had previously composed for a few video games as well as numerous anime soundtracks . Her style for the game 's soundtrack , for which she composed only the numerous cinematic scenes , has been described as " a fusion of electronica and techno with either an orchestra or ethnic instruments , " as well as including vocals in places where many composers would have left an instrumental section . Hosoe composed the music for the playable portions of the game , and feels that that the sound quality and balance of the soundtrack is poor . This feeling is based primarily on the fact that he " slashed the orchestral sound while creating the music " so that the music played using the PlayStation 2 's sound chip would match the music played off of the CD . He had predicted that there would be a fan outcry against " changing composers on a series like Xenosaga " , and suspects that his music from the game will never be released on an album ; to date the released albums for the game include only Kajiura 's work . Kajiura and Hosoe did not collaborate on any of the tracks in Episode II ; according to Kajiura they never even met during the production .
Episode II 's soundtrack was first released as an album on July 7 , 2004 as Xenosaga II : Jenseits Von Gut und Böse Movie Scene Soundtrack by Victor Entertainment . Including only Kajiura 's work , the album spans two discs and 40 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 52 : 26 . Another soundtrack album for the game , Xenosaga Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse Soundtrack , was released by Namco and Brady Games as a promotional extra for the Brady Games strategy guide for the game . The 11 @-@ track CD again excluded the work of Hosoe , instead sampling Kajiura 's pieces . Released on February 17 , 2005 , the album has a duration of 30 : 25 . The Movie Scene album reached position # 46 on the Japanese Oricon charts . In the liner notes for Movie Scene Soundtrack , Kajiura claims that she felt that her work for the game was different from her previous pieces , as it was more of a soundtrack , with the individual tunes fitting more closely together . She also said that she found it easier to compose tracks that fit with the worldview that Mitsuda had created for the first game , rather than invent her own . She also notes that she intended tracks 1 — 4 to be a single , continuous piece , although they were broken up in the game ; she intended tracks 20 and 21 the same way .
IGN , in their review of the game , said that the soundtrack for Episode II was not up to par with that of Episode I. They felt that Hosoe 's tracks were in general too " upbeat and poppy " for the game 's premise , and that while Kaijura 's works were better , they were still weaker than Mitsuda 's . One review from RPGamer agreed with this sentiment , calling the music on the whole " pretty dull and unmemorable " , though another RPGamer review praised the increase in the number of tracks present in the game , giving the listener greater variety . An RPGFan review of the Movie Scene album termed it a " fantastic album " , though one with several weak tracks and an aesthetic that would not appeal to many listeners , especially those who disliked vocal tracks . Their review of the promotional album gave that album high marks as well , saying that it was an excellent sampler album and , at the time , easy to find due to its inclusion in the game 's strategy guide .
Movie Scene soundtrack track list
= = = Episode III = = =
The third and final episode in the series , Xenosaga Episode III : Also sprach Zarathustra , was released in 2006 . Composed entirely by Kajiura , her style shifted from that of Episode II to be darker , with a larger focus on rhythm and less use of background vocals . The soundtrack has been described as " melancholy " and " piano @-@ driven " . Despite moving from composing only the cinematic tracks in Episode II to composing the whole score for Episode III , Kajiura says that the difficulty of each game 's score was about the same . She primarily drew her inspiration for the music from the game 's artwork and her conception of the world the game was set in .
The only soundtrack album released for the game was Xenosaga III : Also Sprach Zarathustra Original Sound Best Tracks , an album of selections from the soundtrack rather than all of the tracks . The two @-@ disc album has 40 tracks , and a total length of 1 : 51 : 46 . It was published by Victor Entertainment on July 12 , 2006 . The album reached position # 50 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for four weeks . In the liner notes for the album , sound producer Keiichi Nozaki explains that the album would have needed to be six discs long to hold all of the music from the game , so he asked Kajiura to select a sample that would only fill two discs .
In RPGamer 's review of the game , they termed the soundtrack a " stunning success " , saying that Kajiura provided an " emotionally charged soundtrack " that fit the tone of each section of the game and was superior to the soundtrack of Episode II . G4TV called the soundtrack " a respectable contender " and better than Episode II 's soundtrack as well , praising the music 's restraint and usage in accenting the game rather than overpowering it . IGN called it " pretty darned good " , though noted that it was not as good as the score to the first game . RPGFan , in their review of the album , said that while the quality of the overall work was better than that of Episode II 's Movie Scene soundtrack album , the album was very inconsistent between great and poor tracks . They concluded that Kajiura had ultimately not succeeded in being Mitsuda 's successor for the series .
Best Tracks track list
= = Spin @-@ off media = =
The spin @-@ off media of the Xenosaga series to include music are a collection of minigames titled Xenosaga Freaks that explores the backstory of Episode I , a remake of the first two episodes for the Nintendo DS titled Xenosaga I & II , and an anime series titled Xenosaga : The Animation . There are also other media adaptions without music , such as a manga series . Xenosaga Freaks included new work by Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , while Xenosaga I & II and Xenosaga : The Animation used new pieces composed by Kousuke Yamashita .
Freaks sparked the release of an album , Xenosaga Freaks Reservation Privilege CD , which includes three vocal tracks sung by the voice actresses for the characters Shion , KOS @-@ MOS , and M.O.M.O. from the game , a fourth vocal track featuring all three of the singers , and a radio @-@ style interview with them . The 31 : 08 long album was released by Namco on April 28 , 2004 . The music , composed by Namco composers Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , is described as " silly lighthearted techno @-@ pop " , and very different from the music in the main games of the series . Xenosaga : The Animation also received an album release , titled Xenosaga : The Animation Original Soundtrack ; the 35 @-@ track album was released by Columbia Records on March 23 , 2005 .
= = Legacy = =
Music from the series was performed at the three @-@ show " Passion " concert series held in December 2006 by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra . The concerts included " Pain " from Episode I and " Sakura " from Episode II . Several tracks from Mitsuda and Kajiura 's other works were also performed . An album , Passion , was produced by the orchestra for the concert , and included both of the Xenosaga songs . In the Eminence April 21 , 2007 " A Night in Fantasia 2007 " concert , " Gnosis " , " Zarathustra " , and " World to be Born " from Episode I were played . " Pain " was again performed by a piano quintet from the Eminence Orchestra in their four @-@ show " Destiny - Reunion " concert series in July 2007 . Several other non @-@ Xenosaga pieces by Mitsuda and Kajiura were again also performed . In the Destiny : Dreamer 's Alliance album released for that concert series and others by the same quintet , " Nephilim " from Episode I , rather than " Pain " , was included .
In addition to concerts , music from the series has been released as sheet music . On January 20 , 2004 , Mitsuda released Partitura Originale Di Xenosaga Episodio Uno Sheet Music , a book of orchestral sheet music for tracks from Episode I , through his record label Procyon Studio . The book contains 22 songs , composed and arranged by Mitsuda . In addition to that book , DOREMI Music Publishing published a book of piano sheet music , Xenosaga Episode I Der Wille zur Macht Piano Solo Sheet Music . The book contains 21 songs , arranged by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate @-@ level piano solos . DOREMI Music Publishing also published a book of piano sheet music for Episode II , Xenosaga Episode II Jenseits von Gut und Böse Piano Solo Sheet Music . The book contains 23 tracks , arranged by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate @-@ level piano solos . Selections of remixes of music from the series appear on Japanese remix albums , called dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked ReMix .
= Willis Ward =
Willis Franklin Ward ( December 28 , 1912 – December 30 , 1983 ) was a track and field athlete and American football player who was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 .
Ward was the Michigan High School Athlete of the Year , after setting a national prep record in the high jump . At the University of Michigan , he was a collegiate champion in the high jump , the long jump , the 100 @-@ yard dash , and the 440 @-@ yard dash , and finished second in the voting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award in 1933 . In track and field he was a three @-@ time All @-@ American and eight @-@ time Big Ten champion .
In football , Ward was only the second African @-@ American to win a varsity letter for the Michigan Wolverines football team , lettering in 1932 , 1933 , and 1934 . In 1934 , a controversy developed when Georgia Tech refused to play if Ward took the field , and university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game . Teammate Gerald R. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university ’ s decision . After being excluded from the Georgia Tech game , Ward went on to score all 12 of Michigan 's points that year outside of the Georgia Tech game , without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal .
Ward later became a lawyer in Detroit and a member of the Michigan Public Service Commission from 1966 to 1973 , serving as chairman from 1969 to 1973 . He also served as a probate court judge in Wayne County , Michigan .
= = Early years = =
Ward was born in Alabama in 1913 . His father , Henry R. Ward , was an Alabama native who moved to Detroit and worked there in a Ford Motor Company factory . His mother , Bessie , was a Georgia native .
Ward attended Detroit 's Northwestern High School where he excelled in both track and football . As a high school junior , he was named Michigan High School Athlete of the Year , after setting a national prep record in the high jump at 6 – 4 @.@ 5 . He was city champion in the low hurdles ( with a time of 13 @.@ 0 ) and the high hurdles ( with a time of 15 @.@ 8 ) . Ward also won the 220 hurdles at Ann Arbor ( with a time of 25 @.@ 9 ) and Class A ( with a time of 26 @.@ 1 ) .
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = Freshman track star = = =
Ward attended the University of Michigan from 1931 to 1935 , where he became one of the most successful track athletes in the school ’ s history . As a freshman in 1932 , Ward 's specialty was the high jump . Ward won the NCAA high jump championship in June 1932 with a jump of 6 – 7 1 / 3 . He jumped as high as 6 @-@ 7 @-@ 1 / 2 in his freshman year . Ward 's best jump in 1932 was two inches above the mark that won the gold medal at the 1932 Summer Olympics ( Canada 's Duncan McNaughton won the gold with a jump of 6 feet , 5 ½ inches ) , but Ward did not qualify for the team .
Ward ’ s accomplishments were not limited to the high jump . An Associated Press article in 1932 noted : “ His specialty is the high jump for which he has a mark of 6 feet 7 ½ inches . He can run the high hurdles and the low hurdles . He has broad jumped 22 feet without training in that event . He put the 16 @-@ pound shot over 43 feet without prior experience , and it believed he might be developed into a world champion weight man . He unquestionably could be trained to do the springs . He is only 19 . Ward has an ideal build for a track man , six feet , one inch tall , 185 pounds of well @-@ distributed weight , good legs , natural co @-@ ordination . He is quiet and unassuming , and popular with coaches and fellow members of the squad . ”
When Ward decided to try out for the football team as a sophomore , Michigan track fans worried that Ward would be injured . The Associated Press reported : “ University of Michigan track fans do a lot of worrying these days because a Negro boy from Detroit insists on playing football . Willis Ward , they believe , will be the greatest track man ever to compete for the Maize and Blue — if he doesn ’ t get hurt . … Ward is a good football player and loves the game . . . . Well wishers even have told him about the advantages of competing only in track and staying away from the gridiron , but he is determined to play on the eleven , and he is good enough to make the grade . ” Michigan ’ s track coach , Chuck Hoyt , noted that “ Ward is his own boss and football is his recreation . ”
= = = First African @-@ American football player in 40 years = = =
In addition to the concerns of track fans , Ward 's decision to try out for the football team raised issues of race . Though George Jewett had broken the race barrier as Michigan 's first African @-@ American football player in 1890 , Michigan had not played another African @-@ American in the 40 years after Jewett . During Fielding Yost 's tenure as coach several African @-@ American students joined the football team , but records indicate that none of them ever saw game action and only one earned even a " reserve letter " . Some reports attribute the de facto segregation of the football team to racism on the part of Yost , who was the son of a Confederate soldier .
While in high school , Ward had decided to attend Dartmouth College . With Kipke 's assurance that he would be given full opportunity to play football , Ward enrolled at Michigan . Kipke had played with African @-@ American athletes in high school and was eager to have Ward on his team . According to John Behee , the author of a book on the history of African @-@ American athletes at Michigan , Kipke “ threatened to fight , physically fight , those alumni and fellow coaches who opposed his playing Ward . ” Behee wrote that " on several occasions Kipke took off his coat and was prepared to fight with those who bitterly opposed having a Negro play for Michigan . "
Ward got the opportunity to prove himself in spring football practice in May 1932 . According to one account , Kipke ordered his veterans to pound Ward " without mercy " during practice . " If , at the end of the week " , said Kipke , " he doesn 't turn in his uniform , then I know I 've got a great player . " The United Press reported on the results of spring practice : “ Three young freshmen at the University of Michigan — Jerry Ford , of Grand Rapids ; Russell Oliver , of Pontiac , and Willis Ward , Detroit Negro — displayed such brilliance during spring football practice that they are expected to become important cogs next fall in the Wolverine varsity eleven . ” Another report in July 1932 described Ward , the “ giant negro , ” as being “ the outstanding athlete becoming eligible for play . ”
Ward made the team in 1932 and started four games at end . Ivy Williamson , captain of the 1932 football team , greeted Ward at the field house and told him , " If you have any problems with anybody , let me know because we 're prepared to take care of them . " Reporting on his decision to play football and risk injury , the Associated Press noted : “ Ward would rather win an ‘ M ’ on the gridiron than be an Olympic champion . ”
The 1932 Michigan Wolverines football team went 8 – 0 , outscored its opponents 123 – 13 , and won the national championship .
= = = 1933 track season = = =
During the 1933 track season , Ward was so dominant that he was dubbed Michigan 's “ one @-@ man track team ” and became a national sensation . He led Michigan to Big Ten championships in both indoor and outdoor track . Going into the Big Ten track meet in May 1933 , Ward was expected to dominate . Coach Hoyt descried Ward as “ a good ‘ un , ” and praised him for his unassuming character and tolerance of the spotlight of publicity . One report noted : “ He is altogether likeable , for he always speaks without raising his voice and never protests a decision . … Ward is a star now , but he is just finishing his first year of competition . Unless injuries hamper him it is likely he will be as great an attraction or possibly even greater than the two Negro track stars who preceded him here , DeHart Hubbard and Eddie Tolan . ”
Michigan won the Big Ten meet with 60 ½ points , with Ward individually accounting for 18 points . One writer noted that the Wolverines would have finished in second place “ without the huge , versatile negro . ” At the meet , Ward won the 100 @-@ yard dash and the high jump and placed second in the 120 yard high hurdles and the broad jump . His performance at the Big Ten meet was described as “ the greatest individual performance since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918 . ”
Even TIME magazine took note of Ward ’ s dominating performance . Time noted : “ The other entrants in the Intercollegiates last week had reason to consider with awe another athlete who — until he helped Michigan win the Western Conference title last week , with 60 ½ points to Indiana 's 47 ½ had not often been heard of outside the Midwest , except as a member of Michigan 's football team . He was Willis Ward , 196 @-@ lb . Negro sophomore . At the Big Ten meet in Evanston last week . Willis Ward won the 100 @-@ yd. dash in 9 @.@ 6 sec . He won the high jump , placed second in the broad jump . In the 120 @-@ yd. high hurdles , he forced Ohio State 's Jack Keller to world 's record time of 14 @.@ 1 sec . , finished a close second . The 18 points he won were what enabled Michigan to beat Indiana . They made his the most efficient individual performance in a Big Ten meet since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918 . Quiet , unassuming , an above @-@ average student of literature , Ward was the first Negro ever elected to Sphinx , Michigan 's junior honor society . ”
At the Drake Relay Carnival in April 1933 , he finished second in the 100 @-@ yard dash , narrowly losing to Ralph Metcalfe . The 1934 Michigan yearbook , called the Michiganensian , noted : " Michigan climaxed a successful season by winning the Annual Butler Relays and taking the title from Indiana . Willis Ward won the meet almost single @-@ handed when he scored thirteen of the team ’ s 18 ¾ points . In winning the 60 yard dash , the Flashy negro star equaled the recognized world mark of 6 @.@ 2 seconds . " At the Big Ten indoor track championship , the Michiganensian noted that Ward , “ Michigan ’ s all around athlete , was easily the outstanding star of the meet . ” Ward won the 60 @-@ yard dash , the 70 @-@ yard high hurdles and the high jump .
= = = 1933 football season = = =
In 1933 , Ward started all eight games for Michigan at right end and was a key player in Michigan ’ s second consecutive undefeated football season and national championship . Time magazine credited the work of Ward and halfback Herman Everhardus : " Michigan came perilously close to slipping from the top of the Big Ten , where it has been for three years . That it did not slip was largely due to a crack halfback named Herman Everhardus and to Willis Ward , a rangy Negro end . It was Ward who , after hard @-@ fighting Illinois had marched to a touchdown in the first period , shot through and blocked the place kick which would have given Illinois a seventh point . " After the season was over , Coach Kipke also credited the play of Everhardus and his ends for the undefeated season : " Our ends , Ward and Petoskey , were near perfection . " Michigan 's left end , Ted Petoskey was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1933 , and Ward earned honorable mention All @-@ American honors at right end .
= = = Runner up for 1933 Big Ten athlete of the year = = =
In December 1933 , Ward finished second in close balloting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award . The AP reported that Duane Purvis of Purdue beat Ward " by the slender margin of two votes . " In the AP ’ s polling of conference coaches and sports writers , 55 votes were cast , with Purvis receiving 17 votes to 15 for Ward , described by the AP as " Michigan 's ' one @-@ man track team . ' " The AP pointed to Ward ’ s dual contributions in football and track : “ Ward , in addition to his feats in track , was one of the bright stars of Michigan 's championship football team this fall . Fast and rangy , he was classed as one of the finest wingmen in football . In track , he has run the century in 9 @.@ 6 , high jumped 6 feet 7 ½ inches , leaped 24 feet in the broad jump and won his share of glory in the high hurdles . ”
= = = 1934 track season = = =
In 1934 , Ward won the Big Ten long jump championship with a distance of 23 – 2 ¼ .
= = = 1934 football season = = =
The 1934 football season proved to be one of the low points in the school ’ s history , both because of the team 's 1 – 7 record , and the ugly racial incident that kept Ward out of the game against Georgia Tech . Though excluded from the Georgia Tech game , Willis started every other game — five games at right end , and two games at halfback . Incredibly , Michigan scored only 21 points in the entire 1934 season , and Ward scored 12 of those points . In fact , Michigan scored nine points against Georgia Tech and Ward 's 12 points were the only points scored by the Wolverines in the seven games in which Ward played . Michigan was shut out in the first two games , before beating Georgia Tech in the season 's third game . The following week , Michigan lost to Illinois , 7 – 6 , as Ward scored Michigan 's only touchdown from the line of scrimmage of the entire 1934 season . ( The season 's only other touchdown came on a punt return against Georgia Tech . ) Ward 's touchdown came on a trick play , as fullback Johnny Regeczi passed the ball to end Mike Savage who lateraled to Ward . According to the Chicago Tribune , the lateral " enabled the fleet Negro to outfoot the Illinois secondary . " After being shut out in three games after the Illinois match , Michigan closed the season with a 13 – 6 loss to Northwestern . Michigan 's only points against Northwestern came on two field goals by Ward . Thus , all 12 of Michigan 's 1934 points outside the Georgia Tech game were scored by Ward , without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal .
= = = 1934 Georgia Tech game = = =
Despite his many accomplishments , the event for which Ward is most remembered is the game he did not play . In 1934 , Michigan had scheduled Georgia Tech as the third game of the season . After learning that Michigan had an African @-@ American player , Georgia Tech football coach and athletic director W. A. " Bill " Alexander refused to allow his team to take the field if Ward played . As early as the fall of 1933 , Alexander wrote to Yost asking what was going to be done about Ward , asserting that his team would not take the field if Ward played .
As the game approached , word spread that Georgia Tech was insisting that Ward not play , and that the administration might capitulate to the demand . Ward ’ s right to play became a major controversy on the campus . Mass meetings and demonstrations were held . Some students and faculty demanded that either Ward must play or the game should be canceled . Petitions were circulated , and formal protests were lodged with the university by the Ann Arbor Ministerial Association , the NAACP , the National Student League and many other groups . The student newspaper , the Michigan Daily opined : “ If the athletic department forgot it had Ward on its football team when it scheduled a game with Georgia Tech , it was astonishingly forgetful ; ... if it was conscious of Ward 's being on the team but scheduled the game anyway , it was extraordinarily stupid . "
Time magazine ran a story about the uproar on Michigan ’ s campus : “ Fifteen hundred Michigan students and faculty members signed a petition asking that the team 's star end , Negro Willis Ward , be allowed to play against Georgia Tech . ” According to Time , 200 “ campus radicals ” threatened to prevent the game from being played by standing in the middle of the field . Rumors of a sit @-@ down protest on the 50 @-@ yard line during the game spread across campus in the week before the game . One alumnus recalled that , the night before the game , " bonfires lit all over the campus echoed with screams of student anger , and ' Kill Georgia Tech ' was heard throughout Ann Arbor . " In an attempt to thwart any attempt to disrupt the game , Yost hired a Pinkerton agent to infiltrate " The United Front Committee on Ward " , a conglomerate of student organizations that supported Ward 's right to play .
Athletic authorities argued that Ward should not play because it would be discourteous to Georgia Tech , and he might be injured . There was fear that if Ward played , he would be injured by malicious blows after the play had ended . Playwright Arthur Miller , then a writer for Michigan ’ s student newspaper , learned first @-@ hand about the strong resistance among the Georgia Tech team to playing on the same field with an African @-@ American athlete . In his biography of Miller , Enoch Brater noted that Miller had friends from Arkansas who knew one of the Georgia Tech players . Brater described Miller ’ s involvement this way : “ Remmel [ Miller ’ s friend from Arkansas ] took Miller with them to meet with members of the team , to protest but also to appeal to the athletes ' sense of fair play . ‘ Miller was right in the middle of this ’ , Remmel recalls . Not only did the visiting team rebuff ‘ the Yankee ’ Miller ‘ in salty language ’ , but they told him they would actually kill Ward if he set one foot on the Michigan gridiron . ‘ The Georgia Tech team was wild . ’ Miller was furious . He ‘ went immediately to the office of the Michigan Daily and wrote an article about it , but it was not published . ’ . . . Remmel said that Miller ‘ could not believe that the Georgia Tech team would have tried to destroy Willis Ward — but , I am sure they would have . ’ ”
In the end , Ward was not allowed to play . As his teammates faced Georgia Tech , there are conflicting reports as to Ward ’ s whereabouts . According to Time , Ward “ sat calmly in a radio booth , watched his teammates defeat the Southerners , 9 @-@ to @-@ 2 . ” According to Behee , Ward was not even allowed to watch the game from the press box , or even from the bench of his own stadium . Instead , he spent the afternoon in a fraternity house .
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Partridge with influencing " awkward " sitcoms such as The Inbetweeners , Nighty Night and Peep Show , and wrote : " Never has one actor so completely inhabited a sitcom character . We believe Partridge is real , from his side @-@ parted hair down to his tasseled sports @-@ casual loafers . " In 2014 , Guardian writer Stuart Heritage described Partridge as " one of the greatest and most beloved comic creations of the last few decades . "
According to Den of Geek , Alan Partridge has so influenced British culture that " Partridgisms " have become part of everyday vernacular . " Monkey Tennis " , one of Partridge 's desperate television proposals , has become shorthand for absurd television concepts . Another , " Youth Hostelling with Chris Eubank " , was used by the hostel booking site Hostelworld as the basis of a 2015 television advert with boxer Chris Eubank . " Accidental Partridge " , an unofficial Twitter account which collects quotes reminiscent of Partridge 's speech from real media figures , had attracted 144 @,@ 000 followers by May 2014 . In July 2015 , an art exhibition inspired by the character opened in Norwich .
= = Appearances = =
Bold text indicates a starring role .
= Allemand 's expedition of 1805 =
Allemand 's expedition of 1805 , often referred to as the Escadre invisible ( invisible squadron ) in French sources , was an important French naval expedition during the Napoleonic Wars , which formed a major diversion to the ongoing Trafalgar Campaign in the Atlantic Ocean . With the French Mediterranean Fleet at sea , Emperor Napoleon I hoped to unite it with the French Atlantic Fleet and together form a force powerful enough to temporarily displace the British Royal Navy Channel Fleet for long enough to allow an invasion force to cross the English Channel and land in Britain . In support of this plan , the French squadron based at Rochefort put to sea in July 1805 , initially with the intention that they would join the Atlantic Fleet from Brest . When this fleet failed to put to sea , the Rochefort squadron , under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , went on an extended raiding cruise across the Atlantic , both to intercept British trade left lightly defended by the concentration of British forces in European waters and with the intention of eventually combining with the French Mediterranean Fleet then blockaded in Spanish harbours .
On 25 September , Allemand achieved a major success when his squadron , while waiting for a convoy from the Leeward Islands , encountered a seven ship convoy from the island of Saint Helena . The convoy 's commander , Captain Daniel Woodriff in the fourth rate HMS Calcutta , sought to interpose his ship between the French squadron and his convoy and was captured after a fierce battle . All except one of convoy escaped , and by deliberately drawing the French away from his own convoy 's direction , he had saved the Leewards Islands convoy from attack as well . After the battle , Allemand was forced to conduct repairs at Tenerife , sailing again on 17 October , four days before the French Mediterranean Fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar . With the planned invasion impossible , Allemand began commerce raiding in the Eastern Atlantic , capturing 43 merchant ships during his cruise and successfully disrupting the British blockade of Cadiz . This had an unintended but significant effect on the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , resulting eventually in the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 . Allemand returned to Rochefort on 23 December , having not lost a single ship during the expedition .
= = Trafalgar campaign = =
In March 1805 , the French Mediterranean Fleet sailed from Toulon under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve for an extended cruise to the West Indies , ultimately under orders to link with the French Atlantic Fleet based at Brest . Together these fleets would stage a major operation in the English Channel , driving off the Royal Navy Channel Fleet and allowing a fleet of landing barges to land on the southern coast of England as the first move in an invasion of Britain . Arriving at Martinique on 14 May , Villeneuve waited for reinforcements from the Atlantic fleet , only to be informed on 2 June that they had failed to leave port . Despite repeated orders issued to the Atlantic fleet instructing them to sail to Martinique , Vice @-@ Admiral Honoré Ganteaume had failed in his one effort to break out of Brest during March and then given up . His entire fleet ultimately remained in port throughout the campaign . On 7 June Villeneuve learned of the arrival in the Caribbean of the British Mediterranean Fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson and hastily sailed back to Europe , eventually sheltering in the Spanish harbour of Vigo after an encounter on 22 July with a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder at the Battle of Cape Finisterre , in which two of his ships were captured . In the aftermath of the spring campaign , both Nelson and Calder returned to Britain , leaving only relatively small squadrons off the French and Spanish coasts .
Despite delays to his plan , Napoleon had pressed ahead with preparations for the Channel campaign : an army of 200 @,@ 000 men was assembling at Boulogne for the invasion , and orders continued to insist that the fleets under Villeneuve and Ganteaume put to sea . Also ordered to sail was the squadron based at the Atlantic port of Rochefort , led by Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand . Allemand 's squadron consisted of the powerful 120 @-@ gun ship Majestueux , three other ships of the line and several frigates and brigs , forming a significant force in its own right and a valuable addition to any battle fleet . Allemand was ordered to cruise off the southern coast of Cornwall , awaiting the combined fleets of Villeneuve and Ganteaume and their descent into the Channel . If this force did not materialise , Allemand was subsequently ordered to the Bay of Biscay to join up with Villeneuve on his route northwards and should this too fail then he was to conduct an extended commerce raiding operation in the Atlantic to take advantage of the concentration of British forces off Europe and the consequent exposure of British trade .
= = = Bay of Biscay = = =
Allemand sailed from Rochefort on 16 July while the blockade squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Charles Stirling was out of position , rapidly escaping the coast into the Atlantic . On 17 July , the squadron outran and captured the British brig HMS Ranger , rated as 18 guns but actually carrying 24 . Ranger 's crew had observed the approaching French squadron from some distance , and Commander Charles Coote had ordered that once their capture was inevitable , the crew were to cause as much damage as possible to their vessel to deny its use to the French . So successful were these efforts that Allemand was forced to burn Ranger once her crew had been removed as prisoners of war . Allemand subsequently reached his first station , off The Lizard , the day after capturing Ranger . There he waited in vain for the fleet under Ganteaume , which had never departed Brest . Following his instructions , Allemand then sailed for the Bay of Biscay , where he was to meet the fleet under Villeneuve that had been ordered north to join with Ganteaume . He passed southwards during July and was in the region of Cape Finisterre on 22 July : later records show that he was close enough to the site of the Battle of Cape Finisterre to have participated in the engagement if he had been aware that it was underway . News of Allemand 's presence reached Villeneuve early in August and on 5 August he despatched the frigate HMS Didon in search of the Rochefort squadron . Didon was followed on 9 August by the main fleet , including 29 ships of the line and associated frigates and corvettes . Villeneuve passed up the Spanish coast , anchoring off the village of Zerez , near Ferrol , on 10 August and departing the following day in a west by northwest direction . On 13 August the fleet was spotted by the frigates HMS Iris under Captain Edward Brace and HMS Naiad under Captain Thomas Dundas , who were forced to flee a French detachment sent in pursuit , losing sight of the enemy on 14 August as Villeneuve 's main force continued to the northwest .
While Villeneuve was searching for Allemand , the Rochefort squadron was passing south along the Spanish coast in search of Villeneuve , anchoring at Vigo on 16 August without having seen any sign of the combined fleet . Villeneuve had not left instructions at Vigo for the Rochefort squadron and Allemand was uncertain where his superior was intending to sail to . One of Villeneuve 's scouting frigates meanwhile had spoken with a Danish ship that reported a fleet of 25 British ships of the line actively searching the region for the combined fleet . When on the evening of 14 August Villeneuve 's scouts sighted the ship of the line HMS Dragon under Captain Edward Griffiths , the frigate HMS Phoenix and the captured Didon to the west , the French admiral assumed they were an advance guard of this British fleet and turned away to the south , the impression encouraged by frantic signals raised by Dragon . In fact , these ships were the only British forces in the region . The Danish ship had been boarded by Dragon earlier in the day and her crew deliberately fed misinformation about British strength . When the French scouts sighted Dragon , the presence of the captured Didon and Captain Griffiths ' signals , that were made to an expanse of empty sea beyond the visible horizon on the French ship , successfully misled the French admiral into fleeing a non @-@ existent fleet .
Bypassing Vigo on his flight southwards , Villeneuve put into the Southern Spanish fleet base of Cadiz on 20 August . By abandoning his efforts to reach the English Channel , Villeneuve was in effect abandoning the entire invasion strategy and , when news of Villeneuve 's retreat reached him , Napoleon decided to formally abandon the campaign , marching the army at Boulogne south to the Austrian border . Without instructions from his superior , and with no idea where the main French fleet was , Allemand spent much of August off the Spanish coast before deciding to turn to the third aspect of his orders , the disruption of British trade .
= = The Calcutta convoy = =
The threat posed by the fleets in Brest and Cadiz was stretching the Royal Navy , and convoy escorts were weaker than usual as so many vessels had been diverted to the blockade fleets needed to watch French and Spanish movements . As a result , there were a number of independently sailing merchant ships in the Bay of Biscay and Allemand encountered and captured three on his journey north into the area later known as the Western Approaches . From the prisoners taken out of these ships , the French admiral learned that a large convoy was due from the West Indies , protected only by a single ship of the line , HMS Illustrious . This rich prize would be a major success for Allemand and his squadron cruised the Western Approaches in anticipation of its arrival during September 1805 .
At 12 : 00 on 25 September at 49 ° 30 ′ N 09 ° 00 ′ W , Armide , an outlying frigate from Allemand 's squadron , spotted sails to the southeast . Closing to investigate , these sails were identified as a small British convoy , not the expected force under Illustrious but another convoy from Saint Helena , consisting of the East Indiaman Indus , two whalers , three small merchant ships , the slow merchant vessel Brothers and the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship HMS Calcutta . The convoy had departed Saint Helena with seven ships on 3 August , and made fast time northwards until 14 September when it was joined by Brothers , which had been blown out of the Illustrious convoy by Atlantic gales several days earlier . Brothers was a heavily laden ship that sailed poorly , and as a result the entire Saint Helens convoy was severely delayed . When lookouts on Calcutta sighted the sails to the northwest , Captain Daniel Woodriff was not immediately alarmed . He was expecting the Illustrious convoy from that direction , and knew that a number of British squadrons were at sea . Throughout the afternoon and the following night the sails closed with his squadron until at 11 : 00 on 26 September they were close enough for Woodriff to make the Royal Navy secret recognition signals .
By 12 : 00 , Woodriff had realised that the approaching ships did not know the recognition signals and therefore must be enemies . With his first priority to protect his convoy , Woodriff sent an urgent message to Indus , the largest and strongest of the merchant ships , to lead the main body of the convoy ahead eastwards at all speed . With his most valuable charges now making distance away from the French , Woodriff persuaded the captain of Brothers to sail northwards while he intended to engage the French directly and draw them southwards , away from the Saint Helena convoy and also away from the projected track of the Illustrious convoy . Once the merchant ships were gone beyond the horizon , Woodriff turned Calcutta about and sailed directly for the nearest French ship , the frigate Armide , which was gaining on his vessel . Armide was far more nimble than the lumbering Calcutta , and rapidly passed her out of range of her broadside , the frigate turning about and opening fire with her stern chasers , cannon mounted in the rear of the ship , at 15 : 00 . Calcutta replied ineffectually with her bow chasers , until Armide allowed the British ship to draw alongside . The two ships then opened a heavy fire on one another which continued for an hour until Armide , with her rigging badly damaged , drew back towards the rapidly approaching French squadron .
At 17 : 00 , the leading French ship of the line , Magnanime , came within range with her bow chasers . Calcutta continued sailing southwards , remaining ahead of the squadron but not at a sufficient distance to avoid Magnanime 's fire . Realising that unless he took drastic measures his ship would be caught , Woodriff turned Calcutta back towards Magnanime , hoping to disable her before the next ship in line , the frigate Thétis , could join the battle . Captain Pierre @-@ François Violette on Magnanime prepared to meet Calcutta and the engagement rapidly became furious , Calcutta and Magnanime exchanging full broadsides at close range . Within 45 minutes , it was clear that Woodriff 's gamble had failed . The larger and more powerful Magnanime inflicted severe damage to the British ship 's rigging , rendering her unable to manoeuvre or escape , with the remainder of the French squadron bearing down . With defeat inevitable , Woodriff spared the lives of his men by striking his colours and surrendering to Violette . Although Calcutta was badly damaged among her rigging and sails , her hull had suffered little from the engagement and she had only lost six killed and six wounded . French casualties were negligible , although Armide was forced to undergo extensive temporary repairs on her own sails and rigging before she was able to operate as a scout once more . Brothers had also been captured : the corvette Sylphe had separated during the chase and rapidly overhauled the lumbering merchant ship , which had surrendered without a fight .
= = Raiding operations = =
Woodriff 's resistance had an important indirect effect on Allemand 's cruise . In drawing the squadron southwards , Woodriff had pulled them out of the line travelled by the Illustrious convoy . In the aftermath of the engagement , it took two days to repair the battered Calcutta and in that time the convoy had safely passed Allemand 's former position without sighting the French force . With his object frustrated , Allemand completed the repairs to Calcutta and crewed her with men drawn from the rest of the squadron , adding the ship to his force . Aware that news of his presence would rapidly spread , Allemand subsequently turned southwards , sailing from the North Atlantic to the coast of North Africa to avoid pursuing British forces . There Allemand anchored for a time at the Spanish island of Tenerife , where he was able to repair and resupply his squadron before embarking on a lengthy cruise against the British convoys that regularly crossed the region .
Elsewhere , the Trafalgar campaign reached its climax on 21 October 1805 , when Villeneuve 's fleet was intercepted at sea off Cadiz by Nelson 's fleet and destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar , the French and Spanish losing 17 out of 30 ships of the line . The British fleet did not lose a single ship , but the cost of the victory was severe : Lord Nelson , victor of four major battles in the previous eight years , had been killed at the height of the combat by a musket ball . The survivors of the combined fleet scattered , most making their way back to Cadiz . However , the four ships of the French vanguard , which had rapidly outdistanced the battle and not returned , escaped towards the Bay of Biscay under Contre @-@ Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley . Allemand 's cruise was to have unforeseen consequences for Dumanoir 's squadron : among the British forces mustered to hunt for the ships from Rochefort was a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Caesar , consisting of five ships of the line and two frigates . On 2 November , the frigate HMS Phoenix , which had also been ordered to search for signs of Allemand , discovered four French ships near Cape Finisterre . Unaware of the events of Trafalgar and assuming these ships to be a part of Allemand 's force , Captain Dundas sought to lure them towards Strachan 's squadron , which he knew to be in the area . Dundas was successful in provoking Dumanoir to chase his frigate , and two days later , on 4 February , Strachan was able to bring the French squadron to battle , capturing all four ships at the Battle of Cape Ortegal .
As these events unfolded Allemand was many hundreds of miles to the south , preying successfully on the trade that passed along the African coast without any serious opposition from major British forces , which were still largely confined to European waters . There was particular fear in Britain that Allemand might intercept two convoys of vital strategic importance : one extremely valuable convoy from India to Britain that also carried Major @-@ General Sir Arthur Wellesley as a passenger , and an expeditionary force under Admiral Sir Home Riggs Popham for a planned invasion of South Africa . In the event however , both these convoys managed to successfully avoid Allemand 's force . On 20 November , with his supplies running low , Allemand attacked a convoy of seven ships sailing from Britain to Gorée , passing close to the Savage Islands . Although his attack was successful , Allemand was unable to prevent the escape of the convoy 's escort , the 18 gun brig HMS Lark under Commander Frederick Langford . Making all sail northwards in search of reinforcements , Langford encountered his target on 26 November , meeting HMS Agamemnon , one of the ships that made up the squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth . Duckworth had , with his subordinate Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Louis , been ordered to keep a close blockade on Cadiz in case the remainder of the combined fleet that still sat at anchor there should try to escape . The work was tedious , and Duckworth immediately abandoned his post when news of attack by Allemand 's squadron reached him . He cast southwards in search of the French , leaving Cadiz guarded by just two frigates .
Allemand was aware of the risk involved in allowing Lark to escape , and was already many miles to the north when Duckworth headed southwards . There was no benefit to be had in a battle with Duckworth or any other British squadron and he did not delay on his journey home , reaching Rochefort without further incident on 23 December . His actions off the Savage Islands were to have far reaching consequences however . Duckworth continued southwards for much of December 1805 , only turning back north once he had reached the Cape Verde Islands , a point far too far south for Allemand to have been operating in . Accepting that his enemy had escaped him , Duckworth turned back north but soon afterwards ran into the frigate HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane , whose large convoy had been broken up by an unidentified French battle squadron in the Bay of Biscay . Assuming this force to be Allemand , Duckworth set a course to intercept them based on their last known heading . Duckworth 's reckoning was good , and on 26 December he encountered a large squadron and immediately gave chase . It was not until sometime later that he realised the force he was chasing was too large to be Allemand 's : in fact Duckworth had stumbled into a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , sent from Brest with another force under Contre @-@ Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues on 15 December at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , an operation largely inspired by the success of Allemand 's expedition . Although Willaumez was eventually able to outrun Duckworth , the chase continued for so long that Duckworth 's squadron was forced to take on fresh supplies at St Kitts in the West Indies . There news reached him that Leissègues had been sighted off Santo Domingo and he sailed to investigate , annihilating the French squadron at the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 .
= = Aftermath = =
The French naval authorities considered Allemand 's cruise a major success in a year that had cost them huge numbers of ships and men . In addition to Ranger and Calcutta , Allemand had captured the hired naval cutter Dove and 43 merchant ships , including the lumbering Brothers . With the exception of Calcutta , all of these prizes had been burnt and their prisoners had been transferred to the French squadron , 1 @,@ 200 in total . For minimal casualties , Allemand had inflicted a blow against British Atlantic trade and tied up substantial Royal Navy resources during a complicated and strategically vital campaign . Calcutta was bought into the French Navy and became an armed storeship , still carrying the designated 50 @-@ guns . She served for three years before her destruction at the Battle of the Basque Roads in April 1809 . Her British officers were later exchanged and honourably acquitted at the court @-@ martial that investigated her loss .
In France , Allemand was highly commended for the success of his operation , especially as both Leissègues and Willaumez met with disaster during the 1806 campaign . He remained with the Atlantic fleet for the next two years and in 1808 commanded a second successful operation in the Atlantic , carrying reinforcements to the Mediterranean Fleet at Toulon . In 1809 he returned to the Brest fleet as its commander , his ships trapped near the Île @-@ d 'Aix . He subsequently commanded the fleet at the defeat of the Battle of Basque Roads . His captains on the expedition were also praised and two later led their own campaigns , although both ended in defeat : Captain Éléonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil was in command of the frigate squadron destined for the West Indies that was destroyed in the Bay of Biscay at the Action of 25 September 1806 , while Captain Amable @-@ Gilles Troude led a larger squadron to the West Indies in early 1809 , suffering defeat in a battle off the Îles des Saintes .
= = Order of battle = =
= Nokian Tyres =
Nokian Tyres plc ( Finnish : Nokian Renkaat Oyj ) , headquartered in Nokia , Finland , produces tyres for cars , trucks , buses , and heavy @-@ duty equipment . Known for its winter tyres , Nokian operates the only permanent winter tyre testing facility in the world . The company 's Hakkapeliitta brand name is recognised in Finland as a reputable trademark .
Nokian Tyres concentrates on the consumer car and vehicle tyre replacement and premium snow tyre markets ; they do not supply automobile manufacturers tyres for new car production . The greater prices consistently found in those markets result in higher profitability compared to the rest of the tyre industry . The company also produces retreading materials and tyre pressure monitors . It also previously manufactured bicycle tyres but currently licenses the Nokian name on bicycles tyres to another Finnish company . The Vianor retail tyre store chain , which services cars in addition to selling tyres , is owned by Nokian Tyres PLC .
The company traces its history to a groundwood pulp mill established in 1865 . Car tyre production began in 1932 by Suomen Gummitehdas Oy ( Finnish Rubber Works Ltd ) . A three @-@ company merger formed the Nokia Corporation in 1967 ; Nokian Tyres Limited was established in 1988 as a joint venture company split from the conglomerate as Nokia Corporation started focusing entirely on the mobile communications business . Nokian is " Nokia " in the genitive , thus Nokian renkaat meaning " Tyres of Nokia " . The European subsidiary of Japanese tyre company Bridgestone is currently the largest minority shareholder .
= = History = =
Early corporate predecessors of Nokian Tyres are the Nokia Aktiebolag ( Nokia Company ) and Suomen Kumitehdas Oy ( Finnish Rubber Works Ltd . ) . In 1865 , mining engineer Fredrik Idestam established a groundwood pulp mill on the banks of the Tammerkoski rapids in the town of Tampere , in southwestern Finland . In 1868 , Idestam built a second mill near the town of Nokia , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) west of Tampere by the Nokianvirta River , which had better resources for hydroelectric production . In 1871 , with the help of his close friend , the statesman Leo Mechelin , Idestam renamed and transformed his mills into a share company , founding the Nokia Company .
Suomen Gummitehdas Oy was founded in 1898 and began manufacturing car tyres in 1932 . The Hakkapeliitta tyre name was introduced in 1936 , and some tyres sold under the Nokian tyre name still use the Hakkapeliitta brand name . Hakkapeliitta is a ( Finnish ) historical term used for a Finnish light cavalryman in the service of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden during the Thirty Years ' War ( 1618 – 48 ) . In 1967 , Suomen Kumitehdas Oy ( originally called Suomen Gummitehdas Oy ) merged with Suomen Kaapelitehdas ( Finnish Cable Works ) and the forest and power industry company Nokia Aktiebolag to create Nokia Corporation .
Nokian Tyres ( which had manufactured tyres under the Nokia brand ; Nokian is the genitive ) was split from the Nokia Corporation when Nokian Tyres Limited was created in 1988 as a joint venture company . Nokian Tyres PLC shares were floated on the Helsinki Stock Exchange ( OMX Helsinki ) in 1995 . Nokia , which became the largest mobile telephone manufacturer in 1998 , ended its ownership interest in Nokian Tyres in 2003 , selling its holding of 2 million shares to Bridgestone Europe NV / SA , a subsidiary of the Japanese tyre manufacturer Bridgestone , for U.S. $ 73 @.@ 2 million . This made Bridgestone the largest shareholder , with an 18 @.@ 9 % stake , later diluted to 16 @.@ 8 % . Bridgestone announced that Nokian Tyres would be operated independently , but it would consider complementing the company 's product development , testing , and distribution .
Production of bicycle tyres and inner tubes started in 1974 in Lieksa , Finland . In 2004 , Nokian Tyres sold its bicycle tyre business to Suomen Rengastehdas Oy for € 3 @.@ 6 million . This successor company remains one of the few manufacturers of tungsten carbide @-@ studded snow tyres for bicycles . Suomen Rengastehdas continues to produce bicycle tyres , including all Nokian @-@ branded bicycle tyres .
Nokian Tyres set up a joint venture , Ordabasy – Nokian Tyres JSC , with Ordabasy Corporation JSC , a multi @-@ industry Kazakh company , to manufacture passenger car tyres at a planned new factory in Kazakhstan . The venture started in 2007 , but the manufacturing project was put on hold in early 2009 . Nokian Tyres was to provide technical expertise in tyre manufacturing , and the products were to be sold in Kazakhstan , Central Asia , Russia , and Eastern Europe . In 2009 , the Nokian Hakkapeliitta tyre model line received the " List of trademarks with a reputation " status by the National Board of Patents and Registration of Finland .
= = Financial information = =
Nokian Tyres ' three principal activities are the manufacture of passenger car tyres , heavy commercial tyres , and retail tyre sales . As of 2008 , the Company is the most profitable tyre manufacturer in the world , at up to 18 % earnings ( before taxes and interest ) relative to sales , compared to 14 % at Bridgestone , 8 % at Michelin , and 9 @.@ 6 % at Continental .
In 2010 , Nokian Tyres profits were € 167 @.@ 9 million on sales of € 1 @.@ 058 billion , an increase in revenues of 32 @.@ 5 % on the previous year . The company had revenue growth of 18 % annually in the 2003 – 2007 period . Nokian Tyres is also publicly traded on the Berlin Stock Exchange . Kim Gran has been the President and Chief Executive Officer since 1 September 2000 , having previously served as a Vice President for five years .
= = Products = =
= = = Passenger car tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres produces tyres for passenger cars , SUVs , and vans . Nokian branded tyres are sold in over 60 countries . Nokian Tyres designed the first winter tyres in 1934 and has more winter tyre patents than any other manufacturer . Nokian Tyres is known for its winter tyres , not to be confused with all @-@ season tyres . Nokian winter tyres have been described as a favourite of critics and have been well received in winter test results by several publications . Nokian also has designed some winter tyre models with low rolling resistance , offering lower fuel consumption . Nokian was the first company to produce a tyre that allowed for year @-@ round use by having different tread patterns on the lateral and medial aspect of the tread . One pattern is optimised for winter and another pattern is designed as an all @-@ season pattern .
Nokian Tyres was the first tyre manufacturer in the world to fully eliminate high @-@ aromatic oils from its production process . Used as plasticising agents in tread production and to facilitate the compounding of rubber , they contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , a carcinogen , and have been replaced by low @-@ aromatic oils . In 2006 , Nokian Tyres received a commendation in the Finnish round of the European Business Awards for the Environment .
The demand for Nokian tyres is seasonal , as a high percentage of the company 's sales are of winter tyres , but it has reduced seasonal fluctuations by its development of summer and all weather tyres . According to the company , more than 80 % of its passenger car and van tyre sales are winter tyres . Winter tyre sales have a strong seasonal characteristic with 30 % of retail sales occurring in the ten days after the first snowfall , thus presenting challenges in production and delivery .
Nokian Tyres does not sell to automobile manufacturers , but instead concentrates on the more profitable consumer tyre replacement and premium snow tyre markets . Nokian Tyres has the highest market share of the Finnish passenger car tyre market . The Finnish , Swedish , and Norwegian markets contributed over 40 % of Nokian Tyres ' corporate net sales in 2008 .
The Russian market , Nokian Tyres ' largest , contributed 34 % of the net sales and captured 26 % of the Russian winter tyre market . CEO Kim Gran describes the Russian consumer as having a " love affair " with the Nokian brand citing that it stems from tyres which fits the local weather conditions and a genuine need in the market . The use of winter tyres , which has softer rubber compounds than all @-@ season tyres , results in improved starting , stopping , and steering performance . The Hakkapeliitta brand was , at one time , the only Western tyre brand in Russia having entered the market during the Soviet era in 1964 . In contrast to having a Russian tyre factory to benefit from lower tariffs , another tyre company , Continental AG , abandoned Russian tyre production and hopes for Russian membership in the World Trade Organisation will result in lower import tariffs .
In 2009 , the North American market accounted for over 10 % of the company 's net sales . Nokian Tyres has a tyre subsidiary based in LaVergne , Tennessee ( USA ) . In that market , Nokian Tyres sell only to independent dealers , some of whom use the tyre products to fill in gaps in their product lines instead of an exclusive or majority share . This results in some dealers being knowledgeable about specific tyres but not Nokian Tyre 's full tyre product range .
= = = Commercial vehicle tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres manufactures truck and bus tyres sold under the Nokian Hakkapeliitta brand . Steer , traction , and trailer tyres are marketed . Nokian Heavy Tyres Ltd is a manufacturer of special tyres for forestry , industrial machinery , and agriculture . Its products are sold as original equipment as well on the replacement tyre market . Nokian Tyres produces a number of product lines , including the Tractor Industrial 2 and Country King . Nokian Tyres is a world market leader in forestry tyres , which are a key product of the Nokian Heavy Tyres subsidiary . Nokian forestry tyres include the Skidder and Cut @-@ To @-@ Length model lines . The Skidder tyres have a 25 degree bar angle and the Cut @-@ To @-@ Length tyres have a 35 degree bar angle . Bar angle is a tyre tread measurement . Smaller bar angles are associated with higher traction at the expense of increased mud accumulation .
= = = Tyre @-@ related products = = =
Nokian Tyres also produces materials for retreading and refurbishing used tyres . Nokian Noktop and Kraiburg , an industry competitor , produce most of the retreading materials for the European market . The RoadSnoop Pressure Watch , a tyre pressure monitor for race cars , is also produced by Nokian Tyres .
= = = Bicycle = = =
The Nokian brand of bicycle tyres , including studded winter MTB and touring models , is owned by Suomi Tyres Finland . See external links below for website .
= = Vianor tyre chain = =
Nokian Tyres owns 100 % of Vianor Holding Oy , which administers Vianor , a tyre chain of company owned and franchised stores . The Vianor name is derived from the Latin phrase " northern way " or " northern road " , and reflects the tyre chain 's image as a tyre specialist for winter conditions .
Vianor is the largest and most extensive tyre franchise in the Nordic countries with approximately 170 company @-@ owned retail outlets and around 800 outlets in total including franchises . Company @-@ owned outlets are located in the Switzerland , Russia , Norway , Finland , Sweden , and the United States . The twelve United States outlets are located in the American states of Vermont , New Hampshire , New York and Massachusetts . Countries with only franchised outlets include Ukraine , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Kazakhstan , Armenia , Moldova , Georgia , Belarus , Poland , Germany , Czech Republic , Slovakia and Bulgaria .
Nokian Tyres has operated retail tyre stores in Norway since 1987 , when it acquired Larsen & Lund , and since 1998 in Sweden and Latvia . The Vianor name was launched in 1999 coinciding with the company 's expansion into Finland and Estonia .
Vianor sells two million tyres annually , including Michelin and Bridgestone brands as well as Nokian tyres . Car servicing and a tyre hotel , facilities for customers to store summer or winter tyres during the off @-@ season , are also offered .
= = Tyre facilities = =
= = = Nokia , Finland production and testing facilities = = =
Nokian Tyres produces 23 @,@ 000 tyres per day at a factory in Nokia , Finland , and 200 @,@ 000 tyres a year under the Bridgestone brand name . The original factory was built in 1904 , the current one in 1945 ; it has expanded several times since then . Nokian Tyres has 27 assembly lines at its Finnish plant . The plant uses radio frequency devices to monitor the inventory of materials used to manufacture tyres , such as the 100 @-@ metre long strips of rubber tread . Shortages of rubber tread can halt production and so keeping an adequate supply of materials increases efficiency . Despite trade journals discussing this technique , Nokian declines to confirm its production methods .
The company has a 30 @-@ hectare ( 74 @-@ acre ) testing facility in Nokia , where it road tests tyres between April and November . From November to May , tests are carried out at its Ivalo Proving Grounds in Arctic Lapland . The Ivalo Proving Ground is the only permanent winter tyre testing facility in the world . Because of the short summer in Finland , Nokian tests summer tyres at other locations . During the winter , the testing of summer tyres takes place in South Africa . Nokian also tests tyres at the Applus + IDIADA facilities in El Vendrell , Spain , and the ATP facilities in Papenburg , Germany .
= = = Vsevolozhsk , Russia factory = = =
Nokian produces approximately 6 @,@ 000 tyres daily and employs 510 employees at its factory in Vsevolozhsk , Russia near Saint Petersburg , and plans to increase manufacturing capacity to 10 million tyres annually by 2011 . The factory was established in 2005 . In 2006 , it expanded its facilities there , adding a mixing department and a 19 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ) warehouse capable of housing 600 @,@ 000 tyres . The new mixing department gives the factory the capability to produce rubber compounds on @-@ site instead of importing them from the factory in Nokia , Finland . The Vsevolozhsk factory manufactures Nokian @-@ branded car tyres , the majority of which are sold in Russia and countries of the former USSR . Nokian plans to build 300 housing units and sell them to employees at cost as part of the Russian factory expansion that is scheduled to be completed by 2011 .
= = = Contract production of tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres licenses production of its tyres to companies in the United States ( Bridgestone , LaVergne , Tennessee plant ) , Slovakia ( Matador , Puchov plant ) , Indonesia ( PT Gajah Tunggal Tbk company ) , and the People 's Republic of China ( Giti Tire ) , as well as contracts manufacture of agriculture and industrial tyres in Spain and India . In the past , some United States contract manufacturing was done by Cooper Tire 's Findley , Ohio plant . Contract manufacture by Giti Tire includes production of up to 500 @,@ 000 Nokian summer tyres with expansion up to 1 @.@ 5 million tyres per year . Some Nokian agricultural and industrial tyres were made under contract by the Tofan Grup in Romania for two years until December 1999 , when Nokian Tyres withdrew , citing quality standards . Contract manufacture of these types of heavy tyres was then undertaken by Michelin at its Polish plant in Stomil @-@ Olsztyn from 2000 until 2005 , when Nokian began to shift contract manufacture of industrial tyres to Bridgestone 's factory in Bilbao , Spain and agricultural tyres to Balkrishna Tyres in Bhiwadi , India . With an increase in tyre demand as a result of improving economies , Nokian is considering increasing production as well as outsouring additional tyre manufacture in Asia .
= Edward Porter Alexander =
Edward Porter Alexander ( May 26 , 1835 – April 28 , 1910 ) was a military engineer , railroad executive , planter , and author . He served first as an officer in the United States Army and later , during the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , in the Confederate Army , rising to the rank of brigadier general .
Alexander was the officer in charge of the massive artillery bombardment preceding Pickett 's Charge , on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg , and is also noted for his early use of signals and observation balloons during combat . After the Civil War , he taught mathematics at the University of South Carolina in Columbia , spent time in Nicaragua , and wrote extensive memoirs and analyses of the war , which have received much praise for their insight and objectivity . His Military Memoirs of a Confederate were published in 1907 . An extensive personal account of his military training and his participation in the Civil War was rediscovered long after his death and published in 1989 as Fighting for the Confederacy .
= = Early life and career = =
Alexander , known to his friends as Porter , was born in Washington , Georgia into a wealthy and distinguished family of planters of the Old South . He was the sixth of ten children of Adam Leopold Alexander and Sarah Hillhouse Gilbert Alexander . He became the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Alexander R. Lawton and Jeremy F. Gilmer . He graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1857 , third in his class of 38 cadets , and was brevetted a second lieutenant of engineers . He briefly taught engineering and fencing at the academy before he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston for the Utah War expedition . That mission ended before he could reach Johnston , and Alexander returned to West Point . He participated in a number of weapon experiments and worked as an assistant to Major Albert J. Myer , the first officer assigned to the Signal Corps and the inventor of the code for " wig @-@ wag " signal flags , or " aerial telegraphy " . Alexander was promoted to second lieutenant on October 10 , 1858 .
Alexander met Bettie Mason of Virginia in 1859 and married her on April 3 , 1860 . They would eventually have six children : Bessie Mason ( born 1861 ) , Edward Porter II and Lucy Roy ( twins , born 1863 ) , an unnamed girl ( 1865 , died in infancy prior to naming ) , Adam Leopold ( 1867 ) , and William Mason ( 1868 ) . Lt. Alexander 's final assignments for the U.S. Army were at Fort Steilacoom , in the Washington Territory , and at Alcatraz Island , near San Francisco , California .
= = Civil War service = =
After learning of the secession of his home state of Georgia , Alexander resigned his U.S. Army commission on May 1 , 1861 , to join the Confederate Army as a captain of engineers . While organizing and training new recruits to form a Confederate signal service , he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas Junction , Virginia . He became the chief engineer and signal officer of the Confederate Army of the Potomac on June 3 .
At the First Battle of Bull Run , Alexander made history by being the first to use signal flags to transmit a message during combat over a long distance . Stationed atop " Signal Hill " in Manassas , Alexander saw Union troop movements and signaled to the brigade under Col. Nathan " Shanks " Evans , " Look out for your left , your position is turned " . Upon receiving a similar message , Beauregard and Gen. Joseph E. Johnston sent timely reinforcements that turned the tide of battle in the Confederates ' favor .
Alexander was promoted to major on July 1 and lieutenant colonel on December 31 , 1861 . During much of this period he was chief of ordnance , under Johnston 's command , managing supplies and ammunition in what later became the Army of Northern Virginia . He was also active in signal work and intelligence gathering , dealing extensively with spies operating around Washington , D.C.
During the early days of the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 , Alexander continued as chief of ordnance under Johnston , but he also fought at the Battle of Williamsburg , under Maj. Gen. James Longstreet . When Gen. Robert E. Lee assumed command of the army , Alexander was in charge of pre @-@ positioned ordnance for Lee 's offensive in the Seven Days Battles . Alexander continued his intelligence gathering by volunteering to go up in an observation balloon at Gaines ' Mill on June 27 , ascending several times and returning with valuable intelligence regarding the position of the Union Army .
Alexander continued in charge of ordnance for the Northern Virginia Campaign ( Second Bull Run ) and the Maryland Campaign ( Antietam ) . He barely missed capture by Federal cavalry , under Col. Benjamin F. " Grimes " Davis , that had escaped from Harpers Ferry during the Maryland Campaign ; over 40 of Longstreet 's 80 ammunition wagons were captured .
Porter Alexander is best known as an artilleryman who played a prominent role in many of the important battles of the war . He served in different artillery capacities for Longstreet 's First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia , starting that role on November 7 , 1862 , after leaving Lee 's staff to command the battalion that was the corps ' artillery reserve . He was promoted to colonel on December 5 . He was instrumental in arranging the artillery in defense of Marye 's Heights at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862 , which proved to be the decisive factor in the Confederate victory . While the rest of Longstreet 's corps was located around Suffolk , Virginia , Alexander accompanied Stonewall Jackson on his flanking march at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 , and his artillery placements in Hazel Grove at Chancellorsville proved decisive .
= = = Gettysburg cannonade = = =
Alexander 's most famous engagement was on July 3 , 1863 , at the Battle of Gettysburg , during which he was in command of the artillery for Longstreet 's corps . On that day , he was effectively in control of the artillery for the full army ( despite Brig. Gen. William N. Pendleton 's formal role as chief of artillery under Lee ) . He conducted a massive two @-@ hour bombardment , arguably the largest in the war , using between 150 and 170 guns against the Union position on Cemetery Ridge . Unfortunately , the poor quality of the Confederate fuses delayed the planned detonation of many of the shells , and a number of the guns were not properly ranged , so that the rear areas sustained more damage than the front lines . General Longstreet effectively put Alexander in charge of launching Maj. Gen. George Pickett on his famous charge , placing the young colonel under enormous pressure to determine whether the Union artillery defenses had been suppressed . Alexander would blame Lee for the defeat at Gettysburg , writing in 1901 : " Never , never , never did Gen. Lee himself bollox [ sic ] a fight as he did this . "
= = = Longstreet 's Chief of Artillery = = =
Alexander accompanied the First Corps to northern Georgia in the fall of 1863 to reinforce Gen. Braxton Bragg for the Battle of Chickamauga . He personally arrived too late to participate in the battle , but served as Longstreet 's chief of artillery in the subsequent Knoxville Campaign and in the Department of East Tennessee in early 1864 . He returned with the corps to Virginia for the remainder of the war , now with the rank of brigadier general ( as of February 26 , 1864 ) . He served in all the battles of the Overland Campaign , and when Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant slipped around Lee 's army to cross the James River and assault Petersburg , Alexander was able to move his guns quickly through the lines , emplacing them to repel the main attack .
During the Siege of Petersburg , Alexander had to adapt his artillery tactics to trench warfare , including experimentation with various types of mortars . He became convinced that the Union forces were attempting to tunnel under the Confederate lines , but before he was able to act on this , on June 30 , 1864 , he was wounded in the shoulder by a sharpshooter . As he departed on medical leave to Georgia , he informed Lee of his suspicion . After unsuccessful attempts were made to locate the tunneling activity , the Battle of the Crater caught the Confederates by surprise , although it ended in a significant Union defeat . Alexander returned to the Army in February 1865 and supervised the defenses of Richmond along the James River . He retreated along with Lee 's army in the Appomattox Campaign .
At Appomattox Court House , it was Alexander who made the famous proposal to Robert E. Lee that the army disperse , rather than surrendering . Lee rebuked him , and Alexander later wrote about regretting his suggestion . Although this incident is sometimes described as a proposal for " guerrilla war " , Alexander describes his proposal in his memoir , Fighting for the Confederacy , as one in which " the army may be ordered to scatter in the woods & bushes & either to rally upon Gen. Johnston in North Carolina , or to make their way , each man to his own state , with his arms , & to report to his governor . "
= = Later life = =
After the surrender , Alexander briefly toyed with joining the Brazilian Army . Finding that he no longer desired the Georgia plantation life of his youth , he taught mathematics at the University of South Carolina in Columbia , and then served in executive positions with the Charlotte , Columbia , and Augusta Railroad ( executive superintendent ) , the Savannah and Memphis Railroad ( president ) , the Louisville and Nashville Railroad ( president ) , and in the late 1880s the Central Rail Road and Banking Company of Georgia until 1891 .
Alexander became friends with Grover Cleveland and the two spent many hours hunting for ducks on Alexander 's estate . In May 1897 , President Cleveland appointed Alexander as the arbiter of the commission tasked with fixing and demarcating the boundary between the Republics of Nicaragua and Costa Rica , with a view towards the possible construction of an interoceanic canal to be dug across Central America . Alexander spent two years at the head of that commission , headquartered in the coastal village of Greytown ( now San Juan de Nicaragua ) . He completed the work to the satisfaction of the two governments and returned to the U.S. in October 1899 . His wife Bettie became ill while he was in Nicaragua and she died shortly after his return , on November 20 , 1899 . In October 1901 , Alexander married Mary Mason , his first wife 's niece .
Alexander was selected to give the Confederate veteran 's speech on Alumni Day during the centennial celebration at the United States Military Academy on June 9 , 1902 . The speech was so well received that it was reprinted in the NY Times in its entirety in the 15 June 1902 edition . The NY Times referred to the speech as " decidedly the feature of Alumni Day . " The audience included President Theodore Roosevelt as well as Alexander 's former commander , General Longstreet .
After the war , Alexander became a well @-@ respected author . He wrote many magazine articles and published his Military Memoirs of a Confederate : A Critical Narrative ( 1907 ) , praised by Douglas Southall Freeman as " altogether the best critique of the operations of the Army of Northern Virginia . " Long after his death , it was realized that Alexander had produced the Military Memoirs , which sought to be a professional work of military history and analysis , after a long effort of editing a collection of much more personal memoirs that he had started compiling during his time in Greytown , Nicaragua , at the behest of his family . Those earlier memoirs were edited and published posthumously in 1989 as Fighting for the Confederacy : The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander .
Unlike such Confederate officers as Jubal Early and William Pendleton , Alexander eschewed the bitter Lost Cause theories of why the South was doomed to fail , given the overwhelming superiority of the North . He was willing to express in writing his criticisms of prominent Confederate officers , including General Lee himself . Many historians regard Alexander 's memoirs as among the most objective and sharpest sources produced by a Civil War combatant . David Eicher called Fighting for the Confederacy " a superb personal narrative with a good deal of analysis of Lee 's operations ... Dramatic and revealing , an important source on the general , his fellow officers , and the Army of Northern Virginia . " Alexander 's other books include Railway Practice ( 1887 ) and Catterel , Ratterel ( Doggerel ) ( 1888 ) . Alexander died in Savannah , Georgia and is buried in Magnolia Cemetery , Augusta , Georgia .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Alexander was portrayed by James Patrick Stuart in the 1993 film Gettysburg and its 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
In the alternate history novel How Few Remain , Alexander continues his career as a brigadier general long after the Confederate States of America wins the civil war and was instrumental in defending Confederate Kentucky and fending off another Union invasion while under Stonewall Jackson during a second war with the United States in the 1880 's .
= A Saucerful of Secrets =
A Saucerful of Secrets is the second studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd , released on 29 June 1968 by EMI Columbia in the United Kingdom and released on 27 July 1968 in the United States by Tower Records . The album was recorded before and after Syd Barrett 's departure from the group . Owing to Barrett 's behaviour becoming increasingly unpredictable , Barrett was forced to leave the band and David Gilmour was recruited in January 1968 .
As a result , A Saucerful of Secrets became the only non @-@ compilation Pink Floyd album on which all five band members appeared , the first for Gilmour , with him appearing on five songs ( " Let There Be More Light " , " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , " Corporal Clegg " , " A Saucerful of Secrets " and " See @-@ Saw " ) , and the last for Barrett , with him on three ( " Remember a Day " , " Jugband Blues " and " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " ) . " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " was the only song all five members appeared on together . The band 's drummer Nick Mason has declared A Saucerful of Secrets to be his favourite Pink Floyd album .
= = Background = =
From mid to late 1967 , Syd Barrett 's erratic behaviour became more apparent , and at one performance of the band 's first US tour , he slowly detuned his guitar while on stage . The audience , used to the band 's experimental performances , seemed to enjoy such antics , and were unaware of the rest of the band 's increasing consternation . Interviewed on Pat Boone 's show during this tour , Barrett 's reply to Boone 's questions was a " blank and totally mute stare " , and kept his lips closed during the mimed performance . Barrett exhibited behaviour in a similar style during the band 's first appearance on Dick Clark 's popular TV show American Bandstand . Barrett mimed fairly well for the performance of " Apples and Oranges " , but responded to Clark 's questions with no interest or enthusiasm .
= = Recording = =
= = = Recording with Syd Barrett = = =
The album was recorded at EMI Studios in London . The first songs recorded for the album were Roger Waters ' " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " and an unreleased Barrett track , " Scream Thy Last Scream " ; both recorded on 7 – 8 August 1967 . The two tracks were arranged to be released as a single on 8 September , before it was vetoed by the band 's record company , EMI . The band recorded " Vegetable Man " at De Lane Lea Studios on 9 – 11 October , and returned later in the month , on 19 October , to record " Jugband Blues " , with producer Norman Smith booking a Salvation Army band , at Barrett 's request . Overdubbing " Remember a Day " at the sessions ; the song , which was an outtake from The Piper at the Gates of Dawn sessions , features Barrett on slide guitar , the band took a break from the album sessions to record what became their third single , " Apples and Oranges " , on 26 and 27 October . A few days later , the band recorded the B @-@ side , " Paint Box " , before leaving for a US tour .
In November , " Apples and Oranges " was released as a single but failed to chart at all . The band eventually went back to De Lane Lea and recorded the unreleased track " Vegetable Man " . Sometime around Christmas , David Gilmour ( Barrett 's old school friend ) was asked to join the band as a second lead guitarist to cover for Barrett when his erratic behaviour prevented him from performing . As Barrett had , up until then , written ( or co @-@ written ) most of the songs on the band 's debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , as well as the band 's three singles up to this point , the initial plan was to keep him in the group as a non @-@ touring member – in similar style to Brian Wilson 's recent status in The Beach Boys – but this meant that Barrett and the group were essentially separated . For two days from 10 January 1968 , Pink Floyd reconvened at EMI Studios , attempting to work on older tracks : Waters ' vocals and Wright 's organ were overdubbed onto " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , while Mason added vocals to " Scream Thy Last Scream " . Upon leaving Pink Floyd , Barrett said to Melody Maker : " I suppose it was really just a matter of being a little offhand about things " .
= = = Recording with David Gilmour = = =
When Gilmour joined the band , Pink Floyd performed briefly as a five @-@ man piece , from 12 January till the 20th . For a handful of shows Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage , occasionally joining in with the playing . In between these five @-@ piece gigs , the group rehearsed a few Waters @-@ penned songs on 15 and 16 January . During the next session on 18 January , the band , joined by Smith , jammed on rhythm tracks ; Barrett didn 't attend this session . On 24 and 25 January , the band recorded a song , logged as " The Most Boring Song I 've Ever Heard Bar 2 " at Abbey Road . The band recorded " Let There Be More Light " , " Corporal Clegg " ( which features lead vocals by Nick Mason ) and " See @-@ Saw " all without Barrett , despite manager Andrew King claiming Barrett performed the slide solo at the end of " Let There Be More Light " . The other band members soon grew tired of Barrett 's antics and , on 26 January 1968 , when Waters was driving on the way to a show at Southampton University , picking the members up on the way , one person in the car said , " Shall we pick Syd up ? " and another said , " Let 's not bother . " Barrett was finally ousted from the band in late January 1968 , leaving the new incarnation of Pink Floyd to finish the album ; " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " is the only song on which all five band members appeared .
The four @-@ piece band struggled to come up with new material for an album , but in February 1968 recorded Wright 's " It Would Be So Nice " and Waters ' " Julia Dream " . In early February it was announced that the Waters @-@ penned track , " Corporal Clegg " would be the band 's next single , however , due to pressure from the label , the song was earmarked for the album , and " It Would Be So Nice " was released in April as a single , with " Julia Dream " on the B @-@ side . Throughout April , the band was taking stock of the songs recorded up to that point . Waters blocked the release of the two tracks , " Vegetable Man " and " Scream Thy Last Scream " , on the album , though the band retained " Jugband Blues " , and the Waters @-@ written " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " on which Barrett played . With not enough material to fill the album 's last 12 minutes , the band started piecing together several pieces of material that was to become the title track of the album , " A Saucerful of Secrets " . Mason and Waters planned the track out as if it were an architectural design , including peaks and troughs . Producer Smith didn 't like the song , stating to them that they " just can 't do this , it 's too long . You have to write three @-@ minute songs . " On 25 June , the band recorded another session for BBC Radio 's Top Gear ; the session featured two tracks from Saucerful : " Let There Be More Light " and a shortened retitled version of the title track , titled here as " The Massed Gadgets of Hercules " .
= = Songs = =
Like The Piper at the Gates of Dawn before it , the album contains space rock and psychedelic rock songs . However , unlike Piper , which was dominated by Barrett 's compositions , A Saucerful of Secrets contains only one Barrett original : " Jugband Blues " . AllMusic described that with A Saucerful of Secrets , " the band begin to map out the dark and repetitive pulses that would characterize their next few records . " Wright sings or shares lead vocals on four of the album 's seven songs , and contributes vocals on the eleven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute instrumental opus " A Saucerful of Secrets " , making this the only Pink Floyd album where his vocal contributions outnumber those of the rest of the band .
With Barrett seemingly detached from proceedings , it came down to Waters and Wright to provide adequate material . The opening , " Let There Be More Light " , penned by Waters , continues the space rock approach established by Barrett . " Let There Be More Light " evolved from a bass riff that was part of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Both " Remember a Day " and " See @-@ Saw " use the childlike approach that was established on their debut . Wright remained critical of his early contributions to the band . " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " was first performed with Barrett in 1967 . The success of the track was such that it remained in their live setlist until 1973 where it appeared in a greatly extended form . Waters later performed the track during solo concerts from 1984 and later . Waters borrowed the lyrics from a book of Chinese poetry from the Tang Dynasty , like Barrett had used in " Chapter 24 " . " Corpor
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al Clegg " , is the first Pink Floyd song to address issues of war , a theme which would endure throughout the career of Waters as a songwriter for the band , culminating on the 1983 album The Final Cut . " A Saucerful of Secrets " was originally written as a new version of " Nick 's Boogie " . The track is titled as four parts , on Ummagumma . A staple in the band 's live set until summer 1972 , a live version of the song was recorded on 27 April 1969 at the Mothers Club in Birmingham for inclusion on Ummagumma . " Jugband Blues " refers to Barrett 's departure from the group ( " It 's awfully considerate of you to think of me here / And I 'm most obliged to you for making it clear that I 'm not here " ) . A promotional video was recorded for the track . The band 's management wanted to release the song as a single , before being vetoed by both the band and producer Norman Smith .
= = = Unreleased songs = = =
As well as " Jugband Blues " , the album was to include " Vegetable Man " , another Barrett composition . The song was to appear on a single as the B @-@ side to " Scream Thy Last Scream " . The band performed " Jugband Blues " , " Vegetable Man " and " Scream Thy Last Scream " for a Top Gear session , recorded on 20 December , and broadcast on 31st . Two additional Barrett songs , " In the Beechwoods " , and " No Title " ( frequently referred to on bootlegs as " Sunshine " ) , were recorded early in the album sessions . At least one other song , " John Latham " , was recorded during these sessions , and remains unreleased .
= = Release and reception = =
This is the first of several Pink Floyd album covers that were designed by Hipgnosis , and was only the second time that an EMI group ( The Beatles were the first ) was permitted to hire outside designers for an album jacket . The album was released in the UK on 29 June 1968 on EMI 's Columbia label as both mono and stereo LPs , reaching number 9 in the UK charts . It was released in the US by the Tower Records division of Capitol , where it remains the only Pink Floyd album not to chart . However , when reissued as A Nice Pair with the original version of The Piper at the Gates of Dawn after the success of The Dark Side of the Moon , the album did chart at number 36 on the Billboard 200 . " Let There Be More Light " was released as a single , backed with " Remember a Day " , in the US on 19 August 1969 .
The CD stereo mix of the album was first released in 1988 , and in 1992 was digitally remastered and reissued as part of the Shine On box set . The remastered stereo CD was released on its own in 1994 in the UK and the US . The mono mix version of the album has never been officially released on CD . This album will be re @-@ issued on the Pink Floyd Records label on 3 June 2016 .
Upon its release , Rolling Stone magazine 's review was unfavourable , writing that it is " not as interesting as their first " and " rather mediocre " , highlighting the near @-@ departure of Syd Barrett as one of its detractions .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Richie Unterberger draws attention to the album 's " gentle , fairy @-@ tale ambience " , with songs that move from " concise and vivid " to " spacy , ethereal material with lengthy instrumental passages " . In a review for BBC Music , Daryl Easlea said Saucerful was " not without filler " , adding that " Jugband Blues " was " the most chilling " song on the album .
While promoting 2014 's The Endless River , Nick Mason named A Saucerful of Secrets as his favourite of Pink Floyd 's studio albums . “ I think there are ideas contained there that we have continued to use all the way through our career , ” he says . “ I think [ it ] was a quite good way of marking Syd [ Barrett ] ’ s departure and Dave [ Gilmour ] ’ s arrival . It ’ s rather nice to have it on one record , where you get both things . It ’ s a cross @-@ fade rather than a cut . ”
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Pink Floyd
( all personnel uncredited )
Roger Waters – bass guitar , percussion , vocals
Richard Wright – piano , organ , mellotron , vibraphone , xylophone , vocals , tin whistle on " Jugband Blues "
David Gilmour – guitars ( except " Remember a Day " and " Jugband Blues " ) , kazoo , vocals
Nick Mason – drums , percussion , vocals on " Corporal Clegg " , kazoo on " Jugband Blues "
Syd Barrett – acoustic and slide guitar on " Remember a Day " , guitar on " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , vocals and guitar on " Jugband Blues "
Additional personnel
Norman Smith – producer , drums and backing vocals on " Remember a Day " , voice on " Corporal Clegg "
The Salvation Army ( The International Staff Band ) on " Jugband Blues "
= = Charts and certifications = =
= The Inner Light ( song ) =
" The Inner Light " is a song by the English rock group the Beatles , written by George Harrison . It was released on a non @-@ album single in March 1968 , as the B @-@ side to " Lady Madonna " . The song was the first Harrison composition to be featured on a Beatles single and reflects the band 's embrace of Transcendental Meditation and his continued interest in Indian classical music . It is the last of three Indian @-@ style tracks he wrote for the Beatles , after " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " . The lyrics are a rendering of a poem from the Taoist Tao Te Ching , which Harrison set to music on the recommendation of Juan Mascaró , a Sanskrit scholar who had translated the passage in his 1958 book Lamps of Fire . The song became a comparative rarity among the Beatles ' recordings in the decade following its release ; it has subsequently appeared on compilation albums such as Rarities , Past Masters , Volume Two and Mono Masters .
Harrison recorded the instrumental track for " The Inner Light " in India in January 1968 , during the sessions for his Wonderwall Music soundtrack album . The only Beatles studio recording to be made outside Europe , the song introduced instruments such as sarod , shehnai and pakhavaj to the band 's sound and features contributions from Indian classical musicians including Aashish Khan , Hanuman Jadev and Hariprasad Chaurasia . Aside from Harrison 's lead vocal , recorded in London , the Beatles ' only contribution came in the form of group backing vocals at the end of the song .
Among music critics , " The Inner Light " has received praise for its melodic qualities and for its evocation of the meditation experience . Jeff Lynne and Anoushka Shankar performed the song at the Concert for George tribute in November 2002 , a year after Harrison 's death . An alternative take of the 1968 instrumental track was released in 2014 on the remastered Wonderwall Music CD . Screenwriter Morgan Gendel named a 1992 episode of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation as an homage to the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , George Harrison recalls that he was inspired to write " The Inner Light " by Juan Mascaró , a Sanskrit scholar at Cambridge University . Mascaró had taken part in a debate , televised on The Frost Programme on 4 October 1967 , during which Harrison and John Lennon discussed the merits of Transcendental Meditation with an audience of academics and religious leaders . In a subsequent letter to Harrison , dated 16 November , Mascaró expressed the hope that they might meet again before the Beatles departed for India , where the group were to study meditation with their guru , Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . Mascaró enclosed a copy of his book Lamps of Fire , an anthology of religious writings , including from Lao @-@ Tzu 's Tao Te Ching . Having stated his admiration for the spiritual message in Harrison 's composition " Within You Without You " , Mascaró enquired : " might it not be interesting to put into your music a few words of Tao , for example no . 48 , page 66 of Lamps ? "
Harrison wrote the song during a period when he had undertaken his first musical project outside the Beatles , composing the soundtrack to the Joe Massot @-@ directed film Wonderwall . When writing " The Inner Light " , he made minimal alterations to the translated Lao @-@ Tzu text and used the same title that Mascaró had used . In I , Me , Mine , Harrison says of the changes required to create his second verse :
In the original poem , the verse says " Without going out of my door , I can know the ways of heaven . " And so to prevent any misinterpretations – and also to make the song a bit longer – I did repeat that as a second verse but made it : " Without going out of your door / You can know all things on earth / Without looking out of your window / You can know the ways of heaven " – so that it included everybody .
After " Within You Without You " , " The Inner Light " was the second composition to fully reflect Harrison 's immersion in Eastern spiritual concepts , particularly meditation , an interest that had spread to his Beatles bandmates and to the group 's audience . The lyrics espouse meditation as a means to genuine understanding . Theologian Dale Allison describes the song as a " hymn " to quietism and comments that , in their attempt to " relativize and disparage knowledge of the external world " , the words convey Harrison 's enduring worldview . Author John Winn notes that Harrison had pre @-@ empted the message of " The Inner Light " in an August 1967 interview , when he told New York DJ Murray Kaufman : " The more you learn , the more you know that you don 't know anything at all . " Writing in his study of Harrison 's musical career , Ian Inglis similarly identifies a precedent in the song " It 's All Too Much " , where Harrison sings : " The more I learn , the less I know . "
= = Composition and musical structure = =
" The Inner Light " was Harrison 's third song in the Indian musical genre , after " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " . While those earlier songs had followed the Hindustani ( North Indian ) system of Indian classical music , as sitar- and tabla @-@ based compositions , " The Inner Light " is closer in style to the Carnatic ( or South Indian ) temple music tradition . Harrison 's progression within the genre reflected his concept for the Wonderwall soundtrack – namely , that the assignment allowed him to create an " anthology " of Indian music and present a diverse range of styles and instrumentation .
The composition is structured into three instrumental passages separated by two sections of verse . The buoyant mood of the instrumental sections – set to what author Peter Lavezzoli describes as " a raucous 4 / 4 rhythm " – contrasts with the gentle , meditative portions containing the verses . The contrast is reflected in the lead instruments that Harrison would use on the recording : whereas sarod and shehnai , supported by pakhavaj , are prominent during the musical passages , the softer @-@ sounding bansuri ( flute ) and harmonium accompany the singing over the verses , as the sarod provides a response to each line of the vocal . In the last instrumental section , Harrison incorporates the conclusion of Lao @-@ Tzu 's poem , beginning with the line " Arrive without travelling " .
The melody conforms to the pitches of Mixolydian mode , or its Indian equivalent , the Khamaj thaat . Musicologist Dominic Pedler writes that the tune features unusual tritone intervals , which , together with the musical arrangement , ensure that the song is far removed from standard " pop tunes " . In a further departure from Harrison 's previous forays into Indian music , both of which made extensive use of single @-@ chord drone , the melody allows for formal chord changes : over the verses , the dominant E ♭ major alternates with F minor , before a move to A ♭ over the line " The farther one travels the less one knows " .
In the opening words ( " Without going out " ) , the melody uses what Pedler terms a " hauntingly modal " G @-@ B ♭ -D ♭ tritone progression as , within the song 's tonic key ( of E ♭ ) , the 3rd note heads towards the flat 7th . Musicologist Walter Everett likens this ascending arpeggiation of the diminished triad to a melodic feature in " Within You Without You " ( over that song 's recurring phrase " We were talking " ) . " The Inner Light " is an example of Harrison creating ambiguity about the tonic key , a technique that Pedler recognises as a characteristic of Harrison 's spiritually oriented songwriting .
= = Recording = =
= = = Bombay = = =
Having used London @-@ based Indian musicians from the Asian Music Circle on " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " , Harrison recorded " The Inner Light " in India with some of the country 's foremost contemporary classical players . In early January 1968 , he travelled to HMV Studios in Bombay to record part of the score for Wonderwall , much of which would appear on his debut solo album , Wonderwall Music . The day after completing the soundtrack recordings , on 13 January , Harrison taped additional pieces for possible later use , one of which was the instrumental track for " The Inner Light " . Five takes of the song were recorded on a two @-@ track recorder .
The musicians on the track were Aashish Khan ( sarod ) , Mahapurush Misra ( pakhavaj ) , Hanuman Jadev ( shehnai ) , Hariprasad Chaurasia ( bansuri ) and Rijram Desad ( harmonium ) . In Lavezzoli 's estimation , although these instruments are more commonly associated with the Hindustani discipline , the performers play them in a South Indian style , which adds to the Carnatic identity of the song . The recording features tabla tarang over the quiet , vocal interludes . Author Simon Leng refutes the presence of the oboe @-@ like shehnai , however , saying that this part was played on an esraj , a bow @-@ played string instrument . As with the Wonderwall selections recorded at HMV , Harrison directed the musicians but did not perform on the instrumental track .
= = = London = = =
Harrison completed the song in London during sessions for a new Beatles single , which was intended to cover their absence while the group were in Rishikesh , India , with the Maharishi . Once the Bombay recording had been transferred to four @-@ track tape , Harrison recorded his vocal part for " The Inner Light " on 6 February , at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios . Lacking confidence in his ability to sing in so high a register , he had to be coaxed by Lennon and Paul McCartney into delivering the requisite performance . Two days later , McCartney and Lennon overdubbed backing vocals at the very end of the song , over the words " Do all without doing " .
" The Inner Light " was held in high regard by Harrison 's bandmates , particularly McCartney , and was selected as the B @-@ side for the forthcoming single . It was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single , in addition to being the only Beatles studio recording made outside Europe . Everett writes that Lennon 's admiration for the track was evident from his subsequent creation of the song " Julia " through " a very parallel process " – in that instance , by adapting a work by Kahlil Gibran . Although Harrison had served as the producer at the Bombay session , only George Martin received a production credit for " The Inner Light " .
= = Release and reception = =
The song was issued as the B @-@ side of " Lady Madonna " on 15 March 1968 in the UK , with the US release following three days later . While Chris Welch of Melody Maker expressed doubts about the hit potential of the A @-@ side , Billboard magazine 's reviewer commented on the aptness of " The Inner Light " , given the band 's concurrent " meditation spell " . In America , the B @-@ side charted independently on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week , placing at number 96 . In Australia , it was listed with " Lady Madonna " , as a double A @-@ side , when the single topped the Go @-@ Set national singles chart .
Among Beatles biographers , Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 that " The Inner Light " " proved to be the best – and last – of George 's attempts to incorporate Indian music into the context of the Beatles " . Schaffner paired it with " Within You Without You " as raga rock songs that " feature haunting , exquisitely lovely melodies " , and as two works that could have been among Harrison 's " greatest achievements " had they been made with his bandmates ' participation . Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes the same tracks as " a pair of beautiful songs … that were effectively solo recordings " . Ian MacDonald likens the song 's " studied innocence and exotic sweetness " to recordings by the Incredible String Band and concludes : " ' The Inner Light ' is both spirited and charming – one of its author 's most attractive pieces . "
Writing for Mojo magazine in 2003 , John Harris similarly admired it as Harrison 's " loveliest addition of Indian music to The Beatles ' repertoire " . In Ian Inglis ' view : " it is the extraordinary synthesis of separate musical and lyrical traditions ( in this case , Indian instrumentation , Chinese philosophy , and Western popular music ) that distinguishes the song . Harrison 's uncharacteristically warm vocal weaves in and around the delicate , almost fragile , melody to deliver a simple testimony to the power of meditation ... " With regard to the song 's influence , Inglis recognises Harrison 's espousal of Eastern spirituality as " a serious and important development that reflected popular music 's increasing maturity " , and a statement that prepared rock audiences for later religious pronouncements by Pete Townshend , Carlos Santana , John McLaughlin , Cat Stevens and Bob Dylan .
Nick DeRiso of the music website Something Else ! considers " The Inner Light " to be one of its composer 's " most successful marriages of raga and rock " and , through Harrison 's introduction of instruments such as sarod , shehnai and pakhavaj , a key recording in the evolution of the 1980s world music genre . While admiring the song 's transcendent qualities , Everett quotes the ethnomusicologist David Reck , who wrote in 1988 : " Most memorable is the sheer simplicity and straightforwardness of the haunting modal melody , somehow capturing perfectly the mood and truth and aphoristic essence of the lyrics . "
= = Later releases = =
A stereo mix of " The Inner Light " was created at Abbey Road on 27 January 1970 for what Beatles recording historian Mark Lewisohn terms " some indefinable future use " . On this later mix , the opening instrumental section differs slightly from that on the original , mono version .
Following its initial release in 1968 , " The Inner Light " became one of the rarest Beatles recordings . Although it appeared on Por Siempre Beatles , a 1971 Spanish compilation album , the song was not available on a British or American album until its inclusion on Rarities , which was originally issued as a disc in the 1978 box set The Beatles Collection before receiving an independent UK release . The 1980 US compilation titled Rarities also featured " The Inner Light " , again in its mono form . The stereo mix was first released as the opening track on a bonus EP , titled The Beatles , issued in the UK in December 1981 as part of the Beatles EP Collection box set . The song was issued on CD in 1988 , in stereo , on Past Masters , Volume Two . The mono mix was subsequently included on the Beatles ' Mono Masters compilation .
For the Beatles ' 2006 remix album Love , created for the Cirque du Soleil stage show , the song was segued onto the end of " Here Comes the Sun " . This mashup begins with Harrison singing " Here Comes the Sun " over the tabla part from " Within You , Without You " and ends with Indian instrumentation from " The Inner Light " .
In 2014 , an alternative instrumental take of the song was issued as a bonus track on Harrison 's Wonderwall Music remastered CD . The recording begins with a short studio discussion , as Harrison instructs the Bombay musicians .
= = Cover versions and popular culture = =
Having covered " Within You Without You " in 1967 , the Soulful Strings included " The Inner Light " on their album Another Exposure the following year . Junior Parker recorded the song , releasing a version on his 1971 album with Jimmy McGriff , The Dudes Doin ' Business . Later in the 1970s , the song 's title was appropriated for one of the first international Beatles fanzines .
= = = Concert for George performance = = =
Jeff Lynne , who worked frequently with Harrison after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , sang " The Inner Light " at the Concert for George tribute , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 November 2002 , a year after the former Beatle 's death . In what Simon Leng describes as " a wonderfully eloquent duet " , Lynne performed the song with Anoushka Shankar , who played the original sarod part on sitar . Lynne and Shankar were accompanied by Harrison 's son Dhani ( on keyboards and backing vocals ) and an ensemble of Indian musicians that included percussionist Tanmoy Bose ( on dholak ) , Rajendra Prasanna ( shehnai ) and Sunil Gupta ( flute ) .
The song appeared partway through the concert 's opening , Indian music segment , which was performed by Shankar and otherwise composed by her father , and Harrison 's friend and former sitar tutor , Ravi Shankar . Inglis comments that , in its context at the Concert for George , " [ ' The Inner Light ' ] does not appear at all out of place among the Indian folk and classical compositions that surround it . " Reviewing the Concert for George film for The Guardian , James Griffiths admired Lynne 's reading of the song as a " particularly sublime version " .
= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation episode = = =
In June 1992 , the American television series Star Trek : The Next Generation aired an episode titled " The Inner Light " , which went on to win the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . The plot centres around the show 's main character , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard , temporarily living in a dream @-@ like state on an unfamiliar planet , during which decades elapse relative to a few minutes in reality . An avowed fan of the Beatles , screenwriter Morgan Gendel titled the episode after Harrison 's song .
In an email to the Star Trek blog site Soul of Star Trek , Nick Sagan , another of the show 's screenwriters , suggested that the song 's lyrics express the " ability to experience many things without actually going anywhere – and that 's what happens to Picard " . In his subsequent post on the same site , Gendel confirmed this similarity , saying that the Beatles track " captured the theme of the show : that Picard experienced a lifetime of memories all in his head " . When discussing the episode on the official Star Trek website in 2013 , Gendel concluded : " If you Google ' Inner Light + song ' you ’ ll get the Beatles tune and an acknowledgment of my TNG homage to it back @-@ to @-@ back … that might be the best gift my authorship of this episode has given me . "
= = Personnel = =
According to Peter Lavezzoli :
George Harrison – lead vocals , direction
John Lennon – harmony vocals
Paul McCartney – harmony vocals
Aashish Khan – sarod
Hanuman Jadev – shehnai
Hariprasad Chaurasia – bansuri
Mahapurush Misra – pakhavaj
Rijram Desad – harmonium
uncredited – tabla tarang
= Fauna of Puerto Rico =
The fauna of Puerto Rico is similar to other island archipelago faunas , with high endemism , and low , skewed taxonomic diversity . Bats are the only extant native terrestrial mammals in Puerto Rico . All other terrestrial mammals in the area were introduced by humans , and include species such as cats , goats , sheep , the small Asian mongoose , and escaped monkeys . Marine mammals include dolphins , manatees , and whales . Of the 349 bird species , about 120 breed in the archipelago , and 47 @.@ 5 % are accidental or rare .
The most recognizable and famous animal of Puerto Rico is probably the common coquí , a small endemic frog , and one of the 86 species that constitute Puerto Rico 's herpetofauna . Some native freshwater fish inhabit Puerto Rico , but some species , introduced by humans , have established populations in reservoirs and rivers . The low richness @-@ high diversity pattern is also apparent among invertebrates , which constitutes most of the archipelago 's fauna .
The arrival of the first people about 4 @,@ 000 years ago and , to a larger extent , of Europeans more than 500 years ago , had a significant effect on Puerto Rico 's fauna . Hunting , habitat destruction , and the introduction of non @-@ native species led to extinctions and extirpations ( local extinctions ) . Conservation efforts , the most notable being for the Puerto Rican parrot , began in the second half of the 20th century . According to IUCN , as of 2002 , there were 21 threatened species in Puerto Rico : two mammals , eight breeding birds , eight reptiles , and three amphibians. i
= = Origin of Puerto Rican fauna = =
The Caribbean Plate , an oceanic tectonic plate on which Puerto Rico and the Antilles ( with the exception of Cuba ) lie , was formed in the late Mesozoic . According to Rosen , when South America separated from Africa , a volcanic archipelago known as " Proto @-@ Antilles " was formed . It later divided into the present @-@ day Greater and Lesser Antilles because of a new fault line in the " Proto @-@ Antilles " . Geologically , the archipelago of Puerto Rico is young , having formed about 135 Ma ( million years ) ago . The prevailing hypothesis , proposed by Howard Meyerhoff , posits that the Puerto Rican Bank , consisting of Puerto Rico , its outlying islands , and the Virgin Islands with the exception of St. Croix , was formed from volcanism in the Cretaceous Period . Rock samples from Sierra Bermeja in southwestern Puerto Rico , dated to the late Jurassic / early Cretaceous period , confirm this theory .
There is ongoing debate over when and how the ancestors of vertebrate fauna colonized the Antilles — particularly whether the Proto @-@ Antilles were oceanic islands or whether they once formed a land connection between South and North America . The first , and prevailing , model favors overwater dispersal from continental , primarily South American , fauna ; the other suggests the vicarization of proto @-@ Antillean fauna . Hedges et al. conclude that dispersal was " the primary mechanism for the origin of West Indian biota " . Vertebrate terrestrial genera such as Eleutherodactylus dispersed in a " filter " effect among the islands before any vicarization event occurred . However , other fauna such as the endemic Antillean insectivores ( Nesophontes sp . , Solenodon marcanoi and others ) and freshwater fish appear to have colonized the West Indies earlier through other means . Woods provides evidence to support this hypothesis by analyzing the arrival of ancestors of the Antillean capromyids and echimyids , concluding that an ancient echimyid must have arrived on the Greater Antilles from South America either by island @-@ hopping through the Lesser Antilles or by rafting either to Puerto Rico or Hispaniola .
MacPhee and Iturralde provide an alternate hypothesis that the initiators of land mammal clades arrived on the Proto @-@ Antilles by the mid @-@ Tertiary period , approximately at the Eocene – Oligocene boundary . A short @-@ lived ( ~ 1 Ma ) landmass named " GAARlandia " ( Greater Antilles + Aves Ridge land ) connected northwestern South America with three of the Greater Antilles ( Cuba , Hispaniola and Puerto Rico ) during this period . Afterwards , during the fragmentation of the Proto @-@ Antilles , divergence of vacariated lines would have begun .
The last major changes in Puerto Rican fauna occurred about 10 @,@ 000 years ago as a result of the post @-@ Ice Age rise in sea level and associated environmental changes . Puerto Rico 's transformation from a dry savanna environment to its present moist , forested state led to mass extinctions , especially of the vertebrate fauna . Around this time , the Puerto Rican Bank — a single landmass comprising the archipelago of Puerto Rico ( except for Mona , Monito and Desecheo ) and the Virgin Islands ( except for St. Croix ) — became separated . The Puerto Rican Bank has never been connected to its closest eastern bank , St. Maarten .
= = Mammals = =
The richness of mammals in Puerto Rico , like many other islands , is low relative to mainland regions . The present @-@ day native terrestrial mammal fauna of Puerto Rico is composed of only 13 species , all of which are bats . 18 marine mammals , including manatees , dolphins and whales , occur in Puerto Rico . Fossil records show the existence of one shrew ( Puerto Rican shrew , Nesophontes edithae ) , one sloth ( Puerto Rican sloth ) , three additional leaf @-@ nosed bats ( Macrotus waterhousii , Monophyllus plethodon , and Phyllonycteris major ) , and five rodents ( one giant hutia : Elasmodontomys obliquus , one hutia : Isolobodon portoricensis and three spiny rats : Heteropsomys antillensis , Heteropsomys insulans , and Puertoricomys corozalus ) . Woods suggests a reason for their extinction : " Taxa evolving in isolation on oceanic islands without competition or predators may not be able to adapt to rapidly changing conditions , such as the extensive climatic fluctuations of the Ice Ages or sudden competition or predation from introduced animals " .
Other terrestrial mammals have been introduced throughout the history of Puerto Rico . Indigenous settlers first introduced dogs and guinea pigs from South or Central America . Afterwards , Taínos introduced hutias as a food source from Hispaniola . When the Spanish colonized the island in the early 16th century , they introduced domesticated animals such as dogs , cats , goats , pigs , cattle , horses , and donkeys . Other species such as black rats ( Rattus rattus ) , Norway rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) and house mice ( Mus sp . ) have been unintentionally introduced as stowaways , possibly since Christopher Columbus 's arrival in 1493 . More recently , species have been introduced as a means of biological pest control . For example , the small Asian mongoose ( Herpestes javanicus ) was introduced in the 19th century to control the damage caused by rats in sugar cane plantations . The introduction was a failure : the mongoose failed to control the rat population and instead contributed to the decline of native fauna such as the yellow @-@ shouldered blackbird and possibly the elfin @-@ woods warbler .
As part of a study on adaptation , 57 rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta ) were introduced to the island of Desecheo and other southern off @-@ shore islands and cays in 1967 . Prior to the introduction , Desecheo was the largest nesting colony of the brown booby , but mainly as a result of egg predation by the introduced macaques , no bird species presently nests in the island . Efforts to trap and remove the species have been unsuccessful and it has expanded its range to southwestern Puerto Rico . Other primates also have established populations in Puerto Rico . As a result of vandalism , 107 squirrel monkeys escaped from a research station at Sabana Seca in the late 1970s . The latest estimate for this population is 35 individuals .
Arguably the best known of aquatic mammals occurring in Puerto Rican waters is the Antillean manatee ( Trichechus manatus manatus ) which is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN . The archipelago 's waters are one of the species ' main breeding areas . Manatees gathered local media attention when a two @-@ month manatee nicknamed Moisés was rescued and raised for 27 months by the Caribbean Stranding Network ( CSN ) . Moisés was the first successful release of an orphaned , captive @-@ raised manatee to the marine environment in the Caribbean . The animal became a Puerto Rican cultural , as well as scientific , icon when Tony Croatto wrote a song titled " Moisés " . A municipality of Puerto Rico , Manatí is believed to be named after the species .
Puerto Rico 's waters are also an important breeding site for the humpback whale during the Northern Hemisphere 's winter . Humpback whale watching is a popular tourist attraction in the municipality of Rincón in western Puerto Rico .
= = = Bats = = =
Extant bats of Puerto Rico belong to five families ( Noctilionidae , Mormoopidae , Phyllostomidae , Vespertilionidae , and Molossidae ) and include a total of 13 species , of which six subspecies are endemic to the archipelago . Seven of the 13 species are insectivores , four can be considered frugivores , one species feeds on nectar and another on fish . The species total is a relatively low number in comparison to the other Greater Antilles . Jamaica , for example , with an area approximately 1 @.@ 2 times that of Puerto Rico , has 21 species ( 1 @.@ 6 times that of Puerto Rico ) . A possible explanation for this is the comparatively large distance between the archipelago and the mainland dispersion areas . Jamaica , for example , is closer to Cuba and Hispaniola which are themselves closer to the mainland dispersion areas of North and Central America .
Bats play an important role in forest and cave ecology in Puerto Rico and help control mosquito populations . Most species ( 10 of 13 ) are cave @-@ dwellers with low reproductive rates ; the area with the highest species richness is the Caribbean National Forest , where eleven species occur . The red fig @-@ eating bat ( red fruit bat ) , endemic to the Puerto Rican Bank , plays an important role in the ecology of tabonuco forest in the Luquillo Mountains since it is believed to be the only seed disperser of bulletwood ( Manilkara bidentata ) . Cave ecosystems are enhanced by bat feces ( guano ) since many of the invertebrate cave fauna are either guano scavengers , detritivores or predators of the former two .
The bat species that occur in the archipelago of Puerto Rico are : greater bulldog bat ( Noctilio leporinus ) , Antillean ghost @-@ faced bat ( Mormoops blainvillii ) , Parnell 's mustached bat ( Pteronotus parnellii ) , sooty mustached bat ( Pteronotus quadridens ) , Jamaican fruit bat ( Artibeus jamaicensis ) , Antillean fruit bat ( Brachyphylla cavernarum ) , buffy flower bat ( Erophylla sezekorni bombifrons ) , Leach 's single leaf bat ( Monophyllus redmani ) , red fruit bat ( Stenoderma rufum ) , big brown bat ( Eptesicus fuscus ) , eastern red bat ( Lasiurus borealis ) , velvety free @-@ tailed bat ( Molossus molossus ) , and Mexican free @-@ tailed bat ( Tadarida brasiliensis ) .
= = Birds = =
The avifauna of Puerto Rico is composed of 349 species , 18 of which are endemic to the archipelago . Almost half of the species ( 166 ) are accidental , meaning that they have been sighted only once or twice , and 42 of the species have been introduced , either directly or indirectly ( mainly through habitat alteration ) , by humans . Approximately 120 species , including both native and introduced , breed regularly in the archipelago .
The avifauna of the West Indies is predominantly of tropical North American ( southern North America and Central America ) origin with aggressive South American species having colonized the area only recently . The South American families occurring in the Greater Antilles are the hummingbirds ( Trochilidae ) , tyrant flycatchers ( Tyrannidae ) , bananaquit ( Coerebidae ) and tanagers ( Thraupidae ) , all of which are represented in Puerto Rico . The prevailing theory suggests that bird fauna colonized the West Indies by transoceanic dispersal during the glacial periods of the Pleistocene . The most primitive West Indies birds are the todies which have an endemic representative in Puerto Rico , the Puerto Rican tody .
Puerto Rico 's avifauna has diminished due to extinction and extirpation , either by natural forces or human intervention . For example , fossil evidence was discovered for a species of swift , Tachornis uranoceles , dated to the late Pleistocene ( between 17 @,@ 000 and 21 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The species is believed to have become extinct as a result of habitat alteration after the Wisconsin glaciation . At least six endemic species have become extinct in the last millennia : Puerto Rican barn owl ( Tyto cavatica ) , Puerto Rican caracara ( Polyborus latebrosus ) , Puerto Rican conure ( Aratinga chloroptera maugei ) , Puerto Rican woodcock ( Scolopax anthonyi ) , Puerto Rican quail @-@ dove ( Geotrygon larva ) , and the Antillean cave rail ( Nesotrochis debooyi ) . With a population of 13 individuals in 1975 , the Puerto Rican parrot almost became the seventh , but conservation efforts helped save the species from extinction . However , it is still one of the ten most critically endangered birds in the world . Four Puerto Rican birds , the Hispaniolan parakeet , the white @-@ necked crow , the Cuban crow , and the limpkin , became extirpated after Puerto Rico 's population expansion in the latter half of the nineteenth century and three more species , the black @-@ bellied whistling duck , the black rail , and the greater flamingo , no longer breed in the archipelago .
= = Amphibians and reptiles = =
Puerto Rico 's herpetofauna consists of 25 amphibian species and 61 reptile species . The majority of West Indian terrestrial reptile clade is believed to have arrived by flotsam dispersion from South America . Little evidence exists to support the alternative hypothesis of proto @-@ Antillean vicariance . Other terrestrial herpetofauna are believed to have arrived to the West Indies ( and Puerto Rico ) by the same method and subsequently undergone vicarization by banks or islands . As a result , Puerto Rico , and the Caribbean in general , has one of the highest percentages of endemism among amphibians and reptiles in the world . Amphibian species in Puerto Rico belong to four families : Bufonidae ( 2 species ) , Hylidae ( 3 ) , Leptodactylidae ( 18 ) and Ranidae ( 2 ) . Reptiles include turtles ( freshwater and marine ) , lizards , worm lizards , snakes and a caiman .
All species of Ranidae and Hylidae occurring in Puerto Rico are introduced . One species from the family Bufonidae , the cane toad , is introduced while the other , the Puerto Rican crested toad , is endemic and critically endangered . The cane toad was introduced to Puerto Rico in the 1920s to control the populations of white @-@ grub ( Phyllophaga spp . ) , a sugar cane pest . All species from the family Leptodactylidae are native to the region . Of the 18 Leptodactylidae species , 17 are from the genus Eleutherodactylus and are commonly known in Puerto Rico as coquís . Three of these , the web @-@ footed coquí , the golden coqui and the mottled coqui , are likely to be extinct . The golden coqui is the only live @-@ bearing species from the family Leptodactylidae and Cook 's robber frog ( E. cooki ) is the only Eleutherodactylus sp. that exhibits sexual dimorphism in both size and color . The common coquí ( Eleutherodactylus coqui ) is an unofficial national symbol of Puerto Rico and an important aspect of Puerto Rican culture . Since 14 of the 17 coquís are endemic to the archipelago , a common phrase used by Puerto Ricans to assert their national pride is " De aquí como el coquí " ( From here Puerto Rico like the coquí ) .
Puerto Rico 's turtle fauna includes both freshwater ( 5 species , including two extinct species ) and marine turtles ( 5 ) . Two of these species , the hawksbill turtle and the leatherback sea turtle , are critically endangered . Threats to these species include habitat destruction and illegal capture of eggs and individuals . The spectacled caiman , an introduced species , is the only representative of the order Crocodilia in Puerto Rico .
The 11 snake species occurring in Puerto Rico are generally considered non @-@ venomous , although research has concluded that at least one species , the Puerto Rican racer ( Alsophis portoricensis ) , secretes venom . These species belong to 3 families and 4 genera : Typhlopidae ( Typhlops genus ) , Boidae ( Epicrates ) and Colubridae ( Alsophis and Arrhyton ) . The largest snake in Puerto Rico is the endemic Puerto Rican boa ( Epicrates inornatus ) with a maximum length of 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . The diet of snakes in Puerto Rico consists of reptiles ( Ameiva , Anolis , geckos ) , coquís and other frogs , and , to a lesser extent , mice , birds and bats ( exclusively by the Puerto Rican Boa ) .
The largest terrestrial lizard of the archipelago of Puerto Rico is the Mona ground iguana ( Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri ) . A subspecies of the rhinoceros iguana ( Cyclura cornuta ) , it is endemic to Mona Island , located in the Mona Passage between the main island of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . Another Cyclura species of similar size , the Anegada ground iguana ( Cyclura pinguis ) , once occurred in the archipelago but it became extirpated due to predation by dogs , cats , and humans , habitat destruction , and competition from goats and pigs , and is now restricted to Anegada . The most common lizard in Puerto Rico is the sharp @-@ mouthed lizard ( Anolis pulchellus ) . The Anolis lizards of Puerto Rico , and the Greater Antilles in general , represent an interesting case of adaptive radiation . Anolis lizards in the Greater Antilles are more closely related to other species within the same island than to species of adjacent islands . Surprisingly , even though species divergence occurred independently on each island , the same set of ecomorphs ( habitat specialists ) have evolved on each island .
= = Fish = =
The first fish descriptions from Puerto Rico were compiled by Cuvier and Valenciennes in 1828 . They reported 33 taxa for the archipelago . Puerto Rico has few native freshwater fish species ; however , there are over 30 introduced species , mainly originating from Africa , South America and the southeastern United States , have established populations , and 60 marine species use Puerto Rico 's freshwater bodies intermittently during the year . Introductions have been intentional and accidental . The purposes of intentional introductions have been sport fishing for recreation and food , mosquito control , and to provide baitfish for largemouth bass . Accidental introductions , such as the sailfin armored catfish ( Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus ) , are mainly attributed to the release of aquarium fish . Since 1936 , the Puerto Rican Department of Natural and Environmental Resources runs a hatchery at the municipality of Maricao . About 25 @,@ 000 fish , including largemouth bass , peacock bass , and channel catfish , and some turtle species are raised annually to stock Puerto Rico 's reservoirs and rivers .
Three types of habitats , mangroves , reefs and seagrasses , are found in Puerto Rico 's ocean waters . A total of 677 fish species live in these habitats ; 242 being reef species . Fish species found in Puerto Rican reefs are representative of the general Caribbean fauna . Common reef fishes include wrasses , damselfishes , white grunts ( Haemulon plumieri ) , bluestriped grunts ( Haemulon sciurus ) , queen parrotfish ( Scarus vetula ) , and sharks ( family Carcharhinidae ) . Sea breams ( Archosargus rhomboidalis ) and yellowfin mojarras ( Gerres cinereus ) are some of the species commonly found in mangrove habitats . Other species of interest include flatfishes , with 21 recorded species , and sharks , with more than 20 species . Oceanic whitetip sharks and silky sharks are common in the Mona Passage .
= = Invertebrates = =
The invertebrate fauna of Puerto Rico is high in richness but low in diversity relative to mainland neotropical faunas of similar size and habitat diversity . Puerto Rico , in comparison to other Antillean islands , is the most extensively studied in regards to invertebrates .
Puerto Rico 's insect fauna , similar to the majority of major invertebrate taxa in the archipelago , is considered depauperate when compared to its mainland counterparts . For example , approximately 300 species of butterfly occur in Puerto Rico , in contrast to more than 600 species in Trinidad and more than 1 @,@ 500 species documented from a 7 @.@ 5 km2 region in Brazil . As of 1998 , out of the estimated 925 @,@ 000 described insect species , only 5 @,@ 573 were documented from Puerto Rico . In terms of diversity , of the 31 extant insect orders , 27 have representatives in Puerto Rico . The orders without reported representatives are Microcoryphia , Grylloblattaria , Plecoptera , and Mecoptera . The largest insect depository in Puerto Rico resides at the Museo de Entomología y Biodiversidad Tropical ( Museum of Entomology and Tropical Biodiversity ) , part of the Agricultural Experimental Station of the University of Puerto Rico .
Arachnids are important to the forest ecology , as both predators and prey . In some forest types , such as tabonuco forest , they are the major arboreal invertebrate predators ; spiders being the most abundant representative . The Maricao Commonwealth Forest 's 27 spider species belong to five families : Uloboridae , Pholcidae , Theridiidae , Linyphiidae and Araneidae . Theotima minutissima , a small spider species found in abundance in the Caribbean National Forest , is believed to be parthenogenetic , meaning that it reproduces without fertilization by a male .
Other terrestrial invertebrates described from Puerto Rico include earthworms and cave dwelling animals . Eighteen native species of earthworm have been described , with 11 species belonging to the family Glossoscolecidae , 3
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to the family Megascolecidae , and 4 to the family Exxidae . Seventy @-@ eight invertebrate species are known to inhabit Puerto Rico 's caves . Six of these species are restricted to the Antilles , 23 come from North America and 23 are endemic to Puerto Rico . Only two of the species are confirmed as troglobites , or restricted to caves . Forty @-@ five percent of the species are predators while the remaining 55 % are guano scavengers , detritivores and herbivores . It is believed that most of this fauna arrived at Puerto Rico in the Pleistocene .
The marine invertebrate fauna of Puerto Rico is composed of 61 sponges , 171 cnidarians , 8 nemerteans , 1 @,@ 176 mollusks , 129 annelids ( polychaetes ) , 342 crustaceans , 165 echinoderms , 131 bryozoans , 117 hard corals , 99 soft corals and gorgonians , 13 corallimorphs , and 8 hydrocorals . Coral species found in Puerto Rican reefs are representative of the general Caribbean fauna . Commonly occurring corals include boulder star coral ( Montrastaea annularis ) , finger coral ( Porites porites ) , and elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ) .
Invertebrate introductions have had an observable effect on Puerto Rican fauna . Native freshwater snails such as Physa cubensis have been adversely affected by introduced species . Currently , the most abundant freshwater snail in Puerto Rico is the Quilted Melania ( Tarebia granifera ) , an introduced species . Another invertebrate introduced to Puerto Rico is the honeybee . This animal competes with the endangered Puerto Rican parrot for secondary nesting cavities at the Caribbean National Forest . Africanized bees , which pose an even greater threat for secondary cavity nesters , have recently extended their range to Puerto Rico . Other introductions include 18 species of ant , one of the most abundant taxa in leaf litter habitats .
= = Human effect and conservation = =
The fauna of Puerto Rico has been subjected to human influence since the arrival of the Ortoiroid , Puerto Rico 's first settlers , approximately 4 @,@ 000 years ago . The native fauna was used by the island 's indigenous population as a source of food , while others were used for skins and trade . Significant declines in the populations and diversity of the islands fauna are believed to have begun after the arrival of European settlers in the sixteenth century . Habitat destruction , primarily as a result of forest clearing for sugar cane plantations , had a devastating effect on Puerto Rican fauna during the latter half of the nineteenth century . Furthermore , human @-@ introduced species such as rats , cats , the small Asian mongoose , and the cane toad have had a profound effect on the native fauna of Puerto Rico . Rats on Monito Island are believed to be a limiting factor on the abundance of the endemic Monito gecko , feral cats on Mona Island have been documented attacking common ground doves and endemic reptiles , and have been associated with the reduction of Mona ground iguana juveniles , and mongooses have been documented preying on Puerto Rican parrot fledgings .
Conservation efforts include both land and species protection . Approximately 8 @.@ 95 km2 ( equal to 3 @.@ 4 % of total land area ) divided among 34 reserves are protected in Puerto Rico . According to the IUCN there are 21 threatened species in Puerto Rico : 2 mammals , 8 breeding birds , 8 reptiles , and 3 amphibians . The U.S. federal government lists 5 mammals , 2 amphibians , 8 birds , and 10 reptiles under the Federal Endangered Species Act . The Puerto Rican government , through the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources ( DNER ) , produces its own threatened species list which includes 18 critically endangered species ( 3 amphibians , 7 birds , 3 reptiles , 2 fish and 3 invertebrates ) , and 14 endangered species . The DNER follows the IUCN classification scheme for species ' priority assignment .
Birds currently receive the greatest attention in regards to conservation . Arguably the most successful fauna recovery plan in Puerto Rico was the Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Plan . Initiated in 1968 , its main objective was to downlist the Puerto Rican parrot 's status from critical to threatened by 2020 . Other objectives include the establishment of two separate , effective , wild populations ( 500 or more individuals for 5 years ) , the protection of habitat for those populations and the control of predators , parasites and competitors of the species . Currently , the total wild parrot population is estimated at 44 individuals , and 105 birds are in captivity . This program was fundamental in raising ecological awareness in Puerto Rico .
The Puerto Rico Breeding Bird Survey ( PRBBS ) , established in 1997 , is a program with the purpose of monitoring the status and trends of Puerto Rican breeding bird populations . The information gathered by these surveys is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) to assess bird conservation priorities . Other conservation programs by the USFWS include the Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands Migratory Bird Conservation and the maintenance of 5 wildlife refuges at Cabo Rojo , Laguna Cartagena , Vieques , Culebra and Desecheo . Other institutions supporting bird conservation in Puerto Rico are the Puerto Rican Ornithological Society and the Puerto Rico National History Association .
Marine conservation has recently garnered support in Puerto Rico . The archipelago has an estimated 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 126 @.@ 5 km ) of coastline and 1 @,@ 300 mi2 ( 3 @,@ 370 km2 ) of coral reef communities . The Department of Natural Resources of Puerto Rico maintains 25 areas with marine components but only two of these ( 11 km2 ) are designated as no @-@ take zones . All turtle species occurring in Puerto Rico 's waters are classified as either endangered or threatened . Earthwatch @-@ supported turtle conservation programs and U.S. federal programs have raised local awareness and have contributed to the decline of egg @-@ poaching and turtle meat consumption .
= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama =
The Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama , USA included $ 127 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage and three injuries . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on July 10 , 2005 , before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane . In preparation for the storm , about 500 @,@ 000 people were given evacuation orders , and the Red Cross opened 87 shelters . As a result , all southbound lanes of Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed .
Hurricane Dennis caused modest damage in Alabama , mostly related to moderate wind gusts . Several counties within the state reported downed trees and powerlines , leaving a total of 280 @,@ 000 people without electric power . Downed trees also left numerous county and state roads temporarily impassable . Maximum rainfall peaked at 12 @.@ 80 in ( 325 mm ) near Camden and top wind gusts surpassed 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Despite the damage , there were no fatalities , although three injuries occurred . Also , an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home , forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside .
= = Storm history and preparations = =
On June 29 , 2005 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Gradually , the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area . The system continued to organize , and became a tropical depression on July 4 . Tracking westward , it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba . The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane .
On July 8 , a hurricane watch was put into effect for coastal areas between the Pearl River and the Steinhatchee River . Early on July 9 , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning in anticipation of the storm . Early on July 10 prior to Dennis ' landfall , the warning was discontinued for locations between the Steinhatchee River and the Ochlockonee River , leaving Alabama within the advisory . Just hours after the storm moved ashore , the warning was adjusted to include areas from the Alabama / Mississippi border to Destin , Florida . On July 10 , the coastal hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning , although inland hurricane warnings remained in place . At 2200 ( UTC ) on July 10 , all tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued as the hurricane progressed inland .
About 500 @,@ 000 people were given evacuation orders in the state , mostly in coastal areas . Residents in Mobile County , and those south of I @-@ 10 in Baldwin County , were ordered to evacuate . Similar orders were issued in Mississippi for parts of Jackson , Hancock , and Harrison counties , and for coastal areas in the Florida Panhandle stretching from Escambia County to Bay County .
At 2300 ( UTC ) on July 9 , 2005 , all southbound lanes on Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed . Traffic was redirected , making all four lanes northbound to allow evacuations . Likewise , military installations such as NAS Pensacola , Whiting Field , Eglin AFB , Hurlburt Field and Tyndall AFB were all evacuated days before the storm . Red Cross officials opened 87 shelters across the state which were able to hold about 14 @,@ 000 evacuees .
= = Impact = =
As Hurricane Dennis moved through the state , sustained winds reached minimal hurricane force in the interior of the state . In total , 280 @,@ 000 people in Alabama experienced power outages during the storm . No deaths occurred , although Dennis caused three injuries and total damage amounted to $ 127 million ( 2005 USD ) , mostly due to structural damage . There was also severe damage to cotton crops .
Rainfall typically ranged from 2 – 4 inches ( 50 – 100 mm ) , although rainfall in localized areas reached 12 @.@ 80 in ( 325 mm ) . This caused numerous rivers to overflow causing widespread , locally major , flash flooding . The rainfall flooded numerous state and county roads , some with water up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep . Parts of Interstate 20 were overwashed with water , temporarily closing the highway . In Dallas County , a mudslide closed a section of State Highway 5 . In Greene County , the minor flooding was reported along the Tombigbee River . Throughout the region , numerous bridges were washed away several homes were flooded , sustaining major damage in some cases .
Storm surge generally ranged from 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) – 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) , with the highest surge reported in Mobile Bay as winds became onshore during Dennis ' landfall .
A wind gust of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) was reported at Dothan , with minimum barometric pressure reaching 999 @.@ 2 mb . It is reported that the worst damage occurred in Escambia and Monroe counties . In the Escambia County city of Atmore , 100 percent of the city 's residents lost electric power for some a period of time during the hurricane . The strongest winds occurred in Escambia County , where gusts surpassed 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , leaving numerous structures damaged or destroyed as Dennis tracked through the western half of the county . One man in the county was injured by a fallen tree branch . Also , an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home , forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside . In Coffee County , local officials reported wind gusts had blown a carport into a wall of a house . Marengo County received moderate damage , mostly limited to power outages and minor roof and structural damage caused by fallen trees and powerlines . Many customers were without electric power for at least a day , and numerous county roads were covered with debris . A person was injured in Dallas County when a tree landed on their car . Five homes and one business were damaged due to high winds , and thousands of people county @-@ wide experienced power outages . Greene County reported hundreds of downed trees and powerlines causing County Roads 148 and 20 and State Highways 11 , 43 and 14 to be temporarily closed . In Forkland , a mobile home caught fire when a powerline fell on the home . A motorist ran into a fallen tree in Boligee although did not sustain injuries . In Perry County , 2 @,@ 200 homes were without electric power for several hours , and several vehicles and homes were damaged . A structural fire occurred in Russell County and was believed to be ignited by downed powerlines .
Wind gusts in Autauga County surpassed 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , causing $ 180 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage . The Robinson Springs United Methodist Church had part of its roof torn off in Elmore County , while numerous other homes sustained roof damage . One person was injured in Montgomery County when a tree fell on their vehicle . Another person was injured in Clay County when he ran his vehicle into a downed tree . A structural fire occurred in Randolph County as a result of fallen powerlines .
= = Aftermath = =
On July 10 , just hours after Hurricane Dennis made landfall in the Florida Panhandle , President George W. Bush ordered the federal government to provide necessary disaster resources and assets for the state to aid people who were affected by the storm . Also , 45 counties in the state were eligible for federal funds to pay 75 percent of the approved costs for debris removal and emergency protective services related to the hurricane , including requested emergency work undertaken by the federal government . On July 11 , Escambia County joined Baldwin and Mobile counties to be eligible to receive individual assistance funds .
Shortly after , on July 13 , two Disaster Recovery Centers opened to provide information to those who have suffered damage . The next day , state and federal community relations teams were deployed into Alabama ’ s disaster @-@ declared counties , to assist residents who suffered from Dennis . The Alabama Emergency Management Agency ( AEMA ) and the Department of Homeland Security ’ s Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) had 20 federal community relations specialists and their state counterparts working in the disaster areas . Subsequently , three more Disaster Recovery Centers became scheduled to open on July 16 . On July 25 , four Disaster Recovery Centers in Alabama were scheduled to close . By August 19 , over $ 4 million ( 2005 USD ) in individual assistance funds were received .
= USS Chew ( DD @-@ 106 ) =
USS Chew ( DD @-@ 106 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I and World War II . She was named in honor of Samuel Chew .
From 1918 to 1922 , Chew operated along the East Coast of the United States on patrol and training duties , including escorting a transatlantic voyage of Curtiss NC seaplanes . In 1940 , she was recommissioned and operated out of Pearl Harbor . During the 7 December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , she brought her guns to bear against aircraft of the Empire of Japan , and two of her men were killed helping to man the Pennsylvania . For the remainder of the war , Chew operated out of the port on escort and patrol duties , until she was decommissioned in 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Chew was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with seven of her sisters , were constructed at Union Iron Works shipyards in San Francisco , California using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 060 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 040 long tons ; 1 @,@ 170 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 68 m ) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 113 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers .
Specifics on Chew 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers designed by Bethlehem Steel , built from a different design than the ' Liberty type ' destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The non- ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight .
Chew was the first and only ship commissioned in the U.S. Navy named for Samuel Chew , who had been a Continental Navy officer killed in the Revolutionary War .
= = Service history = =
Chew was launched on 26 May 1918 out of San Francisco , sponsored by F. X. Gygax . She was commissioned on 12 December 1918 under the command of Commander J. H. Klein Jr .
She sailed for the East Coast of the United States on 21 December 1918 , and arrived in port at Newport , Rhode Island on 10 January 1919 . After brief repairs at port in New York City , New York and refresher training at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , she cleared New York on 28 April and embarked as an escort during the first transatlantic seaplane flight , made by Curtiss NC @-@ 4 aircraft . Following this duty , she visited to the Azores , Gibraltar , Malta , and Constantinople before returning to New York on 5 June . After repairs , she steamed for San Diego , California , leaving New York on 17 September and arriving in San Diego on 12 October . Beginning on 19 November 1919 , she was placed in reduced commission , operating only infrequently with Naval reservists of Reserve Division 10 until she was placed out of commission on 1 June 1922 .
At a part of the mobilization effort preceding the U.S. entry into World War II , Chew was recommissioned on 14 October 1940 , assigned to Defense Force , 14th Naval District . She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 17 December 1940 which she made her home port . She spent the next year conducting patrols and had training duty from Pearl Harbor . She was assigned to Destroyer Division 80 , with sister ships Allen , Ward , and Schley .
On the morning of 7 December 1941 , Chew was moored in Berth X @-@ 5 , alongside Allen and the decommissioned Baltimore , which was being used for storage . At the outbreak of the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan that morning , Chew brought one of her 3 " / 23 caliber guns online and began firing at 08 : 03 , under the command of her executive officer . At 08 : 11 , two of her .50 caliber machine guns were also brought online and began firing . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) gun scored one Japanese aircraft shot down and two damaged , and the machine guns observed no hits . Chew maintained continuous fire from these weapons until 09 : 34 , when the last of the Japanese aircraft departed . She then got underway and began patrolling for Japanese submarine activity , just southwest of the port entrance buoy . She pinged eight possible contacts and dropped 28 depth charges , which her commander , H. R. Hummer , Jr . , reported two Japanese submarines destroyed . Subsequent evidence does not suggest Chew struck any Japanese submarines . In the chaos of the attack , a number of Chew crew members also disembarked and came aboard nearby Pennsylvania , which was in drydock , to assist in manning guns , forming ammunition trains , and fighting fires . Aboard Pennsylvania , two Chew crewman were killed in defending the ship , Seaman Second Class Matthew J. Agola and Fireman Third Class Clarence A. Wise .
From 1941 through the end of World War II , Chew operated out of Pearl Harbor on patrol . She took on periodic escort duties among the Hawaiian Islands and on training duty for submarines . She made occasional trips to San Francisco and Seattle escorting convoys and screening for other Navy ships , inter @-@ island escort , and submarine training duty . Following the end of the war , she departed Pearl Harbor on 21 August 1945 and arrived at Philadelphia 13 September . She was decommissioned there on 10 October 1945 , and sold for scrap on 4 October 1946 . Chew received one battle star for World War II service .
= Roentgenium =
Roentgenium is a chemical element with symbol Rg and atomic number 111 . It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element ( an element that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature ) ; the most stable known isotope , roentgenium @-@ 282 , has a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 1 minutes . Roentgenium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt , Germany . It is named after the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen ( also spelled Roentgen ) .
In the periodic table , it is a d @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 11 elements , although no chemical experiments have been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to gold in group 11 . Roentgenium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues , copper , silver , and gold , although it may show some differences from them .
= = History = =
= = = Official discovery = = =
Roentgenium was first synthesized by an international team led by Sigurd Hofmann at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Darmstadt , Germany , on December 8 , 1994 . The team bombarded a target of bismuth @-@ 209 with accelerated nuclei of nickel @-@ 64 and detected a single atom of the isotope roentgenium @-@ 272 :
209
83Bi + 64
28Ni → 272
111Rg + 1
0n
This reaction had previously been conducted at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna ( then in the Soviet Union ) in 1986 , but no atoms of 272Rg had then been observed . In 2001 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) concluded that there was insufficient evidence for the discovery at that time . The GSI team repeated their experiment in 2002 and detected three more atoms . In their 2003 report , the JWP decided that the GSI team should be acknowledged for the discovery of this element .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , roentgenium should be known as eka @-@ gold . In 1979 , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unununium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uuu ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the element was discovered ( and the discovery then confirmed ) and a permanent name was decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who either called it " element 111 " , with the symbol of ( 111 ) or even simply 111 .
The name roentgenium ( Rg ) was suggested by the GSI team in 2004 , to honor the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen , the discoverer of X @-@ rays . This name was accepted by IUPAC on November 1 , 2004 .
= = Isotopes = =
Roentgenium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusion of the nuclei of lighter elements or as intermediate decay products of heavier elements . Seven different isotopes of roentgenium have been reported with atomic masses 272 , 274 , and 278 – 282 , two of which , roentgenium @-@ 272 and roentgenium @-@ 274 , have known but unconfirmed metastable states . All of these decay through alpha decay or spontaneous fission .
= = = Stability and half @-@ lives = = =
All roentgenium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; in general , the heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable known roentgenium isotope , 282Rg , is also the heaviest known roentgenium isotope ; it has a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 1 minutes . The isotopes 280Rg and 281Rg have also been reported to also have half @-@ lives over a second . The remaining isotopes have half @-@ lives on the millisecond range . The undiscovered isotope 287Rg has been predicted to be the most stable towards beta decay ; however , no known roentgenium isotope has been observed to undergo beta decay . The unknown isotopes 277Rg and 283Rg are also expected to have long half @-@ lives of 1 second and 10 minutes respectively . Before their discovery , the isotopes 278Rg , 281Rg , and 282Rg were predicted to have long half @-@ lives of 1 second , 1 minute , and 4 minutes respectively ; however , they were discovered to have shorter half @-@ lives of 4 @.@ 2 milliseconds , 17 seconds , and 2 @.@ 1 minutes respectively .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Roentgenium is the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals . Since copernicium ( element 112 ) has been shown to be a transition metal , it is expected that all the elements from 104 to 112 would form a fourth transition metal series . Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue gold , thus implying that roentgenium 's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 11 elements , copper , silver , and gold ; however , it is also predicted to show several differences from its lighter homologues .
Roentgenium is predicted to be a noble metal . Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 11 elements , roentgenium is predicted to show stable + 5 , + 3 , and − 1 oxidation states , with a less stable + 1 state . The + 3 state is predicted to be the most stable . Roentgenium ( III ) is expected to be of comparable reactivity to gold ( III ) , but should be more stable and form a larger variety of compounds . Gold also forms a somewhat stable − 1 state due to relativistic effects , and roentgenium may do so as well : the electron affinity of roentgenium is expected to be around 1 @.@ 6 eV ( 37 kcal / mol ) , significantly lower than gold 's value of 2 @.@ 3 eV ( 53 kcal / mol ) , so roentgenides may not be stable or even possible . The 6d orbitals are destabilized by relativistic effects and spin – orbit interactions near the end of the fourth transition metal series , thus making higher oxidation states like roentgenium ( V ) and copernicium ( IV ) more stable than their lighter homologues gold ( V ) and mercury ( IV ) ( each of which are known only in one compound ) as the 6d electrons participate in bonding to a greater extent . The spin @-@ orbit interactions stabilize molecular roentgenium compounds with more bonding 6d electrons ; for example , RgF −
6 is expected to be more stable than RgF −
4 , which is expected to be more stable than RgF −
2 . Roentgenium ( I ) is expected to be difficult to obtain .
The probable chemistry of roentgenium has received more interest than that of the two previous elements , meitnerium and darmstadtium , as the valence s @-@ subshells of the group 11 elements are expected to be relativistically contracted most strongly at roentgenium . Calculations on the molecular compound RgH show that relativistic effects double the strength of the roentgenium – hydrogen bond , even though spin – orbit interactions also weaken it by 0 @.@ 7 eV ( 16 kcal / mol ) . The compounds AuX and RgX , where X = F , Cl , Br , O , Au , or Rg , were also studied . Rg + is predicted to be the softest metal ion , even softer than Au + , although there is disagreement on whether it would behave as an acid or a base . In aqueous solution , Rg + would form the aqua ion [ Rg ( H2O ) 2 ] + , with an Rg – O bond distance of 207 @.@ 1 pm . It is also expected to form Rg ( I ) complexes with ammonia , phosphine , and hydrogen sulfide .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
Roentgenium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and to crystallize in the body @-@ centered cubic structure , unlike its lighter congeners which crystallize in the face @-@ centered cubic structure , due to its being expected to have different electron charge densities from them . It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 28 @.@ 7 g / cm3 ; in comparison , the densest known element that has had its density measured , osmium , has a density of only 22 @.@ 61 g / cm3 . This results from roentgenium 's high atomic weight , the lanthanide and actinide contractions , and relativistic effects , although production of enough roentgenium to measure this quantity would be impractical , and the sample would quickly decay .
The stable group 11 elements , copper , silver , and gold , all have an outer electron configuration nd10 ( n + 1 ) s1 . For each of these elements , the first excited state of their atoms has a configuration nd9 ( n + 1 ) s2 . Due to spin @-@ orbit coupling between the d electrons , this state is split into a pair of energy levels . For copper , the difference in energy between the ground state and lowest excited state causes the metal to appear reddish . For silver , the energy gap widens and it becomes silvery . However , as the atomic number increases , the excited levels are stabilized by relativistic effects and in gold the energy gap decreases again and it appears gold . For roentgenium , calculations indicate that the 6d97s2 level is stabilized to such an extent that it becomes the ground state and the 6d107s1 level becomes the first excited state . The resulting energy difference between the new ground state and the first excited state is similar to that of silver and roentgenium is expected to be silvery in appearance . The atomic radius of roentgenium is expected to be around 138 pm .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of roentgenium has yet to have been established due to the low yields of reactions that produce roentgenium isotopes . For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide , at least four atoms must be produced , the half @-@ life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second , and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week . Even though the half @-@ life of 281Rg , the most stable known roentgenium isotope , is 26 seconds , long enough to perform chemical studies , another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of roentgenium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained . Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the roentgenium isotopes and automated systems can then experiment on the gas @-@ phase and solution chemistry of roentgenium as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements . However , the experimental chemistry of roentgenium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium , despite early interest in theoretical predictions due to the maximizing of relativistic effects on the ns subshell in group 11 occurring at roentgenium .
= Impossible Princess =
Impossible Princess ( retitled Kylie Minogue in the UK and Europe ) is the sixth studio album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , released on 22 October 1997 . Because the A & R department of her label , Deconstruction Records , were not present throughout the majority of the album 's production process , song writing and production were primarily handled by Minogue , in collaboration with producers Dave Ball , Ingo Vauk , Brothers in Rhythm , Manic Street Preachers and Rob Dougan .
Minogue started work on the album in October 1995 when she returned from her trips with French photographer and her then @-@ boyfriend Stéphane Sednaoui . A release with a mixture of different musical genres and styles , the album features several songs employing themes of self @-@ reflection , relationships and insecurities . The album cover was photographed by Sednaoui and the album title was derived from the book Poems to Break the Harts of Impossible Princesses ( 1994 ) by Billy Childish and from a lyric in the song " Dreams " . The tracks " Some Kind of Bliss " , " Did It Again " , " Breathe " and " Cowboy Style " served as the album 's official singles , while the other songs from the album served as promotional singles in Australia and New Zealand .
Impossible Princess received positive reviews from most critics . Australian and American critics viewed the album positively for its production and experimentation , while the British press criticized Minogue 's indie image and music change from her earlier work . Peaking at number four and ten in Australia and the United Kingdom respectively , it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Minogue promoted the album on her Intimate and Live tour , which was positively received critically and commercially .
= = Background and development = =
Minogue left her label PWL in 1992 due to creative differences , and signed a three album deal with Deconstruction Records the following year . Her self @-@ titled album was released through Deconstruction in September 1994 , where it peaked at number three in Australia and number four in the United Kingdom . The following year , she recorded the song " Where the Wild Roses Grow " , a duet with Australian rock musician Nick Cave . Cave was interested in working with Minogue since hearing her 1990 single " Better the Devil You Know " , saying it contained " one of pop music 's most violent and distressing lyrics " .
In 1995 , Minogue began a relationship with French photographer Stéphane Sednaoui and embarked a series of trips to North America and South East Asia . Minogue was encouraged by Sednaoui to write songs for the album ; she had written lyrics before , but described them as " safe , just neatly rhymed words " . Each morning , Minogue would present lyrics to producer Dave Seaman from the night before . Impossible Princess took nearly two years to record , the longest period of time Minogue had worked on a project since her time acting on the Australian soap opera Neighbours ( from 1986 to 1988 ) . Minogue 's creative director Steve Anderson later explained that its lengthy time was " due to the pure perfectionism of all creatively involved " .
Minogue started recording rough demos in October 1995 with Brothers in Rhythm in Chippenham , where they completed the unreleased track " You 're the One " . Impossible Princess is Minogue 's first album to incorporate live instrumentation ; she had commented " I was joking with James Dean Brafield ' Oh my god , every instrument is a real instrument , I don 't think I 've ever had this before ! ' " Minogue felt it was unusual because she was familiar with the use of synthesizers . Minogue attended all music sessions from start to finish , and often turned up late and asked several questions because she wanted more information on how to produce , compose and " change and distort " songs .
= = Composition = =
Impossible Princess combines several musical genres including trip hop , techno , Britpop , pop music , indie rock and dance music . Orkus writer Marcel Anders felt though the album includes guitar @-@ driven tracks , " Most tracks are still very dancefloor oriented " . Music critic Michael R. Smith from the DailyVault.com noted the techno elements , while a reviewer from Classic Pop Magazine found influences of 1990s Britpop . Digital Spy critic Nick Levine said the album was " all over the dance @-@ pop shop " . Sednaoui introduced her to the work of Icelandic musician Björk , American – Scottish band Garbage , Japanese producer Towa Tei and Irish band U2 , all whom influenced the work from Impossible Princess . Minogue cited The Verve , The Prodigy , The Chemical Brothers , The Eels and the " British music scene " as influences to the album .
" Too Far " , Impossible Princess ' opening track and lead promotional single , is a drum and bass track that was noted as one of " the toughest club cuts in Kylie 's career " by Levine . Minogue wrote the track at a local cafe and sings about stress and anger . The second track and fourth single , " Cowboy Style " , is a tribal – Celtic pop song that mixes both live instrumentation and electronic synths , and talks about the first time she met Sednaoui . " Some Kind of Bliss " , the album 's lead single , is her first track to work strictly with live instrumentation , focusing on instruments such as bass guitar , string arrangements and drums . Her most indie track , the lyrics focus on being happy while away from family and friends . The fourth track and second single , " Did It Again " , also focuses on live instrumentation with elements of dance music , and discusses her self @-@ consciousness and self @-@ hatred . Both " Breathe " , the album 's third single , and " Say Hey " are electronic tracks that have been compared to the music of Icelandic recording artist Björk . " Breathe " deals with calmness , while " Say Hey " talks about verbal communication with Sednaoui .
The seventh track , " Drunk " , is a Techno song which Minogue sings about desiring Sednaoui 's attention and wanting him to be satisfied . " I Don 't Need Anyone " has been recognized as the album 's most straightforward Motown – indie rock song . Minogue stated that the lyrical narrative was " difficult " to explain . The ninth track , " Jump " , is a slow trip @-@ hop song that has Minogue singing about self @-@ acceptance and the future . " Limbo " is a dance song that deals with being trapped and not visiting anyone . The eleventh track , " Through the Years " , was compared to the work of Björk once again , and deals with past relationships and affairs . The twelfth and final track on the album is " Dreams " , a track about pushing boundaries over an orchestral and string arrangement .
= = Release and packaging = =
Deconstruction aimed to release the album in January 1997 , but the release was postponed until May 1997 . Deconstruction then decided to release the album in September 1997 , but the release was postponed once again . Because of constant delays , Deconstruction , BMG and Mushroom released selected album tracks on various formats throughout Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . BMG released Impossible Princess on 22 October 1997 in Japan and Taiwan , followed by a 12 January 1998 release in Australia through Mushroom and 23 March 1998 in the UK . On 26 May 2003 , Deconstruction and Mushroom re @-@ released the album with a new disc with bonus tracks and remixes . Minogue told Billboard that she and Deconstruction had plans to release the album in North America , but dismissed these plans after they failed to find an American label to promote it .
The album cover , photographed by Sednaoui , is a frontal @-@ view shot of Minogue , sitting down inside of a multi @-@ coloured cut cone . The shoot was inspired by Japanese and French pop culture , and Sednaoui identified Japanese photographer Nobuyoshi Araki as an inspiration . For the limited 3D cover , it required multiple static cameras to shoot Minogue and she grew tired of posing for long periods of time . Minogue was dressed in a blue Véronique Leroy mini dress . Minogue recalled " The shoot was so very difficult but we knew that once we got it right it would be amazing . " The album title references Poems to Break the Harts of Impossible Princesses ( 1994 ) by Billy Childish . A copy of the book was given to Minogue as a gift by Cave ; she said its poems summarized where she was at that time in her life . Minogue recalled " The first time I saw the name Impossible Princess , It had me written all over it . " Due to the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in August 1997 , the album title was changed to Kylie Minogue for the UK and the rest of Europe .
= = Promotion = =
Minogue embarked a promotional tour in the Oceanic region in October 1997 . Minogue performed in Singapore and then followed with Australian state capitals Melbourne , Brisbane , Sydney and Adelaide . Next was Auckland and she finished off in Hong Kong . After the album 's European release , Minogue went on to promote the album with concert gigs in Norway , Denmark and the Netherlands . Minogue embarked Intimate and Live , an Australian and European tour , which spanned from 2 June 1998 to 8 July 1998 . Minogue started rehearsing for the tour after performing at the 1998 Sydney Mardi Gras in January . Unlike her previous tours , Intimate and Live 's production was handled with a low budget .
Minogue and Baker sketched plans and stage props for the tour . The " K " symbol and the multi @-@ coloured cone from the album 's photoshoot had been featured as props for the tour . The show was accompanied by only two dancers ( David Scotchford and Ashley Wallen ) and a backing group – mainly John Farnham 's band members – with added backing vocalists . Despite initial plans not to take the show outside of Australia , Minogue decided to extend it into Europe due to high demand . From the supporting album , Minogue performed " Too Far " , " Some Kind of Bliss " , " Breathe " , " Cowboy Style " , " Say Hey " , " Drunk " , " Did It Again " , and " Limbo " . The live album was released on 30 November 1998 in Australia and the DVD was released in July 2002 .
= = Critical reception = =
Impossible Princess received positive reviews from most music critics . Billboard 's Larry Flick described the album as " stunning " , concluding that " it 's a golden commercial opportunity for a major record company with vision and energy to release it in the United States ... " Herald Sun writer C. Adams said " Impossible Princess is her best yet , the classey , personal pop album she has always threatened . " Chris True of Allmusic called it " a pretty damn good record " and opined , " Unlike Minogue 's early work , this album sounds stronger and has a more natural feel . Her songwriting abilities have come a long way , and Impossible Princess actually flows together as an album . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was impressed with the album 's " starkly personal and unified cord " , saying Impossible Princess " is the work of an artist willing to take risks , not a pop queen concerned with preserving her reign . "
While reviewing her tenth album X ( November 2007 ) , Evan Sawdey from PopMatters commented " For those who still have a copy of her Manic Street Preachers @-@ assisted Impossible Princess , then you have one of the most crazed , damn @-@ near perfect dance @-@ pop albums ever created . " Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault called it her " biggest step forward " . Ben Willmott of NME criticized Impossible Princess ' musical direction , branding Minogue a " total fraud " for introducing several different genres . Specifically , he lambasted her collaborations with Bradfield . A reviewer from the publication Music Week was less than impressed , writing that " Kylie 's vocals take on a stroppy edge ... but not strong enough to do much " . A reviewer from Samesame.com.au said " Impossible Princess remains Kylie watershed moment creatively ... The resulting LP remains Kylie at her most pure . "
The album was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1998 ARIA Music Awards , her first nomination in that category , but lost to Unit by Regurgitator respectively . Sarah Smith from FasterLouder rated the album at number five on their The Most Underrated Albums of All Time , saying " Why Madonna 's Ray Of Light was acclaimed for pushing these boundaries at the very same moment Impossible Princess was maligned for it , is confusing , but perhaps best explained by the music media 's ongoing narrative of these two singers : Madonna is meant to challenge , Kylie , to smile , pout and spin round . " Slant Magazine included the album on their Vital Pop : 50 Essential Pop Albums list in June 2003 .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted and peaked at number four on the ARIA Albums Chart and number one on the Australian Music Report chart in January 1998 . It became the highest debuting album on the top 50 chart for the week . It dropped to eight , unable to reach a higher position and descended out of the chart on the week end 26 April 1998 after fourteen weeks . It stayed in for thirty @-@ five weeks , Minogue 's longest @-@ charting album at that point . It became the thirty @-@ first best @-@ selling album of 1998 and was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies .
In the UK , it entered the UK Albums Chart at number ten on 4 April 1998 . Despite being higher than her previous album Let 's Get To It , which reached number fifteen , it descended its way out and stayed in the chart for four weeks . Impossible Princess is Minogue 's worst selling studio album in the UK . Publications in the United Kingdom pointed out that the lack of devoted promotion with a tour was possible cause of low sales , along with Minogue 's image change . After a year of its release , UK Virgin Radio mocked the sales of the album along with Minogue 's concepts , stating : " We 've done something to improve Kylie 's records : we 've banned them . "
= = Impact = =
Impossible Princess is considered to be an example of Minogue 's constant " reinventions " and is recognized as her most personal and experimental album to date . Critics feel Impossible Princess is Minogue 's biggest leap forwards in terms of lyrics , vocals and music , with True commenting " She recruits Manic Street Preachers ' James Dean Bradfield , Sean Moore , and Nicky Wire , starts writing unaided , and completely changes musical direction . Enter Kylie Minogue 's Impossible Princess . From the trippy cover art to the abundance of guitars and experimental vocal tracks , this was her " great leap forward . " UK editor Tom Parker , who wrote the liner notes for the re @-@ released edition , labelled it her " greatest triumph " . Alan McGee from The Observer labelled her " Self @-@ realized Kylie " , but commented " Impossible Princess bombed . She was written off again " . Michael Paoletta from Billboard said that it is her most misunderstood album in her career .
Impossible Princess received huge backlash and mockery for her " Indie Kylie " image and low sales . It was viewed as an inferior attempt of Ray of Light by American singer Madonna , despite Madonna 's album being released months later . In retrospect , Tim Jonze from The Guardian felt her pop and disco @-@ influenced album Light Years ( 2000 ) saved her career from Impossible Princess ' backlash .
Minogue said that while Impossible Princess was strong , " I 've gotten stronger and more focused since that album " . As a result of the low success , Minogue left Deconstruction and BMG . Minogue told NME in 2008 that if she ever wrote another album solely by her " it 'd be seen as ' Impossible Princess 2 ' " . She did admit that she does not intend to do this because she may fear it " it would be equally critiqued . " In October 2012 , Minogue revealed that her most disappointing career moment was in fact the low sales of the album by commenting " look at Impossible Princess - it didn 't exactly sell truckloads of album ! " Minogue confirmed that she would never release an " Impossible Princess 2 " in the future .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Impossible Princess . All lyrics by Kylie Minogue except " I Don 't Need Anyone " ( Kylie Minogue / Nick Jones )
= = Release formats = =
CD — containing the 12 @-@ track album .
CD Japanese Edition — 13 @-@ track album including the bonus track " Tears " .
CD Limited Edition — 12 @-@ track album including lenticular cover art .
CD Promo — 12 @-@ track album released exclusively in the United Kingdom .
UK Cassette Promo — 6 @-@ track cassette released exclusively in the United Kingdom . Contains the songs " Cowboy Style " , " Through the Years " , " Breathe " , " Jump " , " Drunk " and " I Don 't Need Anyone " .
CD Australian / New Zealand Sampler — 6 @-@ track CD released exclusively in Australia and New Zealand .
Cassette — containing the 12 @-@ tracks .
2003 Re @-@ issue — containing original 12 @-@ track album and bonus disc with 12 previously unreleased songs / mixes .
Other releases
Other Sides ( 1998 ; an extended play , featuring three unreleased Impossible Princess tracks , that was accompanied with the purchase of Impossible Princess at Australian HMV stores . )
Live and Other Sides ( 1998 ; an extended play , featuring three unreleased Impossible Princess tracks and three live tracks , that was accompanied with the purchase of Impossible Princess at Australian HMV stores . This copy was later removed and re @-@ shelved with Other Sides )
Mixes ( 1998 ; a remix album that included remixes of the Impossible Princess singles . )
Impossible Remixes ( 1998 ; a remix album that included remixes of the Impossible Princess singles . )
Confide in Me ( 2002 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
Kylie Minogue : Artist Collection ( 2004 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie ( 2007 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Impossible Princess adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Pushkar Lake =
Pushkar Lake or Pushkar Sarovar ( Sanskrit : पुष ् कर @-@ सरोवर ) is located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan state of western India . Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus . The Hindu scriptures describe it as " Tirtha @-@ Raj " – the king of pilgrimage sites related to a water @-@ body and relate it to the mythology of the creator @-@ god Brahma , whose most prominent temple stands in Pushkar . The Pushkar Lake finds mention on coins as early as the 4th century BC .
Pushkar Lake is surrounded by 52 bathing ghats ( a series of steps leading to the lake ) , where pilgrims throng in large numbers to take a sacred bath , especially around Kartik Poornima ( October – November ) when the Pushkar Fair is held . A dip in the sacred lake is believed to cleanse sins and cure skin diseases . Over 500 Hindu temples are situated around the lake precincts .
Tourism and deforestation in the surroundings have taken a heavy toll on the lake , adversely affecting its water quality , reducing the water levels and destroying the fish population . As part of conservation measures , the government is undertaking de @-@ silting , de @-@ weeding , water treatment , and afforestation as well as mass awareness programme .
= = Geography = =
Pushkar Lake around which the Pushkar town has developed is in the Ajmer district in the state of Rajasthan , India amidst the Aravalli range of hills . The mountain range known as Nag Parbat ( " snake mountain " ) separates the lake from the city of Ajmer . The valley is formed between the two parallel ranges of the Aravalli hills ( in elevation range of 650 – 856 metres ( 2 @,@ 133 – 2 @,@ 808 ft ) running south @-@ west to north @-@ east . Situated at 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) northwest from Ajmer , the artificial Pushkar Lake created by building a dam is surrounded by deserts and hills on all three sides . The lake is categorized as a " Sacred Lake " under the list of " Classification of Lakes in India " .
The soil and topography in the catchment are predominantly sandy with very low water retention capacity . The land use pattern in the Pushkar valley that drains into the lake comprises 30 % of the area under shifting sand dunes , 30 % under hills ( degraded and barren ) and streams and 40 % of the area is agricultural .
= = = Climate = = =
The region experiences semi @-@ arid climatic conditions with dry and hot summers and cool winters . The summer months of May and June are the hottest , with a maximum temperature of around 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . During the winter months , the maximum mean temperature is in the range of 25 – 10 ° C ( 77 – 50 ° F ) . Rain mainly occurs during a short spell of two months during July and August . The recorded average rainfall is in the range of 400 – 600 millimetres ( 16 – 24 in ) . Rainfall is also recorded some times during winter months of January and February .
From April to September , strong winds blowing in the southwest to northeast direction add to the formation of sand dunes .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The Pushkar Lake drains a catchment of the Aravalli hills covering an area of 22 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . The lake has a water surface area of 22 hectares ( 54 acres ) . It is a perennial lake sourced by the monsoon rainfall over the catchment . The depth of water in the lake varies from season to season from 8 – 10 metres ( 26 – 33 ft ) . The total storage capacity of the lake is 0 @.@ 79 million cubic metres ( 1 @.@ 03 million cu yd ) . As the lake periphery is encircled by 52 ghats of various sizes , the surface water flow from the catchment into the lake is channelled through a series of arches under a foot bridge , 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long at the southern end . The foot bridge facilitates the parikrama ( circumambulation ) that is performed by pilgrims around the lake covering all the 52 ghats ( covers an area of 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) ) .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Pushkar Lake , when full , is rich in fish and other aquatic life . The depth of the lake has substantially shrunk – to less than 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) from a maximum of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) – resulting in the death of large fish weighing 5 – 20 kilograms ( 11 – 44 lb ) , caused due to the viscous water and the lack of oxygen for the fish to survive . Since the region where the lake and its valley is situated is arid , the flora and fauna recorded relate to desert plants , including cactus and thorny bushes , as well as desert animals like camels and cattle . Man @-@ eating crocodiles used to be a menace in the Puskhar Lake , resulting in the deaths of people . Pilgrims were aware of this fact , yet many considered it as lucky to be eaten by crocodiles .
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The crocodiles were caught with nets by the British and shifted to a nearby reservoir .
= = History = =
Pushkar Lake 's history dates back to the 4th century BC . Numismatics , in the form of punched Greek and Kushan coins date the lake back to this time . The inscriptions found at Sanchi attest to the lake 's existence to the 2nd Century BC . This suggests that Pushkar was a pilgrimage centre even if it did not lie on the trade route .
In the fifth century AD , Chinese traveller Fa Xian made reference to the number of visitors to Pushkar Lake .
A story tells of a ninth @-@ century Rajput king , Nahar Rao Parihar of Mandore , chasing a white boar to the lake shore on a hunting expedition . In order to quench his thirst , he dipped his hand into the lake and was astonished to see that the Leukoderma marks on his hand had disappeared . Impressed with the sacred curative nature of the lake , he got the lake restored to its glory . After discovering the curative characteristics of the lake water , people have since visited the lake to take a holy dip and cure themselves of skin problems .
The creation of Pushkar Lake , as an artificial lake , is also credited to the 12th century when a dam was built across the headwaters of the Luni River . The 10th Sikh guru , Guru Govind Singh ( 1666 – 1708 ) , is said to have recited the Sikh sacred text Guru Granth Sahib on the banks of the lake .
During the Mughal rule , there was a short break in the lake 's importance due to the levy of a pilgrim tax and a ban on religious processions . In 1615 – 16 , the Mughal emperor Jahangir ( 1569 – 1627 ) built his hunting lodge ( seen now in total ruins ) on the shores of the Pushkar Lake to celebrate his victory over the local Rajput Rana ( king ) . He came to this lodge 16 times for hunting during his stay in Ajmer , about 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) from Pushkar . This act violated the local tradition of not killing any animals in the precincts of the sacred lake . He also committed an idolatrous act by breaking the image of Varaha – the boar Avatar of the god Vishnu , as it resembled a pig and symbolically hurt Islamic sensitivity . Thereafter , Jahangir 's grandson emperor Aurangzeb ( 1618 – 1707 ) destroyed and desecrated several temples , which were later rebuilt . However , during the rule of Jahangir 's father , Emperor Akbar ( 1542 – 1605 ) , there was a revival of not only the lake but also the Ajmer 's Dargah dedicated to sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti , of whom Akbar was a devout follower .
The Rajput rulers of Amber , Bundi , Bikaner and Jaisalmer made great efforts to restore the importance of the lake and its surrounding temples . Credits given for modern additions to the building of ghats and the renovation / construction of temples go to Maharaja Man Singh I of Amber for the Raj Ghat and Man temple ; Maha Rana Pratap for the Varaha temple ; Daulat Rao Scindia for Kot Tirth Ghat , the Marathas @-@ Anaji Scindia to the Koteshwar Mahadev temple and Govind Rao , the Maratha governor of Ajmer for Shiva Ghat ; to the British rule for combining the religious pilgrimage with a cattle fair to generate taxes for improving the lake and its surroundings ; and gifting of the Jaipur Ghat and the Main Palace on the ghat in 1956 by the Maharaja of Jaipur .
= = Religious significance = =
There are various legends from Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Puranic scriptures which mention the Pushar Lake and the town of Pushkar surrounding it .
According to the Hindu scripture Padma Purana , Brahma saw the demon Vajranabha ( Vajranash in another version ) trying to kill his children and harassing people . He immediately slew the demon with his weapon , the lotus @-@ flower . In this process , the lotus petals fell on the ground at three places , where springs emerged creating three lakes : the Pushkar Lake or Jyeshta Pushkar ( greatest or first Pushkar ) , the Madya Pushkar ( middle Pushkar ) Lake , and Kanishta Pushkar ( lowest or youngest Pushkar ) lake . When Brahma came down to the earth , he named the place where the flower ( " pushpa " ) fell from Brahma 's hand ( " kar " ) as " Pushkar " . It is also said that the sacred Sarasvati River emerged at Pushkar as five streams . The three lakes were assigned their presiding deities as the Hindu Trinity Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva , respectively . When Brahma came down to the earth , he named the place where the lotus fell as ' Pushkar ' . Brahma then decided to perform a yagna at the place , at the main Pushkar Lake . However , his wife Savitri ( called Sarasvati in some versions ) could not be present at the designated time to perform the essential part of the yagna . Brahma , therefore , married a Gujjar , a dominant agricultural race named Gayatri and completed the yagna with his new consort sitting beside him . However , when Savitri finally arrived at the venue , she found Gayatri sitting next to Brahma in her rightful place . Agitated , she cursed Brahma that he would be worshipped only in Pushkar . As a result of this , yagna performed in the presence of all the gods , it is said that a dip in the lake created at this place is credited with holiness , assuring salvation from all sins . It is now one of the five holiest centres of pilgrimage for Hindus .
Ramayana and Mahabharata refer to Pushkar Lake as Adi Tirtha , or the " original sacred water @-@ body " . The famous Sanskrit poet and play @-@ writer Kalidasa also referred to this lake in his poem Abhijñānaśākuntalam . The Ramayana mentions that Vishwamitra performed penance at Pushkar Lake for a thousand years . In spite of Brahma appearing before him and granting him the higher status of a rishi instead of a royal @-@ sage ( rajarishi ) , Vishwamitra continued his penance , but , the celestial nymph apsara , Menaka came to the lake to take a bath . Vishwamitra was enamoured by her beauty and they decided to live together in pursuit of pleasure for ten years . Then , Vishwamitra realized that his main activity of penance was disturbed . He , therefore , took leave of Menaka and went away to the north to continue his meditation . Vishwamitra was also described as building the Brahma temple at Pushkar after Brahma 's yagna . Mahabharata mentions that Pushkar is a holy place of the god Vishnu , considered as the Adi Tirtha where millions of tirthas united during sunrise and sunset , and visiting the lake and taking a holy bath in the lake would wash off all sins .
According to Hindu theology , there are five sacred lakes collectively called Panch @-@ Sarovar ( ' Sarovar ' means " lake " ) . Namely , Mansarovar , Bindu Sarovar , Narayan Sarovar , Pampa Sarovar and Pushkar Sarovar ; hence , Pushkar is considered one of the most sacred places in India . It is also the belief of devotees that a dip in the waters of the lake on Kartik Poornima would equal the benefits that would accrue by performing yagnas ( fire @-@ sacrifices ) for several centuries . Pushkar is often called " Tirtha @-@ Raj " – the king of pilgrimage sites related to water @-@ bodies . The scriptures also mention that doing parikrama ( circumambulation ) of the three lakes ( the main Pushkar , Madya Pushkar where there is a Hanuman temple and an old Banyan tree , and Kanistha Pushkar where a Krishna temple exists ) , which cover a distance of 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) , during the Kartik Poornima day would be highly auspicious . International Business Times has identified Pushkar as one of the ten most religious places in the world and one of the five sacred pilgrimage places for the Hindus , in India .
= = Cultural attractions = =
Pushkar Lake and its precincts offer a plethora of monuments of national importance , such as the Pushkar city , the Brahma temple at Pushkar and the ghats on the periphery of the lakes . The lake is the central divine theme for the popularity of all the monuments seen in the town and the fairs held here .
= = = Pushkar city = = =
Pushkar city , with a population of 14 @,@ 791 at the 2001 census , is one of the oldest cities in India . The city lies on the shore of Pushkar Lake . The date of its actual origin is not known , but legend associates Brahma with its creation concurrent with the lake ; Brahma is said to have performed penance here for a darshan ( sight ) of god Vishnu . Thus , its uniqueness lies in the fact of its historic @-@ religious @-@ cultural background , and as a result it attracts approximately 100 @,@ 000 visitors every month , apart from the very large congregation that occurs during the annual Pushkar Fair . However , the Pushkar Lake is central to its sustenance as a religious centre . The tourist arrivals during 2005 were reported to be about 16 @.@ 12 million ( said to be the maximum among all tourist attractions in Rajasthan ) , out of which the foreign tourists were about 63 @,@ 000 .
= = = Temples = = =
Apart from the sacred Lake , Pushkar is said to have over 500 temples ( 80 are large and the rest are small ) ; of these many old temples were destroyed or desecrated by Muslim depredations during Aurangzeb 's rule ( 1658 – 1707 ) but were re @-@ built subsequently . The most important of these is the Brahma temple . Though the current structure dates to the 14th century , the original temple is believed to be 2000 years old . Pushkar is often described in the scriptures as the only Brahma temple in the world , owing to the curse of Savitri , but also as the " King of the sacred places of the Hindus " . Although now the Pushkar temple does not remain the only Brahma temple , it is still one of very few existing temples dedicated to Brahma in India as well as the most prominent . Hindu pilgrims , including holy men and sages visit this temple after taking a ceremonial sacred bath in the Pushkar Lake . Other notable temples around the lake include Varaha temple – dedicated to Varaha ( the boar incarnation of god Vishnu ) , Savitri temple and Gayatri temple , dedicated to the consorts of Brahma .
= = = Ghats = = =
Ghats ( stone steps laid on a gradual bank slope to descend to the lake edge ) at Pushkar are integral to the lake . Ghats are also used for sacred bathing and rites , such as ancestor worship . Out of 52 ghats used by pilgrims to take a holy bath in the lake , ten important ghats on the periphery of the lake , which have other contiguous ghats adjoining them , have also been declared as ' Monuments of National Importance ' . These ghats are : the Varaha Ghat , the Dadhich Ghat , Saptarishi Ghats , Gwalior Ghat , Kota Ghat , Gau ghat , Yag Ghat , Jaipur Ghat , Karni Ghat and Gangaur Ghat . These ghats as well as the sacred Pushkar Lake ( which is also a declared heritage monument ) have been refurbished over the centuries by the Royal families of Rajasthan and by the Maratha kings . These are now undergoing further improvements as part of a heritage improvement programme launched with funds provided by the Government of Rajasthan and several departments of the Government of India . There are strict codes to be followed while taking a bath in the ghats , such as removing shoes away from the ghats and avoiding the passing of unwarranted comments about Hindu religious beliefs by non @-@ Hindus , since the ghats and the temples are linked to the divine lake . The sacred water of the lake is said to be curative of many skin diseases . Local belief is that water around each ghat has a special curative power . While many ghats have been named after the Rajas who built them , some ghats have particular importance . Varaha ghat is so named since Vishnu appeared here in his incarnation of a boar ( Varaha ) . Brahma Ghat is so named since Brahma bathed here . The Gau Ghat was renamed as Gandhi Ghat after Mahatma Gandhi 's ashes were immersed at this ghat . Nart Singh Ghat , close to Varaha Ghat , has a stuffed crocodile on display .
A coinage known as " Puskar Passport " used by visitors to the lake and the ghats denotes the red thread that is tied on the wrists of pilgrims by the priests ( for a dakshina – an unspecified fee ) . This indicates that the pilgrim has visited Pushkar Lake and is usually not approached by priests again for further rites and fees .
= = Pushkar Fair = =
Pushkar Lake and its precincts become very heavily populated during the annual Pushkar Fair or Pushkar mela , which has both a religious as well as an economic aspect . During the fair , a very large gathering of pilgrims takes a holy dip in the lake and the camel fair is an adjunct celebration . Pushkar Fair commences on Prabodhini Ekadashi , the 11th lunar day in the bright fortnight and ends on Kartik Poornima – the full Moon day in the month of Kartik ( October – November ) , the latter being the most important day of the fair . This fair is held in the honour of god Brahma . A ritual bath on Kartik Poornima in the Pushkar Lake is considered to lead one to salvation . It is believed circling the three Pushkars on Kartik Poornima is highly meritorious . Sadhus , Hindu holy men , gather here and stay from the Ekadashi to full moon day in caves . The Pushkar fair is also Asia 's largest camel fair . The colourful and lively Camel Fair reportedly attracts 2 lakh people and 50 @,@ 000 camels . In this fair held on the banks of the lake , camels are very colourfully decorated and paraded in the sand dunes on the southern part of the lake . Tribes from several neighbouring villages are seen in their traditional colourful costumes . The fair on Kartik Poornima , the day when Brahma is believed to have concluded his Yagna establishing the lake . It is organized by the Rajasthan Tourism Development Corporation ( RTDC ) , Pushkar Municipal Board and the Animal Husbandry Department of Rajasthan . The fair is a colourful cultural event also with folk dances , music , camel races and the cattle fair . The tug of war is a popular entertaining sport held during the fair . This event is held between the Rajasthanis and foreigners ; locals invariably win the event .
= = Status and conservation issues = =
The natural environment of Pushkar Lake and its precincts has become increasingly degraded in the last few decades . The problems arise primarily from the over development of tourist facilities as well as the deforestation of the surrounding area .
The critical issues related to the conservation of the lake have been identified as :
Siltation during the rainy season due to soil erosion of the denuded hills and inappropriate agricultural practices flowing through the three feeder streams namely , the Gomukh , the Nag Pahar and Savitri .
Shifting sand dunes from hills and surrounding areas causing a rise of the bed level of the lake .
Upstream interception by farmers through check dams for farming practices causing reduction in inflows . This reduction is reflected in the full reservoir level of 8 @.@ 53 metres ( 28 @.@ 0 ft ) not being achieved during most years , resulting in pilgrim displeasure and the reduction in maximum depth of the lake , reported now as only 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) .
Large inflow of sewage from the ghats and the surrounding habitation has caused serious water pollution .
Alarming rate of fall in ground water level has occurred in the vicinity of the lake due to high extraction for various uses .
In recent years , storage in the Pushkar Lake has been reduced alarmingly , leaving only a small puddle of water in many years during the festival season when pilgrims flock to the lake for sacred bathing during the Hindu holy month of Kartik , when the Pushkar Fair is held . During the 2009 Pushkar fair , the situation became very grim when the lake dried up entirely . Alternate arrangements were made to facilitate sacred bathing by providing water in concrete tanks near one of the upper ghats , fed by tube wells from ground water sources . While the authorities have been blamed for poor planning by de @-@ silting the lake , the drought situation has resulted in insignificant rainfall in the area to fill the lake .
= = = Water quality issues = = =
The lake does not meet the National Water Quality Standards due to its high concentration of Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( BOD ) . Considering the adverse impact on the lake water quality due to Eutrophication , anthropogenic pressures and holy rituals and tourism , a water quality study was specifically undertaken at four sites on a monthly basis for six months . The sampling sites were chosen to represent the pressure of pilgrims and other pollution inflows at the locations . The water samples were analysed for temperature , pH , salinity , conductivity , total dissolved solids , alkalinity , hardness , turbidity , dissolved oxygen , chloride , nitrite , nitrate , phosphate , sulphate , sodium , ammonium , potassium , total chlorophyll , biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand . The analysis over the period has revealed that the lake water was alkaline , chloride and conductivity concentrations were high at all the four sites , and there were lower levels of dissolved oxygen ( at sites with greater pollution load ) and high hardness ( on account of excess of calcium and magnesium from surface run @-@ off ) . During the period of the annual Pushkar Fair , a distinct co @-@ relationship was discerned between various parameters analysed and the degree of water pollution in the lake . This has called for urgent remedial actions to be undertaken by all of the government agencies involved with the lake management , with people 's participation .
= = = Restoration works = = =
To supplement water supply to the lake , even as early as in 1993 , the government built 12 deep tube wells to supplement water supply to the lake . However , most tube wells were dysfunctional , thereby aggravating the problem . The Union Ministry for Environment and Forests included Pushkar Lake on a list of five lakes under the National Lake Conservation Project ( NLCP ) for restoration . They have been providing funds since 2008 for the restoration works , but the situation has not eased .
Development plans are under various stages of implementation to address the critical issues related to the lake . They aim to improve water quality , increase water storage capacity , prevent encroachment of the lake periphery , improve the ambience around the lake , as well as to introduce recreational and revenue generating schemes .
Sewage outfalls into the lake are proposed to be completely stopped by the interception and diversion of feeder lines . Lining the main feeders into the lake and setting up water treatment plants to continuously treat and recirculate the lake water are also envisioned . Conservation measures proposed for adoption to clean the lake are by way of desilting and deweeding , water treatment at inlet of feeders into the lake , construction of check dams , conservation of ghats , afforestation of denuded hills in the catchment , soil moisture conservation measures , stabilization of sand dunes by planting vegetation of suitable species of plants and restriction of cultivation in the bed of feeder channels . In addition , the institutional measures considered for effecting improvement of the lake are mass awareness programmes with the population 's participation as well as the control of fish proliferation to reduce the risk of death of fishes during periods of inadequate water depth in the lake .
= Invading My Mind =
" Invading My Mind " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) . It was written by RedOne , AJ Junior , BeatGeek , Teddy Sky , Bilal " The Chef " , Jimmy Joker and produced by RedOne , Lopez , Lady Gaga , BeatGeek , Jimmy Joker and Kuk Harrell . " Invading My Mind " is an uptempo song that speaks of being overcome with a feeling that 's " attacking , invading my mind " .
" Invading My Mind " received generally positive acclaim from music critics , who thought of the song to be single @-@ worthy . The song drew comparisons to Ace of Base 's 1995 single " Beautiful Life " and to the music of Kylie Minogue . It additionally was compared to Lopez 's own single " On the Floor " , but with " more of a groove feel " . Upon the release of Love ? , " Invading My Mind " debuted at number ten on the South Korea Gaon International Chart .
= = Production and composition = =
" Invading My Mind " was written by RedOne , AJ Junior , BeatGeek , Teddy Sky , Bilal The Chef , Jimmy Joker and produced by RedOne , Lopez , Lady Gaga , BeatGeek and Joker . Lopez 's vocals for the song were arranged and produced by RedOne . The vocals were recorded by Jim Annunziato , Josh Gudwin and Kuk Harrell at Cove Studios in New York City , New York and Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . RedOne , Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy handled audio engineering of " Invading My Mind " , while RedOne and O 'Ryan were in charge of vocal editing . RedOne , BeatGeek and Joker provided instruments for the song and also programming for them . The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy .
" Invading My Mind " is an uptempo song , with a length of three minutes and twenty seconds ( 3 : 20 ) . Melinda Newman of HitFix described " Invading My Mind " as being a " fast @-@ paced , Euro @-@ tinged , robotic dance thumper " , while Swagata Panjari of Radio and Music called it a " groovy club banger " with " high energy beats " . The song contains an almost " duplicate rhythm " to " On the Floor " , but with " more prominent " electro keys and breaks that have " more of a groove feel " to them . The song received comparisons to Ace of Base 's 1995 single " Beautiful Life " and to the music of Kylie Minogue .
While working with RedOne , Lopez insists that he " brought the best out of her " , something she credits to his Moroccan , Swedish and American heritage . Lopez stated that : " He 's awesome . He 's one of the nicest people and has a beautiful spirit . He can create something the whole world will love and that is probably to do with his international background . Some people can do dance , others can do urban or pop , but Nadir does it all and understand what makes a hit on every level " .
= = Plagiarism allegations = =
In August 2011 , Rebecca Francescatti , a Chicago @-@ based singer , filed a lawsuit against Lady Gaga claiming that she had plagiarized elements of her 1999 recording " Juda " ( It 's All About You ) for Gaga 's 2011 single " Judas " . Francescatti 's lawyer told TMZ : " Though the songs are different styles , the composition is the same , and the chorus is the same melody . [ Francescatti ] is seeking recognition for what she created . " Francescatti noted that the similarities of the two songs could stem from the fact that her former bass player , Brian Gaynor , was now working for a company who wrote several tracks for Gaga 's second album Born This Way ( 2011 ) .
Francescatti 's lawyer claimed in December 2012 that Gaga used an additional unlicensed sample in " Judas " and then incorporated it into " Invading My Mind " . It was alleged that Gaga asked Lopez for a credit on " Invading My Mind " to " cover her tracks " , with Francescatti 's lawyer claiming that she did not even contribute to the song . The lawsuit claimed to have uncovered text messages between Gaga and RedOne proving that she had stolen the sample loop used in both " Judas " and " Invading My Mind " .
= = Critical response = =
" Invading My Mind " received generally positive acclaim from music critics . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly awarded the song a B + rating , stating that : " Remember when the thought of Jennifer Lopez releasing good music was as likely as a sequel to Angel Eyes ? Well , our bad . The American Idol judge shot up the charts with the cheesetastic Ibiza chant On the Floor . Now she unites with Gaga pal RedOne for this appropriately named piece of pop pleasure : Once the club banger hits your ears , good or bad , you won 't be able to get it out of your head . " Tanner Stransky , also of Entertainment Weekly , gave a positive review of the song , stating that between " On the Floor " and " Invading My Mind " Lopez is " really made a glittery return to her extreme club / " Waiting for Tonight " roots " . She continued by stating : " Sure , ' [ Invading My ] Mind ' may be shallower than the kiddie pool , but this one is up from the first second ... and never goes down " . Monica Herrera from Billboard stated that on " Invading My Mind " RedOne and Lady Gaga bring the " hit potential " , while Lopez " brings the heat " . She continued by stating that the song is an " irresistible ' 80s euphoria and release " .
Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey , who although stated that the song isn 't anything " we haven 't heard before , " it is worthy of a standalone release . Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots disagreed , stating that " the lyrics are a little repetitive to be a feature single " , but it could , however , be a " great follow up to ' On the Floor ' if you want to listen back to back and keep dancing " . A staff member from Idolator stated that : " In a parallel universe , we could definitely hear Gaga herself singing ' Invading My Mind , ' though it has more in common with early tracks from Fame than anything the p @-@ p @-@ p @-@ pointy @-@ faced provocateur has done lately " . He also stated that the verses of the song " remind us an awful lot of Lopez 's current RedOne @-@ produced hit ' On the Floor ' . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that " Lopez shines " on the Love ? album cuts which clock at and above 120 bpm , except for what he said was the " throwaway " song " Invading My Mind " . Cinquemani mockingly called the song 's lyrics " poetry " , referring to the line : " freezing cold , steaming hot , sweaty drip , drip , drop " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
= = Charts = =
= Fly Me Away =
" Fly Me Away " is an electronic song performed by British group Goldfrapp . The song was written and produced by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory for the duo 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song features a synthesizer and orchestral arrangement and was written about the need to escape from the troubles of daily life .
The song was released as the album 's fourth single in May 2006 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a modest commercial success , reaching the top forty in Ireland and the United Kingdom . The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in advertising campaigns for the US retail company Target .
= = Background and writing = =
" Fly Me Away " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic song about the need to escape from the troubles of daily life . It was composed as a collaborative effort between Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in a rented cottage in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were " jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other " . " Fly Me Away " is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and an orchestra that was conducted by Nick Ingman .
The North American digital EP featured a cover version of " Boys Will Be Boys " as its B @-@ side . The song was originally performed by British rock group The Ordinary Boys .
= = Marketing and release = =
In late 2006 , " Fly Me Away " was featured in Christmas advertising campaigns for the US retail company Target . The song , along with " Number 1 " , was featured in winter themed television commercials . An instrumental of the song was also featured in advertisements for L 'Oréal Feria , which starred actress Scarlett Johansson .
" Fly Me Away " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD single and digital download release , the single was released as a limited edition 12 @-@ inch single in April 2006 in the UK . A DVD single was also issued and included the " Fly Me Away : Inflight Movies ( Paris - New York - London ) " film , directed by Hannah Holland , and Diane Martel 's music video for " Ride A White Horse " .
The Chris Hopewell @-@ directed music video for " Fly Me Away " was never released . Clips from the video have , however , leaked on to the internet , appearing on the video sharing website YouTube . Instead , Goldfrapp released a performance video on their MySpace page and an animated short film version , directed by Andreas Nilsson and titled " Jakko & the Poet " , on the Supernature Limited Edition DVD .
= = Chart performance = =
" Fly Me Away " was released in the United Kingdom on 1 May 2006 . Because it was released as the fourth single , success was very limited since many consumers had already purchased the album , which at the time had been certified platinum in the UK . The song entered the UK Singles Chart on 8 May 2006 at number twenty @-@ six . The following week it dropped thirty @-@ five positions to number sixty @-@ one and exited the singles chart in its third week of release . In Ireland , the song entered at number forty , remaining on the singles chart for one week . In the US , " Fly My Away " became Goldfrapp 's fourth song to chart within the top ten of the Billboard Dance Chart , reaching number six .
= = Remixes = =
Carl Craig made the most well @-@ known remix of the song , titled the " C2 rmx 4 " , which was included on the limited edition CD single . The track uses Goldfrapp 's original vocals over a heavy bass line and layered synths . Craig also created two other C2 remixes , which focus on Gregory 's instrumentation . Ladytron 's remix of " Fly Me Away " remained close to the original , but was called less " fun and bouncy " by About.com reviewer Mike Stier . Stier also disliked Filippo Moscatello 's " Naughty rmx " writing that it did not contain the " zest and zing " that Craig 's remixes had .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " Fly Me Away " .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Fly Me Away :
Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer
Nick Batt – synthesizer , programming
Will Gregory – synthesizer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
Ted Jensen – mastering
= = Charts = =
= Q * bert =
Q * bert / ˈkjuːbərt / is an arcade video game developed and published by Gottlieb in 1982 . It is a 2D action game with puzzle elements that uses " isometric " graphics to create a pseudo @-@ 3D effect , and serves as a precursor to the isometric platformer genre . The objective is to change the color of every cube in a pyramid by making the on @-@ screen character hop on top of the cube while avoiding obstacles and enemies . Players use a joystick to control the character .
The game was conceived by Warren Davis and Jeff Lee . Lee designed the title character and original concept , which was then further developed and implemented by Davis . Q * bert was developed under the project name Cubes , but was briefly named Snots And Boogers and @ ! # ? @ ! during development .
Q * bert was well received in arcades and among critics . The game was Gottlieb 's most successful video game and among the most recognized brands from the golden age of arcade video games . It has been ported to numerous platforms . The success resulted in sequels and the use of the character 's likeness in merchandising , such as appearances on lunch boxes , toys , and an animated television show . The character Q * bert became known for his " swearing " , an incoherent phrase of synthesized speech generated by the sound chip and a speech balloon of nonsensical characters that appear when he collides with an enemy .
Because the game was developed during the period when Columbia Pictures owned Gottlieb , the intellectual rights to Q * bert remained with Columbia even after they divested themselves of Gottlieb 's assets in 1984 . Therefore , the rights have been owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment since its parent Sony acquired Columbia in 1989 . Q * bert appeared in Disney 's computer @-@ animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph under license from Sony , and later appeared in Columbia 's live @-@ action film Pixels in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Q * bert is an action game with puzzle elements played from an axonometric third @-@ person perspective to convey a three @-@ dimensional look . The game is played using a single , diagonally mounted four @-@ way joystick . The player controls Q * bert , who starts each game at the top of a pyramid made of 28 cubes , and moves by hopping diagonally from cube to cube . Landing on a cube causes it to change color , and changing every cube to the target color allows the player to progress to the next stage .
At the beginning , jumping on every cube once is enough to advance . In later stages , each cube must be hit twice to reach the target color . Other times , cubes change color every time Q * bert lands on them , instead of remaining on the target color once they reach it . Both elements are then combined in subsequent stages . Jumping off the pyramid results in the character 's death .
The player is impeded by several enemies , introduced gradually to the game :
Coily - Coily first appears as a purple egg that bounces to the bottom of the pyramid and then transforms into a snake that chases after Q * bert .
Ugg and Wrongway - Two purple creatures that hop along the sides of the cubes in an Escheresque manner . Starting at either the bottom left or bottom right corner , they keep moving toward the top right or top left side of the pyramid respectively , and fall off the pyramid when they reach the end .
Slick and Sam - Two green creatures that descend down the pyramid and revert cubes whose color has already been changed .
A collision with purple enemies is fatal to the character , whereas the green enemies are removed from the board upon contact . Colored balls occasionally appear at the second row of cubes and bounce downward ; contact with a red ball is lethal to Q * bert , while contact with a green one immobilizes the on @-@ screen enemies for a limited time . Multicolored floating discs on either side of the pyramid serve as an escape from danger , particularly Coily . When Q * bert jumps on a disc , it transports him to the top of the pyramid . If Coily is in close pursuit of the character , he will jump after Q * bert and fall to his death , awarding bonus points . This causes all enemies and balls on the screen to disappear , though they start to return after a few seconds .
Points are awarded for each color change ( 25 ) , defeating Coily with a flying disc ( 500 ) , remaining discs at the end of a stage ( at higher stages , 50 or 100 ) and catching green balls ( 100 ) or Slick and Sam ( 300 each ) . Extra lives are granted for reaching certain scores , which are set by the machine operator .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
The basic ideas for the game were thought up by Warren Davis and Jeff Lee . The initial concept began when artist Jeff Lee drew a pyramid of cubes inspired by M. C. Escher . Lee felt a game could be derived from the artwork , and created an orange , armless main character . The character jumped along the cubes and shot projectiles , called " mucus bombs " , from a tubular nose at enemies . Enemies included a blue creature , later changed purple and named Wrong Way , and an orange creature , later changed green and named Sam . Lee had drawn similar characters since childhood , inspired by characters from comics , cartoons , Mad magazine and by artist Ed " Big Daddy " Roth . Q * bert 's design later included a speech balloon with a string of nonsensical characters , " @ ! # ? @ ! " , which Lee originally presented as joke .
= = = Implementation = = =
Warren Davis , a programmer hired to work on the action game Protector , noticed Lee 's ideas , and asked if he could use them to practice programming randomness and gravity as game mechanic . Thus , he added balls that bounced from the pyramid 's top to bottom . Because Davis was still learning how to program game mechanics , he wanted to keep the design simple . He also felt games with complex control schemes were frustrating and wanted something that could be played with one hand . To accomplish this , Davis removed the shooting and changed the objective to saving the protagonist from danger . As Davis worked on the game one night , Gottlieb 's vice president of engineering , Ron Waxman , noticed him and suggested to change the color of the cubes after the game 's character has landed on them . Davis implemented a unique control scheme ; a four @-@ way joystick was rotated 45 ° to match the directions of Q * bert 's jumping . Staff members at Gottlieb urged for a more conventional orientation , but Davis stuck to his decision . Davis remembered to have started programming in April 1982 , but the project was only put on schedule as an actual product several months later .
= = = Audio = = =
A MOS Technology 6502 chip that operates at 894 kHz generates the sound effects , and a speech synthesizer by Votrax generates Q * bert 's incoherent expressions . The audio system uses 128B of random @-@ access memory and 4KB of erasable programmable read only memory to store the sound data and code to implement it . Like other Gottlieb games , the sound system was thoroughly tested to ensure it would handle daily usage . In retrospect , audio engineer David Thiel commented that such testing minimized time available for creative designing .
Thiel was tasked with using the synthesizer to produce English phrases for the game . However , he was unable to create coherent phrases and eventually chose to string together random phonemes instead . Thiel also felt the incoherent speech was a good fit for the " @ ! # ? @ ! " in Q * bert 's speech balloon . Following a suggestion from technician Rick Tighe , a pinball machine component was included to make a loud sound when a character falls off the pyramid . The sound is generated by an internal coil that hits the interior of a cabinet wall . Foam padding was added to the area of contact on the cabinet ; the developers felt the softer sound better matched a fall rather than a loud knocking sound . The cost of installing foam , however , was too expensive and the padding was omitted .
= = = Title = = =
The Gottlieb staff had difficulty naming the game . Aside from the project name " Cubes " , it was untitled for most of the development process . The staff agreed the game should be named after the main character , but disagreed on the name . Lee 's title for the initial concept — Snots And Boogers — was rejected , as was a list of suggestions compiled from company employees . According to Davis , vice president of marketing Howie Rubin championed @ ! # ? @ ! as the title . Although staff members argued it was silly and would be impossible to pronounce , a few early test models were produced with @ ! # ? @ ! as the title on the units ' artwork . During a meeting , " Hubert " was suggested , and a staff member thought of combining " Cubes " and " Hubert " into " Cubert " . Art director Richard Tracy changed the name to " Q @-@ bert " , and the hyphen was later changed to an asterisk . In retrospect , Davis expressed regret for the asterisk , because he felt it prevented the name from becoming a common crossword term and it is a wildcard character for search engines .
= = = Testing = = =
As development neared the production stage , Q * bert underwent location tests in local arcades under its preliminary title @ ! # ? @ ! , before being widely distributed . According to Jeff Lee , his oldest written record attesting to the game being playable as @ ! # ? @ ! in a public location , a Brunswick bowling alley , dates back to September 11 , 1982 . Gottlieb also conducted focus groups , in which the designers observed players through a one @-@ way mirror . The control scheme received a mixed reaction during play testing ; some players adapted quickly while others found it frustrating . Initially , Davis was worried players would not adjust to the different controls ; some players would unintentionally jump off the pyramid several times , reaching a game over in about ten seconds . Players , however , became accustomed to the controls after playing several rounds of the game . The different responses to the controls prompted Davis to reduce the game 's level of difficulty — a decision that he would later regret .
= = = Release = = =
A copyright claim registered with the United States Copyright Office by Gottlieb on February 10 , 1983 cites the date of publication of Q * bert as October 18 , 1982 . Video Games reported that the game was sold directly to arcade operators at its public showing at the AMOA show held November 18 – 20 , 1982 . Gottlieb offered the machines for $ 2600 per unit . Q * bert is Gottlieb 's fourth video game .
= = Reception = =
Q * bert was Gottlieb 's only video game that gathered huge critical and commercial success , selling around 25 @,@ 000 arcade cabinets . Cabaret and cocktail versions of the game were later produced . The machines have since become collector 's items ; the rarest of them are the cocktail versions .
When the game was first introduced to a wider industry audience at the November 1982 AMOA show , it was immediately received favorably by the press . Video Games placed Q * bert first in its list of Top Ten Hits , describing it as " the most unusual and exciting game of the show " and stating that " no operator dared to walk away without buying at least one " . The Coin Slot reported " Gottlieb 's game , Q * BERT , was one of the stars of the show " , and predicted that " The game should do very well . "
Contemporaneous reviews were equally enthusiastic , and focused on the uniqueness of the gameplay and audiovisual presentation . Roger C. Sharpe of Electronic Games considered it " a potential Arcade Award winner for coin @-@ op game of the year " , praising innovative gameplay and outstanding graphics . William Brohaugh of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games described the game as an " all @-@ round winner " that had many strong points . He praised the variety of sound effects and the graphics , calling the colors vibrant . Brohaugh lauded Q * bert 's inventiveness and appeal , stating that the objective was interesting and unique . Michael Blanchet of Electronic Fun suggested the game might push Pac @-@ Man out of the spotlight in 1983 . Neil Tesser of Video Games also likened Q * bert to Japanese games like Pac @-@ Man and Donkey Kong , due to the focus on characters , animation and story lines , as well as the " absence of violence " . Computer and Video Games magazine praised the game 's graphics and colors .
Electronic Games awarded Q * bert " Most Innovative Coin @-@ op Game " of the year . Video Game Player called it the " Funniest Game of the Year " among arcade games in 1983 .
Q * bert continues to be widely recognized as a significant part of video game history . Author Steven Kent and GameSpy 's William Cassidy considered Q * bert one of the more memorable games of its time . Author David Ellis echoed similar statements , calling it a " classic favorite " . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish and Kim Wild of Retro Gamer magazine described the game as difficult yet addictive . Author John Sellers also called Q * bert addictive , and praised the sound effects and three @-@ dimensional appearance of the graphics . Cassidy called the game unique and challenging ; he attributed the challenge in part to the control scheme . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham felt the controls were poorly designed , describing them as " unresponsive " and " a struggle " . He nonetheless commented that the game was addictive despite the controls .
The main character also received positive press coverage . Edge magazine attributed the success of the game to the title character . They stated that players could easily relate to Q * bert , particularly because he swore . Computer and Video Games , however , considered the swearing a negative , but still felt the character was appealing . Cassidy believed the game 's appeal lay in the main character . He described Q * bert as cute and having a personality that made him stand out in comparison to other popular video game characters . The authors of High Score ! referred to Q * bert as " ultra @-@ endearing alien hopmeister " , and the cutest game character of 1982 .
= = Ports = =
At the 1982 AMOA Show , Parker Brothers secured the license to publish home conversions of the Q * bert arcade game . Parker first published a port to the Atari 2600 , and by the end of 1983 , the company also advertised versions for Atari 5200 , Intellivision , ColecoVision , the Atari 8 @-@ bit computer family , Commodore VIC @-@ 20 , Texas Instruments TI @-@ 99 / 4A and Commodore 64 . The release of the Commodore 64 version was noted to lag behind the others but appeared in 1984 . Parker Brothers also translated the game into a stand @-@ alone tabletop electronic game . It uses a VFD screen , and has since become a rare collector 's item . Q * bert was also published by Parker Brothers for the Philips Videopac in Europe , by Tsukuda Original for the Othello Multivision in Japan , and by Ultra Games for the NES in North America .
The initial home port for the Atari 2600 , the most widespread system at the time , was met with mixed reactions . Video Games warned that buyers of the Atari 2600 version " may find themselves just a little disappointed . " They criticized the lack of music , the removing of the characters Ugg and Wrongway , and the system 's troubles to handle the character sprites on screen at a steady performance . Later Mark Brownstein of the same magazine was more in favor of the game , but still cited the presence of fewer cubes in the game 's pyramidal layout and " pretty poor control " as negatives . Will Richardson of Electronic Games noted a lack in audiovisual qualities and counter @-@ intuitive controls , but commended the gameplay , stating that the game " comes much closer to its source of inspiration than a surface evaluation indicates " . Randi Hacker of Electronic Fun with Computers & Games called it a " sterling adaption [ sic ] " In 2008 , however , IGN 's Levi Buchanan rated it the fourth worst arcade port for the Atari 2600 , mostly due to a lack of jumping animations for enemies , which instead pop up instantly on the adjacent cube , making it impossible to know which direction they travel before they land . Entertainment Weekly called Q * Bert one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 , saying the port " lost the cool isometric perspective but none of the addictive gameplay " .
Other home versions were well @-@ received for the most part , with some exceptions . Of the ColecoVision version , Electronic Fun with Computers & Games noted that " Q * bert aficionados will not be disappointed " . Marc Brownstein of Video Games called it one of the best of the authorized versions . Warren Davis also considered the ColecoVision version the most accurate port of the arcade . Mark Brownstein judged the Atari 5200 version inferior to the ColecoVision , due to the imprecision of the Atari 5200 controller , but noted that " it does tend to grow on you . " Video Games determined the Intellivision version as the worst of the available ports , criticizing the system 's controller for being inadequate for the game . Antic magazine 's David Duberman called the Atari 8 @-@ bit version " one of the finest translations of an arcade game for the home computer format " , and Arthur Leyenberger of Creative Computing listed it as a runner @-@ up for Best Arcade Adaptation to the system , praising its faithful graphics , sound , movement and playability . Softline was more critical , criticizing the Atari version 's controls and lack of swearing . The magazine concluded that " the home computer game doesn 't have the sense of style of the one in the arcades ... the execution just isn 't there " . In 1984 the magazine 's readers named the game the fifth @-@ worst Atari program of 1983 . Computer Games called the C64 version an " absolutely terrific translation " that " almost totally duplicates the arcade game , " aside from its lack of synthesized speech . The stand @-@ alone tabletop was awarded Stand @-@ Alone Game of the Year in Electronic Games .
In 2003 , a version for Java @-@ based mobile phones was announced by Sony Pictures Mobile . Reviewers generally acknowledged it as a faithful port of the arcade original , but criticized the controls . Modojo 's Robert Falcon stated that the diagonal controls take time to adapt to on a cell phone with traditional directions . Michael French of Pocket Gamer concluded : " You can 't escape the fact it doesn 't exactly fit on mobile . The graphics certainly do , and the spruced @-@ up sound effects are timeless … but really , it 's a little too perfect a conversion . " Airgamer criticized the gameplay as monotonous and the difficulty as frustrating . By contrast , Wireless Gaming Review called it " one of the best of mobile 's retro roundup " .
On February 22 , 2007 , Q * bert was released on the PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network . It features upscaled and filtered graphics , an online leaderboard for players to post high @-@ scores , and Sixaxis motion controls . The game received a mixed reception . Dunham and Gerstmann did not enjoy the motion controls and felt it was a title only for nostalgic players . Eurogamer.net 's Richard Leadbetter judged the game 's elements " too simplistic and repetitive to make them worthwhile in 2007 " . In contrast , Parish considered the title worth purchasing , citing its addictive gameplay .
= = Legacy = =
According to Jeremy Parish , Q * bert was " one of the higher @-@ profile titles of the classic era " . In describing Q * bert 's legacy , Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot referred to the game as a " rare arcade success " . In 2008 , Guinness World Records ranked it behind 16 other arcade games in terms of their technical , creative and cultural impact . Despite its success , the creators of the game did not receive royalties , as Gottlieb had no such program in place at the time . Davis and Lee nonetheless expressed pride about the game continuing to be remembered fondly .
= = = Market impact = = =
Q * bert became one of the most merchandised arcade games behind Pac @-@ Man , although according to John Sellers it was not nearly as successful as that franchise or Donkey Kong . The character 's likeness appears on various items including coloring books , sleeping bags , frisbees , board games , wind @-@ up toys , and stuffed animals . In a flyer distributed in 1983 , Gottlieb claimed over 125 licensed products . However , the North American video game crash of 1983 depressed the market , and the game 's popularity began to decline by 1984 .
In the years following its release , Q * bert inspired many other games with similar concepts . The magazines Video Games and Computer Games both commented on the trend with features about Q * bert @-@ like games in 1984 . They listed Mr. Cool by Sierra On @-@ Line , Frostbite by Activision , Q @-@ Bopper by Accelerated Software , Juice by Tronix , Quick Step by Imagic , Flip & Flop and Boing by First Star Software , Pharaoh 's Pyramid by Master Control Software , Pogo Joe by Screenplay , Rabbit Transit by Starpath , as games which had been inspired by Q * bert . Further titles that have been identified as Q * bert @-@ like games include J @-@ bird by Orion Software , Cubit by Micromax , and in the UK Pogo by Ocean , Spellbound by Beyond and Hubert by Blaby Computer Games .
= = = Other media appearances = = =
In 1983 , Q * bert was adapted into an animated cartoon as part of CBS 's Saturday Supercade , which features segments based on video game characters from the golden age of video arcade games . Saturday Supercade was produced by Ruby @-@ Spears Productions , the Q * bert segments between 1983 ( 1983 ) and 1984 ( 1984 ) . The show is set in a United States , 1950s era town called " Q @-@ Burg " , and stars Q * bert as a high school student , altered to include arms and hands . He also has the ability to shoot black projectiles from his nose . Characters frequently say puns that add the letter " Q " to words . Aside from Q * bert and the known game villains , the cartoon also includes new characters similar to Q * bert in appearance and naming .
Q * bert , Coily , Ugg , Slick , and Sam appear in the 2012 Disney computer @-@ animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph . They start out as " homeless " video game characters living in Game Central Station after their game was unplugged and taken out of Litwak 's Arcade . Ralph gives them a cherry from Pac @-@ Man as a gesture of kindness . After Ralph takes Markowski 's uniform in Tapper 's , he accidentally trips over Q * bert on his way to Hero 's Duty . This leads Q * bert to go to Fix @-@ It Felix Jr. to warn Felix that Ralph has " gone Turbo . " In that scene , Felix apparently speaks " Q * bert @-@ ese . " At the end of the film , Ralph and Felix decide to let Q * bert , Coily , Ugg , Slick , Sam , and the generic homeless video game characters into Fix @-@ It Felix Jr . , suggesting that they help out in the bonus levels where Coily , Ugg , Slick , Sam , and the generic video game characters assist Ralph in wrecking the building while Q * bert assists Felix in fixing it .
Q * bert makes another appearance in Sony film Pixels , which was released on July 24 , 2015 . In the movie , Q * bert is given to the main characters as a " trophy " by the aliens for defeating Pac @-@ Man . He then accompanies the team on its last mission . In the end , he randomly transforms into the fictional female character Lady Lisa ( of the fictional video game Dojo Quest ) , after victory against the aliens .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Q * bert is seen being played in the 1984 film Moscow on the Hudson starring Robin Williams . The 1993 IBM PC role @-@ playing game Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds features a segment where the player has to solve a pyramid puzzle as an homage to Q * bert . In the 2009 action @-@ adventure game Ghostbusters : The Video Game , a Q * bert arcade cabinet can be seen in the Ghostbusters HQ . However , the game is merely decoration and not playable .
More recently , the game or its characters have been referenced in several animated television series . In the Family Guy episode " Chick Cancer " , Stewie reflects on how it was easier being Q * bert 's room mate and an animation of him on the game board is shown . In " Anthology of Interest II " of Futurama , he is one of the aliens that attack to invade earth in a segment of video game parodies . In The Simpsons episode " In the Name of the Grandfather " Marge , Bart and Lisa hop around the stones of the Giants Causeway in a game of Q * bert . The Robot Chicken episode " Sushi Rolls " is in general a Street Fighter parody , but in the end M. Bison is shown inside the game Q * bert . In Mad : " James Bond : Reply All " , Q * bert is seen at the MI6 lab . Q * bert also appeared on the battlefield in South Park : " Imaginationland : Episode III " .
In his 2014 memoir " Will Not Attend " , comedy writer Adam Resnick relates an anecdote in the story , " Substandard Risk . " While Resnick plays Q * bert in a bowling alley , his colleague Bob implores him to " shoot the little prick " . That not being the object of the game , Resnick explains the " Q * bert was a lover , not a fighter . " Bob spits out a mouthful of beer and laughs until he starts to choke .
= = = High score records = = =
On November 28 , 1983 , Rob Gerhardt reached a record score of 33 @,@ 273 @,@ 520 points in a Q * bert marathon . He held it for almost 30 years , until George Leutz from Brooklyn , NY played one game of Q * bert for eighty @-@ four hours and forty @-@ eight minutes on February 14 – 18 , 2013 at Richie Knucklez ' Arcade in Flemington , NJ . He scored 37 @,@ 163 @,@ 080 points .
Doris Self , credited by Guinness World Records as the " oldest competitive female gamer " , set the tournament record score of 1 @,@ 112 @,@ 300 for Q * bert in 1984 at the age of 58 . Her record was surpassed by Drew Goins on June 27 , 1987 with a score of 2 @,@ 222 @,@ 220 . Self continuously attempted to regain the record until her death in 2006 .
On November 18 , 2012 , George Leutz broke the Q * Bert tournament world record live at the Kong Off 2 event at The 1up Arcade and Bar in Denver , Co . George scored 3 @,@ 930 @,@ 990 points in just under 8 hours , earning 1 @.@ 5 million points on his first life , beating Self 's score using a single life . Leutz 's score was verified by Twin Galaxies . The video ends at a score of 3 @.@ 7 Million points , 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 points over the previous record .
= = = Updates , remakes , and sequels = = =
= = = =
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. To wit , Iran after the overthrow of the shah . "
= = = Media = = =
State @-@ owned Russian news agency RIA Novosti immediately criticised the prize as a " political tool " — a denunciation swiftly picked up and relayed by Xinhua . Radio Free Europe reported Solidarnost ( in Russia ) planned to hold a public rally in support of Liu in Saint Petersburg , but the authorities refused permission . In the end , 10 activists staged a protest outside the Chinese consulate there .
In an editorial , The Guardian said " to many western ears , the clamour of China 's markets is louder than the pleas of its dissidents . The Nobel committee is one of few institutions with sufficient status to be heard around the world . Its most coveted prize can now amplify Mr Liu 's voice . " The Telegraph said that the award was justified not only by Liu 's own courage , but was " a rebuke to Western governments , so hypnotised by China 's riches and cowed by self @-@ interest that they have shut their eyes and ears to the regime 's abuses of human rights . "
The New York Times applauded the award : " Beijing is used to throwing its weight around these days — on currency , trade , the South China Sea and many other issues . Too many governments , and companies , are afraid to push back . Maybe someone in China ’ s leadership will now figure out that bullying is not a strategy for an aspiring world power . " The French daily , Libération , referred to Liu as " the Chinese Havel " , saying " the Chinese government wanted to show the world that nothing would stop it from silencing its critics . However , China is today a part of the international community , and must respect the norms it accepted when it signed up for UN membership . The pressure it exerted upon the Nobel prize committee not to award Liu is unacceptable . "
On the other hand , an article in The Guardian pointed out Liu 's support for " the total westernisation of China " amongst other policies , such as the US invasion of Iraq , and on the tenor of the debate in the West : " Liu Xiaobo 's politics have been reduced to a story of a heroic individual who upholds human rights and democracy . His views are largely omitted to avoid a discussion about them , resulting in a one @-@ sided debate . " Its survey of 500 press articles published in Hong Kong about Liu showed " only 10 were critical of the man or peace prize . "
News agencies reported the Confucius Peace Prize , established at the suggestion of Global Times in response to the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to a jailed dissident . The organiser denied any involvement of the Chinese government in the award and the Minister of Culture said they only became aware of the prize due to the press coverage . Hong Kong 's Ming Pao , which had obtained a copy of the letter from the organisers of the Confucius award to the ' winner ' , suggested that this was indeed unofficial – the letter did not bear the Ministry of Culture 's official seal . Die Welt said the rival award was " stupid " .
The Economist recalled how the Soviet Union prevented Andrei Sakharov from accepting his Nobel Peace Prize in 1975 , and suggested that Chinese leadership would probably have expected such a comparison . Both it and Die Welt made direct reference to the creation of a similar German National Prize for Art and Science by Nazi Germany after von Ossietzky was prohibited from leaving the country to collect the 1935 prize .
= = = Other Nobel Prize laureates = = =
4 December 2012 , 134 Nobel Prize laureates wrote to new General Secretary of Communist Party Xi Jinping , calling for the immediate release of Liu Xiaobo and the lifting of the house arrest of his wife Liu Xia .
= = Runup to the Award ceremony = =
= = = Diplomatic pressure = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the award ceremony , the Chinese authorities began a campaign through state media to criticise both Liu and the prize ; the Chinese foreign service in Beijing and abroad targeted Western government officials , urging them to stay away from the award ceremony in Oslo on 10 December and refrain from issuing any statements of support for Liu . At least two European embassies in Norway were sent letters by their Chinese counterparts , denouncing the prize for being an interference in China 's internal affairs and reaffirming their stance that Liu had committed crimes in China . One diplomat said his embassy 's letter from the Chinese embassy requested obliquely that they " refrain from attending any activity directed against China . " The Norwegian Nobel Committee said its invitation to the Chinese ambassador to attend the prize @-@ giving was returned unanswered . The Chinese Vice Foreign Minister also warned countries supporting Liu 's award that they would have to " take responsibility for the consequences " .
In December , the Chinese foreign ministry continued to denounce the award as " interference by a few clowns " . It said " more than 100 countries and international organisations [ had ] expressed explicit support of China 's position opposing this year 's peace prize . " However , according to the Nobel Committee , only the 65 countries with diplomatic missions were invited ; acceptances had been received from 46 countries , including the previously non @-@ committal India , while China and 19 others — Afghanistan , Algeria , Argentina , Cuba , Egypt , Iran , Iraq , Kazakhstan , Morocco , Nepal , Pakistan , Russia , Saudi Arabia , Sri Lanka , Sudan , Tunisia , Venezuela and Vietnam — declined invitations to the award ceremony " for various reasons " . On the eve of the award ceremony , China continued the rhetoric against the Nobel Committee and the West . A spokesman said : " We hope that those countries who have received invitations can tell right from wrong and uphold justice . It 's not an issue of human rights . It 's an issue of interfering in other countries ' internal affairs " ; the Nobel committee continued to be criticised for " encouraging crime " ; the Global Times repeated earlier suggestions that the award was a Western conspiracy against Beijing , a " charge against China 's ideology , aiming to undermine the benign surroundings for China 's future development . "
Colombia , Serbia , the Philippines and Ukraine initially announced they would not attend the ceremony , but later accepted the invitation . The Philippines ultimately did not attend : President Benigno Aquino III defended the Philippine non @-@ attendance as " in our national interest " ; the Philippine government , which had been heavily criticised in its national press for its decision , revealed its hope that China would show clemency to five Filipinos on death row for drug trafficking .
= = = Award ceremony = = =
The award ceremony , held as planned in Oslo City Hall on the afternoon of 10 December , was attended by about 1 @,@ 000 VIPs , diplomats and guests . Representing Norway were King Harald V , Queen Sonja and a number of politicians and officials ; among the 48 foreign dignitaries was the US House Speaker , Nancy Pelosi . The Chinese group was 46 @-@ strong , and included astrophysicist Professor Fang Lizhi , Yang Jianli , and exiled former Tiananmen student leaders Chai Ling , Wu 'erkaixi , Feng Congde , and Fang Zheng , whose legs were crushed by a tank ; the Hong Kong delegation comprised Albert Ho , Emily Lau , and Lee Cheuk @-@ yan . Outside the hall , pro @-@ democracy and human rights activists demonstrated ; about 50 China supporters held a protest outside the Norwegian Parliament .
The hall was decked with an immense portrait of Liu for the event . During the ceremony , the Nobel committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland credited China 's leaders with the " extraordinary " economic transformation that has lifted millions of people out of poverty , but said they " must regard criticism as positive " considering the nation 's new status as a world power . Liu 's award marks the third occasion that the Prize has been bestowed upon a person in prison or detention , after Carl von Ossietzky ( 1935 ) and Aung San Suu Kyi ( 1991 ) ; Liu and Ossietzky were the only ones not to be present or represented by close family at the awards ceremony . The Nobel diploma and the prize were symbolically placed by Jagland on an empty chair meant for the absent laureate . Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann read I Have No Enemies , an essay by Liu written for his trial in December 2009 .
The proceedings were televised by the international media , but broadcast signals of CNN and BBC inside China were reportedly blocked . Images of and references to ' empty chair ' also became the target of official censorship . After the ceremony , the official Chinese news agency , Xinhua , continued the rhetoric against the award :
There are always some who cling to the Cold @-@ War or even colonial mentality , even in this 21st century . They regard themselves as the judge , the teacher , even though they have never been selected by the people of developing countries . They have never experienced the real life in developing countries , but they tend to act like the Savior wherever they go . They assume that they can forever distort the fact and block the truth by using political maneuvers .
Following the ceremony , an evening rally of more than 1 @,@ 000 people in Oslo called for Liu 's release . The marchers headed for the Grand Hotel , where laureates traditionally greet the crowd from the balcony . Assembled Chinese activists and dissidents said they were inspired by the award , that it was a much @-@ needed morale @-@ booster , and expressed hope that it would be a catalyst to resurrect the moribund Chinese pro @-@ democracy movement . Yang Jianli said : " The most important change is the change in people 's hearts ... this is the greatest achievement [ of this award ] , " The Global Times said of the ceremony : " It ’ s unimaginable that such a farce , the like of which is more commonly seen in cults , is being staged on the civilised continent of Europe " . On the other hand , a huge image with three empty chairs and five cranes adorned the front page the edition of 12 December of the Southern Metropolis Daily ; ambiguously , the headline read : " 2010 Asian Para Games Are Ready to Start Tonight in Guangzhou " . China Digital Times offered the interpretation that ' crane ' in Chinese ( he ) is a homonym for ' congratulations ' and the first character of ' peace ' .
The Nobel Peace Prize Concert to commemorate the 2010 prize was held on 11 December , the night following the award ceremony , as is the tradition . It was hosted by Denzel Washington and Anne Hathaway . The roster of confirmed performers announced before the award included Herbie Hancock , Florence and the Machine , Colbie Caillat , Elvis Costello . Those who were confirmed later included Barry Manilow , Jamiroquai , A. R. Rahman , India.Arie , Robyn and Sivert Høyem .
= Tropical Depression Five ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Depression Five was an Atlantic tropical cyclone that lasted for 12 hours , although its remnants persisted for almost another week . Its precursor was from a non @-@ tropical trough east of Florida , and on August 10 it developed in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . It was the fifth depression of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . The system was declassified as a tropical cyclone the following day , a remnant circulation later moved over Louisiana and Mississippi , producing heavy rainfall and causing flooding . Along the Florida coast , the system produced heavy waves that contributed to two deaths . Moving inland , the remnants of the depression reached central Alabama before turning southward . The system nearly redeveloped into a tropical cyclone on August 16 after it again reached the Gulf of Mexico , but it became disorganized and turned northward into Mississippi . The depression twice caused BP to delay work in building a relief well to combat the Deepwater Horizon oil spill .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the depression were from a dissipating cold front that extended from the northeast Gulf of Mexico across Florida on August 7 , connected to a weak non @-@ tropical low pressure area located several hundred miles east @-@ southeast of Jacksonville , Florida . The system had disorganized convection – thunderstorms – and moved generally southwestward after drifting against the Gulf Stream . Conditions were initially unfavorable for development , due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear and land interaction . By late August 9 , the low reached the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted a medium chance for tropical or subtropical development , due to an anticipated decrease in wind shear . The convection gradually increased and became better organized , and a Hurricane Hunters flight late on August 10 confirmed the development of Tropical Depression Five about 120 miles ( 190 km ) west of Fort Myers , Florida .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the tropical depression had a broad circulation and organized deep convection . It was located over very warm water temperatures , although the upper @-@ level environment was not conducive for significant intensification . Easterly wind shear was forecast , but the NHC anticipated the depression strengthening to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before making landfall in Louisiana . Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge to its north , the depression was forecast to track generally northwestward . Early on August 11 , the convection diminished significantly due to the entrainment of dry air and vertical wind shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low . The circulation became difficult to locate ; however , conditions favored the redevelopment of the thunderstorm activity . One tropical cyclone prediction model forecast significant intensification to a minimum pressure of 968 mbar , and other models forecast the depression would reach hurricane status upon making landfall . As it continued to the northwest , the circulation remained broad and disorganized , and convection remained minimal . Late on August 11 , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported that the depression was no longer a tropical cyclone , and in post @-@ analysis , the NHC determined that the depression was only a tropical cyclone for 12 hours . Redevelopment was not anticipated .
The remnants of Tropical Depression Five moved ashore on Louisiana on August 12 , by which time the circulation had become better defined . A small circular area of convection was observed on radar approaching New Orleans , supported by diffluence from an anticyclone over Georgia . The system moved slowly , turning northeastward and tracking inland along southern Mississippi on August 13 . By late on August 14 , the remnants reached central Alabama and began to move southward due to a ridge to its north . The next day it reached the Florida Panhandle , and before the low reached open waters , the NHC assessed a 50 % chance for redevelopment due to favorable conditions . Early on August 16 , the low reached the Gulf of Mexico , and a Hurricane Hunters flight reported a weak circulation and convection that was disorganized and disassociated . Upper @-@ level conditions remained only marginally favorable , although the NHC noted that " only a small increase in organization would result in the formation of a tropical depression . " Early on August 18 , the remnants of the system dissipated over Southwestern Mississippi .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the system dropped locally heavy rainfall in portions of southern Florida . Palm Beach International Airport recorded 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 cm ) on August 8 , a record for the date . The system spawned a weak tornado near Boca Raton , which downed a few trees and damaged shingles from one house . In Sarasota , high tides from the system affected 200 sea turtle nests , of which 20 had to be transported to a safer location . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the developing system threatened the area affected by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill ; this prompted BP to stop operations temporarily in constructing a relief well . The same event occurred a week later when the depression was threatening to redevelop .
Upon issuing the first advisory on Tropical Depression Five , the NHC issued a tropical storm warning from Destin , Florida to Intracoastal City , Louisiana , including Lake Pontchartrain and New Orleans . Louisiana governor Bobby Jindal issued a state of emergency due to the threat from the depression . The remnants of the depression produced rough surf and riptides along the coast . In Panama City Beach , Florida , one man was hospitalized , and on Anna Maria Island , two elderly people died after being swept away by rip currents ; the deaths were believed to have been fatigue @-@ induced heart attacks , and not drowning . In the final advisory on the depression , the NHC noted the potential for the system to produce heavy rainfall across the southern United States . Accordingly , local National Weather Service offices issued flood watches for 12 Louisiana parishes and 8 Mississippi counties . While the depression moved through the region , it dropped heavy rainfall of up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) around the New Orleans area , flooding streets as well as entering one apartment complex . Rainfall from the system extended as far inland as Atlanta , Georgia , where thunderstorms damaged three houses .
As the remnants moved southward toward the Gulf of Mexico , its associated thunderstorms struck Mobile , Alabama and produced heavy rainfall , estimated up to 4 in ( 10 cm ) . The rainfall flooded several streets and damaged the city 's water line , and 1 @,@ 921 customers were left without power . When the remnants affected Mississippi a second time , the system dropped heavy rainfall that resulted in flash flooding near Sibley . The system caused about $ 1 million in damage after floodwaters washed out a bridge and entered several buildings . As the system approached Louisiana for a second time , local National Weather Offices issued a coastal flood watch and a flash flood watch . Sixteen hours of intense rainfall occurred in Avoyelles Parish , flooding at least 40 buildings . Lightning killed three cows and destroyed a house , and damage was estimated around $ 750 @,@ 000 . Further inland , the remnants interacted with a stationary cold front over central Tennessee , causing $ 22 million in damage after heavy rainfall affected bridges , roads , and properties .
= Netley Castle =
Netley Castle is a former artillery fort constructed in either 1542 or 1544 by Henry VIII in the village of Netley , Hampshire . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and it defended Southampton Water near the Solent . The castle included a central , stone keep with two flanking gun platforms and was garrisoned by ten men . It was decommissioned during the English Civil War and by 1743 it was overgrown and in ruins . In the 19th century the property was gradually converted into a private house , being extended in a Gothic style , complete with octagonal towers . Between 1939 and 1998 it was used as a nursing home , until the high costs of maintenance led to its closure . Following an archaeological survey , it was then converted into nine residential flats . It is protected under UK law as a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Netley Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Netley Castle was built next to Southampton Water between the mouths of the Hamble and Itchen rivers , 250 metres ( 820 ft ) south @-@ west of the remains of Netley Abbey . Netley Abbey had been recently dissolved by Henry , and material from the site was reused to build the castle . William Paulet , later the Marquess of Winchester , was in charge of the construction , which took place in either 1542 or 1544 and Henry granted him various estates to pay for the support of the fort and its garrison . The castle took the form of a central keep , 19 @.@ 5 by 14 metres ( 64 by 46 ft ) across with deep embrasures along the battlements , and a gun platform on either side ; its design resembled that at nearby Southsea . It was initially garrisoned with two soldiers , six gunners and a porter , under the command of a captain .
It was still garrisoned in the mid @-@ 1620s and was probably still in active service at the start of the English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament in 1642 . Captain Swaley , a Parliamentary naval commander , seized Netley at the end of that year and decommissioned it as a fortification . During the Interregnum , the castle was restored to use , due to concerns about a potential Royalist invasion , but was abandoned as obsolete after the restoration of Charles II to the throne . By the time that Alexander Pope visited in 1734 , the castle was overgrown and in ruins .
= = = 18th – 20th centuries = = =
William Chamberlayne inherited the castle in 1826 and built a crenellated tower on the south @-@ east end of the property the following year , inspired by a proposal by the antiquarian Horace Walpole that the castle be made habitable . A description of the castle around this time suggested it stood " in the midst of a thicket of trees , on a little hill close to the beach " and formed " a striking object seen from the water " . It became popular with artists , and J. M. W. Turner visited and sketched the castle and its new tower , probably in 1832 .
George Hunt leased the castle in 1841 and it was turned into a private house under the supervision of the architect George Guillame . Hunt remained at Netley until 1857 , by when the castle had an oriel window overlooking the sea , and the battlements had been blocked in to allow the construction of a second storey to the building . George Sherriff leased the castle between 1868 and 1873 , building a stone wall around the front of property .
Sir Henry Crichton bought the castle in 1881 , along with the surrounding gardens , orchards , pond and a boat house . The architect John Sedding remodelled the castle between approximately 1885 and 1890 , creating a Gothic styled house , adding another storey and a new wing . After Crichton 's death in 1922 his wife remained in the house until her death in 1936 , when the property and the surrounding grounds were sold at auction .
Middlesex County Council bought the castle in 1939 and converted it into a nursing home for elderly men ; it passed into the control of the National Health Service in 1948 and continued to be used as a nursing home . It proved expensive to maintain and the surrounding land was gradually sold off , until the Southampton University Hospital NHS Trust finally decided to close it in 1998 .
= = = 21st century = = =
Fairmist Limited , a firm of property developers , purchased Netley Castle in 2000 and converted it into nine private residential flats , at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 7 million , during which process an archaeological survey was made of the property . It is protected under UK law as a Scheduled Monument and a Grade II * listed building .
The castle is now approximately 62 by 14 metres ( 203 by 46 ft ) across and 13 @.@ 5 metres ( 44 ft ) tall , surrounded by 1 @.@ 54 hectares ( 3 @.@ 8 acres ) of land . The castle comprises three wings , with the original 16th @-@ century fort incorporated into the centre of the property . The north wing is three storeys tall , decorated in a restrained Gothic style and has an octagonal turret on one corner . The central range is two storeys tall , with round corner turrets and battlements . The southern wing is two storeys in height , with elaborate Gothic detailing and another , larger octagonal tower . The castle features a substantial staircase , fitted with a musical organ , and a wood @-@ panelled billiard room . Other buildings around the main castle include the converted boat house and a former ice house .
= 2009 Sylvania 300 =
The 2009 Sylvania 300 was the twenty @-@ seventh stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the first in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Sprint Cup . It was held on September 20 , 2009 at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon , New Hampshire before a crowd of 101 @,@ 000 people . The 300 @-@ lap race was won by Mark Martin of the Hendrick Motorsports team after starting from fourteenth position . Denny Hamlin finished second and Juan Pablo Montoya came in third .
Montoya , who initially held the pole position , was immediately passed by Tony Stewart . One lap later , Montoya reclaimed the lead . Chase for the Sprint Cup participants Hamlin and Kurt Busch were in the top ten for most of the race . Martin became the leader of the race , after the leaders made their pit stops . Martin retained the first position to win the race , his fifth of the 2009 season . There were eleven cautions and twenty lead changes among ten different drivers during the race .
The race was Martin 's fifth win of the season , as well as the fortieth of his career . After the race , Martin maintained his lead in the Drivers ' Championship , thirty @-@ five points ahead of Hamlin , who advanced to second , and equal on points with Johnson . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , thirty @-@ nine points ahead of Toyota and eighty @-@ one ahead of Dodge , with nine races of the season remaining . The race attracted 5 @.@ 04 million television viewers .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
New Hampshire Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races , the others being Atlanta Motor Speedway , Charlotte Motor Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , and Darlington Raceway as well as Homestead Miami Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Texas Motor Speedway . The standard track at New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn oval track , 1 @.@ 058 miles ( 1 @.@ 703 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at two to seven degrees , while the front stretch , the finish line , and the back stretch are banked at one degree .
Before the race , Mark Martin led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 040 points , followed by Tony Stewart and Jimmie Johnson who were tied for second place on 5 @,@ 030 points . Denny Hamlin , was 5 @,@ 020 points , was tied with Kasey Kahne , with Jeff Gordon , Kurt Busch and Brian Vickers all level with 5 @,@ 010 points . Carl Edwards , Ryan Newman , Juan Pablo Montoya and Greg Biffle rounded out the top twelve with 5 @,@ 000 points each . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 190 points , thirty @-@ six points ahead of their rival Toyota in second . Dodge and Ford were tied on points in the battle for third place . Biffle was the race 's defending champion .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , and the second 45 minutes . The final session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Montoya was fastest , placing ahead of Kevin Harvick in second and Clint Bowyer in third . Stewart took fourth position , and Martin placed fifth . Kurt Busch , A.J. Allmendinger , Kyle Busch , Johnson and Hamlin rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session .
Although forty @-@ five drivers were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Montoya clinched his second pole position of the season , with a time of 28 @.@ 545 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Stewart . Kurt Busch qualified third , Hamlin took fourth , and Edwards started fifth . David Stremme , Martin Truex , Jr . , Bobby Labonte and Kyle Busch completed the top nine qualifiers . Jeff Gordon , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified tenth , while Harvick set the twelfth fastest time . The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Derrike Cope and Dexter Bean . After the qualifier Montoya said , " You know how these races go , " If it was a 10 @-@ lap shootout , I 'll say , ' Hey , we 're looking good . ' But it 's like 200 laps , 300 laps or something , or 400 , I don 't even know . It 's a bunch of laps . As long as I lead the last one I don 't care . "
On Saturday morning , Montoya was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Truex in second , and Martin in third . Stremme ] ] was fourth quickest , and Johnson took fifth . Hamlin managed sixth . Kurt Busch , Biffle , Labonte and Kahne followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Stewart was eighteenth fastest , while Edwards ended with twenty @-@ third fastest time . Later that day , Montoya paced the final practice session , ahead of Truex in second and Kurt Busch in third . Martin was fourth fastest , ahead of Johnson and Dale Earnhardt , Jr .. Hamlin was seventh fastest , Jeff Gordon eighth , Harvick ninth and Stewart tenth . Other Chase drivers included Kahne in fourteenth and Biffle in twentieth .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the twenty @-@ seventh of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2009 season , began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were sunny with the air temperature around 67 ° F ( 19 ° C ) . Bishop Michael Cote began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Universal Music Group Nashville recording artist Josh Turner performed the national anthem , and Tim Leach , Vice President of Sales , Service and Logistics for Sylvania , gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Tony Raines had to move to the back of the grid because of him changing his engine .
Stewart acclelerated faster than Montoya off the line , getting ahead of him by the first turn . One lap later , Montoya reclaimed the lead by passing Stewart at turn one . Stremme moved into fourth on lap three , while Hamlin passed Stewart for the second position . Vickers , who began the race in twenty @-@ sixth , had moved up seven positions to nineteenth by lap five . By the sixth lap , Montoya had increased his lead over Stewart to 1 @.@ 4 seconds . Five laps later , Jeff Gordon moved into sixth position , while Edwards passed Labonte for eighth . By lap 15 , Montoya had a 2 @.@ 3 second lead over Stewart . Seven laps later , Stewart had reduced Montoya 's lead to 1 @.@ 1 seconds .
On lap 24 , Dave Blaney took his car to the garage because of an electrical problem . Seven laps later , Truex lost three positions after running seventh . On lap 37 , Stewart reclaimed the lead from Montoya . On the 39th lap , Michael McDowell drove to the garage because of brake problems . During the 43rd lap , Jeff Gordon passed Hamlin for fourth position . After starting the race in twenty @-@ third , Earnhardt moved up into fifteenth position by lap 46 . Four laps later , Stremme dropped to sixth position , after being passed by Edwards and Johnson . On lap 51 , Jeff Gordon passed Hamlin for the fourth position , while Mike Wallace took his car to the garage because of brake problems .
By lap 56 , Harvick and Labonte were running in nineteenth and twentieth , while Stewart 's lead was 1 @.@ 7 seconds by lap 63 . Three laps later , Kahne 's car suffered an engine problem , causing the first caution of the race . During the caution , all of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Montoya reclaimed the lead during the caution and maintained it at the restart . On lap 79 , Jeff Gordon passed Martin for the seventh position . By the 83rd lap , Montoya 's lead was 1 @.@ 8 seconds over Stewart . Two laps later , the second caution was given because of debris on the track at turn three . None of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Montoya maintained his lead at the restart , followed by Stewart and Hamlin .
On lap 92 , Stewart fell to fifth after contact with Hamlin , allowing Kurt Busch to move into second position one lap later . On lap 95 , Jeff Gordon passed Truex for twelfth position . By lap 101 , Montoya had a lead of 1 @.@ 2 seconds . Kurt Busch managed to close the gap to Montoya by 0 @.@ 7 seconds by lap 110 . On the 113th lap , Jeff Gordon passed Vickers to claim eleventh . Twelve laps later , Kurt Busch claimed the lead off Montoya . Five laps later , Jeff Gordon moved up to ninth , while Newman and Vickers moved up to tenth and eleventh respectively . On lap 131 , Earnhardt passed Martin for the tenth position .
By lap 138 , Kurt Busch had a 2 @.@ 4 second lead over Montoya . On lap 141 , the third caution was given as debris was spotted on the track . During the caution , all of the leaders made pit stops . At the lap 146 restart . Montoya became the leader , ahead of Hamlin and Kurt Busch . Two laps later , Hamlin moved into first , one lap after colliding with Montoya . On lap 153 , Montoya reclaimed the lead through turn four . Five laps later , Johnson passed Martin for the sixth position . Three laps later , the fourth caution was given after Erik Darnell spun sideways in turn two . Most of the leaders made pit stops ( which included a pit road collision between Kurt Busch and David Ragan ) , and Stewart became the leader at the lap 165 restart . Two laps after the restart , the fifth caution was given as a multi @-@ car collision occurred , as Joey Logano and Elliott Sadler collided , collecting Paul Menard , Michael Waltrip , Robby Gordon and John Andretti .
Stewart led on the restart ; On the next lap , the sixth caution was given as Jeff Burton spun sideways . At the lap 180 restart , Stewart was the leader , ahead of Johnson , Newman , Earnhardt and Hamlin . On the next lap , Johnson claimed the lead through turn one , while Sam Hornish , Jr. went to his garage due to oil issues . Two laps later , Earnhardt and Montoya moved up into third and fifth positions respectively . Five laps later , Montoya passed McMurray for the fourth position ; Earnhardt passed Stewart for second . By the 190th lap , Johnson had a lead of three seconds , while Montoya passed Stewart for third . On lap 193 , Allmendinger made contact with Stremme who spun into the wall at turn two , prompting the seventh caution . Most of the leaders made pit stops during the caution . Kurt Busch became the leader by the lap 197 restart , from Martin and Sadler .
On lap 199 , Burton and David Reutimann moved into third and fourth respectively after passing Sadler . Five laps later , Martin passed Kurt Busch to claim the lead . On lap 208 , Jeff Gordon had fell to fourteenth position after minor contact with Johnson , while Hamlin and Montoya moved into fourth and sixth positions respectively . Three laps later , Montoya moved into fifth after passing Reutimann . On the 219th lap , Johnson passed Sadler for the seventh position . Nineteen laps later , Johnson passed Montoya to take over fifth , while Hamlin passed Burton to claim the second position . On lap 243 , green flag pit stops began , as Martin was the first to pit , handing the lead back to Kurt Busch . On lap 248 , Hamlin became the new race leader after Kurt Busch came into pit road . Twenty @-@ one laps later , Kevin Harvick drove to pit road due to mechanical problems .
On lap 272 , Martin reclaimed the lead as the previous leaders had made their pit stops . Four laps later , the eighth caution was given because of debris on the track in turns three and four . Most of the drivers made pit stops during the caution , although Martin stayed out and remained the leader on the restart . After the restart , the ninth caution was given after Reutimann and Earnhardt made contact , causing Earnhardt to collide with the turn two wall . At the lap 287 restart , Martin remained the leader ahead of Kurt Busch . One lap later , Montoya moved up into third after passing Hamlin and Johnson . On lap 289 , Montoya passed Kurt Busch at the first turn for the second position . One lap later , Kurt Busch lost a further position when he was passed by Hamlin . On lap 292 , Martin had a 1 @.@ 1 second lead . Two laps later , the tenth caution came out after Allmendinger spun in turn two after he made contact with Marcos Ambrose . Martin led on the restart , followed by Montoya and Hamlin . On the final lap , Allmendinger spun sideways , bringing out the eleventh and final caution , and the field was frozen , with the finishing order determined by where the drivers were running at the moment of caution . The result gave Martin the victory , which was his fifth win of the 2009 season . Hamlin finished second , ahead of Montoya in third , Johnson in fourth , and Kyle Busch in fifth . Kurt Busch , Newman , Sadler , Biffle and Bowyer rounded out the top ten finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Martin appeared in victory lane to celebrate his fifth win of the season , and his first at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway , in front of 101 @,@ 000 who attended the race . Martin also earned $ 232 @,@ 750 in race winnings . Montoya was somewhat frustrated with the result , saying : " Martin just screwed me -- he just stopped the car on the apex , right on the bottom , and I had nowhere to go , " Montoya said . " I could have pushed him out of the way ... but I respect him a lot . " Martin was delighted with his victory : " Alan [ Gustafson ] won the race , Alan 's the man . This is a dream come true . ... We still have the lotto at Talladega [ Nov. 1 ] , and [ I ] think we 'll run OK at Martinsville . We finished [ seventh ] in the spring , but I don 't run good there -- but this is my hardest place . It 's a tough place . " Martin also argued that his driving did not cause the final caution : " Once you got the lead , you need to make sure you don 't drive it in there and turn it sideways ( and ) slide it up the racetrack . I mean , how stupid would I look then ? "
The race result kept Martin in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 230 points . Hamlin , who finished second , moved into second , tied on points with Johnson on 5 @,@ 195 , twenty points ahead of Montoya and thirty ahead of Kurt Busch . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 199 points . Toyota remained second with 160 points . Dodge advanced to third with 118 and Ford was bumped to fourth with 117 . 5 @.@ 04 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , nine minutes and one second to complete ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
Three days after the race , Joe Gibbs Racing were given penalties for Kyle Busch 's car . Joe Gibbs Racing 's penalty , for unauthorized alterations to the ride height of Kyle Busch 's car , included a fine of $ 25 @,@ 000 for crew chief Steve Addington , and the loss of 25 owner and driver points for Joe Gibbs and Kyle Busch respectively . Addington was also placed on probation until December 31 , 2009 .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Badajoz =
Badajoz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ baðaˈxoθ ] ; formerly written Badajos in English ) is the capital of the Province of Badajoz in the autonomous community of Extremadura , Spain . It is situated close to the Portuguese border , on the left bank of the river Guadiana . The population in 2011 was 151 @,@ 565 .
Conquered by the Moors in the 8th century , Badajoz became a Moorish kingdom , the Taifa of Badajoz . After the reconquista , the area was disputed between Spain and Portugal for several centuries with alternating control resulting in several wars including the Spanish War of Succession ( 1705 ) , the Peninsular War ( 1808 – 1811 ) , the Storming of Badajoz ( 1812 ) , and the Spanish Civil War ( 1936 ) . Spanish history is largely reflected in the town .
Badajoz is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mérida @-@ Badajoz . Prior to the merger of the Diocese of Mérida and the Diocese of Badajoz , Badajoz was the see of the Diocese of Badajoz from the bishopric 's inception in 1255 . The city has a degree of eminence , crowned as it is by the ruins of a Moorish castle and overlooking the Guadiana river , which flows between the castle @-@ hill and the powerfully armed fort of San Cristobal . The architecture of Badajoz is indicative of its tempestuous history ; even the Badajoz Cathedral , built in 1238 , resembles a fortress , with its massive walls . Badajoz is home to the CD Badajoz and AD Cerro de Reyes football clubs and the AB Pacense basketball club . It is served by Badajoz Railway Station and Badajoz Airport .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient times = = =
Archaeological finds unearthed in the Badajoz area have been dated to the Bronze Age . Megalithic tombs are dated as far back as 4000 BC , while many of the steles found are from the Late Bronze Age . Other finds include weapons such as axes and swords , everyday items of pottery and utensils , and various items of jewellery such as bracelets . Archaeological excavations have revealed remnants from the Lower Paleolithic period . Artifacts have also been found at the Roman town of Colonia Pacencis in the Badajoz area , although a significant number of larger artifacts were found in Mérida .
With the invasion of the Romans , which started in 218 BC during the Second Punic War , Badajoz and Extremadura became part of the administrative district called Hispania Ulterior ( Farther Spain ) , which was later divided by Emperor Augustus into Hispania Ulterior Baetica and Hispania Ulterior Lusitania ; Badajoz became part of Lusitania . Though the settlement is not mentioned in Roman history , Roman villas such as the La Cocosa Villa have been discovered in the area , while Visigothic constructions have also been found in the vicinity .
= = = Founding to Middle Ages = = =
Badajoz attained importance during the reign of Moorish rulers such as the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba , and the Almoravids and Almohads of North Africa . From the 8th century , the Umayyad dynasty controlled the region until the early 11th century . The official foundation of Badajoz was laid by the Muladi nobleman Ibn Marwan , around 875 , after he had been expelled from Mérida . Under Ibn Marwan , the city was the seat of an effective autonomous rebel state which was quenched only in the 10th century . In 1021 ( or possibly 1031 ) , it became the capital of a small Muslim kingdom , the Taifa of Badajoz ; with some 25 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Badajoz was known as Baṭalyaws ( Arabic : بَطَلْيَوْس ) during Muslim rule . The invasion of Badajoz by Christian rulers in 1086 under Alfonso VI of Castile , overturned the rule of the Moors . In addition to an invasion by the Almoravids of Morocco in 1067 , Badajoz was later invaded by the Almohads in 1147 .
Badajoz was captured by Alfonso IX of León on 19 March 1230 . Shortly after its conquest , in the time of Alfonso X the Wise of Castile , a bishopric see was established and work was initiated on the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista . In 1336 , during the reign of Alfonso XI of Castile , the troops of King Afonso IV of Portugal besieged the city . However , soon afterwards , the Castilian @-@ Leonese troops , which included Pedro Ponce de León the Elder and Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán y Coronel , second lord of Sanlúcar de Barrameda and son of Alonso Pérez de Guzmán , defeated the troops of Alfonso IV in the Battle of Villanueva de Barcarrota . Their victory forced the king of Portugal to desert the city and it fell into neglect .
In medieval times , the Sánchez de Badajoz family dominated the area as the lords of Barcarrota , near Badajoz , acquiring the property in 1369 when it was granted to Fernán Sánchez de Badaj
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on 27 October 1807 .
During the Peninsular War , Badajoz was unsuccessfully attacked by the French in 1808 and 1809 . However , on 10 March 1811 , the Spanish commander , José Imaz , was bribed into surrendering to a French force under Marshal Soult . A British and Portuguese army , commanded by Marshal Beresford , endeavoured to retake it and on 16 May 1811 defeated a relieving force at Albuera , but the siege was abandoned the following month .
= = = The Storming of Badajoz ( 1812 ) = = =
In 1812 , Arthur Wellesley , Earl of Wellington ( and future duke ) , again attempted to take Badajoz , which had a French garrison of about 5 @,@ 000 men . Siege operations commenced on 16 March ; by early April , there were three practicable breaches in the walls . These were assaulted by two British divisions on 6 April , reputed to be " Wellington 's bloodiest siege " , with a loss of some 5 @,@ 000 British soldiers out of 15 @,@ 000 , after a five @-@ hour onslaught the storming of the breaches failed . The French also lost some 1 @,@ 200 of their 5 @,@ 000 soldiers in the battle . Despite the failure at the breaches , the castle and another section of undamaged wall had been attacked and the town was successfully taken by the British . Wellington wrote to Lord Liverpool , " The capture of Badajos affords as strong an instance of the gallantry of our troops as has ever been displayed , but I anxiously hope that I shall never again be the instrument of putting them to such a test as that to which they were put last night . " However , Wellington 's storming of San Sebastián in 1813 was much like that of Badajoz .
Pedro Caro , 3rd Marquis of la Romana , died at Badajoz on 23 January 1811 in a fit of apoplexy , seized at the moment when he was leaving his house to concert a plan of military operations with Lord Wellington . In the Siege of Badajoz , a detachment of the 45th Regiment of Foot ( later amalgamated with the 95th to form the Sherwood Foresters Regiment ) succeeded in getting into the castle first and the red coatee of Lt. James MacPherson of the 45th regiment was hoisted in place of the French flag to indicate the fall of the castle . This feat is commemorated on 6 April each year , when red jackets are flown on regimental flag staffs and at Nottingham Castle . Volume 23 of the Museum of Foreign Literature , Science and Art , published in 1833 , described Badajoz as " one of the richest and most beautiful towns in the south of Spain , whose inhabitants had witnessed its siege in silent terror for one and twenty days , and who had been shocked by the frightful massacre . " On 5 August 1883 there was an attempted revolt by the armed forces when a climate of confusion and chaos prevailed .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
The Spanish Civil War in Badajoz in the 1930s was a gruesome affair . During the war , Badajoz was taken by the Nationalists in the Battle of Badajoz . Infamously , several thousand of the town 's inhabitants , both men and women , were taken to the town 's bullring after the battle and after machine guns were set up on the barriers around the ring , an indiscriminate slaughter began . On 14 August 1936 , hundreds of Republicans were shot at the Plaza de Toros . In the course of the night , another 1 @,@ 200 were brought in . Overall it is estimated that over 4 @,@ 000 people were murdered by the Nationalists after the battle . Even those who tried to cross the Portuguese border were captured and sent back to Badajoz . The troops who committed the killings at Badajoz were under the command of general Juan Yagüe , who , after the civil war , was appointed Minister of Aviation by Franco . For the actions of his troops at Badajoz , Yagüe was popularly known as the " Butcher of Badajoz " .
= = = Modern history = = =
After the war , the town continued to grow , although since 1960 it has suffered significant migrations to other Spanish regions and other European countries . During the following decades , the predominant economic activity of the city increasingly fell within the tertiary sector , and today Badajoz is a major commercial centre in southwestern Spain and an important bridge between Spain and Portugal for trade and cultural relations . On 6 November 1997 , a heavy flood devastated several neighbourhoods of the city , causing the deaths of 21 people and devastating the property of hundreds . The catastrophe was caused by the Atlantic extratropical trough crossing the Iberian Peninsula and inundating the Rivilla and Calamon brooks , which are usually dry . The neighbourhood of Cerro de Reyes , near the confluence of both streams , received the brunt of the damage caused by the flood .
= = Geography and climate = =
Badajoz is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula on the bank of the Guadiana River on the border with Portugal . It is the capital city of the province of the same name . It is 61 kilometres ( 38 mi ) from Mérida , 89 kilometres ( 55 mi ) from Cáceres , 217 kilometres ( 135 mi ) from Seville , 227 kilometres ( 141 mi ) east of Lisbon , and 406 kilometres ( 252 mi ) from Madrid . The newer part of the city is on the left bank of the river , with several industrial estates and the university hospital .
In geological terms , Badajoz is located in the South Submeseta . It was founded on the banks of the Guadiana River on a Paleozoic limestone hill , carved by the river . On this hill is the Alcazaba , one of the main sights of the city . The municipality of Badajoz contains soils derived from tertiary deposits , dating to the Paleozoic era . Its average altitude is 184 metres ( 604 ft ) above sea level . The highest points are located in the Cerro del Viento ( 219 metres ( 719 ft ) ) , at Fuerte San Cristóbal ( 218 metres ( 715 ft ) ) and Cerro de la Muela ( 205 metres ( 673 ft ) ) . The lowest point is the Guadiana River ( 168 metres ( 551 ft ) ) .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Badajoz has drastic changes between the summer and winter as seen in the chart below . Altitude of the measuring station is 203 metres ( 666 ft ) . The average annual temperature is 17 @.@ 1 ° C ( 62 @.@ 8 ° F ) . The average high temperature in July is 34 @.@ 8 ° C ( 94 @.@ 6 ° F ) whereas the coldest average low temperatures is 3 @.@ 3 ° C ( 37 @.@ 9 ° F ) in January . Average annual rainfall is 447 millimetres ( 17 @.@ 6 in ) , with December recording the maximum of 69 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) and July is the driest month with rainfall of 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) . Humidity level is at an annual average level of 64 % . The city receives an average 2 @,@ 860 hours of sunshine a year .
= = Demographics = =
In 1845 , the town of Badajoz had a population of 5 @,@ 628 people . As of 2010 , Badajoz has 150 @,@ 376 inhabitants . According to the 2010 census , Badajoz has 73 @,@ 074 men and 77 @,@ 312 women , representing a percentage of 48 @.@ 59 % and a 51 @.@ 41 % respectively . Compared to the statistics for the Extremadura region ( 49 @.@ 7 % and 50 @.@ 3 % ) , Badajoz city has a greater relative presence of women .
Although the city is the most populated of Extremadura , it has a relatively low population density ( 102 @.@ 30 hab / km ² ) , due to the extension of its municipality , one of the largest in Spain , with an area of 1 @,@ 470 km ² . It should be noted that in addition to the metropolitan centre the population includes districts , neighborhoods and towns with small populations , the most populous of which is Guadiana del Caudillo , which had 2 @,@ 524 people as of 2012 , but gained independence on 17 February 2012 .
Source : INE
Note : The increase shown in 2001 was reduced because of the independence of the municipalities of Valdelacalzada and Pueblonuevo del Guadiana in 1993 .
= = Administration = =
Badajoz was the birthplace of the statesman Manuel de Godoy , the duke of Alcudia ( 1767 – 1851 ) . Many of the provincial administration buildings are located in Badajoz , as well as the government buildings of the municipal administration . Politically , Badajoz belongs to the Spanish Congress Electoral District of Badajoz , which is the largest electoral district about of 52 districts in the Spanish Congress of Deputies in terms of geographical area and includes a significant part of the Extremadura region . The electoral district was first contested in modern times in the 1977 General Election . At the time of the 2011 election , Badajoz had six deputies representing the district in congress , four from the People 's Party @-@ United Extremadura party ( PP @-@ EU ) , and two from the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party party ( PSOE ) .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
= = = Districts = = =
= = Economy = =
Historically , frequent wars ravaged Badajoz 's economy and people were poor . Agricultural land was not fertile with no industry of any major importance in its territory . However , the historic monuments in the town and also in Mérida were major attractions to visitors , leading to the growth of tourism , and in recent years there has been some industrial development .
Badajoz primarily is now a commercial city , ranked 25th place in economic importance in Spain according to Spain 's Economic Yearbook for 2007 , published by Servicio de Estudios de La Caixa . Because of its location , the city shares a considerable transit trade with Portugal . The service sector is dominant in the city . The main shopping street is Menacho , where most national and international chains are located . The Centro Comercial Abierto Menacho is the largest outdoor shopping centre in Extremadura which has had several hundred thousand euros invested into it , and it is visited by thousands of Portuguese a year . Notable industries include manufacturing of linen , woollen and leather goods , hats , pottery , and soap . Trade thrives on customers from the province and Portugal . Because of the importance of such trading relations with the neighboring country , in 2006 , a new trade fair venue , Institución Ferial de Badajoz ( IFEBA ) was established in the suburbs near the bank of the Caia River . An economic and cultural centre , it has a wide range of markets from fish and various food stalls to health shops , " The Old Town area has been affected by this trade fair but is slowly recovering , with the opening of new stores .
The city 's industrial land on the western side of the river is concentrated almost entirely in a large industrial estate , El Nevero , located next to the A @-@ 5 ( one of the six radial roads in Spain with numbers A @-@ 1 @-@ A @-@ 6 ) , which is continually expanding , with a diversity of companies operating there . There are also other industrial estates in the suburbs and small businesses in neighborhoods like San Roque . In summer 2007 , the project to build the new 38 million euro headquarters of the Caja de Badajoz was made public , which began to be built in October 2008 and is currently in use . The Torre Caja Badajoz is a financial centre that has a building height of 88 metres ( 289 ft ) with 17 floors , now the tallest building in Extremadura . The city also has an airport , located 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from the town centre , expanded in 2009 and a conference centre .
= = Notable landmarks = =
The city is studded with Moorish and medieval architecture , although its remnants of Roman and Visgothic architecture are not as prominent as in nearby Mérida . The Alcazaba fortress is the most notable structure in the city which attests to the Moorish culture in Badajoz . It was the only important fort on the southern Portuguese frontier during the 17th and 18th centuries and controlled the routes of southern Portugal and Andalusia and was a staging point for invasions against Portugal . It was occupied by the dukes of La Roca during the Christian period . It presently serves as the Archeological Museum of Badajoz . Many of Badajoz 's historical monuments which were in ruins have been refurbished . Its restaurants , pubs and nightlife are a major attraction for the Portuguese across the border . The 13th @-@ century Badajoz Cathedral ( converted from a mosque in 1238 ) is in the old city and its architecture is indicative of the tempestuous history of Badajoz , resembling a fortress , with its massive walls . Three of the cathedral 's windows are unique – one is in Gothic style , the second is Renaissance style and the third is in Platersque style .
= = = Municipal buildings = = =
Palacio de Congresos de Badajoz , the congressional palace , is the work of the architects José Selgas and Lucia Cano . Palacio Municipal houses the City Hall . The remains of the original City Hall building are in ruins . The current building dates to 1852 , and the clock was added in 1889 . In 1937 , the municipal architect , Rodolfo Martinez , renovated the building , with particular emphasis on stylistic uniformity , expanding its towers and changing its decorative elements . It features a balustrade , a central balcony and columns .
Badajoz has several municipal libraries serving the city and wider province , including the Biblioteca Pública Municipal A. Dominguez , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Bda. de Llera , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Cerro de Reyes , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Pardaleras , and the Biblioteca Pública Municipal San Roque .
= = = Historical sites = = =
= = = = Alcazaba = = = =
The Alcazaba , a Moorish citadel built in the 9th century by Ibn Marwan , was fortified by the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf in 1169 , although there are traces of earlier work dating back to 913 and 1030 . The Alcazaba served as the primary residences for the rulers of the Taifa of Badajoz in the 11th and 12th centuries . The Almohad rulers were expelled in the 13th century at the hands of Alfonso IX of León . The Torre de Espantaperros has a height of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) and is built of mud and mortar . It has an octagonal plan with a quadrangular structure that once provided scenic views of the countryside . The name is attributed to the sharp ringing of a bell that was one installed in the tower . The building attached to it , built in the 16th century called La Galera , once served as city hall , then a prison and finally it is now the Archaeological Museum . A well @-@ tended garden surrounded this monument where archeological finds from the Visigothic , Roman , and other periods were found .
= = = Vauban fort = = =
The Vauban military fort was built in the 17th century during the war between Spain and Portugal that lasted from 1640 to 1668 as a defense measure to counter @-@ attack forces entering the city from the northwest and southeast . It is made of stone , brick and lime concrete . It has eight bastions built on the northern part of the fort as the Guadiana and Rivilla rivers on the south provided the defense . The bastions are named as the San Pedro , La Trinidad , the Santa María , the San Roque , the San Juan , the Santiago , the San José and the San Vicente .
= = = = La Giralda = = = =
La Giralda , located near Plaza de la Soledad , is a replica of the Giralda in Sevilla . The structure was completed in 1930 by a local businessman for commercial intent . Built in the neo @-@ Arab Andalusian regionalist style , it is decorated with ceramic tiles and metal work and has the symbol of Mercury embossed on it as symbol of commerce . In 1978 , Telefónica acquired the building and refurbished it , established operating offices . In 1998 , Telefónica vacated the structure , and four years later , offered the structure to potential buyers for € 4 @.@ 2 million . No buyer was uncovered , and Telefónica announced plans to reestablish local offices in the Giralda but later abandoned it . Various proposals for the local government to acquire the building have been made , including plans for appropriating an expansion of the Museum of Fine Arts , a regional cultural centre , and an Easter @-@ centric museum , Easter being a major touristic draw for the city .
= = = = Puerta Palmas = = = =
The Puerta de Palmas was built in 1551 . It has two cylindrical towers flanking the entrance door . Prince Philip II and Emperor Charles V and date of construction are mentioned on the outer side of the tower . The towers are fortified with battlements and they have two decorative cords at the top and bottom levels . Its entrance is east @-@ facing , and is double @-@ arched and is decorated with medallions of the shield of the Emperor Charles V. It was once used as a prison , but has since undergone many renovations and has been an entrance point to the city .
= = = = Real Monasterio de Santa Ana = = = =
The Real Monasterio de Santa Ana is a Christian monastery in Badajoz , declared a Bien de Interés Cultural site in 1988 . It is the headquarters of the Order of St. Clare in the city and lies in the heart of the old city . It was founded in 1518 by Ms. Leonor de Vega i Figueroa , under the blessing of Pope Leo X , and belonged to the jurisdiction of the Franciscan province of San Miguel . According to the tombstone in the grounds , Figueroa was abbess of the monastery for forty years until her death on April 17 , 1558 . She was buried in the grounds , until moved to the Cripta Real del Monasterio de El Escorial . The monastery underwent a major transformation in the 18th century although the original structure partly remains . Outwardly , part of the building has buttresses and a tower with two bells . On the vault of the chancel stands a lookout tower with a lattice brick convent , topped with pinnacles . The church of the monastery has a single nave which was rebuilt in the late 17th century , and the presbytery is covered by a late Gothic rib vault dated to the first half of the 16th century . The church contains numerous altarpieces , imagery , paintings , and silverware .
= = = Gardens = = =
The Jardines de la Galera date back to the 10th century . They are nestled between the Torre de Espantaperros and the Chemin de ronde , within the Alcazaba . Many Alhambran ruins still exist within the gardens , and have been open to the public since 2007 after the site was restored after being closed for more than thirty years . The etymology of the gardens stems from the fact that the gardens provided a respite for prisoners sentenced to the gallows in Seville . Plant species extant in the gardens include cinnamomum camphora , dichondra repens , ceiba speciosa , and trees of the myrtle , laurel , orange , lemon , and pomegranate . Other parks and gardens include Castelar , which has a central pond and several monuments dedicated to the romanticist writer Carolina Coronado and to Luis Chamizo Trigueros , la Legión , Rivillas y Calamón , San Fernando , and La Viña.The city also has a water and leisure park , called the Lusiberia .
= = = Museums = = =
The Museo Extremeño e Iberoamericano de Arte Contemporáneo ( MEIAC ) has collections of Spanish , Portuguese and Latin American artists . The building is located on the site of the old Pretrial Detention and Correctional centre , which had been built in the mid @-@ 1950s on the grounds of a former 17th @-@ century military stronghold , known as the Fort of Pardaleras . The Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes ( Provincial Museum of Fine Arts ) , the premier gallery of Extremadura , is set in two palatial 19th @-@ century homes next to the Plaza de la Soledad . It is 2 @,@ 000 square metres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in size , with more than 1 @,@ 200 paintings and sculptures from the 16th to the 20th century representing over 350 artists such as Zurbarán , Luis de Morales , Caravaggio , Flemish painters , Francisco de Goya , Felipe Checa , Torre Isunza , Eugenio Hermoso , Adelard Covarsí , Antonio Juez Nieto , Francisco Pedraja Muñoz , Pablo Picasso , and Salvador Dalí , among others .
The Museo de la Ciudad " Luis de Morales " ( " Luis de Morales " City Museum ) was built in what may have been the home of the Renaissance painter Luis de Morales and contains many his paintings . The Museo Arqueológico Provincial ( Provincial Archaeological Museum ) is located within the fortress , containing pieces from all parts of the Province of Badajoz . The building houses the 16th @-@ century palace of the dukes of Feria . The collection is organized into six major areas : prehistory , early history , Roman , Visigoth , Medieval Islam and Christian . The elegant building is built of stone and brick masonry , and has four towers at the corners with a terraced facade . The interior is made up of Mudejar brick arches resting on octagonal columns .
The Museo Catedralicio ( Cathedral Museum ) is situated on the cathedral grounds . It provides a historical journey through the different stages of the building 's construction . It also features artifacts from the founding of the archdiocese to the present day . The collections include Filipino ivories , carvings and Flemish tapestries , the tombstone of Alfonso Suárez de Figueroa , and the Custodia Procesional del Corpus of 1558 . There are also works by Luis de Morales and Zurbarán . The Museo Taurino ( Bullfighting Museum ) is located in the city centre , organized by the Extremadurian Bullfighting Club . It includes posters , photographs and objects from the world of bullfighting . The Museo del Carnaval ( Carnival Museum ) opened in 2007 in the Menacho centre . Costumes of groups who participated over the years in the city 's carnival are exhibited in the museum . In 2008 , it joined the Extremadura network of museums .
= = = Plazas = = =
Plaza de España is in the centre of the city , the layout was designed by the city architect Rodolfo Martinez in 1917 and completed in 1920 . The large cathedral centers the historical area . Plaza de Cervantes is considered place of importance for the history of Badajoz . Parts of the square occupy an area which belonged to St. Andrew 's Church and its cemetery . It is decorated in white marble with a concentric mosaic of pointed stars dating to 1888 . Plaza Alta , recently restored , was for centuries the center of the city since it exceeded the limits of the Muslim citadel ; it was formerly known simply as " the square " . Spanish flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía performed on the Plaza Alta on 10 July 2013 . La Giralda is located near Plaza de la Soledad .
= = = Residential buildings = = =
Casa Álvarez @-@ Buiza , a private house and commercial complex , was built in the San Juan district by Adel Franco Pinna between 1918 – 2 . The building located on the Plaza de La Soledad once housed the offices of the Bank of Spain . Artistic elements include the use of lime , brick and colorful ceramics with an Andalusian influence . Casa del Cordón is a private house , built in the late Gothic style of the early 16th century , and has mullioned windows . It currently houses the Archdiocese . Casa Puebla , built in 1921 , is one of the other designs of Pinna , who designed numerous buildings around Badajoz . It is one of the best examples of regional architecture in Andalusian style and the property has two facades , the main one featuring neo @-@ Renaissance elements .
= = = Cemeteries = = =
During the Visigoths period the burials , as noted from the archeological finds , were near the Picuriña , Pardaleras , and Cerro de Reyes sites . During the Arab period , burials were along the roads and near the eastern suburb of the Citadel , close to Cerro de la Muela and also in the area of Santiago bastion ; these locations were noted during recent excavations . Badajocenses Christians from the earliest centuries towards the end of 19th century buried their dead in or near churches .
Badajoz 's oldest two cemeteries are Cementerio de San Juan and Cementerio de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad . The cemeteries in active use are the Cementerio de San Juan , Cementerio Virgen de las Nieves de Balboa , Cementerio de la Inmaculada Concepción de Gévora , Cementerio San Isidro de Novelda , Cementerio Inmaculado Corazón de María de Valdebótoa and Cementerio Santiago Apóstol de Villafranco . The Cementerio de San Juan is the oldest of cemeteries still in service and is dated to earlier than1839 .
= = = Bridges = = =
The city of Badajoz is home to four bridges , all of which span the Guadiana .
The Puente de Palmas , also known as Puente Bobo , is the oldest bridge in Badajoz ; the masonry was first laid in 1460 , but a sudden rise in the river 's waters destroyed the structure in 1545 . It was rebuilt under D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza , Governor of Badajoz , during the reign of Philip II of Spain . In 1603 , 16 of its 24 spans were destroyed by floods and were restored between 1609 and 1612 . The bridge was once again rebuilt in 1833 ; José María Otero was the engineer and Valentin Falcato , the architect . Further improvements were made during the early 21st century , when the number of spans was increased to 32 and towers were added at both ends giving a total length of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . The bridge reflects the city 's history with all the changes made to its spans , arches , pillars and buttresses over the centuries .
Puente de la Universidad is downstream of the old Palmas Bridge . It was built in 1960 . Puente de la Autonomía Extremeña was completed in 1990 and is located upstream of the Palmas Bridge , connecting to the major roads which lead to Madrid and to Highway N @-@ 435 Badajoz @-@ Fregenal de la Sierra Puente Real is a suspension bridge across the Guadiana , the fourth bridge in the city which was completed in 1994 The foundation stone was laid by the King of Spain in 1992 . It has six spans of viaducts of 32 metres ( 105 ft ) each in a total bridge length of 452 metres ( 1 @,@ 483 ft ) . It has a bicycle lane and links to the Elvas Avenue leading to Portugal and many other city centres .
= = Culture and education = =
While not a city renowned for its culture and art , many notable artists , musicians , and writers were born in the city . Hailing from the city in the arts are the actors Luis Alcoriza , Manuel de Blas , the writers Arturo Barea , Vicente Barrantes Moreno , José López Prudencio , Emilio Morote Esquivel , Jesús García Calderón , the singers Antonio Hormigo , Rosa Morena , Federico Cabo , Guadiana Almena , La Caita , Porrina de Badajoz and the pianists Cristóbal Oudrid and Esteban Sánchez , and painters such as Luis de Morales , Antonio Vaquero Poblador , Felipe Checa , Adelardo Covarsí Yustas , and many others . The Institución Ferial de Badajoz ( IFEBA ) , established in 2006 , has not only become an important economic centre but has become a prominent regional cultural centre , and aside from trading it also regularly hosts cultural events from horse racing to break dancing to paintballing to Caribbean dancing . The principal theatre in Badajoz is the Teatro López de Ayala , a grand white @-@ painted theatre with arched windows with a capacity of 800 seats . Performances of theatre , opera , concerts , and exhibitions are put on in the venue .
Like much of southern Spain , flamenco is very popular , and performances are regularly put on in Badajoz on the Plaza Alta and other venues . The classical music group Banda Municipal de Música , established in 1867 , also performs at such venues in Badajoz and the wider province ; as of 2013 it had 33 musicians . In 1998 the municipal government established the Municipal School of Music in Badajoz ( Escuelas Municipales de Música de Badajoz ) . As of 2013 , classes are held in four venues in the public schools of Enrique Segura Covasí , Luis de Morales , Santo Tomás de Aquino and Nuestra Señora de la Soledad , teaching some 600 students . The school teaches clarinet , flute , guitar , percussion , piano , saxophone , trumpet , violin , and singing . Cristóbal Oudrid ( 1825 – 1877 ) , one of the founding fathers of Spanish musical nationalism , was born in Badajoz , son of the resident military bandmaster . Rosa Morena , a well @-@ known flamenco @-@ pop singer who was popular in the 1970s , was born in the city and still lives there ; her most popular song is Échale guindas al pavo .
The festival known as " Feria de San Juan " is held every year from 23 June to 1 July at this border town , which is a major attraction not only for people of Spain but also to the Portuguese who cross the border to attend the one @-@ week festival . This festival also includes bull fights .
Badajoz is home to the Universidad de Extremadura ( UNEX ) Badajoz campus , situated on the west side of the river . The university was founded on 4 November 1968 , when the Faculty of Badajoz belonging to the University of Seville was established . Today , the University of Extremadura has branches in Badajoz , Cáceres , Mérida , and Plasencia . In 1971 the Council of Ministers approved the establishment of the College of Arts of Cáceres under the University of Salamanca . Secondary schools such as the Normal Schools of Education of Cáceres and Badajoz were integrated into the University in 1972 following the General Law of Education decree of 1970 . The Intermediate Technical School of Agricultural Engineering of Badajoz was founded in Badajoz 1968 , renamed the College of Agricultural Engineering in 1972 .
= = Religion = =
Badajoz is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mérida @-@ Badajoz . Prior to the merger of the Diocese of Mérida and the Diocese of Badajoz , Badajoz was the see of the Diocese of Badajoz from the bishopric 's inception in 1255 . Christianity thus became the dominant religion in Badajoz and the see of the Diocese of Badajoz is based here at the Badajoz Cathedral ( Cathedral of St. John the Baptist ) , a gothic style building which was built in 1284 in the main plaza called the Plaza de España . It underwent extensive refurbishment during the 16th to 18th centuries . The paintings of Luis de Morales , a local artist of the Renaissance period , are exhibited in the cathedral . The tower of the cathedral , 41 metres ( 135 ft ) in height , was built in the gothic style in 1542 under architect Gaspar Méndez . Built with ashlar masonry , the windows are made of stone and carved . On two of its faces clocks were fixed during the renovations carried out in 1715 . The tower has a belfry and is fortified with battlements . In 1827 , Richard Alfred Davenport wrote a gushing description of the dean of the cathedral of Badajoz , remarking that he was " more learned than all the doctors of Salamanca , Coimbra , and Alcala , united ; he understood all languages , living and dead , and was perfect master of every science divine . "
Adoratrices is a small chapel dedicated to St. Joseph to commemorate the arrival of Christians along with King Alfonso IX of León . The Brotherhood of St. Joseph , founded in 1556 , functioned from this chapel . During the 19th @-@ century War of Independence the chapel was bombed and its importance declined during subsequent years . However , in 1917 it was refurbished in the neo @-@ Gothic style and now the convent Madres Adoratrices Esclavas del Santísimo y de la Caridad functions from here .
The San Andres and La Concepcion churches are of the 13th century . Other religious buildings include the Real Monasterio de Santa Ana , Convento de las Clarisas Descalzas , Convento de Carmelitas , Ermita de los Pajaritos , Ermita de la Soledad , Parroquia de la Concepción , Parroquia de San Agustín , Parroquia de San Andrés , Parroquia de San Juan Bautista , and the Parroquia de Santo Domingo . Ermita de la Soledad is a gothic style chapel , which was originally funded by Duke Francisco de Tutavilla y del Rufo of San Germán in 1664 in a different location . It fell into ruin and was rebuilt in its present location from 1931 . Parroquia de San Juan Bautista , situated in a large pink and white painted domed building dates to the 18th century , and was originally a Franciscan convent , funded by King João V of Portugal .
= = Sports and recreation = =
= = = Football = = =
The city formerly hosted CD Badajoz , which dissolved in 2012 after finishing the season in Segunda División B Group 1 . Now , the city 's main association football club is CD Badajoz 1905 , a new club formed in 2012 by disappeared CD Badajoz supporters which is currently playing in the Regional Preferente in Extremadura , the fifth level of competition of the Spanish league football , after promotion in the 2012 @-@ 13 season in the playoffs . Its stadium is Estadio Nuevo Vivero .
Cerro Reyes is currently unaffiliated with any league . Formerly , the club was a member of Segunda División B , having played their 2010 – 11 campaign in the division . The club plays at Estadio José Pache .
Another football club based in Badajoz is Badajoz CF , a member of Tercera División - Group 14 . UD Badajoz plays its home matches at Estadio Nuevo Vivero .
= = = Basketball = = =
Badajoz 's basketball club is AB Pacense , formed in 2005 from the remnants of Badajoz 's dissolved basketball clubs , including CajaBadajoz , Círculo Badajoz , and Habitacle . The club competes in the Liga EBA , and calls Polideportivo La Granadilla its home arena .
= = = Golf = = =
Badajoz plays host to two golf courses . One , the Don Tello Golf Course , ( Spanish : Club de Golf de Mérida Don Tello ) , is a 9 @-@ hole course constructed in 1994 . The course is described as " gentle and undulating " , set on the banks of the Guadiana River . The second , the Guadiana Golf Course , ( Spanish : Golf del Guadiana ) , is an 18 @-@ hole construct built in 1992 . The course is described as challenging , in part due to the 14 lacustrine features and abundance of trees on the course .
= = Transport = =
Badajoz Railway Station , ( Spanish : Estación de Tren de Badajoz ) , ( IATA : BQZ ) , situated in the north of the city , is the only railway station at Badajoz . The station accommodates long @-@ distance and medium @-@ distance trains , both operated by the public company RENFE . It is the last Spanish railway station before the
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. Several other deaths on the line have been classified as suicides , and so are not in the accident statistics ; they do however cause delays on all services for hours after the incident takes place .
In 2000 – 01 , Flytoget experienced three derailments with empty trains at Gardermoen ; one caused by the engineer falling asleep and two by the train passing a red light . No more such accidents occurred after automatic Train Control was installed in 2001 .
Delays have been experienced many times by travelers due to technical problems on the infrastructure . In particular the old line west of Oslo causes much delay , and the National Rail Administration performed during 2008 a NOK 100 million upgrade to the Oslo Tunnel to ensure better performance . But problems also incur on the new sections , regularly delaying service or capacity , and forcing Flytoget to operate fewer departures . In total 96 % of departures arrived within 3 minutes of schedule and 0 @.@ 4 % of departures were canceled in 2007 .
Pickpocketing has been a problem since the start ; even the Chief of Police in Oslo has been picked on the train . The train has also been the target of sabotage , and embezzlement for NOK 1 million by an employed ticket salesman , who found a way to print two tickets with the system only charging for one , by turning off and on the ticket printer .
When Al Gore came to Oslo to receive his Nobel Peace Prize on 7 December 2007 , he used the Airport Express Train to make his journey as environmentally friendly as possible . The company has initiated a program to ensure better diet for the employees ; this had made several lose weight and has reduced the level of sick leave from 12 to 8 % . In 2005 – 07 , a program to reduce the energy use of the trains through smarter operation reduced energy consumption by 15 % .
During the 2010 volcano air travel disruption , the Gardermoen airport was closed for a period , and the Flytoget trains were used by NSB instead , to give extra train capacity for long @-@ distance routes .
= = Rolling stock = =
The company operates sixteen Class 71 three @-@ car electric multiple units delivered in 1997 – 98 , and built domestically by Adtranz at Strømmen based on carbodies built in Adtranz factory in Kalmar . They are based on the Swedish X2 operated by SJ in their X 2000 intercity service , and developed by Kalmar Verkstad during the 1980s . The Class 71 are nearly identical to the NSB Class 73 , save the 71 @-@ series lacking one car and tilting mechanism , and a different interior . Both have chosen to not use the original locomotive design , instead installing one powered bogie in each car . The 71 @-@ series is built for a maximum operating speed of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , but has achieved higher speeds in test runs .
Among the features are pressure @-@ tight cabins to allow comfortable travel through tunnels at high speeds , and step @-@ free access to the cars . Instead , steps are inside the trains ; this has been criticized to be in non @-@ conformance with public accessibility policy . The multiple units can only operate in fixed sets of three cars , but up to three sets can be run in multiple . Flytoget regularly uses double sets to create six @-@ car trains . In 2008 – 09 , all units will be refit with an additional middle car by Bombardier Transportation , increasing capacity by 40 % to 244 seats .
Unlike the Class 71 , the sister trains in service with NSB were prone to trouble , having to operate on hundred @-@ year @-@ old infrastructure on cross @-@ mountain services ; the Class 71 has more lenient operating conditions thanks to better infrastructure . The only incident to ground all the BM71 trains occurred on the 17 June 2000 at Nelaug when a Class 73 train operated by NSB derailed because of stress on the axle . Unlike the NSB trains , the airport express trains were back in service the next day , while the 73 @-@ series had to wait another month . On 24 January 2004 a unit had to be taken out of service due to smoke from a stressed bearing — within days the bearings were replaced on all units .
= = Future = =
= = = New tracks = = =
In 2005 , the first part of the Asker Line opened between Sandvika and Asker , with new double track running parallel to the old Drammen Line , allowing quicker travel times to Asker . The second section , between Lysaker and Sandvika , was opened in 2011 , and reduced travel time west of Lysaker by about seven minutes . The project also included a full upgrade of Lysaker Station . There are plans to build two more tracks from Lysaker to Oslo Central Station , including a new tunnel under central Oslo . This project is not decided .
= = = New EMUs = = =
Flytoget has ordered eight new 4 @-@ car CAF Oaris EMUs from the Spanish manufacturer CAF . The trains are planned to start operation in 2018 . Even though the EMU 's maximum speed is 250 kilometres per hour ( 160 mph ) , the infrastructure limits the speed to 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) .
= Long @-@ billed thrasher =
The long @-@ billed thrasher ( Toxostoma longirostre ) is a medium @-@ sized resident songbird of South Texas and eastern Mexico . It bears a strong resemblance to its close relative the brown thrasher in appearance , calls , and various other behaviors ; however , the two species do not overlap in range except in the winter when the brown thrasher will temporarily reside in the northern range of the long @-@ billed .
The bird is a large sized mimid that is not especially wary , but it will take precautionary measures to prevent itself from being potential prey . Like other thrashers , it is named after its sweeping methods when searching for food , not for thrashing predators , although they are aggressive defenders of their territories .
= = Taxonomy = =
The specific name longirostre is derived from the Latin words longus long and rostrum bill .
There are two subspecies of the long @-@ billed thrasher . T. longirostre longirostre was first described in scientific literature by Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1838 as Orpheus longirostris , while T. longirostre sennitti was described by Robert Ridgway a half @-@ century later .
T. c. sennitti ( Ridgway , 1888 ) Sennett 's thrasher . Range extends from southern ( particularly south central ) Texas to the Rio Grande Valley and the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosi .
T. c. longirostre ( Lafresnaye , 1838 ) . Range is in eastern Mexico , within the states of Querétaro , Tamaulipas and Veracruz southward to Puebla .
Along with the brown thrasher and Cozumel thrasher , the three are part of a superspecies rufum clade . Plumage patterns and bill shapes were originally used for grouping , and the birds also were shown as closely related with genetic studies .
= = Description = =
This bird is slender and long @-@ tailed , averaging 26 @.@ 5 – 29 cm ( 10 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 in ) in length and about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight . It is also a large sized thrasher that is close in size to the American robin .
T. c. sennitti is described with a grayish @-@ brown crown with a rufous color appearing in the back , rump , rear , and shoulder . Broad white tips located on the greater and lesser primary coverts and dullish @-@ brown with rufous brown edges on the primary and secondary coverts gives the closed wings an appearance wing with rufous colorings . The chin , throat , chest , and belly can appear to be white or a pale @-@ buffy white , although the chest and belly contain keenly blackish oval shapes . The underwing is buffy @-@ white . The iris is typically either orange or orange @-@ yellow , with a dull brown bill with its base of the lower mandible appear to be pinkish grey . T. c. curvirostre is similar with an exception to being smaller , darker , and have a red @-@ tinged appearance with buffy @-@ white underparts .
Juveniles have dusty streak marks on its rump , with buffy @-@ white undertail coverts .
= = = Similar species = = =
This thrasher shares a striking resemblance with the brown thrasher . However , there are a number of differences . Its face is more gray in contrast to the reddish appearance of the thrasher . The underparts are whiter , less buffy , and more robustly colored , an eye that appears more orange and beady , and generally a longer @-@ bill that is blacker and stands apart from the face . The long @-@ billed 's overall appearance has more contrasts in its pattern in comparison to the thrasher .
The sage thrasher , which shares some its distribution with the long @-@ billed , is smaller , grayer , and its rectrices are of a more distinguished white color .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is a resident in southern Texas north to San Antonio and Aranas , south through north @-@ western Mexico to central Veracruz , east to eastern Coahuila , San Luis Potosi and Hildalgo . The breeding density is at the highest among the Rio Grande Valley . Although it was a resident in the lower Rio Grande Valley , a significant amount of the its habitat was destroyed for agricultural purposes , and its population decreased from the 1930s to the 1970s . Some human activity that has introduced former grassland areas is thought to some help the species , and still is a common resident in its range . Climate change has been suggested for some of its expansion In Texas as well , as there was some evidence of a northern and eastern migration of counties over a five decade span ( 1957 @-@ 2007 ) . With the exception of vagrants found in New Mexico and Colorado , the species is a permanent resident of its range .
= = Behavior = =
Long @-@ billed thrashers usually stay hidden on or near the ground , though it may sing from conspicuous perches . Whenever it searches for insects on the ground , it will energetically turn over ( " thrashing " ) leaves and other litter . It also can be spotted singing on exposed perches above its thornbush fortresses . Males generally are spotted singing from March until the mid @-@ summer , excluding instances of singing song snatches periodically to balance the year . It is generally not wary , possibly because is not easily approached . The flights of the long @-@ billed are generally close to the ground , short , erratic with exaggerated fluctuations . Long @-@ billed thrashers are staunch defenders of their territories ; it will defend its nest ferociously , including against humans .
The longest recorded lifespan of the species was one individual recovered on 30 September 1965 , at age 7 years and 3 months , after being banded ( on 24 Aug 1959 ) in Alamo , TX .
= = = Voice = = =
The song is warbling and resembles other thrashers ' songs but is especially rich and musical , though occasionally scratchy . Phrases are often repeated two to four times . A distinctive call is a " loud , rich whistle cleeooeep " or " mellow , whistled tweeooip or ooeh " ; other calls include " a loud sharp chak " and " a very rapid , sharp rattle chtttr " , and tsuck and verrs sounds during territorial disputes that resemble calls of its close relative the brown thrasher .
= = = Breeding = = =
The general nesting habitat of long @-@ billed thrashers is amongst dense vegetation with spiny shrubs and trees in order to make the nest inaccessible to potential predators . Nests have also been found in plants such as willows , mesquite , huisache , cacti , or yucca .
The nest is a bulky cup placed in thick low or mid @-@ height vegetation and made of materials such as twigs , straws , and grasses . The female lays 2 to 5 eggs described as bluish @-@ white with dense reddish @-@ brown and gray speckles ; the appearance is indistinguishable from the brown thrasher . Most of the egg laying for the long @-@ billed in Texas occurs in April and May , and May and June in Mexico , though dates have been as late as June and July , respectively . The eggs hatch over a period of 24 days . Unlike most thrashers , however , the hatching process is synchronous . Both parents are responsible for incubation , which lasts 13 or 14 days as well as feeding the fledglings . They are rarely victims of brood parasitism by the brown @-@ headed cowbird or bronzed cowbird .
= = = Feeding = = =
In order to locate food , it forages on the ground by rapidly sweeping its bill from side to side tossing leaf @-@ litter upwards and behind itself , then goes to scratching the ground for food . Their diet consists of invertebrates such as grasshoppers , beetles , and other insects , crustaceans , gastropods , and an adequate amount of vegetable matter , especially berries .
= Ceredigion =
Ceredigion ( / ˌkɛrᵻˈdɪɡiən / ; Welsh pronunciation : [ kɛrɛˈdɪɡjɔn ] ) is a county in Mid Wales . The county was created as Cardiganshire ( Welsh : Sir Aberteifi ) in 1282 in the area of the former Kingdom of Ceredigion . The historic county was abolished in 1974 and reconstituted in 1996 as Ceredigion . The county had a population of 75 @,@ 900 at the 2011 UK census . Aberystwyth , which is the largest town , is one of the two administrative centres ; the other being Aberaeron . Aberystwyth houses Aberystwyth University , Bronglais Hospital and the National Library of Wales . The inland town of Lampeter houses part of the University of Wales Trinity Saint David .
The county is mainly rural with large parts being hilly or mountainous land . There is level , low @-@ lying land on the coastal strip that runs along the margins of Cardigan Bay . There are a number of sandy beaches popular with visitors here , linked by the long @-@ distance Ceredigion Coast Path . More than half the population speak the Welsh language and the county is considered a centre of Welsh culture .
At one time , Ceredigion had more industry than it does today . Lead , silver and zinc were mined here , and many of the sailing ships trading round the coast of Wales were built here . However these industries dwindled over time , and the economy became almost completely dependent on dairying and the rearing of livestock , which were sent to the English market . During the last century , livestock farming has become less profitable , and the population of Cardiganshire has been in decline as people emigrated to more prosperous parts of Wales and to countries abroad . More recently , the population has started rising again as elderly people move into the county for retirement , and various government and European Union initiatives have encouraged tourism and other alternative sources of income .
= = History = =
Cardiganshire has been inhabited since prehistoric times ; 170 hill forts and enclosures have been identified across the county and there are many standing stones dating back to the Bronze Age . In pre @-@ Roman , and possibly Roman times , a part of southern Cardiganshire was in the territory of the Demetae and possibly part of that of the Ordovices . According to Nennius , a 10th @-@ century Welsh chronicler , Ceredig , son of the Welsh invader Cunedda , settled in the area in the 5th century . It remained a kingdom ruled by his descendants until it expanded and changed its name , first to Seisyllwg in the late 7th century and , after the union of Seisyllwg with the Kingdom of Dyfed , it was incorporated into Deheubarth in the mid 10th century .
Many pilgrims passed through Cardiganshire on their way to St Davids . Some came by sea and made use of the churches at Mwnt and Penbryn , while others came by land seeking hospitality at such places as Strata Florida Abbey . Both the abbey and Llanbadarn Fawr were important monastic sites of scholarship and education . Place names including ysbyty denote their association with pilgrims .
In 1282 , Edward I of England conquered the principality of Wales and divided the area into counties . The name Cardiganshire was an Anglicisation of the name for the historic kingdom of Ceredigion . One of thirteen traditional counties in Wales , Cardiganshire was also a vice @-@ county . Cardiganshire was split into the five hundreds ( administrative area ) of Genau 'r @-@ Glyn , Ilar , Moyddyn , Penarth and Troedyraur . In the 18th century there was an evangelical revival of Christianity , and non @-@ conformism became established in the county as charismatic preachers like Daniel Rowland of Llangeitho attracted large congregations . Every community built its own chapel or meeting house , and Cardiganshire became one of the centres of Methodism in Wales with the Aeron Valley being at the centre of the revival .
At this time Cardiganshire was largely cut off from the rest of Wales by poor communications , and the Industrial Revolution largely passed it by . In the uplands , wheeled vehicles were rare in the 18th century , and horses and sleds were still being used for transport . On the coast , trade in herrings and corn took place across the Irish Sea . In the 19th century , many of the rural poor emigrated to the New World from Cardigan , between five and six thousand leaving the town between 1790 and 1860 . Aberystwyth became the main centre for the export of lead and Aberaeron and Newquay did brisk coastal trade . The building of the railway from Shrewsbury in the 1860s encouraged visitors and hotels sprang up in the town to accommodate them .
This area of the county of Dyfed became a district of Wales under the name Ceredigion in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and since 1996 , has formed the county of Ceredigion . According to the 2001 census , Ceredigion has the fourth highest proportion of Welsh speakers in the population at 61 % ; only Gwynedd , the Isle of Anglesey and Carmarthenshire have a higher proportion .
= = Geography = =
Ceredigion is a coastal county , bordered by Cardigan Bay to the west , Gwynedd to the north , Powys to the east , Carmarthenshire to the south and Pembrokeshire to the south @-@ west . Its area is 1 @,@ 795 square kilometres ( 693 sq mi ) . In 2010 the population was 76 @,@ 938 , making it the second most sparsely populated county in Wales .
The main settlements are Aberaeron , Aberporth , Aberystwyth , Borth , Cardigan , Lampeter , Llanarth , Llanddewi Brefi , Llandysul , Llanilar , Llanrhystud , Llanon , New Quay , and Tregaron . The largest of these are Aberystwyth and Cardigan .
The Cambrian Mountains cover much of the east of the county ; this large area forms part of the desert of Wales . In the south and west , the surface is less elevated . The highest point is Pumlumon at 2 @,@ 467 feet ( 752 m ) , other Marilyns include Pen y Garn and Llan Ddu Fawr . On the slopes of Pumlumon five rivers have their sources : the Severn , the Wye , the Dulas , the Llyfnant and the Rheidol , the last of which meets the Afon Mynach in a 300 feet ( 91 m ) plunge at the Devil 's Bridge chasm . The largest river is the River Teifi which forms the border with Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire for part of its length . The towns of Lampeter , Llandysul , Newcastle Emlyn and Cardigan are all in the Teifi Valley , and each has communities on each side of the river , in different counties . Other significant rivers include the River Aeron which has its estuary at Aberaeron , and the River Ystwyth and the River Rheidol both of which reach the sea in Aberystwyth harbour .
Ceredigion 's 50 miles ( 80 km ) of coastline has sandy beaches . In 2011 Ceredigion 's beaches were awarded five Blue Flag Awards , four Green Coast Awards , and fourteen Seaside Awards . Ceredigion is one of only two places in the United Kingdom with a permanent presence of bottlenose dolphins . Another member of the fauna is the red kite ; these may be seen in various localities in the county , but at the Red Kite Feeding Centre near Tregaron , they are fed each day , and large numbers congregate along with hungry crows and other birds .
Ceredigion had the largest population growth of any county in Wales , with a 19 @.@ 5 % increase from 1991 to 2003 . Tourism and agriculture , chiefly hill farming , are the most important industries . In addition , two universities are within the county boundaries : Aberystwyth University and the Lampeter campus of the University of Wales , Trinity Saint David . The Welsh Plant Breeding Station is near Aberystwyth and linked to the University . The National Library of Wales , founded in 1907 , is also in Aberystwyth . Ceredigion is an extremely rural county ; the largest town , Aberystwyth , has fewer than 15 @,@ 000 permanent residents and the remainder of the population of the county is scattered over 150 small towns , villages and hamlets .
The county has no large commercial areas . The nearest substantial settlements are located at least 1 hour 45 minutes drive away . Approximate road distances from Ceredigion 's largest town , Aberystwyth , are : Swansea , 75 miles ( 121 km ) to the south ; Shrewsbury , 76 miles ( 122 km ) to the east , in the English county of Shropshire ; and Wrexham , 82 miles ( 132 km ) to the northeast . The capital , Cardiff , is over 100 miles ( 160 km ) from most parts of the county . Although Ceredigion and Gwynedd share a boundary , it is not possible to travel directly between the two by land as all road and rail links avoid the Dyfi estuary and pass through Dyfi Junction or Machynlleth in Powys .
Dylan Thomas lived in New Quay and Talsarn and frequented Aberaeron and Lampeter . The Dylan Thomas Trail runs through part of the county , linking the places associated with the poet . The Ceredigion Coast Path is a long @-@ distance footpath following the coastline from Cardigan to Ynyslas , a distance of about 60 miles ( 97 km ) . It can conveniently be divided into seven sections and has some spectacular scenery .
= = Local government = =
Between 1888 and 1974 , the county was governed by Cardiganshire County Council , which took over the functions of county administration from the Quarter Sessions court in 1889 . The county was abolished in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 — and it was succeeded by the district of Ceredigion in the new county of Dyfed . This district became a unitary authority on 1 April 1996 under the name of Cardiganshire ; to change its name back to Ceredigion the following day . It has , apart from minor realignments , identical borders to the former county .
A referendum was held on 20 May 2004 on whether to have a directly elected mayor for the county , the first in Wales . The Llais Ceredigion political initiative had been formed with this aim but the proposal was rejected .
= = Economy = =
Farming has traditionally been the basis of Cardiganshire 's economy , with dairying and stock @-@ rearing being the main occupations . Before the first railway was built in 1866 , the stock used to be herded over the mountains to England , where Rugby , Northampton and London were important destinations . At one time there was a sizeable mining industry in Cardiganshire , but the reserves of lead , silver and zinc became unprofitable to mine by the early part of the twentieth century . Shipping was also important in the county , with coal and lime being imported in coastal vessels , and mineral ores and oak bark for tanning being exported . Shipbuilding was an important industry with most of Wales ' sailing vessels being built in Cardiganshire .
Cardiganshire had a substantial population in the early modern period but this declined during the nineteenth century as wider social and economic developments affected all aspects of Cardiganshire life . Traditional industries were in decline , agriculture was in decline and it was becoming increasingly difficult for a still @-@ rising population to earn a living within their native parishes and communities . By the first half of the twentieth century , falling livestock prices and greater world competition made farming unprofitable and many residents of Cardiganshire moved to other parts of South Wales , where there were better employment opportunities , and many more emigrated to the United States , Canada , Patagonia and Australia . Another factor was that the owners of the great landed estates , who had for so long dominated the politics of the county , were in many cases heavily in debt . This second factor contributed to the loss of landowner influence in the running of the county , a trend that became very apparent at the first elections to the Cardiganshire County Council in 1889 .
By the second half of the twentieth century , the declining population trend had gone into reverse . Increasing numbers of retired people were arriving to make their home in the tranquil surroundings , and after the Beacham Commission in the 1960s , the British government realised that the rural way of life in parts of Wales was in crisis , and started to react . Through government initiatives and local actions , opportunities in tourism , rural crafts , specialist food shops , farmers ' markets and added @-@ value food products began to emerge . However , in 2011 , at 3 @.@ 1 % , Ceredigion still had one of the highest proportions of its population working in agriculture , forestry and fishing , close behind such other places as Orkney and Shetland . Another use for marginal land in exposed positions is the provision of renewable wind energy ; Cefn Croes Wind Farm near Devil 's Bridge has 39 turbines and a nominal capacity of 58 @,@ 500 kW .
Farm incomes have been in decline over the years and , as well as being a European Objective I area , in 2001 Ceredigion was designated a regional " Tourist growth area " by the Wales Tourist Board . There is little industry other than farming , so tourism plays an important part in the county 's economy . Visitors stay in hotels , guest houses and homes offering bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast , self @-@ catering cottages , caravans and camp sites , spending money in local shops , dine in local establishments and visit the county 's many attractions . Ceredigion prides itself on offering an unspoilt natural landscape , and Aberystwyth lays claim to being the capital of Welsh culture .
= = Sport and leisure = =
The main football team in the county is Aberystwyth Town F.C. which plays in the Welsh Premier League , its home matches being at the Park Avenue ground in the town . It has yet to come higher than third in the League but won the Welsh Cup in 1899 / 1900 and the Welsh Amateur Cup in 1930 / 31 , 1932 / 33 and 1969 / 70 . Cardigan Town Football Club , also known as the " Magpies " , play in Division 1 of the Ceredigion League which they won in 1968 / 69 , 1995 / 96 , 1999 / 2000 , 2000 / 01 and 2002 / 03 .
Leisure activities available in the county include beach activities , rambling , cycling , sea fishing , canoeing , sailing and horse riding . Many of the towns and villages along the coast have small harbours and facilities for sailing , dolphin watching and other maritime activities . The River Teifi is a renowned salmon fishing river and also has a series of rapids near Llandysul where canoeing , kayaking and white water rafting take place .
The county is rich in archaeological remains such as forts , earthworks and standing stones . Historic sites that can be accessed include Aberystwyth Castle and Cardigan Castle , as well as Strata Florida Abbey .
Other visitor attractions include the Cwmystwyth Mines , Devil 's Bridge , the Bwlch Nant yr Arian Forest Visitor Centre , Elvis Rock , Cors Caron ( Tregaron bog ) , the Vale of Rheidol Railway , Aberystwyth Cliff Railway .
The National Library of Wales is at Aberystwyth and there is information on local history at the Ceredigion Museum , also in Aberystwyth . There is also the technical museum Internal Fire – Museum of Power , which is at Tan @-@ y @-@ groes near the coast road . Stately homes in the county open to the public include the Hafod Estate and Llanerchaeron .
= = Transport = =
The Cambrian Line provides mainline railway services between Aberystwyth and Shrewsbury , where passengers can join services for London and elsewhere . Passengers can change at Dovey Junction railway station for trains to Pwllheli . There are no motorways in Ceredigion . The A487 coast road links Cardigan with Aberystwyth , passing close to Newquay and through Aberaeron , and the A44 goes eastwards from Aberystwyth to Rhayader , Leominster and Worcester . There are local bus services between the main centres of population , and long distance services between Aberystwyth and Cardiff . A bus service known as " Bwcabus " operates in the south of the county offering customised transport for rural dwellers .
There are no commercial airports but the West Wales Airport near the village of Aberporth is licensed for the deployment of civil and military unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ) s and is used for flying and testing these drones . There are no ports or ferry termini in the county but several of the coastal towns have facilities for yachts and small craft .
= Connotations ( Copland ) =
Connotations is a classical music composition for symphony orchestra written by American composer Aaron Copland . Commissioned by Leonard Bernstein in 1962 to commemorate the opening of Philharmonic Hall ( now David Geffen Hall at Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts ) in New York City , United States , this piece marks a departure from Copland 's populist period , which began with El Salón México in 1936 and includes the works he is most famous for such as Appalachian Spring , Lincoln Portrait and Rodeo . It represents a return to a more dissonant style of composition in which Copland wrote from the end of his studies with French pedagogue Nadia Boulanger and return from Europe in 1924 until the Great Depression . It was also Copland 's first dodecaphonic work for orchestra , a style he had disparaged until he heard the music of French composer Pierre Boulez and adapted the method for himself in his Piano Quartet of 1950 . While the composer had produced other orchestral works contemporary to Connotations , it was his first purely symphonic work since his Third Symphony , written in 1947 .
Connotations was received negatively upon its premiere for its harmonic assertiveness and compositional style . The overall impression at the time was that , as critic Alex Ross later phrased it , " Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood . " The composer was accused by some critics of betraying his role as a tonal , populist composer to curry favor with younger composers and give the impression that his music still held contemporary relevance . Copland denied this accusation ; he asserted that he had written Connotations as a twelve @-@ tone work to give himself compositional options not available had he written it as a tonal one .
Part of the blame for Connotations ' initial failure has been ascribed by Copland biographer Howard Pollack , among others , to Bernstein 's " harsh and overblown " conducting . Bernstein , known in the classical music community as a long @-@ time champion of Copland 's music , had programmed the composer 's pieces more frequently with the New York Philharmonic than those of any other living composer . However , these performances were mainly of works from the composer 's populist period , with which the conductor was in full sympathy . He was less comfortable in pieces that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive . While Bernstein might have performed the work purely out of service to an old friend , he was apparently unable to interpret this work persuasively . Subsequent performances with New York Philharmonic during its 1963 European tour and a 1999 all @-@ Copland concert showed that the situation had not changed . Bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work 's lack of success at its premiere .
More recent performances , led by conductors Pierre Boulez , Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling , have been acknowledged to show the music in a more positive light . Nevertheless , the overall reputation of the music remains mixed . Some critics , including composer John Adams , have remained critical of the work and considered Copland 's use of serial techniques detrimental to his later music . Others , which include critics Michael Andrews and Peter Davis , have seen Connotations as proof of Copland 's continued growth and inventiveness as a composer while not downplaying the work 's melodic and harmonic harshness and potential difficulty overall for listeners .
= = Background = =
Aaron Copland wrote Connotations to fulfill a commission from Leonard Bernstein for the opening concert of the New York Philharmonic 's new home in the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts . Since this hall was slated as the first part of Lincoln Center for completion , its inauguration was considered especially momentous . Among the guest list of 2600 for the first concert and the white @-@ tie gala which would follow it were John D. Rockefeller III ( chairman of Lincoln Center ) , Secretary of State Dean Rusk , Governor and Mrs. Nelson Rockefeller , United Nations Secretary General U Thant and prominent figures in the arts that included of Metropolitan Opera General Manager Rudolf Bing , violinist Isaac Stern and actress Merle Oberon . Noted composers would also attend included Samuel Barber , Henry Cowell , Roy Harris , Walter Piston , Richard Rodgers , William Schuman and Roger Sessions . United States President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie had also been invited . Their initial inability to attend caused some consternation , since they had voiced their support for American culture . At the last minute , Jackie Kennedy said she would be there .
Copland was one of ten internationally @-@ known composers who accepted invitations to contribute music for the opening . His would be the first new piece to be heard . Other compositions included the Eighth Symphony of American composer William Schuman , an Overture Philharmonique by French composer Darius Milhaud and " Andromache 's Farewell " for soprano and orchestra by American composer Samuel Barber . It would also be Copland 's first purely symphonic piece since his Third Symphony of 1947 , although he had penned orchestral works in a number of genres throughout the 1940s and 50s . According to Taruskin , Copland 's receipt of such a commission testified to both his status as a creative figure and his close relationship with the American public . This position was unique among " serious " American composers and derived from the populist works he had written in the 1930s and 40s . However , from the 1950s Copland 's public works — the ones for which he had developed his populist style — were increasingly written in what he called his " difficult " or " private " style . That style had become increasing non @-@ tonal .
Copland began sketching the work early in 1961 . To gain composing time , he cancelled his 1962 trip to Tanglewood and determined to stay at home the entire year . Even so , he accepted an invitation to revisit Japan early in 1962 for a United States State Department conference and combined the trip with conducting engagements in Seattle and Vancouver . By June 25 , Copland wrote to Mexican composer Cesar Chavez , " I am working day and night on my symphony for the Philharmonic commission . It is in three movements and I have just finished the last , the first being more than half done . " Copland then went to Mexico at Chavez 's invitation , partly to conduct but mainly to compose . From there , he wrote American composer Leo Smit on July 4 that he was not yet finished and was having trouble finding a title for the new work . He completed the piece in September 1962 , just in time for orchestra rehearsals .
When he considered the form the work would take , Copland wrote that he " concluded that the classical masters would undoubtedly provide the festive and dedicatory tone appropriate to such an occasion . " He therefore decided to offer " a contemporary note , " one that would reflect " the tensions , aspirations and drama inherent in the world today . " This tension , he explained in 1975 , " is inherent in the nature of the chordal structures , and in the general character of the piece . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Instrumentation = = =
Connotations is scored for full symphony orchestra with augmented percussion . The complete ensemble includes piccolo , three flutes ( third flute doubling second piccolo ) , two oboes , cor anglais , two clarinets , E @-@ flat clarinet , bass clarinet , three bassoons ( third bassoon doubling contrabassoon ) , six horns , four trumpets , four trombones , tuba , tympani , five percussionists ( glockenspiel , vibraphone , xylophone , conga drums , timbales , cymbals , metal sheet , tam @-@ tam , triangle , claves , temple block , woodblock , bass drum , snare drum , tenor drum ) , piano ( doubling celesta ) and strings .
= = = Form = = =
A typical performance of this work lasts 20 minutes .
Connotations is twelve @-@ tone , a style of composition which is among the first introduced , and certainly most well known , forms of musical Serialism . Through this technique , Copland wrote that he felt he could express " something of the tensions , aspirations and drama " of that time . The overall structure " comes closest to a free treatment of the baroque form of the chaconne , " the composer wrote , with a succession of variations " based on the opening chords and their implied melodic intervals . " These variations alternate fast and slow sections much in the way Copland had done with his Piano Variations of 1930 , which creates a complex structure overall . This structure , based on a straightforward ABCBA arch form , is reminiscent of Copland 's Nonet for strings , composed in 1960 . Copland biographer Howard Pollack calls the A sections " prophetic , tragic , " the B sections " jazzy , frentic [ sic ] " and the C section " pastoral , reflective . " While these are all moods long familiar to listeners of Copland 's music , Pollack asserts , " a new darkness hangs over the whole . The outer sections are grave ; the jazzy sections rather cheerless ; the pastoral contrast more weary than peaceful . The music often seems lost , uncertain , trapped . " The piece ends in a series of strict 12 @-@ note chords that Copland called " aggregates . "
= = = Significance of title = = =
Both Chavez and American composer David Diamond were confused initially about what musical form Connotations would take . The work 's title seemed to give no clear indication , they said , and Chavez told Copland that he found Connotations too abstract . Copland explained to both men and later wrote that , in selecting the title , he took the dictionary meaning of the word " connote " to imply or signify meanings in addition to the primary one as an impetus for musical exploration . The entire composition was derived from the " three harsh chords " with which it begins . Each of these chords contained four notes of the twelve @-@ note row upon which the work was based . " When spelled out horizontally , " the composer later wrote , they supplied him " with various versions of a more lyrical discourse . " This " skeletal frame of the row , " he told Diamond and Chavez , was the " primary meaning " and as such denoted the area which would be explored in the course of the piece . " The subsequent treatment , " he explained , " seeks out other implications — connotations that come in a flash or connotations that the composer himself may gradually uncover . " From there , the listener was " free to discover his or her own connotative meanings , including perhaps some not suspected by the author .
= = = Resemblance to other Copland works = = =
In the second edition of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Pollack labels Connotations as one of three orchestral works that Copland said was written in " the grand manner , " quoting the composer 's words about his Third Symphony . The other two works in this category were the Symphonic Ode and the Third Symphony . Pollack elaborates in his biography of the composer about the similarity of Connotations to the Ode in its overall length , single @-@ movement form , solemn tone and " hard @-@ edged " orchestration . Copland writes of the earlier two works of his intent to write " something different , " " grand and dramatic , " " a serious statement . " He also calls those works transitional pieces and anomalies that stand between different compositional styles of his oeuvre . All three works would prove , as musicologist William W. Austin notes and Pollack states about the symphony , " challenging to grasp . "
= = Reception = =
The premiere , on September 23 , 1962 , " sent shock waves through the world of music , " according to Alexander J. Morin , with a reaction by the initial audience , according to Taruskin , of near @-@ silence and incomprehension . Copland noted that the general impression " was that the premiere was not a congenial circumstance , " with the music not considered important as the sound of the new concert hall . His effort to present something not bland or traditional for such an occasion and distinguished audience " was not appreciated at the time . " Also , Taruskin states , Copland had become an emblem of success in the eyes of the American public . The fact he had written a twelve @-@ tone composition for such an occasion seemed a repudiation of the audience he had won through years of hard effort .
= = = Public = =
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The overall impression , as critic Alex Ross writes in his book The Rest is Noise , was that " Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood ; some sudden rage welled up in him , some urge to confront the gala Lincoln Center audience with an old whiff of revolutionary mystique . " Copland himself remembers , " The acidulous harmonies of my score ... upset a good many people , especially those who were expecting another Appalachian Spring . " Jacqueline Kennedy was left unable to say anything other than " Oh , Mr. Copland " when taken backstage during intermission to meet with the composer . When Copland later asked Verna Fine , wife of American composer Irving Fine , what this meant , Fine answered , " Oh , Aaron , it 's obvious . She hated your piece ! " In Variety , Robert J. Landry called Connotations " an assault on [ the audience 's ] nervous systems " and added , " Seldom has this reviewer heard such outspoken comment in the lobbies after such dull response . It is strictly accurate to declare that an audience paying $ 100 a seat and in mood for self @-@ congratulation and schmaltz hated Copland 's reminder of the ugly realities of industrialization , inflation and cold war — which his music seems to be talking about . "
A minority of apparently more discerning listeners felt that Connotations was the right music for its time and place . Composer Arthur Berger states , " I think [ Copland ] wrote exactly the piece he wanted to write because he wanted to make a statement about the new Philharmonic Hall in New York — it wasn 't going to be a temple of easy listening , as it were , but a place for serious music @-@ making . " Minna Lederman Daniel , a music writer and editor of Modern Music magazine , told Copland , " I think Connotations was the right place for the people and the occasion — indeed the only one properly related to them . It sounds a good deal like certain aspects of the building — big , spacious , clear , long @-@ lined , and it sounds very like you ... To those familiar with your music , the characteristic , identifying moods are perfectly apparent . The special Copland eloquence is there . "
= = = Critics = = =
A few critics were positive . Louis Biancolli wrote in The New York Telegram that the work was " a turning point in [ Copland 's ] career , a powerful score in 12 @-@ tone style that has liberated new stores of creative energy . " John Molleson write for the New York Herald Tribune that while the new piece was " a difficult work and like most music difficult to understand at one hearing ... this piece has flesh where others have only skin , and there was a good deal of arresting lyricism . " Others , however , dismissed Connotations : Everett Helm thought it " unnecessarily strident , " Harriet Johnson " too long for its content " and Richard Franko Johnson " completely without charm . "
= = = Telecast = = =
The concert was telecast live by the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) to an audience of 26 million viewers . As part of its program , NBC asked Copland to talk to the television audience about Connotations . While the cameras alternated between shots of the composer and the manuscript score , Copland said , " It seems to me that there are two things you can do when listening to any new work . The most important thing is to lend yourself — or to put it another way — try to be as sensitive as you can to the overall feeling the new piece gives off . The second way is to listen with some awareness of the general shape of the new piece , realizing that a composer works with his musical materials just as an architect works with his building materials in order to construct an edifice that makes sense . " He then discussed the work briefly but in some detail .
To Copland 's surprise , his lecture was taken as an apologia , not an explanation , by the majority of the television audience . Moreover , vehement letters poured into NBC after the broadcast from across the United States . One read , " If last night is any criterion of what can be expected in Lincoln Center , it should be called ' Center of Jungle Culture . ' " Another read , " Dear Mr. Copland , Shame Shame Shame ! "
= = = European tour and first recording = = =
Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour that February . Despite the composer 's claim in Copland Since 1943 that " The European premiere was more successful than the New York reception , " reviews about Connotations remained mainly negative ; comments abounded about " mere din " and " dodecaphonic deserts . " When the London audience gave the work a lengthy ovation , Bernstein responded that he would conduct another Copland work as an encore . When cries of " Oh , oh " ensued , he added , " But this will be in a different style . " He then conducted " Hoe @-@ Down " from the ballet Rodeo .
A release of the New York performance by Columbia Records fared no better . Robert Marsh found the music " dreary " and " dull . " Irving Kolodin called it " rather relentlessly grim . " Everett Helm , who had been able to hear the work live before he sampled the recording , wrote , " Connotations for Orchestra sounded rather strident on September 23 ; on the disc it becomes ear @-@ piercing . " Bernstein rerecorded Connotations with the New York Philharmonic for Columbia in 1973 . This recording was released with Copland 's Inscape and Carter 's Concerto for Orchestra .
= = = Other factors in initial failure = = =
The composer admitted that Connotations possessed " a rather severe and somewhat intellectual tone . " However , while he did not expect it to be an immediate success , he had still hoped that the music 's intensity and drama might lend it some appeal . While Copland maintained that " It bothers me not at all to realize that my range as a composer includes both accessible and problematic works , " composer and musicologist Peter Dickinson notes " a tone of defensiveness " in this remark . Nevertheless , Connotations ' abrasiveness to many listeners might not have been the only factor in its initial failure .
= = = = Bernstein = = = =
The negative initial reaction to Connotations has also been claimed to have been due to Bernstein 's conducting . Bernstein was especially antipathetic toward works that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive and " could not overcome a deep @-@ seated antipathy , an almost gut reaction " against them.Of the contemporary composers with whom he could relate , he had been " generous and enthusiastic " in his support of Copland . His frequent programming of Copland 's works during his tenure with the New York Philharmonic might , Adams suggests , have been partly in reaction against works of the twelve @-@ tone school . Now he was confronted with what American composer John Adams terms a " stridently dissonant , piss @-@ n @-@ vinegar " work " written in an idiom so alien to his own sensibilities , " the first performance of which he would not only conduct but would also be televised to a national audience . Pollack claims Bernstein might have found Connotations " boring " and kept it on the program solely out of duty to his old friend .
Despite Bernstein 's own musical antipathies , Adams claims the conductor generally remained open @-@ minded and curious enough " to try something at least once . " Among the world premieres of " difficult " works he led were Olivier Messiaen 's Turangalîla @-@ Symphonie in Boston in 1949 and Carter 's Concerto for Orchestra in New York in 1970 ; and despite his apparent lack of identification with Carter 's music , he described the composer in 1975 as " a brilliant mind and a supremely intelligent musician . " Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour in February 1963 . He would also commission a subsequent orchestral work from Copland , which became Inscape , and conduct Connotations again in an all @-@ Copland concert with the New York Philharmonic in 1989 . Even with this advocacy and the chance to familiarize himself at length , Connotations apparently remained a work that Bernstein did not conduct well . Critic Peter Davis , in his review of the 1989 performance , writes that while Connotations remained " admittedly not a very lovable piece , " in Bernstein 's hands it " sounded more fulsome than portentous . "
= = = = Acoustical problems with Philharmonic Hall = = = =
While Philharmonic Hall was being renovated in 1976 in an attempt to improve its sound , Harold C. Schonberg wrote , " For all we know , Connotations is a masterpiece . But one thing is certain — it did not make many friends for Lincoln Center in 1962 . " While admitting the work was " written in Copland 's austere , objective , abstract style , " he suggested that bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work 's failure at the premiere . The orchestra that night had been augmented by a large chorus to perform the first movement of Gustav Mahler 's Eighth Symphony , which pushed the orchestra forward , " out of its normal playing position ... The sound was bad , bad . The bass response was sorely deficient , the hall was plagued with echoes , the musicians on stage reported that they could not hear each other very well ( just great for ensemble ) and in general Philharmonic Hall sounded like a cheap hi @-@ fi set with the bass speakers out of the circuit .
= = = Composer efforts = = =
Copland conducted Connotations in 1966 , 1967 and 1968 around the United States . This included an engagement at the Musica Viva series in San Francisco and concerts with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra , the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington D.C. and the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra . " I spoke to the audiences , " Copland writes , " with humorous accounts of the work 's adverse effect on droves of letter writers , who had heard the original performance , in person or on TV . Then I asked the brass section to illustrate the opening chords , and the strings how they sounded . Before they knew it , the audience was sympathetic . My purpose was not to sell the work but to demonstrate it . "
= = = Boulez revival = = =
A decade after Bernstein premiered the work , Pierre Boulez , who had succeeded Bernstein as music director of the New York Philharmonic in 1971 , conducted Connotations with the orchestra for the ten @-@ year anniversary of Philharmonic Hall ( subsequently renamed Avery Fisher Hall ; later David Geffen Hall ) . According to Copland , ten years had allowed enough time to change audience perceptions for the better . In his review for The New York Times Harold C. Schonberg wrote that this time , the audience " did not rise in revolt " as it had in 1962 . He added , " The composer 's cause was helped by , if memory serves , a better performance than had been given in 1962 . Mr. Boulez revels in this kind of music , and he brought drama to it as well as a synthesizing quality . "
= = Analysis = =
Connotations was the first orchestral work in which Copland used serial principles of composition . Serial or twelve @-@ tone music , Copland stated , carried " a built @-@ in tenseness ... a certain drama ... a sense of strain or tension " inherent in its extended use of chromaticism . " These are new tensions , " he continued , " different from what I would have dreamt up if I had been thinking tonally . " To composer John Adams , Copland 's embrace of serial technique was not really such as stretch " because ever since the 1920s , he 'd already a piss- ' n @-@ vinegar penchant for sour intervals , like he did in the Piano Variations . " Contrary to the charge that would be made after Connotations ' premiere that Copland wrote a twelve @-@ tone work to impress younger composers , he had actually begun using the method at a time when few other American composers were doing so . While Copland 's first expressly serial works were his Piano Quartet of 1950 and Piano Fantasy and he noted that some critics ( whom he did not name ) had traced a similarity in those pieces to his Piano Variations of 1930 , he claimed in his 1967 " conversation " with Edward T. Cone that the Variations were " the start of my interest in serial writing ... Although it doesn 't use all twelve tones , it does use seven of them in what I hope is a consistently logical way . " Prior to that interview , few had related Copland 's early work to that of the founder of twelve @-@ tone composition , Arnold Schoenberg .
By the time he wrote Connotations , Copland had come to the view that serial composition was " like looking at a picture from a different point of view " and used it " with the hope that it would freshen and enrich my [ compositional ] technique . " Part of that changed viewpoint , Copland said , " was that I began to hear chords that I wouldn 't have heard otherwise . Heretofore , I had been thinking tonally , but this was a new way of moving tones about . " Serialism also allowed Copland a synthesis of serial and non @-@ serial practices that had long concerned Copland and he had previously felt impossible to attain . One challenge Copland said he faced while he composed Connotations was " to construct an overall line that had continuity , dramatic force and an inherent unity . " He stated that he had faced a similar challenge in his Orchestral Variations ( his orchestration of the Piano Variations ) . He added that while dodecaphonic techniques supplied " the building blocks " for Connotations , it was up to him to supply " the edifice " that these blocks would eventually form .
Critic Paul Henry Lang , among others , lamented Copland 's " yield to the conformism of 12 @-@ tone music . " As serial and serial @-@ inspired music was considered more academically viable than music utilizing common practice tonality ( especially in Europe ) , some contemporary critics felt that Copland was trying to retain his place at the apex of the American classical music scene by conforming to " academic standards . " Taruskin suggests that it might have appeared to these critics that Copland " had sacrificed his hard @-@ won , well @-@ nigh unique public appeal for what seemed ... an ' alienated ' modernist stance . " As the composer had been one of the first American composers to import the style from Europe — in the mid twenties — these critics may have overlooked the possibility that his " populist period " may have represented the more jarring deviation in his compositional style .
It had also been some time since a Copland piece had been appreciated widely by audiences . His opera The Tender Land had not fared well , either in its original or revised forms . Choreographer Jerome Robbins never produced Copland 's ballet Dance Panels , despite the fact that he had commissioned it . None of his major orchestral works from the 1960s — Connotations , Music for a Great City , Emblems and Inscape — made much of an impact with audiences . Nor do they fit in either the populist or modernist parts of Copland 's compositional output . Copland was aware that dodecaphonism did not hold as high a place as it had previously and writes , " By the sixties , serialism had been around for over fifty years ; young composers were not so fascinated with it anymore . " Nonetheless , he did not want to be pigeonholed . He told American composer Walter Piston in 1963 , " People always want to shove me into the American idea more than I really want . Nobody wants to be an ' American ' composer now as they did . " He told another friend , " Young composers today wouldn 't be caught dead with a folk tune ! " He heard a considerable amount of new music through his association with Tanglewood and might not have wanted to be left behind . At the same time , he might not have become totally at home with serialism . He confided to Verna Fine , " I don 't feel comfortable with the twelve @-@ tone system , but I don 't want to keep repeating myself . "
= = Ballet = =
Choreographer John Neumier , noted for his ballets based on literary themes , received permission from Copland to use music from Connotations , the Piano Variations and Piano Fantasy for a ballet , The Fall Hamlet ( The Hamlet Affair ) . Staged by the American Ballet Theatre on January 6 , 1976 , the title role was danced by Mikhail Barishnikov , Ophelia by Gelsie Kirkland , Gertrude by Marcia Haydée and Claudius by Erik Bruhn . The ballet was received poorly , due to ineffective choreography . Critic Bob Micklin noted , however , that Copland 's " prickly , restless music " reflected the ballet 's story very well .
= = Legacy = =
Despite its initial reception , Connotations was listed in 1979 by Billboard magazine among Copland works that continued to be programmed by orchestras , with subsequent performances by Pierre Boulez , Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling received positively . Reaction to the work itself remains mixed . Ross dismisses Connotations as a " barbaric yawp of a piece . " Morin calls it a " thorny , riveting patchwork " and listening to it " like the unrelenting pummeling of a prizefighter at times . " Adams calls its style " very simplistic ... strident " and " generally unpleasant sounding " and adds that " the rigor [ of twelve @-@ tone composition ] seemed more to cramp [ Copland 's ] natural spontaneity than to aid it . " Composer Kyle Gann calls Connotations " big , unwieldy ... and [ not ] that good ... Copland 's imagination seemed constrained by the technique . On a more positive note , Davis wrote after a performance of the work under Ehrling by The Juilliard Orchestra that while Connotations remains a " spiky " composition , Copland " adopts Schoenberg 's serial procedures to produce a sequence of typically pungent and exhilarating Coplandesque sonorities . " Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor called the work " beautifully put together : full of energy , variety , thought " after he had heard Boulez conduct the piece . Michael Andrews wrote of Copland 's " mammoth , anxious and angry vision " and Barlett Naylor of " a majesty hidden in this dark piece " after both had heard de Waart 's performance .
= = Recordings = =
Along with Bernstein 's two performances , Copland recorded Connotations with the Orchestre National de France ( no longer available ) . More recently , The Juilliard Orchestra recorded the work under the direction of Sixten Ehrling for New World Records .
= La Isla Bonita =
" La Isla Bonita " ( English : The Beautiful Island ) is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . It was released as the album 's final single on February 25 , 1987 by Sire Records . The instrumental version of the song was first offered to Michael Jackson before Madonna both accepted it and wrote the lyrics and melody . " La Isla Bonita " is noted for being the first Madonna song to have a Latino influence in it , with arrangements of Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas , harmonicas and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . The lyrics of the song tell about a beautiful island and was a tribute to the beauty of the Latin people according to Madonna .
Following its release , " La Isla Bonita " received positive appreciation from critics . It also achieved worldwide popularity , topping the record charts in countries such as Austria , Canada , France , Germany and Switzerland . It became Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom , giving her the record for most number @-@ one singles among female artists . In the United States , it reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
In the accompanying music video , Madonna portrayed two opposite characters – a pious girl and a passionate Latina . The Latin style and the flamenco red dress she wore became a trend later . The song is one of the most performed live songs by Madonna , appearing in six of her world tours , the most recent being on the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . Madonna has regularly performed the song in its Spanish form , sometimes with tribal or folk songs and remixes to accompany it . The song has been covered by a number of artists including Mexican recording artist Byanka ( 1988 ) and French recording artist Alizée for her album Psychédélices ( 2008 ) .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" La Isla Bonita " was written by Madonna , Patrick Leonard and Bruce Gaitsch . The song was previously written as a lament for the town of San Pedro in the island of Ambergris Caye in Belize and was offered to Michael Jackson for his Bad album , who , according to Gaitsch , turned it down . While working with Leonard on the True Blue album , Madonna accepted it in Jackson 's place and wrote the song 's lyrics and melody , thus earning herself a co @-@ writing credit .
" La Isla Bonita " was the first Madonna song to employ Spanish motifs , going so far as to include Spanish lyrics . The Spanish theme would reoccur throughout her career , manifesting itself in lyrics for " Who 's That Girl " ( 1987 ) , " Spanish Eyes " ( 1989 ) , " I 'm Going Bananas " ( 1990 ) , the Spanish version of " You 'll See " ( 1995 ) called " Verás " , " Be Careful ( Cuidado Con Mi Corazón ) " ( 1999 ) which was a duet with Ricky Martin , " Lo Que Siente La Mujer " – the Spanish version for " What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( 2001 ) , " Sorry " ( 2005 ) and " Spanish Lesson " from Hard Candy ( 2008 ) . Madonna described the song as her tribute to the " beauty and mystery of Latin American people " . According to her " Latin rhythms often dominate our uptempo compositions . It 's like we 're possessed . We both think that we were Latin in another life . "
= = Composition = =
" La Isla Bonita " is a Hispanic styled pop song . It is one of the characteristic works of the collaboration between Madonna and Patrick Leonard . The single mixes the sound of different instruments like Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas and harmonicas and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . The song is written in the key of C ♯ minor and is set in the time signature of common time like most pop songs , moving at a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute . The song starts with a musical introduction performed on a Cuban drum , before descending into synthesized beats and Spanish guitar fusion . Madonna sings the chorus in the same G ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 range . After the second chorus there is a Spanish guitar interlude whence Madonna 's voice expands to F ♯ minor as she sings " I want to be where the sun warms the sky " and then comes down to a C ♯ minor when she sings " loves a girl " . There is another musical interlude with a harmonica and the song , after another chorus , ends with fading out and Madonna 's voice uttering the words " El dijo que te ama ( He said he loves you ) " .
The phrase " La Isla Bonita " translates to " The Beautiful Island " in English . The song has four lines sung in Spanish , a theme which Madonna later incorporated in her 1987 single " Who 's That Girl " . The lyrics begin by describing Madonna as a tourist who prays " that the days would last , they went so fast " simultaneously isolating the other Latin people as them ( " you can watch them go by " ) . In her book Women and popular music , author Sheila Whiteley said that the chorus of the song places its emphasis on the incantatory present participle ( " Tropical the island breeze , all of nature wild and free , this is where I long to be " ) . The song draws connotations from the supplicant before its explicit focus on the chorus .
The title and first line of the song refer to an island called San Pedro , held by some to be Ambergris Caye in Belize , referencing the town of San Pedro , which has since adopted the song 's title as the town 's principal nickname . However , Gaitsch has mentioned that at that time , Madonna was spending time in a U.S. town of the same name , and both Madonna and her then husband Sean Penn were good friends with a poet called San Pedro and novelist Charles Bukowski . Madonna herself has not clarified this in any interview . Instead , she referred the song as being a tribute to Latin America and its people , along with an island and to herself . In 2014 , while working on her thirteenth studio album Rebel Heart with producer Diplo , Madonna recorded a dubplate of " La Isla Bonita " with new lyrics for his Major Lazer project . Diplo premiered the full version of it in March 2015 during his show on BBC Radio 1 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a review for the album The Immaculate Collection , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly compared the song with the moves of Carmen Miranda on MTV . Slant Magazine music critic Sal Cinquemani , in a review for the True Blue album , called the song one of Madonna 's greatest , most influential and timeless songs . Author Maury Dean in his book Rock ' n ' Roll Gold Rush praised the song saying , " Madonna coos a Spanish lullaby . Sizzly romance blooms among the cozy sheltering palms . Tough tunes for most males to shrug off . "
Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna called the song " a little escapism " . Dawn Keetley in his book Public Women , Public Words called the song one of Madonna 's most perfect songs capturing her inner emotional life . William McKeen called the song " tranquil " and " Up on the Roof type imaginary escapes from the city snarl , the kind of Latin @-@ flavored sweets that Blondie could never resist . " Ken Barnes of Creem wrote the song is " no " Open Your Heart " , but its lilting ( yet reflective ) quality transcends the south @-@ of @-@ the @-@ border cliches . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that " La Isla Bonita " was one of Madonna 's " friendlier " love songs . Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times believed that the song was the best song on the album , as well as the most memorable . Meanwhile , Steve Morse of The Boston Globe believed that it was one of her " prettier " songs . Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle , while reviewing Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour , called the song a true retro one . Marty Racine , from the same newspaper , believed that the song was one that stood out on the album . Los Angeles Daily News , when discussing Madonna 's style of music , believed that " La Isla Bonita " was a song that was " pointing in [ a ] welcome direction . "
= = Chart performance = =
" La Isla Bonita " debuted at number 49 and reached a peak of number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in May 1987 . The song was Madonna 's second number one single on the Adult Contemporary chart , following 1986 's " Live to Tell " . It became the 11th consecutive top @-@ five hit for Madonna , a feat surpassed only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley . The single also found success on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart , where it peaked at number one . In Canada , the song debuted at number 74 for the issue dated April 4 , 1987 and reached the top of the chart in its tenth week on the issue dated June 6 , 1987 , remaining on the chart for 25 weeks . It placed at number 22 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .
In the United Kingdom , " La Isla Bonita " topped the UK Singles Chart for two weeks , giving Madonna her fourth number @-@ one single on the chart . She became the female artist with the most number @-@ one singles in the British chart history — a record that has since been maintained by Madonna to date . The single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 250 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 435 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
" La Isla Bonita " was Madonna 's first number one song in France , where it spent three weeks at the top spot in July 1987 . It was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies . " La Isla Bonita " remains Madonna 's best @-@ selling single in France , selling over 771 @,@ 000 copies . Across Europe , it became her fourth number one hit from True Blue , topping the Eurochart Hot 100 for three weeks in 1987 . The song also peaked atop the charts in Switzerland , Belgium and Austria along with reaching the top @-@ five in Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , Norway and Sweden , and the top @-@ ten in Spain .
= = Music video = =
The music video was set in Los Angeles and was directed by Mary Lambert , who directed a number of Madonna 's 1980s videos , including those for " Borderline " , " Like a Virgin " and " Like a Prayer " . Benicio del Toro appeared in the video as a background character . The video first appeared on MTV on March 29 , 1987 . It starts with showing a number of Latin people dancing in a Spanish barrio as Madonna watches them from her window . She plays two different characters in the video : a boyishly @-@ dressed Catholic woman and a colorful Flamenco dancer . The characters are quite opposite in their portrayal , which is emphasized by two opposing settings for the characters . Firstly , the video shows a sparsely decorated room with an altar and pictures of Hispanic people on the wall . Madonna plays a pale @-@ looking pious girl wearing a white petticoat and her short hair brushed back . She cries in her room and reluctantly ignores the invitation of the Latinos in the street to join them .
The austerity and the passivity of the first character is however contrasted vividly with the passion and activity of the second character . Madonna in this portrayal wears a red voluminous extravagant Spanish style dress , which shows off her décolletage , with a middle parting in the skirt , while wearing red carnations in her hair . Complementing this passionate look , the second setting features a bright red room with red candles and candelabra . While the spiritual and submissive Madonna watches the Latinos and prays in her room , the passionate Madonna dances and leaves the room to join the dancers in the streets .
While both settings seem to suggest that Madonna 's characters live in the barrio and may be Latina themselves , the portrayal of Madonna in the dancing scenes ( lush , flashy , colorful ) contrasts with the Latinos in the street ( sparsely worn out dresses ) . She dances around and even flirts but does not get really involved with them as the last scene shows Madonna dancing off the screen . The video symbolizes the link between Latino culture and Catholicism . The two characters symbolize the restrained and passionate side of Catholicism , which author Rettenmund has described as Madonna 's take on the religion .
The Latinos in the video are portrayed as stereotypes as nonchalant people , unemployed adults , school deprived children and a crumbling barrio . However , the music video was critically appreciated for its utilization of Hispanic fashion as an icon of beauty and romanticism . Collen McDanell , in his book Material Christianity , noted Madonna 's use of Catholic objects in the video like the candlestands and home shrines , thereby giving them a new meaning according to her own . Author Douglas Kellner noted , " such ' multiculturalism ' and her culturally transgressive moves turned out to be highly successful moves that endeared her to large and varied youth audiences " . Madonna 's Spanish look in the video became popular and appeared in the fashion trends at that time in the form of boleros and layered skirts accessorizing with rosary beads and crucifix like the video .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed " La Isla Bonita " on most of her world tours including the 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour , the 1993 Girlie Show World Tour , the 2001 Drowned World Tour , the 2006 Confessions Tour , the 2008 @-@ 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour and the 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour . She also sang it at the 2007 Live Earth benefit concert in London . In the Who 's That Girl tour , " La Isla Bonita " was performed as a part of the encore . Madonna came out on the stage in a bright red flamenco dress like the video and performed the song , assisted by her backup singers Niki Haris , Donna De Lory and Debra Parson . A Latino dancing with Angel Ferreira was also included . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 . In the 1993 Girlie Show tour Madonna performed the song on top of a rising platform , after " I 'm Going Bananas " . She was dressed in a blue and white striped shirt while Haris and De Lory wore a similar outfit , but in black and red . One of the musicians walked around bare chest playing the acoustic guitar .
During her 2001 Drowned World Tour , Madonna performed " La Isla Bonita " in the Latin segment of the show , wearing a revealing black senorita 's dress and trousers , hair tied back and playing a Spanish guitar . She asked the crowd to join her while singing " olé ola " with the song . In the Confessions Tour , Madonna appeared on the stage in a purple white leotard with open hair and started singing the song . In the middle of the performance , she was joined by her backup dancers who , along with the singer , walked the length of the stage singing the chorus . The performance ends with Madonna lying down on the stage . The video backdrops showed a tropical paradise like the island San Pedro mentioned in the song .
Madonna performed " La Isla Bonita " during the 2007 Live Earth benefit concert at Wembley Stadium in London where she was joined by members of gypsy punk band Gogol Bordello for a crazed hoedown version of the song . Gogol Bordello had previously joined her on the 2006 Confessions Tour where the song was played as a dance / tribal remix with interventions from Eugene Hütz and Sergey Ryabtsev from Gogol Bordello . The song was once again added to the set list of her 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , as part of the Gypsy segment of the show , featuring the Arkady Gips band and the Romani @-@ Gypsy folk song " Lela Pala Tute . " The performance had Madonna wearing a short black skintight dress and knee @-@ high boots with pink fluorescent beads and necklaces . Along with " Lela Pala Tute " , there was a Mediterranean Street party with Greek dancing , another gypsy song called " Doli , Doli " and a flamenco solo performance . A flamenco version of the song was performed on the third section of the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . For the wardrobe , Madonna enlisted a Spanish tailoring company from Zaragoza for creating two bullfighter traje de luces costume , along with a cape and matador related costumes for her backing dancers . Jordan Zivitz of Montreal Gazette praised the performance for being " one of the only hits to retain its original form " .
= = Cover versions and popular culture appearance = =
French pop singer Alizée has performed " La Isla Bonita " during her first promotional tours in Europe in 2003 . In 2008 , a new studio version was recorded and included on the special edition of her album , Psychédélices , in Mexico . The song so far has gone on to become Alizée 's first top ten single on the Mexico national top ten airplay chart along with reaching number two in her native France . Indie psychedelic folk singer @-@ songwriter Jonathan Wilson recorded a cover for the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness .
In 1999 , female singer Deetah used elements of the song in her single " El Paraíso Rico " . The song was sampled by rapper Black Rob , in his 1999 song " Spanish Fly " ( included in his Life Story album ) featuring Jennifer Lopez . In the chorus of the song , Lopez sings the part which samples " La Isla Bonita " . Rapper Andre Nickatina sampled the song in " Son of an Angel " , which is featured on his 2001 album Unreleased . In 2004 , rapper Mase sampled and interpolated it for his song " My Harlem Lullaby " . A cover has also been performed by Finnish power metal band Twilight Guardians on their record Sin Trade .
On the Family Guy episode " The Father , the Son , and the Holy Fonz " when discussing Madonna at the end , one of the characters , Peter Griffin , calls her a liar for singing about a nonexistent place ( La Isla Bonita ) stating that he could not find it in a map . American artist Britney Spears recorded a track titled " Love 2 Love U " , which heavily samples " La Isla Bonita " . The track leaked on December 2 , 2011 . The song was also covered in the Fox TV show , Glee in the episode " The Spanish Teacher " . It was sung by Naya Rivera who plays the character Santana Lopez and Ricky Martin who guest stars in the episode . It was filmed and recorded in January , then was broadcast in February 2012 .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals
Bruce Gaitsch – guitars ( Spanish and acoustic guitar )
Patrick Leonard – drum programming , keyboards , lyrics , producer
Johnathan Moffett – drums
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
Michael Verdick – audio mixing , engineer
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld =
Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld : An Anthropology is an anthropological study of contemporary Pagan and ceremonial magic groups that practiced magic in London , England during the 1990s . It was written by English anthropologist Susan Greenwood based upon her doctoral research undertaken at Goldsmiths ' College , a part of the University of London , and first published in 2000 by Berg Publishers .
Greenwood became involved in the esoteric movement during the 1980s as a practitioner of a feminist @-@ orientated form of Wicca . Devoting her doctorate to the subject , her research led her to join Kabbalistic orders and two Wiccan covens , during which she emphasised that she was both an " insider " ( a practising occultist ) and an " outsider " ( an anthropological observer ) . Reacting against the work of Tanya Luhrmann , who had authored the primary anthropological study of the London occult scene , Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft ( 1989 ) , Greenwood argued against studying magical beliefs from a western rationalist perspective , instead adopting a theoretical approach informed by phenomenology and relativism . Greenwood 's research focused on Pagan and magical conceptions of the " otherworld " . The book 's first chapter summarises the Pagan magical conception of the otherworld , and subsequent chapters detail Greenwood 's experiences with Kabbalistic magic and Wicca . The work goes on to discuss issues of psychotherapy and healing , gender and sexuality , and morality and ethics within London 's esoteric community , and the manner in which the community 's members ' views on these issues are influenced by their beliefs regarding an otherworld .
Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld was reviewed by various figures involved in both academia and the Pagan community including Douglas Ezzy and Phil Hine . Greenwood herself would go on to author several other books on the relationship between magic and anthropology .
= = Background = =
= = = Anthropological fieldwork into Paganism = = =
Prior to Greenwood 's work , several academic researchers working in the field of Pagan studies had published investigations of the Pagan community in the United States and the United Kingdom . First among these was the practicing Wiccan , journalist and political activist Margot Adler in her Drawing Down the Moon : Witches , Druids , Goddess @-@ Worshippers , and Other Pagans in America Today , published by Viking Press in 1979 . A second study was produced by anthropologist Tanya M. Luhrmann in Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft : Ritual Magic in Contemporary England ( 1989 ) , in which she focused on a Wiccan coven and several ceremonial magic orders based in London . Sociologist Allen Scarboro , psychologist Nancy Campbell and Wiccan literary critic Shirley Stave undertook fieldwork in the Ravenwood coven of Atlanta , Georgia , over several months across 1990 and 1991 as the basis for Living Witchcraft : A Contemporary American Coven , published by Praeger in 1994 , while anthropologist and Wiccan Loretta Orion investigated the Pagan movement in the East Coast and Midwest of the U.S. for Never Again the Burning Times : Paganism Revisited , published by Waveland Press in 1995 . 1997 saw the publication of Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia , authored by anthropologist Lynne Hume .
= = = Greenwood and her research = = =
As a child , Greenwood had found a greater spiritual connection with the natural world than with organised religion . During the late 1970s , she embraced second @-@ wave feminism and came across feminist forms of Pagan Witchcraft through Starhawk 's Dreaming the Dark ( 1982 ) . Attracted to this new religious movement , she undertook an undergraduate degree in anthropology and sociology at Goldsmiths ' College , where her final year research project focused on women 's spirituality . Exploring the topic in further depth , she devoted a PhD to the subject , thereby conducting the research underpinning Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld .
Although initially planning to gather data through formal taped interviews with participants , she rejected this method , believing it solidified her " outsider " status among the subculture she was studying . Instead , her data was collected through informal conversations with practitioners , during which she tried to make clear that she was an anthropologist and would use their comments in her work . Over the course of her research , Greenwood gained many friends within the city 's Pagan community , and became sexually and emotionally attached to one magician . Greenwood 's research was funded using grants from the University of London Central Research Fund and from the Economic and Social Research Council . She devoted the published work to her children , Adrian and Lauren .
= = Synopsis = =
Chapter one describes contemporary Paganism and defines " the otherworld " . It discusses London 's magical and Pagan subculture in the 1990s , and Greenwood 's relationship with it . Admitting to being an " insider " , she explores her mixed feelings at being both a practicing Pagan and an anthropological observer . The second chapter examines the community 's conceptions of the otherworld , explaining how they approach it through acts of visualisation and altered states of consciousness and their understandings of it as a realm of spiritual energy connected to dreams and the imagination . Discussing the relationship between anthropology and magic , Greenwood argues that it is impossible for anthropologists to truly understand beliefs regarding magic and the otherworld if they only view it through a western rationalist lens , instead arguing for a phenomenological or relativist perspective that accepts alternative views of the world .
In her third chapter , Greenwood examines her experiences among London 's ceremonial magicians , focusing on her training in the Hermetic Qabalah , a " magical language " for exploring the otherworld . Adopting Luhrmann
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's concept of " interpretative drift " , she relates how she shifted her understanding of events to make sense of her magical experiences . However , in contrast to Luhrmann 's emphasis on how practitioners overcame their initial scepticism , Greenwood focuses on how these practitioners learn " the language of another mode of reality " through their experiences . Chapter four details Greenwood 's early involvement in Wicca , through three separate covens . Offering her thoughts on Wiccan invocations , she then discusses the faith 's approach to sexual polarity , pointing to the sexual underpinnings of the Great Rite and the Gnostic Mass as evidence . The chapter is rounded off with an explanation of how Wicca understands the natural world and a comparison between the religion and ceremonial magic .
Chapter five examines the attraction of magic for its practitioners , and its uses for psychotherapy and healing . Greenwood explores the ways in which occultists use magic as a rebellion against Christianity , and their construction of a " magical identity " , believing this to be " organized around a deep internal exploration of the self through an interaction with the otherworld " . She also looks at magic and the acquisition of power , and the sense of empowerment discovered by magicians who were former abuse victims . The sixth chapter focuses on notions of gender and sexuality , highlighting the widespread belief that sexual energy provides the power behind magic and discussing the contrasting views of Dion Fortune and Aleister Crowley on this issue ; the former emphasised harmony and balance between " masculine " and " feminine " magical forces , while the latter advocated " magical anarchy " or spiritual autonomy for each individual , irrespective of gender . Greenwood looks at contrasting views on these issues in High Magic ( ceremonial magic ) , Wicca and Feminist Witchcraft . Drawing upon the typologies advocated by sociologist of religion Susan J. Palmer , she argues that High Magic emphasises " sex polarity " , a situation in which men and women are seen as unequal and different , whereas Wicca holds to a position of " sex complementarity " , in which men and women are seen as different yet equal , and Feminist Witchcraft advocates " sex unity " , in which there is a tolerance of sexual ambiguity .
Chapter seven deals with conceptions of morality and ethics , arguing that whereas High Magic typically envisions a dualistic world view of good versus evil , Wicca adheres to a monistic worldview in which malevolence and benevolence are seen as intrinsic parts of the whole . Disagreeing with Luhrmann 's view that morality 's place in the occult is to hide the pseudo @-@ scientific nature of magic , Greenwood discusses how magic and witchcraft developed in Europe as a part of moral discourse . She looks at the internal source of morality in High Magic , explaining concepts such as that of the Qliphoth , before examining the internal source of morality in Wicca and Feminist Witchcraft .
= = Central arguments = =
Greenwood states that western esotericists have a holistic , animistic view of cosmology , considering the universe to be alive and interconnected with spiritual energies . According to such beliefs , many of these energies operate in " a time and space distinct from , but also very closely connected to , everyday reality " , and it is this area that is termed the " otherworld " in Pagan discourse . She relates that western esotericists believe in forces who inhabit this otherworld , and who are personalized as deities , animal guides , or spirit beings . She furthermore states that these individuals see themselves as microcosms of the universal macrocosm .
Greenwood highlights the practitioners ' belief that they can interact with this otherworld and the entities which inhabit it through rituals that facilitate their own altered states of consciousness . She notes that western magicians make use of mythology as a form of " cognitive map " to " structure their otherworldy experience " . She also notes that this otherworld is closely linked to dreams and the imagination in western magical belief .
Greenwood argues that the academic discipline of anthropology , being a product of the western rationalism developed during the Age of Enlightenment , is innately skeptical of claims for the existence of magic or an otherworld , either among non @-@ western cultures or western subcultures . In contrast to this attitude , she notes that anthropology is the discipline which first pointed out that " reality is culturally constructed " and that there are " multiple ways of experiencing the world " , including those which conceive of an otherworld existing alongside our own reality . For this reason , she argues that anthropologists wishing to understand a society that believes in and practices magic must first tentatively accept the existence of an otherworld , claiming that " it is inappropriate to use methods developed for the study of everyday reality to analyse the magical otherworld . "
= = Reception and recognition = =
= = = Academic = = =
Greenwood 's text was reviewed by Patric V. Giesler of Gustavus Adolphus College for peer @-@ reviewed academic journal American Ethnologist . Giesler describes Greenwood 's work as " provocative " , noting that it represents a " native 's account " of Paganism , with Greenwood being " a native gone anthropologist . " He characterises Greenwood 's experiences as religious or spiritual rather than magical , because none of the practices that she described involved manipulating beings or forces for an instrumental end ; the classic definition of magic . Unconvinced by her argument that practitioner 's notions of identity , gender and morality derived from their encounter with the otherworld , he considers other sources for such notions , but otherwise recommended the book .
The book was also reviewed by religious studies scholar Michael York of Bath Spa University for the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion . Labelling it an " enormously engaging , provocative , and rich book " , he notes that readers may wish that Greenwood had more explicitly presented " the antipatriarchal assumptions and their shortcomings " of Feminist Witchcraft . Comparing it with Luhrmann 's Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft , York comments that it is a " discerningly astute , nonretreating , thoroughly enjoyable , and highly recommended work . "
Sarah M. Pike of the California State University , Chico reviewed the book for Culture and Religion : An Interdisciplinary Journal , describing it as an " accessible and personal account " . Believing that it made an " important contribution " to Pagan studies and the anthropological study of magic , she nevertheless thought that Greenwood 's subjective attitude was the book 's shortcoming as well as its strength . Pike finds problems in Greenwood 's insider @-@ outsider status , believing that it has not been sufficiently theorised , and that Greenwood was unaware of her own bias in favour of Feminist Witchcraft , which in turn affects her interpretation of other forms of Wicca and ceremonial magic . She also critiques the book 's lack of commentary or detailed analysis , complaining that many subsections lack conclusions .
Anthropologist Galina Lindquist of the University of Stockholm published a review in The Australian Journal of Anthropology , referring to Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld as " a welcome contribution " containing " valuable " ethnographic material . Noting that it joins the work of anthropologists like Jeanne Favret @-@ Saada , Paul Stoller , and E. Turner , Lindquist praises the manner in which Greenwood put contemporary practices into historical perspective , and how she illuminates the " strains and contradictions " within the magical milieu . She believes that Greenwood 's arguments would have been strengthened had she made use of a more in @-@ depth ethnographic study of magical morality , and considers it unfortunate that Greenwood had not touched on ritual studies .
= = = Pagan and esoteric community = = =
Greenwood 's work was independently reviewed by two separate individuals in The Pomegranate : A New Journal of Neopagan Thought – then a scholarly but not yet academic publication . The first reviewer , Daniel Cohen of Wood and Water magazine , praises Greenwood 's theoretical approach , claiming that she had been " braver " than Luhrmann in maintaining a " creative tension " as both an insider and outsider . Asserting that Greenwood 's use of anthropological terminology made for " hard reading " , he suspects that her use of the word " magician " would jar with many Pagans who would disagree with the manner in which she used it . In conclusion , he recommends it as a " valuable but inexpensive book " .
The Pomegranate 's second review came from Pagan studies scholar Douglas Ezzy of the University of Tasmania , who praises Greenwood 's research , theoretical approach and style of writing . He notes that her " truly ground breaking " approach in taking spiritual experiences seriously had " fascinated and thrilled " him , asserting that her work builds on the pioneering edited collection Being Changed by Jean @-@ Guy Goulet and David E. Young . Noting that Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld was " sometimes provocative " , he disagrees with some of Greenwood 's conclusions , but highlights that her arguments had made him think about these issues " in much sharper focus . "
Reviewing it for his own website , prominent chaos magician Phil Hine described Greenwood 's work as " fascinating " , arguing that it should interest students of anthropology as well as practising occultists . He praises the author 's descriptions of her own experiences within esoteric groups , and the manner in which she highlighted the power struggles that take place within them , before recommending it as " an engaging and thought @-@ provoking read " .
= Italian cruiser Calabria =
Calabria was a small protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1890s , intended for service in Italy 's overseas empire . She was laid down in 1892 , launched in 1894 , and completed in 1897 , and was armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns . Calabria spent significant periods abroad , ranging from deployments to Chinese , North American , and Australian waters , in addition to periods in Italy 's East African empire . She saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 in the Red Sea , primarily bombarding Turkish ports in the area . Calabria was reclassified as a gunboat in 1921 , reduced to a training ship in 1924 , and sold for scrap at the end of the year .
= = Design = =
Calabria was designed by the Chief Engineer , Edoardo Masdea , and was intended for overseas service . She had a steel hull sheathed with wood and zinc to protect it from fouling during lengthy deployments abroad . The hull was 76 meters ( 249 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 81 m ( 266 ft ) long overall . It had a beam of 12 @.@ 71 m ( 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 05 m ( 16 @.@ 6 ft ) . Her normal displacement was 2 @,@ 453 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 414 long tons ; 2 @,@ 704 short tons ) but increased to 2 @,@ 660 t ( 2 @,@ 620 long tons ; 2 @,@ 930 short tons ) at full load . Calabria had a crew of between 214 and 254 officers and enlisted crew .
The cruiser was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired , cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines had an output of 4 @,@ 260 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 180 kW ) and produced a top speed of 16 @.@ 4 knots ( 30 @.@ 4 km / h ; 18 @.@ 9 mph ) . Calabria had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Calabria was armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns and four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns , all mounted individually . Light armaments included eight 5 @.@ 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) L / 40 guns , eight 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 20 guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Armor protection consisted of a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck ; her conning tower also received 50 mm of steel plating .
= = Service history = =
Calabria was built at the La Spezia dockyard , with her keel being laid down in February 1892 . She was launched on 20 September 1894 , and fitting @-@ out work was completed by mid @-@ 1897 ; the new cruiser was commissioned into the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) on 12 July . Calabria spent long periods abroad in her first decade of service . She was operating in Chinese waters in 1899 when the Boxer Rebellion broke out . She joined an international fleet that included representatives from the fleets of the Eight Nation Alliance in the mouth of the Hai River while a contingent of 475 soldiers traveled to Beijing to reinforce the Legation Quarter .
The ship was present on 20 May 1902 when the United States formally granted independence to the Republic of Cuba , following the Spanish – American War three years earlier . Calabria and the British cruiser HMS Psyche fired salutes to the United States cruiser USS Brooklyn . In March 1905 Calabria went on another cruise to American waters , this time to Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic . The visit represented an attempt at gunboat diplomacy , aimed at securing payments for debts to Italian nationals . Later in the year , Calabria visited Australia on a trip to show the flag . In October 1909 , Calabria took part in the Portola Festival in San Francisco , marking the 140th anniversary of the Portolà expedition , the first recorded European exploration of what became California .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Calabria was stationed in the Far East , but she was immediately recalled to reinforce the Italian colony of Eritrea . After arriving in East African waters , she joined the cruiser Puglia in bombarding the Turkish port of Aqaba on 19 November to disperse a contingent of Ottoman soldiers there . Hostilities were temporarily ceased while the British King George V passed through the Red Sea following his coronation ceremony in India — the ceasefire lasted until 26 November . Four days later , Calabria and the gunboat Volturno attacked a quarantine station near Perim .
In early 1912 , the Italian Red Sea Fleet searched for a group of seven Ottoman gunboats thought to be planning an attack on Eritrea , though they were in fact immobilized due to a lack of coal . Calabria and the Puglia carried out diversionary bombardments against Jebl Tahr , and Al Luḩayyah , while the cruiser Piemonte and the destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino searched for the gunboats . On 7 January , they found the gunboats and quickly sank four in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay ; the other three were forced to beach to avoid sinking as well . The next day , the Italian warships sent a shore party to destroy the grounded gunboats . Calabria and the rest of the Italian ships returned to bombarding the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . Calabria returned to Italy by April for refitting . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1914 , her armament was reduced ; the 15 cm guns were removed and two additional 12 cm guns were installed in their place . Two of the 5 @.@ 7 cm guns and six of the 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were also removed . The ship took a diplomatic mission from Massawa across the Red Sea to visit Hussein bin Ali , the recently @-@ proclaimed King of Hejaz , in Mecca in July 1917 . Calabria returned to East African waters in January 1918 on another mission to show the flag , particularly off the coast of Somalia . Stops included Aden and Djibouti . Calabria was reclassified as a gunboat in 1921 , and she saw her armament modified again ; a 15 cm gun was reinstalled , as were two of the 5 @.@ 7 cm guns . A 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) L / 39 autocannon was also added at this time . She served in this role for only a short time , and was reduced to a training ship for naval gunners in early 1924 . This duty ended quickly , and she was sold for scrap on 13 November 1924 .
= A Simple Plan ( film ) =
A Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo @-@ noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name . Directed by Sam Raimi , the film stars Bill Paxton , Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda . Set in rural Minnesota , A Simple Plan follows Hank Mitchell ( Paxton ) and his brother Jacob ( Thornton ) , who , along with Jacob 's friend Lou ( Brent Briscoe ) , discover a crashed plane containing $ 4 @.@ 4 million in cash . The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other 's trust , resulting in lies , deceit and murder .
Development of the film began in 1993 before the novel was published . Mike Nichols purchased the film rights , and the project was picked up by an independent film studio , Savoy Pictures . After Nichols stepped down , the film adaptation became mired in development hell ; during the troubled pre @-@ production , Ben Stiller and John Dahl turned down opportunities to direct the film . After Savoy closed in November 1995 , the project was sold to Paramount Pictures . John Boorman was hired to direct , but scheduling conflicts led to his replacement by Raimi . Principal photography began in January 1998 and concluded in March after 55 days ; filming took place in Wisconsin and Minnesota . The score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman .
A Simple Plan premiered at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival , where it was met with critical acclaim . The film 's appearance at the festival preceded a limited release in the United States on December 11 , 1998 , followed by a general release in North America on January 22 , 1999 . It underperformed at the North American box office , grossing $ 16 @.@ 3 million on a $ 17 million production budget . Reviewers praised various aspects of the film 's production , including the storytelling , performances and Raimi 's direction . A Simple Plan earned multiple awards and nominations , among them two Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor ( Thornton ) and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Smith ) .
= = Plot = =
Hank Mitchell and his wife Sarah live in rural Minnesota . One of the town 's few college graduates , Hank works in a feed mill , while his wife is a librarian . When Hank , his older , socially challenged brother Jacob and Jacob 's friend Lou chase a fox into the woods , they stumble upon a crashed airplane . Hank decides to look inside the plane where he discovers a dead pilot and a bag containing $ 4 @.@ 4 million in $ 100 bills . He suggests turning the money in but is persuaded not to by Jacob and Lou . Hank then proposes that he keep the money safe at his house until the end of winter . Sheriff Carl Jenkins drives by the area and notices the three men after they hide the money in Jacob 's pick @-@ up truck . Jacob mentions hearing a plane in the area to avoid suspicion . After Carl leaves , the three men decide to keep the money a secret , but Hank breaks the pact when he reveals the discovery to Sarah .
Sarah suggests that Hank and Jacob return a paltry sum of the money to the plane to avoid suspicion from local authorities . While travelling on foot to the woods , the brothers come across an old man on a snowmobile . Jacob , thinking that their cover is blown , bludgeons him . When the man regains consciousness , Hank suffocates him , then uses the snowmobile to drive his body off a bridge , making the murder look like an accidental death . The following night , Lou drunkenly demands some of the money from Hank , because he has spent recklessly since the discovery . When Hank refuses , Lou threatens to go to the authorities , having learned from Jacob about the old man 's murder .
Sarah advises that Hank and Jacob team up to plot against Lou . Much to Jacob 's dismay , the two brothers visit Lou at his home where Jacob has him drunkenly confess to the old man 's murder . Hank records the false confession with a tape recorder . Lou grows enraged when he realizes that the two have conspired against him and pulls a gun on them . Jacob grabs a rifle from his truck and kills Lou to save his brother . Hank then kills Lou 's wife with Lou 's shotgun when she appears with another gun . The two brothers avoid arrest after Hank concocts a rehearsed speech for himself and Jacob to tell the police .
Because Jacob mentioned hearing a plane in the woods , Carl asks the brothers to assist an FBI agent , Neil Baxter , in a search for the missing aircraft . Hank and Jacob meet with Baxter and Carl at the police station . Sarah grows skeptical of Baxter , whom she later discovers to be an impostor ; she contacts and warns Hank , who steals a handgun from Carl 's office . The four men head into the woods and split up . When he finds the plane , Baxter kills Carl , and engages in a gunfight with Hank . Hank manages to kill Baxter with the gun he had stolen . Hank starts to concoct another story to tell the authorities . Jacob however announces that he does not want to live with these bad memories ; he threatens to shoot himself to end it . He then encourages Hank to kill him instead and frame Baxter for the crime . After grappling with the decision , Hank kills Jacob .
At the police station , Hank tells his rehearsed story to real FBI agents . As Sarah predicted , the agents do not believe that Hank , an upstanding member of the community , would be capable of such wrongdoing . Although he is ruled out as a suspect , Hank is told that the money was part of a ransom and that many of the bills ' serial numbers were written down to track the cash . Hank realizes he cannot use the money without being caught ; he goes home and burns it all . In a closing narration , Hank reflects on his losses ; as he tries to move on with his life , the murderous events constantly haunt him .
= = Cast = =
Bill Paxton as Hank Mitchell
Billy Bob Thornton as Jacob Mitchell
Bridget Fonda as Sarah Mitchell
Brent Briscoe as Lou Chambers
Gary Cole as Neil Baxter
Jack Walsh as Tom Butler
Chelcie Ross as Sheriff Carl Jenkins
Becky Ann Baker as Nancy Chambers
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After Scott B. Smith had published a short story for The New Yorker , the magazine 's fiction editor learned of his then @-@ unpublished novel A Simple Plan before reading it and forwarding it to an agent . Shortly thereafter , Smith learned that Mike Nichols was interested in purchasing the film rights to his novel . Nichols spent a weekend reading the book , before contacting Smith 's agent , and finalizing a deal the following Monday morning . Nichols purchased the rights for his production company Icarus Productions for $ 250 @,@ 000 , with an additional $ 750 @,@ 000 to come later from a studio interested in pursuing the project . Smith ’ s manuscript of A Simple Plan was optioned for development at an independent film studio , Savoy Pictures . However , due to scheduling conflicts with a planned film adaptation of All the Pretty Horses , Nichols stepped down from the project .
After learning of the film adaptation from Nichols , Ben Stiller joined the project and signed a two @-@ picture directing deal with Savoy . He spent nine months working on the script with Smith . During preproduction , however , Stiller had a falling out with Savoy over budget disputes — among them was how Savoy ’ s reported $ 4 million offer to Nicolas Cage would affect the film ’ s budget . Stiller explained , ” The problem was Savoy . I don ’ t think they had a good understanding of how to make films happen . ” Unable to secure financing from another studio , Stiller left the production .
In January 1995 , John Dahl was announced to helm the film , with Cage set to appear in a starring role , and filming likely to start during the following summer in the southern hemisphere or in Canada during the following winter . In November 1995 , following a series of box office failures , Savoy announced that it was retreating from the film industry . The studio was later acquired by IAC / Interactive Corporation , whose chairman , Barry Diller , put A Simple Plan up for sale . This resulted in both Dahl and Cage leaving the project .
The project was purchased by Paramount Pictures , where producer Scott Rudin hired John Boorman to direct the film . Boorman cast Bill Paxton and Billy Bob Thornton in the lead roles of Hank and Jacob Mitchell , respectively . A Simple Plan marked the second on @-@ screen collaboration between Paxton and Thornton after One False Move ( 1992 ) . Thornton recalled , " I got a call from one of my agents who said , ' John Boorman wants you to do a script that I sent you a year ago and you never read , ' I said , ' Send it to me again , and this time I 'll really read it . ' Within the first two pages , I knew I wanted to do it . " Paxton learned of the novel A Simple Plan from his father five years before securing the role of Hank : " He said , ' You 'll love it . It 's got a lot of hair on it . You were born to play this part . ' I said , ' Dad , I 'll never get to do this . ' And for five years , there was a whole list of actors and directors who kind of marched through it . Billy Bob and I were set to do these roles in 1997 , and then it fell apart . That was the cruelest twist for an actor , to get a part you dreamed you 'd get and then they decide to scrap the whole thing . " Rudin considered casting Anne Heche as Hank 's wife Sarah Mitchell .
Boorman took part in location scouting , and filming was set to begin during the first week of January 1998 . When a second investor left the project , Paramount refused to fully finance the $ 17 million production itself . Although Boorman was able to secure financing , the studio feared that filming would not be finished before the end of winter . Boorman ran into scheduling conflicts , which resulted in him leaving the production . Paramount then hired Sam Raimi to direct the film . Smith said of Raimi , " I wasn 't familiar with Sam 's other work , but I met with him , and in talking to him I was very pleased . I felt like he understood the story . He understood the people . We grew up in the same area of the country . He knew what I was writing about and he knew how to tell the story in the right way . " Raimi did not have time to scout locations due to studio constraints ; he relied on the previous locations visited during Boorman 's involvement . In December 1997 , Bridget Fonda , who had previously collaborated with Raimi on Army of Darkness ( 1992 ) , was cast as Sarah Mitchell .
A Simple Plan was a co @-@ production between Paramount and Mutual Film Company . The film was co @-@ financed by Mutual and Newmarket Capital Group as part of a joint venture that was formed by the two companies . Mutual 's international partners — the United Kingdom 's BBC , Germany 's Tele @-@ München , Japan 's Toho @-@ Towa / Marubeni and France ’ s UGC @-@ PH — also co @-@ financed the film in exchange for distribution rights in their respective territories and equity stakes on the film on a worldwide basis . Paramount acquired the North American distribution rights .
= = = Writing = = =
The original script that Smith had written for Mike Nichols was 256 pages long — the equivalent of a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film . Smith said of the experience , " I wrote a horrible , amateurish draft ... which I think scared [ Nichols ] away from the project . " Smith kept Nichols 's suggested story setting : Because snow plays a crucial role , the film adaptation would take place in Minnesota , rather than in Ohio , where the book is set . After Nichols suggested that the story be set in the state , the Minnesota Film Board joined the project and remained with it throughout principal photography .
Following publication of A Simple Plan , Nichols eventually turned down the project during the script 's early draft stages . When Ben Stiller became involved , he and Smith spent nine months rewriting the script . Smith explained , " Ben was the one that showed me how to write a script . He worked with me and gave me the cue to visualize the movie and write down what I was picturing in my head . "
For the film adaptation , certain visual changes were made from the novel . Smith explained that one change involved the discovery of the crashed plane ; his script had the character Lou Chambers " throwing [ a ] snowball to uncover the plane ... In the book , they 're just walking and they find it . " Scott Rudin wanted to change the focus of the story to Hank and Jacob , and ordered Smith to shorten the screenplay to 120 pages . Smith explained , " I had to work to make Hank a more rational character , less evil . " The shortening of the script also resulted in the character of Sarah having a smaller role , and Jacob getting to live longer ( in the book , Jacob dies in a shootout at Lou 's house ) . After the role was secured by Billy Bob Thornton , Smith omitted the character 's overweight appearance from the novel . Smith described the film adaptation as being less violent than the book : " The book is much more violent than the movie , more graphic in its violence . It was [ Raimi ] ' s choice to be more restrained , to bring out the characters . "
= = = Filming = = =
= = = = Principal photography = = = =
Principal photography for A Simple Plan began on January 5 , 1998 , and concluded on March 13 , 1998 after 55 days . Filming was scheduled to begin in Delano , Minnesota , but due to climatic changes as the result of El Niño , the production was forced to temporarily relocate to northern Wisconsin to find the snow levels described in the script . The production began shooting in Ashland , Wisconsin , where most of the film 's exterior shots , and the road and woods near where the characters find the plane , were filmed . An actual plane , with one side cut open , was one of two planes used to depict the crashed aircraft . Patrizia Von Brandenstein was the film 's production designer , marking her second collaboration with Raimi , after The Quick and the Dead ( 1995 ) . Brandenstein found the weather conditions difficult during production , as she had to await good weather to complete the necessary exterior work . Describing the overall look of the film , she said , " We created a muted black @-@ and @-@ white color scheme to suggest a morality tale , the choices given between right and wrong . "
The production team returned to Minnesota , where it was plagued by a lack of snow . To solve this problem , the production put together an effects team whose sole responsibility was dealing with snow . This snow effects team created a combination of real snow and fake synthetic snow that was made from shaved ice . The home of Lou Chambers and his wife Nancy was filmed in an abandoned house in Delano , which cinematographer Alar Kivilo described as " a very difficult [ filming ] location with very low ceilings and no heating " . Brandenstein and the art department were tasked with designing the set inside the home .
The interior of the crashed plane , in which Hank discovers a dead pilot and the $ 4 @.@ 4 million in cash , was filmed on a soundstage . A second plane , designed to have frosted windows , was attached to a gimbal , about five feet off the ground . Kivilo explained , “ As [ Paxton ] crawls to the front of the plane , it tilts down . When he moves toward the back , it tilts in that direction . Since we were using an actual plane there was a limit to how much of the plane ’ s walls could be removed before it became structurally unsound . " Kivilo described the interior of the plane as " a very small , cramped shooting space . " To match the interior with footage shot in Wisconsin , the art department built a set with real trees and a painted backdrop . To depict Hank being attacked by a flock of crows inside the plane , puppets were used to attack Paxton as he appeared on screen , while two live crows were used to attack an animatronic replica of the actor . A separate soundstage was used to create two sets depicting the interiors of the Mitchell home , where Hank and his wife Sarah ( Fonda ) reside . The first set was the main floor an exterior entrance way , and the second was created for the upstairs bedrooms .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Upon reading the script , director of photography Alar Kivilo said that his first approach to making the film " was to make the look simple , allowing the characters to tell the story . Outwardly , the film is a thriller , but at the heart of it , this is a dark psychological drama of one man ’ s descent into hell . I knew the camera would have to take a back seat . ” Prior to his first meeting with Raimi , Kivilo 's inspiration for the look of the film came from the visual imagery in the 1967 film In Cold Blood and the work of photographer Robert Frank .
Kivilo contacted his agent to arrange a meeting with Raimi ; their first meeting occurred only three weeks prior to filming , during which Kivilo was also inspired by photographs taken during location scouting in Delano , Minnesota . He described the photographs as being " very stark , with white snow and black trees . They were very hard @-@ contrast , and reminded me of Japanese wood @-@ cut prints , with very simple and graphic images . " Raimi saw A Simple Plan as an opportunity to direct a character @-@ driven story that differed from his earlier works , which were highly stylized or dependent on intricate camera movements .
Kivilo originally wanted to shoot the film in widescreen , using the anamorphic format . " Sam and I had talked briefly in the beginning about going anamorphic , " he explained , " but because of the lack of prep time , a restricted budget and lack of lenses available , we decided against it . " Kivilo used Panavision Platinum cameras with the company 's Primo series of prime lenses to shoot the film . He used Eastman Kodak 5246 250ASA Vision film stock for all of the daylight scenes and tungsten @-@ balanced 5279 Vision 500T film stock for the night scenes .
Despite the intense weather conditions , Kivilo believed that the overcast skies created a " gray , somber , stark look . " He said , " This allowed me to eliminate the need to bring in heavy movie lights for the exteriors , complicating the logistics even more . Because the light would bounce off the snow , I would use big solids for negative fill to shape the light , adding just a bit of shiny card for the actors ’ eyes . I wanted to keep the snow very hot and retain a contrasty and stark look . " Kivilo also chose not to use any lighting for daytime exterior scenes . For exterior scenes shot during sunnier filming days , computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was used to re @-@ create the overcast skies . Kivilo added that " CGI also helped to even out inconsistencies caused by the amount of snow falling from shot to shot . "
Kivilo explained that he and Raimi intended to use the camera to enhance the story with simplicity : “ Our opening sequence starts with quiet , poetic landscapes . White snow . Black trees . A black crow flying off . Symbolically , these are very fitting images . The crow is a symbol of greed and becomes a strong reoccurring visual theme later in the film . The choice of black and white foreshadows the battle between the conscious and the unconscious , which is such an important element in our story . We then show evocative images of an abandoned farm , [ Hank and Jacob ] Mitchell ’ s family home . A red tractor is parked in falling snow . A torn curtain flapping in the wind . These are innocent shots , before their world falls apart . ” Kivilo noted that “ the film ends with some of the exact frames of the abandoned farm that we saw in the title sequence . Because of what the characters have gone through , a totally new value is assigned to those shots . They feel different , evoking new emotions and yet physically they haven ’ t changed from when we first saw them ! "
Regarding scenes that take place in Lou 's home , Kivilo said , " Because the performances were so intense , Sam wanted to shoot the scene with at least two cameras , and sometimes three . Lighting for three cameras is a significant compromise , but it was one I was willing to make to lessen the emotional load on the actors . " In filming a confrontation involving Hank , Jacob and Lou , Kivilo said , “ Most of the lighting came from shallow soft boxes mounted into the low ceilings . We used two cameras throughout . The scene was such an odd mixture of dealing with dark human moments and very detailed technical considerations . Very draining for everybody . ” In depicting the resulting shootout , Kivilo 's intent was to " keep things quite sketchy in the lighting and not be clear about exactly what was happening . " The camera department lit a China ball from the ceiling to depict a dimly lit kitchen light that would reveal Nancy holding a shotgun . Flash photography guns were used to depict the muzzle flashes during the shootouts . Kivilo said , " Those flash guns are great because they have a long burn time and you don 't run the danger of having the flash occur between exposures . The flashes were daylight @-@ balanced , but we put double CTO on them to give them a slightly warmer feel . This was something that we had determined through testing in preproduction . "
= = = Music = = =
A Simple Plan 's film score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman , who was drawn to the project after learning that Raimi would be directing the film ; the film marked his third collaboration with Raimi . The instruments included alto and bass flutes , re @-@ tuned pianos and banjos , zithers , and hand drums .
Regarding the tonal quality of the score , Elfman explained , " ... there are 2 thematic areas , one of them was a flute ensemble . It was a fun orchestra for me to work with because there was really no brass , no percussion . It was just strings and flutes , lots of flutes , 9 of them , mostly alto and bass . That was kind of a fun different thing , very , very simple , sparse ensemble led by alto and bass flutes . The other part of it [ were ] these specially tuned pianos that I prepared before I started and specially tuned banjos so I worked the music around the sounds of these micro @-@ tuned piano chords and special banjo samples that I did myself . I tried to make the heart of it . Starting with these two odd tonal groups , I started composing the score . " The soundtrack album , titled A Simple Plan : Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack , was released on January 26 , 1999 .
= = Release = =
A Simple Plan premiered at the 23rd Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 1998 . On December 11 , 1998 , the film opened in limited release at 31 theaters . Upon its limited release , A Simple Plan grossed $ 390 @,@ 563 in its first week of limited release , with an average of $ 12 @,@ 598 per theater . More theaters were added during the limited run , and on January 22 , 1999 , the film officially entered wide release by screening in 660 theaters across North America . The film ended its North American theatrical run on May 14 , 1999 , having grossed $ 16 @,@ 316 @,@ 273 , below its estimated production budget of $ 17 million .
= = = Criticial response = = =
A Simple Plan received critical acclaim from mainstream film critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 67 reviews , and gave the film a " Certified Fresh " score of 90 % , with an average score of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . The website 's consensus calls the film " A riveting crime thriller full of emotional tension . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , assigned the film a weighted average score of 82 out of 100 , based on 28 reviews from mainstream critics , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Reviewing the film during the Toronto International Film Festival , Glen Lovell of Variety , compared A Simple Plan to Joel and Ethan Coen 's earlier film Fargo ( 1996 ) : " Both [ films ] are slices of life about outlandish crimes and Average Joe felons in over their heads , and both blend Grand Guignol and beautiful but foreboding snowscapes ... The key differences are in emphasis and tone : Fargo is deadpan noir ; A Simple Plan ... is a more robust Midwestern Gothic that owes as much to Poe as Chandler . "
In an " early review " of the film prior to its limited release , Roger Ebert and his colleague , Gene Siskel , gave the film a " Two Thumbs Up " rating on their syndicated television program Siskel and Ebert and the Movies . In a later episode , Ebert ranked A Simple Plan at number four on his list of the " Best Films of 1998 " . Online film critic James Berardinelli praised Billy Bob Thornton 's performance as being " the most striking that A Simple Plan has to offer . " He also praised the other performers , writing " Paxton 's part is deceptively complex in the way he shows how paranoia , greed , and deception can erode the conscience of even the best @-@ intentioned of men . Brent Briscoe plays Lou as the most untrustworthy and avaricious of souls . And Bridget Fonda offers solid support as a woman who stands by her man – when she 's not taking control of his life , that is . "
Sam Raimi was repeatedly praised for his direction . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the film was " lean , elegant , and emotionally complex – a marvel of backwoods classicism " and that it was " proof that Raimi , after the splatterific Evil Dead series and the lushly operatic Darkman , has now grown into a filmmaker of ravishing maturity and skill . " Siskel , writing for the Chicago Tribune , said that the film was " an exceedingly well @-@ directed genre picture by [ Raimi ] ... [ who ] does an excellent job of presaging the lethal violence that follows . From his very first images we know that bodies are going to start to pile up . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times called the film a " quietly devastating thriller directed by [ Raimi ] ... who makes a flawless segue into mainstream storytelling . " Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote , " ... for Raimi , whose mastery of visual effects has driven all of his previous films , A Simple Plan marks a tremendously successful break from the past . He 's drawn lovely , complex performances from Paxton and Thornton and proven that he can work effectively – and movingly – in a minor emotional key . "
While reviews of the film were mostly positive , A Simple Plan was not without its detractors . Regarding the plot and characters , Richard Schickel of Time wrote , " There 's neither intricacy nor surprise in the narrative , and these dopes are tedious , witless company . " Schlomo Schwartzberg of Boxoffice wrote , " Instead of unfolding as a subtle , powerful delineation of quiet desperation warping and destroying people 's lives through greed , A Simple Plan clutters up the story with unnecessary acts of violence and murder , and mainly stays on the surface , offering little more than cheap jolts of melodrama . "
= = = Accolades = = =
A Simple Plan garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories with particular praise for its screenplay by Scott B. Smith and Billy Bob Thornton 's performance . At the 56th Golden Globe Awards , Thornton received a Best Supporting Actor nomination , but lost against Ed Harris , who received the award for his performance in The Truman Show . At the 71st Academy Awards , Thornton received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor , but lost against James Coburn , who won the award for his performance in Affliction . Smith received an Oscar nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay , but lost to Bill Condon , who won for Gods and Monsters . In addition to receiving various awards and nominations , A Simple Plan was named one of the " Top 10 Films of 1998 " by the National Board of Review .
= = = Home video = = =
In North America , A Simple Plan was released on VHS and DVD formats on June 22 , 1999 . These home video releases were undertaken by Paramount Home Entertainment .
= Joseph 's Tomb =
Joseph 's Tomb ( Hebrew : קבר יוסף , Qever Yosef , Arabic : قبر يوسف , Qabr Yūsuf ) is a funerary monument located at the eastern entrance to the valley that separates Mounts Gerizim and Ebal , 300 metres northwest of Jacob 's Well , on the outskirts of the West Bank city of Nablus , near Tell Balata , the site of Shakmu in the Late Bronze Age and later biblical Shechem . One biblical tradition identifies the general area of Shechem as the resting @-@ place of the biblical patriarch Joseph , and his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh .
Joseph 's tomb has been venerated throughout the ages by Jews , Samaritans , Christians and Muslims . Post @-@ biblical records regarding the location of Joseph 's Tomb at this site date from the beginning of the 4th @-@ century AD . The present structure , a small rectangular room with a cenotaph , dates from 1868 , and is devoid of any trace of ancient building materials . While some scholars , such as Kenneth Kitchen and James K. Hoffmeier still affirm the essential historicity of the biblical account of Joseph , many others , such as Donald B. Redford , argue that the story itself has ‘ no basis in fact ’ .
Modern scholarship has yet to determine whether or not the present cenotaph is to be identified with the ancient biblical gravesite . No Jewish or Christian sources prior to the 5th century mention the tomb , and the structure originally erected over it appears to have been built by the Samaritans , for whom it was probably a sacred site . There is no archaeological evidence establishing the tomb to Joseph and for this reason the site is regarded as a ' relic tomb ' , established by later religious figures to reinforce a faith .
At key points in its long history , Joseph 's Tomb has witnessed intense sectarian conflict . Samaritans and Christians disputing access and title to the site in the early Byzantine period often engaged in violent clashes . After Israel captured the West Bank in 1967 , Muslims were prohibited from worship at the shrine and it was gradually turned into a Jewish prayer room . Interreligious friction and conflict from competing Jewish and Muslim claims over the tomb became frequent . Falling under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) following the signing of the Oslo Accords , it remained under IDF guard with Muslims prohibited from praying there . At the beginning of the Al @-@ Aqsa Intifada in 2000 , just after being handed over to the PNA , it was looted and razed by a Palestinian mob . Following the reoccupation of Nablus during Israel 's Operation Defensive Shield in 2002 , Jewish groups returned there intermittently . Between 2009 and 2010 the structure was refurbished , with a new cupola installed , and visits by Jewish worshippers have resumed .
= = Early traditions = =
= = = Biblical source and early religious traditions = = =
The Torah provides four details regarding the traditions surrounding Joseph ’ s remains . The account in Genesis relates that , before his death , he had his brothers swear they would carry his bones out of Egypt to Canaan . He is then said to have been embalmed then placed in a coffin in Egypt . In Exodus , we are told that Moses fulfilled the pledge by taking Joseph 's bones with him when he left Egypt . In Joshua , Joseph ’ s bones are said to have been brought from Egypt by the Children of Israel and interred in Shechem .
The bones of Joseph , which the Children of Israel brought up out of Egypt , were buried in Shechem in a parcel of land Jacob bought from the sons of Hamor , father of Shechem , for a hundred pieces of silver ( qeśîṭâ ) .Joshua 24 : 32 .
The Bible does not identify a specific site in Shechem where his bones were laid to rest . The Genesis Rabba , a Jewish text written c . 400 – 450 CE , states that a burial site in Shechem is one of three for which the nations of the world cannot ridicule Israel and say " you have stolen them , " it having been purchased by Jacob . The rabbis also suggest that Joseph instructed his brothers to bury him in Shechem since it was from there he was taken and sold into slavery . Other Jewish sources have him buried either in Safed , or , according to an aggadic tradition , have him interred at Hebron according to his own wishes . The ambiguity is reflected in Islamic tradition which points to Nablus as being the authentic site , though some early Islamic geographers identified the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron as housing his tomb . The Qur 'an itself does not mention details of Joseph 's burial . Ali of Herat ( 1119 ) , Yaqut ( 1229 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1369 ) all conserve both the Nablus and Hebron traditions . Later Muslim chroniclers also mention a third site purporting to be the authentic tomb , near Beit Ijza . The Hebron tradition is also reflected in some medieval Christian sources , such as the account by Srewulf ( CE 1102 ) who says that ' the bones of Joseph were buried more humbly than the rest , as it were at the extremity of the castle.'
= = = Modern scholarship on the narrative of Joseph ’ s bones = = =
Though the traditional biblical date for the narrative of Joseph ’ s life and death places him in Egypt in the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty , roughly comparable to the Hyksos invasion of Egypt , contemporary scholarship no longer accepts such a remote dating . The figure of Joseph itself is often taken to be a ‘ personification of a tribe ’ , rather than an historic person .
According to the Bible , Joseph was embalmed and buried in a coffin in Egypt , after having his people swear to carry his bones away . Later midrash
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( I 'm in Love ) " was written in the key of C major at a tempo of 100 beats per minute , and is performed " freely " in the style of a mellow 1950s girl group song . Featuring " sultry " vocals by Egan , the pop song adheres to " the R & B motif " Menken demonstrates throughout the entire film , incorporating doo @-@ wop this time around . Featuring " cooing shooby @-@ doos and sha @-@ la @-@ las " by the Muses , who perform " gospel @-@ tinged " back up vocals and riffs on the track , Jeffrey Gantz of the Boston Phoenix compared Egan 's " soaring " vocals to those of girl group The Ronettes . Describing " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as " a traditional Disney [ heroine 's ] lament , " Vulture.com 's Lindsey Weber acknowledged its " unique Motown edge " , comparing the Muses ' vocals to those of girl group The Supremes . Musically , Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic described the teen pop @-@ influenced " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as " the closest the Herculean villa ever comes to approximating a Broadway show " . Combined , Egan and the Muses ' vocals span two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 . While acknowledging the uniqueness of Egan 's singing voice , one critic also observed that she lacks the vocal range of the actresses who voiced Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Meanwhile , Chelsea Fagan of Thought Catalog described Egan 's voice as both " sarcastic " and " smoky " .
Lyrically , the love song is about denial , specifically one 's reluctance to fall in love and succumb to romantic clichés ; Meg deciphers how cliché , insufficient and false love can feel . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " parodies " classic " love songs , and differs in style from love songs usually featured in Disney films by offering " a unique spin " . Rob Burch of The Hollywood News dubbed " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " an " anti @-@ love song " . Described as an " emotional barnstormer " , the song begins with Egan singing the lyrics " If there 's a prize for rotten judgment I guess I 've already won that " , which is followed by " Been there , done that " . Thought Catalog 's Chelsea Fagan believes that this verse " sums up in four lines everything that we ’ ve ever tried to convey while on our third drink out at the bar with the girls " , joking , " I believe this song would come shortly after dancing in a circle with all women , but just before the tearful texting of your ex " , while inspiring listeners to exclaim " You go , girl " .
The song expresses " the hesitancy savvy women everywhere feel when trying to stop themselves from falling head over heels " . Gantz described the Muses ' lyrics " Face it like a grown @-@ up / When ya gonna own up / That ya got got got it bad ? " as " admonishing " . Calling the song a " self @-@ aware ballad " , The Oxford Companion to the American Musical : Theatre , Film , and Television author Thomas S. Hischak observed that its lyrics are " filled with sly anachronisms " . Meanwhile , in his book The Disney Song Encyclopedia , Hischak referred to " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as a " contradictory love song ... in which Meg denies her true feelings yet admits that she is quite taken with the brawny and naive hero Hercules " , additionally observing the Muses ' " oohs " and " ahs . " According to D23 , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a love song " For those who don ’ t want to admit their hearts ’ desires , " as the protagonist refuses to admit her true feelings for her love interest until the very last lyric . Despite being a parody of love songs , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is nonetheless considered to be a love song itself .
= = Reception = =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has garnered positive reviews from both film and music critics , some of whom even identified it as the film 's best song . Aja Romano of The Daily Dot hailed the song as Hercules ' highlight that " satisfies us every time " . Writing for Indiewire , Greg Ehbar cited " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as his favorite , describing the song as one of the film 's " truly great tunes " . Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog called the song " a pop song made on Olympus . " Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic was especially kind towards the song , which he hailed as " the ultimate pantheon of Grecian achievement " . Tan continued , " the five Muses prov [ e ] that their pillow talk skills are right up there with the best of them " , concluding , " The track also works well as an alternative to modern pop 's teenage heartbreak music ... be sure to ditch Hilary Duff and play this instead " . Tracy Dye of Bustle hailed the song as " one of Disney 's most addictive pieces of ear @-@ candy , " appreciating the fact that " it veers from the typical love @-@ laced ballads we 're used to . " Rob Burch of The Hollywood News called " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " a " refreshing change of pace " .
Beamly ranked the song fifth on its list of " The Best Ever Disney Songs " , with author Sophie Hall dubbing Meg " The Celine Dion of the cartoon world " . BuzzFeed ranked " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " 14th in its " Definitive Ranking Of The 102 Best Animated Disney Songs " . Meanwhile , BuzzFeed also ranked the song Disney 's ninth greatest love song , while D23 ranked it 10th in a similar article . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is also considered to be one of Disney 's most underrated songs , with the New York Post including it on their list . Moviepilot included the song in a similar article , with author Jeremiah Paul describing it as a " hidden gem " which " should have been another classic " , while praising Egan 's performance .
= = Cover versions = =
To promote the film , American singer Belinda Carlisle recorded a pop rock version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " in 1997 , which was included on the film 's soundtrack in alongside Egan 's original . Produced by Gary Wallis and Toby Chapman , Carlisle 's rendition was released as a single in both France and Germany . American girl group The Cheetah Girls covered the song in 2005 ; their version was included on the Disney @-@ themed compilation album Disneymania 3 . Their cover was released as a single . An abridged version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " appears on stage in the jukebox musical Disney 's on the Record , performed by Andrew Samonsky , with Meredith Inglesby , Andy Karl , Tyler Maynard and Keewa Nurullah providing backup vocals .
= 1933 Texas tropical storm =
The 1933 Texas tropical storm produced record rainfall in the south @-@ central United States in July of the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the third storm of the season , developing on July 14 near the Lesser Antilles . While moving westward through the Caribbean Sea , the cyclone passed just south of Jamaica on July 16 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall on the island that caused flooding and road washouts . On July 18 , the storm struck Belize and later moved across the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially it was believed that the storm continued into Mexico and dissipated while another storm formed to its northeast , but it was discovered in 2012 that the storm followed one continuous track .
On July 23 , the storm struck southeastern Texas at its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . It moved inland and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Turning eastward , the storm dropped torrential rainfall in eastern Texas and western Louisiana , peaking at 21 @.@ 3 in ( 540 mm ) in Logansport , Louisiana . Several stations reported record rainfall , including Shreveport , Louisiana where its 24 ‑ hour amount remained the highest daily total as of 2008 . High rains left about $ 1 @.@ 5 million in crop damage between two Texas counties . The rains caused rivers to exceed their banks , forcing evacuations and road closures .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 14 , a tropical depression developed near Saint Kitts . Initially it moved west @-@ northwestward before turning to the west , and on July 15 it passed south of Hispaniola . That day , ships in the region confirmed the presence of a closed circulation . The depression was assessed to have intensified into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 16 , before passing just south of Jamaica later that day . After affecting the island , the storm turned to the west @-@ southwest , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) early on July 18 . Later that day , a ship reported a pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) , which was adjusted to 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) to compensate a bias in the ship 's barometer . Around 1500 UTC on July 18 , the storm made landfall near Belize City , Belize at its peak intensity .
After moving ashore , the storm quickly weakened into a tropical depression while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula . Late on July 19 , it emerged into the Bay of Campeche . It turned to the northwest due to a ridge moving eastward , and the system re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on July 21 . At around 0800 UTC on July 23 , the storm moved ashore on Matagorda Bay in southeastern Texas with winds of about 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm again weakened to a tropical depression shortly after landfall , before turning to the north and north @-@ northeast . On July 24 , the cyclone began interacting with a cold front , and became extratropical . It tracked slowly eastward across eastern Texas and northern Louisiana due to a high pressure area to the north . It later moved along the Mississippi River , and early on July 27 , the front absorbed the depression along the border of Arkansas and Mississippi .
= = Impact = =
While passing south of Jamaica , the storm produced the heavy rainfall in the month of July in at least 40 years , which overflowed rivers . Both Kingston and Saint Andrew Parish reported 9 in ( 230 mm ) , causing flooding and landslides . The storm washed out roads , most of them unpaved , and one bridge was wrecked ; this disrupted the regional transportation . The storm also cut telegraph lines between Kingston and the eastern portion of the island . It later moved across Belize and the Yucatán Peninsula , although no stations reported gale force winds or low pressures .
Despite being a weak tropical cyclone , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in eastern Texas and northwestern Louisiana . Some areas received 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) in as little as six hours , and about 50 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) reported 10 @.@ 4 in ( 260 mm ) . The highest rainfall total was 21 @.@ 3 in ( 540 mm ) in Logansport , Louisiana . As of 2009 , this was the seventh highest total on record in the state , although three of the amounts were from the same storm . Logansport also reported a 24 ‑ hour total of 18 in ( 460 mm ) , which set the record for the highest daily rainfall total there in July . A secondary rainfall maxima of 19 @.@ 4 in ( 490 mm ) was observed in Shreveport , of which 12 @.@ 4 in ( 310 mm ) of rain fell in 24 hours ; this was the highest daily total on record for the site , and remains the highest as of 2008 . Alexandria also broke its 24 ‑ hour rainfall record in July with a total of 9 @.@ 75 in ( 248 mm ) on July 25 . Heavy rains spread into southern Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi .
High rains in eastern Texas , totaling over 10 in ( 250 mm ) , flooded roads in Shelby and Panola counties ; damage in the two counties collectively totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Storm @-@ related flooding washed out a bridge in Henderson and portions of the Santa Fe Railway line between Carthage and Longview . Five people required rescue after being trapped in a fast @-@ moving river . The rains in the region were considered the heaviest in 17 years , and leaving severe damage to corn , cotton , and watermelon crops . Similarly , the floods damaged cotton and other crops in northern Louisiana , totaling several million dollars in losses . The rains caused many streams to exceed their banks , including one creek near Converse that flooded roads and railways . The floods forced families to evacuate in low @-@ lying areas of northern Louisiana . The rainfall in Shreveport caused the worst floods related to a tropical cyclone on record . While the storm was dropping heavy rainfall , it produced thunderstorms and gusty winds along the Texas and Louisiana coastlines . A severe thunderstorm related to the storm damaged roofs and windows in Alexandria , Louisiana .
= 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony =
The opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games took place on the evening of Friday 27 July in the Olympic Stadium , London . As mandated by the Olympic Charter , the proceedings combined the formal ceremonial opening of this international sporting event ( including welcoming speeches , hoisting of the flags and the parade of athletes ) with an artistic spectacle to showcase the host nation 's culture . The 2012 Games were formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II . The spectacle was entitled Isles of Wonder and directed by Academy Award @-@ winning British film director Danny Boyle .
Prior to London 2012 there had been considerable apprehension about Britain 's ability to stage an opening ceremony that could reach the standard set at the Beijing Summer Games of 2008 . The 2008 ceremony had been noted for its scale , extravagance and expense , and hailed as the " greatest ever " . It had cost £ 65m , whereas London spent an estimated £ 27m ( out of £ 80m budgeted for its four ceremonies ) , which was nevertheless about twice the original budget . However , the ceremony was immediately seen as a tremendous success , widely praised as a " masterpiece " and " a love letter to Britain " .
The ceremony began at 21 : 00 BST and lasted almost four hours . It was watched by an estimated worldwide television audience of 900 million , becoming the most @-@ viewed Olympic opening ceremony in both the UK and US . The content had largely been kept secret before the performance , despite involving thousands of volunteers and two public rehearsals . The principal sections of the artistic display represented Britain 's Industrial Revolution , National Health Service , literary heritage , popular music and culture , and were noted for their vibrant storytelling and use of music . Two shorter sections drew particular comment , involving a filmed cameo appearance of the Queen , and a live performance by the London Symphony Orchestra joined by comedian Rowan Atkinson . These were widely ascribed to Britain 's sense of humour . The ceremony featured children and young people in most of its segments , reflecting the ' inspire a generation ' aspiration of London 's original bid for the Games .
The BBC released footage of the entire opening ceremony on 29 October 2012 , edited by Danny Boyle and with background extras , along with more than seven hours of sporting highlights and the complete closing ceremony .
= = Preparations = =
The London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) approached Danny Boyle to be the director of the ceremony in June 2010 , and he immediately accepted . Boyle explained that there had been four things that made him take the job : he was a big Olympics fan , he lived a mile from the Stadium and so felt invested in the area , his late father 's birthday was on the ceremony 's date , and he felt his ' Oscar clout ' would enable him to push through what he wanted to do . He said it " felt weirdly more like a ... civic or national responsibility " to take the job .
Boyle acknowledged that the extravagance of the 2008 opening ceremony was an impossible act to follow — " you can 't get bigger than Beijing " — and that this realisation had in fact liberated his team creatively . He said " .. obviously I 'm not going to try and build on Beijing , because how could you ? We can 't , and you wouldn 't want to , so we 're going back to the beginning . We 're going to try and give the impression that we 're rethinking and restarting , because they 've ( opening ceremonies ) escalated since Los Angeles in 1984 . They 've tried to top themselves each time and you can 't do that after Beijing . " Beijing 's budget had been £ 65m , whereas London 's final budget was £ 27m , which was twice the original provision . The London stadium had the same number of seats as Beijing 's , but was half the size ; this intimacy of scale meant that Boyle felt he could achieve something personal and connecting .
The different sections of the ceremony were designed to reflect aspects of British history and culture , with the title Isles of Wonder partly inspired by Shakespeare 's play The Tempest ( particularly Caliban 's ' Be not afeard ' speech ) , and partly by the G. K. Chesterton aphorism : " The world shall perish not for lack of wonders , but for lack of wonder . "
In July 2010 Boyle started brainstorming ideas with designer Mark Tildesley , writer Frank Cottrell Boyce and costume designer Suttirat Anne Larlarb . They considered " what was essentially British " , with the non @-@ British Larlarb able to offer a view of what the world thought Britain meant . Cottrell Boyce had given Boyle a copy of Pandaemonium , ( named after the capital of Hell in Paradise Lost ) by Humphrey Jennings , which collated contemporary reports from the industrial revolution . It had become traditional during the opening ceremony to ' produce ' the Olympic rings in a spectacular manner . Cottrell Boyce commented " Danny had a very clear idea that in the first 15 minutes you had to have a great , startling image that could go around the world ; it had to climax with something that made people go ' Oh my God ! ' " . Boyle decided that " the journey from the pastoral to the industrial , ending with the forging of the Olympic rings " would be that image .
The ten distinct chapters on which the team started work were gradually compressed into three principal movements : the violent transition from ' Green and Pleasant Land ' to the ' Pandemonium ' of industrial revolution , a salute to the NHS and children 's literature , and a celebration of pop culture , technology and the digital revolution .
When Boyle returned to work on the ceremony in the spring of 2011 he asked Rick Smith of Underworld , with whom he had worked on several film projects as well as his theatrical production of Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , to be the musical director . At the same time the team moved to the Three Mills studio complex in east London , where a 4x4 metre scale model of the stadium was built . For security reasons , a single CGI @-@ assisted version of the ceremony was kept on editor Sascha Dhillon 's laptop ; anyone needing it had to come to the studio .
The cast included professional performers and 7 @,@ 500 volunteers . Boyle considered the volunteers to be " the most valuable commodity of all " . In November 2011 they auditioned at Three Mills , and rehearsals began in earnest in spring 2012 at an open @-@ air site at Dagenham ( the abandoned Ford plant ) , often in foul weather . Although key contributors had to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements and some elements were codenamed , Boyle placed immense trust in the volunteers by asking them simply to " save the surprise " and not leak any information . Further volunteers were recruited to help with security and marshalling , and to support the technical crew . Three weeks before the ceremony , Mark Rylance , who was to have taken a leading part , pulled out after a family bereavement and was replaced by Kenneth Branagh .
The Olympic Bell , the largest harmonically tuned bell in the world , weighing 23 tonnes , had been cast in brass under the direction of Mears & Stainbank by Royal Eijsbouts of the Netherlands , and hung in the Stadium . It was inscribed with a line from Caliban 's speech in The Tempest : " Be not afeard , the isle is full of noises " .
Boyle gave significant emphasis to the London 2012 theme ' inspire a generation ' and devised a programme relying heavily on children and young people , and built around themes that would relate to the young . 25 schools in the six original East London host boroughs were used to recruit child volunteers for the performance , and 170 sixth formers ( 16 – 18 @-@ year @-@ olds ) , between them speaking more than 50 languages , were recruited from their colleges .
On 12 June 2012 at a press conference , Boyle had promised a huge set of rural Britain , which was to include a village cricket team , farm animals , a model of Glastonbury Tor , as well as a maypole and a rain @-@ producing cloud . His intention was to represent the rural and urban landscape of Britain . The design was to include a mosh pit at each end of the set , one with people celebrating a rock festival and the other the Last Night of the Proms . Boyle promised a ceremony with which everyone would feel involved ; he said , " I hope it will reveal how peculiar and contrary we are – and how there 's also , I hope , a warmth about us " . Some of the set was designed with real grass turf and soil . The use of animals ( 40 sheep , 12 horses , 3 cows , 2 goats , 10 chickens , 10 ducks , 9 geese and 3 sheep dogs , looked after by 34 animal handlers ) drew some criticism from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) . Boyle , who was being advised by the RSPCA , assured PETA that the animals would be well cared for . After the press conference , much commentary in the UK Press was negative and attracted " hundreds of comments online completely supporting ... the view that the opening ceremony would be a disaster . "
The overwhelming majority of the music used was British . The team worked next door to the office of the musical director for the closing ceremony , David Arnold , and so hearing each other 's music there was a scramble to claim a particular song first . A.R. Rahman , who worked with Boyle on Slumdog Millionaire and 127 Hours , composed a Punjabi song ' Nimma Nimma ' to showcase Indian influence in the UK , according to Boyle 's wishes . More Indian music was also scheduled for inclusion in the medley . Paul McCartney was to be the ceremony 's closing act .
Sebastian Coe was instrumental in asking the Queen to take part in the film sequence . Danny Boyle first pitched the idea to Coe , who loved it . Coe asked Princess Anne , a British member of the IOC and of LOCOG , what she thought , and she told Coe to ask the Queen . So he took it to his friend the Queen 's Deputy Private Secretary . Boyle had two suggestions to play the Queen : either a lookalike , or a world @-@ class actress such as Helen Mirren , filmed in a house that could double as Buckingham Palace . He was therefore surprised to hear that the Queen would be happy to play herself , and wanted a speaking part . Filming took place in late March 2012 , and Happy and Glorious , as well as the opening film sequence Journey along the Thames , was produced by the BBC .
Changes were still being made to the programme in the final days before the ceremony : a BMX bike section was dropped due to time constraints , and the ' Pandemonium ' and ' Thanks .. Tim ' sections were edited down . In 2016 Boyle recounted how he had come under pressure from junior minister Jeremy Hunt to cut back the NHS section , which he had saved only by threatening to resign and take the volunteers with him .
Two full dress and technical rehearsals took place in the Olympic stadium , on 23 and 25 July , in front of an audience of 60 @,@ 000 comprising volunteers , cast members ' families , competition winners , and others connected to the Games . Boyle asked them not to ' spoil the surprise ' ( # savethesurprise ) for the billions who would watch on the Friday night .
= = Officials and guests = =
Seated in the Royal Box were the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh , the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall and other members of the British Royal Family . They were accompanied by Rowan Williams , Archbishop of Canterbury ; David Cameron , the Prime Minister , with his wife Samantha ; former Prime Ministers John Major , Tony Blair , and Gordon Brown ; and London Mayor Boris Johnson . Officials of the Olympic movement included Jacques Rogge , President of the IOC , and Sebastian Coe , Chairman of LOCOG .
International guests included Queen Margrethe II of Denmark , Queen Sofia of Spain , Princess Sirindhorn of Thailand , First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama , Prime Minister of Russia Dmitry Medvedev , President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff , Prince Willem @-@ Alexander and Princess Máxima of the Netherlands , Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson @-@ Miller , Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard , President of Singapore Tony Tan , Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Erdogan , Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina , the President of the Federal Republic of Germany Joachim Gauck , the President of Italy Giorgio Napolitano , and Irish Taoiseach Enda Kenny .
= = Proceedings = =
= = = Prologue = = =
At exactly 20 : 12 ( 8 : 12 pm ) the Red Arrows performed a flypast over the Olympic Stadium and then over the concert in Hyde Park . This concert featured artists selected to represent the four nations of the United Kingdom : Duran Duran , Stereophonics , Snow Patrol and Paolo Nutini .
The prologue celebrated Britain 's maritime heritage , and was accompanied by extracts from the BBC Radio Shipping Forecast and maritime images on the big screens . The audience held up blue sheeting to simulate the sight and sound of the ocean . Frank Turner performed three songs ( " Sailor 's Boots " , " Wessex Boy " and " I Still Believe " ) on the model of Glastonbury Tor , joined by Emily Barker , Ben Marwood and Jim Lockey , as well as his regular backing band the Sleeping Souls . LSO On Track ( an orchestra of 80 young musicians from ten East London boroughs together with 20 LSO members ) then performed Edward Elgar 's " Nimrod " from the Enigma Variations .
= = = Countdown ( 21 : 00 – 21 : 04 BST ) = = =
The ceremony began at 9pm after a one @-@ minute ' 60 to 1 ' countdown film made up of shots of numbers , such as those on house doors , street nameplates , London buses and market labels .
A two @-@ minute film Journey along the Thames , directed by Boyle and produced by the BBC , opened the ceremony . To the sound of " Surf Solar " by Fuck Buttons , it followed the River Thames from its source to the heart of London , juxtaposing images of contemporary British life with pastoral shots and flashes of scenes from the stadium . The characters Ratty , Mole and Toad from The Wind in the Willows were briefly seen , as was a ' Monty Python hand ' pointing towards London on umbrellas , and an InterCity 125 train passing the Olympic rings as crop circles in a field . At Battersea Power Station a Pink Floyd pig was flying between the towers ; the clock sound from another Pink Floyd song " Time " was heard passing Big Ben . The soundtrack included clips from the theme tune of The South Bank Show , " London Calling " by The Clash , and the Sex Pistols ' " God Save the Queen " as the film followed the route of the band 's infamous cruise down the River Thames during the Silver Jubilee . After lifting to an aerial view of East London mirroring the title sequence of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , to the sound of the drum beats from the closing theme , the film flashed down through the Thames Barrier , into Bow Creek , and then below surface through a London Underground train and station , historic footage of Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's Thames Tunnel , and through the Rotherhithe Tunnel . It then switched to a sequence filmed outside the stadium shortly before the ceremony , superimposed with posters from all the previous Summer Olympics except 1900 Paris , 1936 Berlin , 1984 Los Angeles , and 1996 Atlanta , to a recording of " Map Of The Problematique " by Muse . This ended with a live shot of three cast members holding posters for the 2012 competition .
There was then a 10 @-@ second countdown in the stadium , with children holding clusters of balloons that burst simultaneously with the audience shouting out the numbers .
Bradley Wiggins , who had won the Tour de France five days earlier , opened the ceremony by ringing the Olympic Bell that hung at one end of the stadium . Four upper @-@ atmosphere balloons were released , each expected to carry a set of Olympic rings and a camera up to the mid @-@ stratosphere .
= = = Green and Pleasant Land ( 21 : 04 – 21 : 09 ) = = =
At the beginning the stadium contained a rural scene including the model of Glastonbury Tor , a model village and a water wheel , replete with live animals ( removed shortly before the ceremony began ) , and actors portraying working villagers , football and cricket players . This represented the ancient and mythical past . Youth choirs began a cappella performances of the informal anthems of the four nations of the UK : " Jerusalem " ( for England , sung by a live choir in the stadium and beginning with a solo from 11 @-@ year @-@ old Humphrey Keeper ) , " Danny Boy " ( from the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland ) , " Flower of Scotland " ( from Edinburgh Castle in Scotland ) , and " Bread of Heaven " ( from Rhossili Beach in Wales – sung in English ) . These were inter @-@ cut with footage of notable Rugby Union Home Nations ' tries and England 's winning drop goal from the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final and live shots from the stadium . During the singing the cast mimed various rural activities ; this section of the performance was billed as " a reminder and a promise of a once and future better life " .
As the last choir performance concluded , vintage London General Omnibus Company stagecoaches entered , carrying businessmen and early industrialists in Victorian dress and top hats , led by Kenneth Branagh as Brunel . The 50 men stepped down from the carriages and surveyed the land approvingly . After walking onto the Glastonbury Tor , Brunel delivered Caliban 's " Be not afeard " speech , reflecting Boyle 's introduction to the ceremony in the programme and signifying an aspiration of new industry or a new era in Britain . This anticipated the next section of the ceremony .
= = = Pandemonium ( 21 : 09 – 21 : 25 ) = = =
This section encapsulated British economic and social development from rural economy through Industrial Revolution to the 1960s .
Proceedings were suddenly interrupted by a loud shout , recorded by volunteers during the rehearsals , followed by drumming ( the pre @-@ recorded drumming amplified by 965 cast members drumming on inverted household buckets and bins ) and Underworld 's " And I Will Kiss " , led by Evelyn Glennie . The three @-@ tonne oak tree on top of the Glastonbury Tor lifted , and industrial workers emerged from both the Tor 's brightly lit interior and the entrances to the stadium , to swell the cast to a total of 2 @,@ 500 volunteers . So began what Boyle had called the " biggest scene change in theatre history " and something he had been advised against attempting . As the cast rolled away the grass and other rural props , seven smoking chimney stacks with accompanying steeplejacks rose from the ground , along with other industrial machinery : five beam engines , six looms , a crucible and a water wheel ( one of the few items left from the rural scene ) . Boyle said that this section celebrated the " tremendous potential " afforded by the advancements of the Victorian era . It also included a minute 's silence in remembrance of the loss of life of both World Wars , featuring British ' Tommies ' and shots of poppies , during which the names of the Accrington Pals were shown on the stadium screens . Unprompted , members of the audience stood in respect during this segment .
Volunteers paraded around the stadium representing some of the groups that had changed the face of Britain : the woman 's suffrage movement , the Jarrow Crusade , the first Caribbean immigrants arriving in 1948 on board the Empire Windrush , a 1970s DJ float , the Nostalgia Steel Band , and The Beatles as they appeared on the cover of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Also included were real @-@ life Chelsea Pensioners , the Grimethorpe Colliery Band , and a group of Pearly Kings and Queens .
Workers began casting an iron ring . As the noise level and tension built , driven by the relentless rhythm of the music and the drumming , participants mimed repetitive mechanical movements associated with industrial processes such as weaving . Four glowing orange rings gradually began to be carried high above the stadium toward its centre on overhead wires , and then the ring seemingly being cast and forged in the arena began to lift . The five rings converged , still glowing and accompanied by steam and firework effects to give the impression that they were of hot metal . When the five rings formed the Olympic symbol above the stadium , they ignited and rained fire in silver and gold . The image of the Olympic rings in flame became the iconic image of the ceremony , reproduced in newspapers and web stories around the world .
= = = Happy and Glorious ( 21 : 25 – 21 : 35 ) = = =
A short film directed by Boyle and produced by the BBC , called Happy and Glorious ( after a line in the national anthem ) , featured the character James Bond , played by the current Bond actor Daniel Craig , entering the front gate of Buckingham Palace in a London black cab . His entrance ( accompanied by an arrangement of Handel 's ' The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba ' ) is noticed by Brazilian children ( a nod to Rio de Janeiro , the next summer Games host city ) in the throne room . Bond escorted Queen Elizabeth II ( who played herself , acknowledging Bond with the words , " Good evening , Mr Bond " ) out of the building and into a waiting AgustaWestland AW139 helicopter . The helicopter flew across London , above the cheers of a crowd on The Mall , past Nelson 's Column , doubling back to the Palace of Westminster with an animated Winston Churchill statue in Parliament Square , and then along the Thames past the London Eye , St Paul 's Cathedral , the financial district City of London ( with 30 St Mary Axe in the background ) , and then passed through Tower Bridge , accompanied by the Dambusters March . The film finished with Bond and the Queen apparently jumping from a helicopter live above the stadium accompanied by the James Bond Theme . The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh , along with Rogge , were then introduced to the audience . The Queen was wearing the same dress as in the film , as if she had just arrived with James Bond .
For the scenes with the helicopter , the Queen was doubled by actress Julia McKenzie , and for the parachute jump by BASE jumper and stuntman Gary Connery wearing a dress , hat , jewellery and with a handbag . Bond was played by Mark Sutton . The helicopter had flown to the stadium from Stapleford Aerodrome in Essex , piloted by Marc Wolff .
The Union Flag was then raised by members of Her Majesty 's Armed Forces , while the first and third verses of the national anthem were performed a cappella by the Kaos Signing Choir for Deaf and Hearing Children .
= = = Second to the right , and straight on till morning ( 21 : 35 – 21 : 47 ) = = =
The first part of this sequence celebrated the National Health Service ( " the institution which more than any other unites our nation " , according to the programme ) , which had been founded in the year of the previous London Games in 1948 . Music was by Mike Oldfield . 600 dancers , all of whom were NHS staff , along with 1 @,@ 200 volunteers recruited from British hospitals , entered along with children on 320 hospital beds , some of which functioned as trampolines . They started a short jive routine . Watching from the tor were specially invited hospital staff and nine child patients from Great Ormond Street Hospital . The blankets on the beds illuminated , then the beds were arranged to depict a child 's face with a smile and a tear ( Great Ormond Street Hospital Children 's Charity logo ) and the acronym ' GOSH ' , then changed into the initials ' NHS ' , turning into the shape of a crescent moon as the children were hushed to sleep and read a book by a nurse .
The sequence then moved on to celebrate British children 's literature . J. K. Rowling began by reading from J. M. Barrie 's Peter Pan ( whose copyright was given to Great Ormond Street Hospital ) . The Child Catcher appeared amongst the children , followed by large puppet representations of some villains from children 's literature : the Queen of Hearts , Captain Hook , Cruella de Vil and Lord Voldemort . Minutes later , 32 women playing Mary Poppins descended on flying umbrellas , as the villains deflated and the actors resumed dancing . The music for this sequence included partially rearranged sections from Tubular Bells ( with a giant set of tubular bells at the rear of the stage ) , Tubular Bells III and , after the villains had been driven away by the Mary Poppins characters , In Dulci Jubilo . During this performance the children in pyjamas jumped up and down on their brightly lit beds , creating a memorable image amid the darkness of the stadium .
The sequence concluded with a pale , gigantic baby 's head and a rippling sheet as its body , in the centre of the arena , celebrating the Scottish pioneers of obstetric ultrasound imaging .
= = = Interlude ( 21 : 47 – 21 : 52 ) = = =
Simon Rattle was then introduced to conduct the London Symphony Orchestra in a performance of Vangelis 's " Chariots of Fire " , as a tribute to the British film industry . Rowan Atkinson appeared , as a Mr. Bean @-@ like character , ( but not actually Bean , according to both Atkinson and Danny Boyle ) comically playing a repeated note on a synthesizer . He then lapsed into a filmed dream sequence in which he joined the runners from the film Chariots of Fire , beating them in their iconic run along West Sands at St Andrews by riding in a car , rejoining the race and tripping the front runner .
= = = Frankie and June say ... thanks Tim ( 21 : 52 – 22 : 09 ) = = =
This sequence celebrated British popular music and culture , paying homage to each decade since the 1960s . To the accompaniment of the BBC newsreel theme ' Girls in Grey ' and the theme song from The Archers , a young mother and son arrive in a Mini Cooper at a full @-@ size replica of a modern British house . The 1987 " don 't worry about a hurricane " weather forecast by Michael Fish was shown on the big screens as rain suddenly poured on the house , followed by " Push the Button " , by Sugababes . In the centre of the arena the sides of another house , three times larger , were used as screens to show clips from various British TV programmes , music videos and films , including A Matter of Life and Death ( June is named for its protagonist ) , as well as Gregory 's Girl , Kes , The Snowman , The Wicker Man , Four Weddings and a Funeral , Spanish TV show Cuéntame cómo pasó , and Boyle 's own Trainspotting . A large group of dancers , centred around Frankie and June ( 19 @-@ year @-@ old Henrique Costa and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Jasmine Breinburg ) on a night out , performed to an assortment of British popular songs arranged broadly chronologically , beginning with " Going Underground " by The Jam , suggesting their ride on the London Underground . During this track images of the Underground were projected onto the house and former London Mayor Ken Livingstone was briefly seen . Throughout the sequence cast members were seen texting each other or placing social networking status updates on the Internet . Frankie and June first notice each other as a snippet from " Wonderful Tonight " by Eric Clapton plays , but when Frankie saw that June had dropped her phone on the Tube , he set off to return it ( communicating using last number redial to her sister 's phone ) .
An extended dance sequence followed , with songs including " My Generation " by The Who , " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " by the Rolling Stones , " My Boy Lollipop " sung by Millie Small , " All Day and All of the Night " by the Kinks , " She Loves You " by the Beatles ( with footage of the band performing the song ) , " Trampled Under Foot " by Led Zeppelin , " Starman " by David Bowie , " Bohemian Rhapsody " by Queen ( during which the sound of the TARDIS from Doctor Who could be heard ) , " Pretty Vacant " by the Sex Pistols ( during which dancers on power jumpers wearing large heads with Mohawk hairstyles performed a pogo dance , and the lyrics to the song were spelled out in LED lights around the stadium ) , " Blue Monday " by New Order , " Relax " by Frankie Goes to Hollywood ( during which Frankie , asked by June for his name , replied by revealing one of the band 's " Frankie say ... " T @-@ shirts ) , " Back to Life ( However Do You Want Me ) " by Soul II Soul , " Step On " by Happy Mondays , " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " by Eurythmics , " Firestarter " by The Prodigy , and " Born Slippy .NUXX " by Underworld , ending with the cast singing " I 'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " as Frankie and June walked towards each other . A sequence from the film Four Weddings and a Funeral was projected behind them ; when they kissed , a montage of memorable kisses from film and real life was shown ( including the lesbian kiss from Brookside , which in some countries , including Saudi Arabia , then became the first lesbian kiss ever shown on pre @-@ watershed television ) . , while Song 2 by Blur was played . A live performance of " Bonkers " by Dizzee Rascal followed , along with a further sequence in which all the cast ( and Britain 's Got Talent fame dancing duo Signature ) attend a party at June 's house whilst Amy Winehouse 's " Valerie " , Muse 's " Uprising " , and Tinie Tempah 's " Pass Out " played .
At the close the larger house was raised to reveal Tim Berners @-@ Lee working at a NeXT Computer , like the one on which he invented the World Wide Web . He tweeted ' This is for everyone ' , instantly spelled out in LED lights around the stadium . The programme explained " Music connects us with each other and with the most important moments in our lives . One of the things that makes those connections possible is the World Wide Web " . Boyle wanted to honour Berners @-@ Lee for making the World Wide Web free and available to everyone ( hence the tweet ) , rather than making a commercial profit from it .
= = = Abide with Me ( 22 : 09 – 22 : 20 ) = = =
A filmed sequence showed extracts from the torch relay around the UK , to the music " I Heard Wonders " by David Holmes . This then cut live to show David Beckham driving a dramatically illuminated motor boat down the River Thames and under Tower Bridge , to fireworks and the sound of London air raid sirens , while footballer Jade Bailey held on to the torch in the boat . This section had been rehearsed on 24 July 2012 when the close @-@ up shots were pre @-@ recorded , and was directed by Stephen Daldry .
There was then a tribute to " .. friends and family of those in the stadium who cannot be here tonight " , including the victims of the ' 7 / 7 ' 2005 London bombings ( on the day after London had been awarded the Games ) . Photos of people who had died were displayed on screens as a memorial , accompanied by an excerpt from Brian Eno 's ambient work " An Ending ( Ascent ) " .
The hymn " Abide with Me " was then sung by Emeli Sandé while a group of dancers choreographed by and including Akram Khan performed a contemporary dance on the theme of mortality .
= = = Welcome ( 22 : 20 – 00 : 00 ) = = =
The Parade of Nations of athletes ( drawn from the 10 @,@ 490 competing ) and officials from 204 nations ( and also the " Independent Olympic Athletes " ) was led , according to custom , by the Greek team , followed by other competing countries in alphabetical order , and finally the host nation Great Britain . Each of the 205 teams entered the stadium led by their flagbearer , accompanied by a child volunteer carrying a copper petal ( later revealed to be part of the cauldron ) and a young woman carrying a sign with the country 's name in English ( and wearing a dress made from fabric printed with photos of people who had applied to be Olympic volunteers ) .
The parade was accompanied by mainly British popular songs , including " Galvanize " by Chemical Brothers , " West End Girls " by Pet Shop Boys , " The Hindu Times " by Oasis , " Rolling in the Deep " by Adele , " Stayin ' Alive " by the Bee Gees and both " Where the Streets Have No Name " and " Beautiful Day " by Irish band U2 , with Great Britain entering to David Bowie 's song " " Heroes " " . This soundtrack was assembled by DJ and producer High Contrast .
Music with a fast rhythm of 120 bpm was used in an attempt to keep the teams walking quickly around the stadium , and this was reinforced by the drummers in the stadium ; nevertheless the parade part of the programme took 1 hour 40 minutes to complete , compared to the 1 hour 29 minutes estimated in the official media guide . Once all of the athletes were inside the stadium , 7 billion small pieces of paper were dropped from a Westland helicopter , each piece representing one person on Earth .
Each nation 's flag was planted on the Glastonbury Tor .
= = = Bike a.m. ( 00 : 00 – 00 : 07 BST 28 July ) = = =
Once the athletes had gathered in the centre of the stadium , the Arctic Monkeys performed " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " and The Beatles ' " Come Together " , the latter whilst 75 cyclists circled the stadium with wings lit by LEDs representing Doves of Peace . Doves were traditionally released at Olympic opening ceremonies , although real birds have not been used since 1992 . A single dove cyclist , his beak painted yellow in honour of Bradley Wiggins , appeared to fly out of the stadium .
= = = Let the Games Begin ( 00 : 07 – 00 : 24 ) = = =
The formal part of the ceremony was introduced by Sebastian Coe , speaking from the Glastonbury Tor surrounded by flags of the participating nations , who welcomed the watching world to London . He expressed pride in being British and part of the Olympic movement , and said that the Olympics " brings together the people of the world ... to celebrate what is best about mankind " . He continued to speak of the " truth and drama " of sport , and then thanked Britain for " making all this possible " . Rogge responded by thanking London , stating that it was the third time that London had held the Games , the first time in 1908 at short notice when Rome was unable to do so ( after a volcanic eruption ) , and secondly in 1948 three years after the end of World War II . Rogge thanked the thousands of volunteers , to huge cheers . He announced that for the first time in Olympic history , every team had female participants . Rogge acknowledged the important role that the UK had played as " the birthplace of modern sport " , codifying the " fair play " ethos of sport , and in building sport into the school curriculum . He enjoined the athletes to play fairly and be drug @-@ free , according to the values of Baron de Courbertin , reminding them that they were role models who would " inspire a generation " . After expressing these sentiments again briefly in French , he invited the Queen to open the Games .
The Queen declared the competition officially open , immediately followed by a trumpet fanfare based on a theme from Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield and then a fireworks display . The 2012 ceremony was the second time the Queen had opened an Olympic Games , the first being the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal in her capacity as Queen of Canada .
The Olympic Flag was carried by eight people chosen from around the world as symbols of the Olympic values : Ban Ki @-@ moon ( as UN general secretary ) , Sally Becker ( for courage ) , Doreen Lawrence ( chosen for her " tireless thirst for justice " ) , Haile Gebrselassie ( for his " fight against poverty " ) , Leymah Gbowee ( as " a great peacemaker " ) , Shami Chakrabarti ( for " her integrity " ) , Daniel Barenboim ( for bringing " harmony in place of discord " ) , and Marina Silva ( as UN Champion of the Earth ) . The flag paused in front of Muhammad Ali ( invited to represent ' respect , confidence , conviction , dedication , generosity and spiritual strength ' ) , who held it for a few moments . Ali , who had lit the flame at the 1996 Atlanta Games , was accompanied by his wife Lonnie and appeared frail . The flag was received by a colour guard of Her Majesty 's Armed Forces and hoisted to the Olympic Hymn , performed by the LSO and the Grimethorpe Colliery Band . The Olympic Oaths were taken by taekwondo athlete Sarah Stevenson on behalf of the athletes , by British AIBA Referee Mik Basi on behalf of the officials , and by Eric Farrell on behalf of the coaches .
= = = There Is a Light That Never Goes Out ( 00 : 24 – 00 : 38 ) = = =
This section was named after a song by The Smiths . The motorboat driven by David Beckham arrived with the Olympic Flame via the Limehouse Cut and the Lee Navigation . Steve Redgrave lit his torch from that on the boat , and carried it into the stadium through an honour guard of 500 of the construction workers who had built the Olympic Park . He passed the flame on to a team of seven young people , each nominated by a famous British Olympian to convey the 2012 Games ' aim to ' inspire a generation ' . Six of the team were athletes , and the seventh was a volunteer young ambassador .
The teenagers made a lap of the stadium taking turns to carry the torch , while Alex Trimble , lead singer of Two Door Cinema Club , performed ' Caliban 's Dream ' with the Dockhead Choir , Only Men Aloud , Elizabeth Roberts , and Esme Smith . This had been written especially for the ceremony by Rick Smith of Underworld .
Each young athlete was greeted by their nominating Olympian and presented with their own torch , which was then lit from the Olympic flame . They jogged through a corridor formed between the assembled athletes to the centre of the stadium , where the 204 copper petals ( each inscribed with the name of the team it accompanied during the parade ) were now seen in a circular formation attached to long pipes ( the petals were to accompany each team home after the competition , as a souvenir ) . The young athletes lit some of the petals , and when the flame had spread to all of them , the pipes rose slowly from the floor of the stadium and converged to form the cauldron . The cauldron lighters were ( nominator in brackets ) :
Callum Airlie ( Shirley Robertson )
Jordan Duckitt ( Duncan Goodhew )
Desiree Henry ( Daley Thompson )
Katie Kirk ( Mary Peters )
Cameron MacRitchie ( Steve Redgrave )
Aidan Reynolds ( Lynn Davies )
Adelle Tracey ( Kelly Holmes )
The cauldron designed by Thomas Heatherwick was described as " one of the best @-@ kept secrets of the opening ceremony " : until this point , neither its design and location nor who would light it had been revealed .
This section of the ceremony was witnessed by 260 of Britain 's greatest Olympians , including six medal winners from 1948 .
= = = And in the end ( 00 : 38 – 00 : 46 ) = = =
A flurry of spectacular fireworks accompanied by Pink Floyd 's song " Eclipse " , was supported by images of memorable Olympic victories on the big screens , and the LED pixels were used to show Jesse Owens running . The climax of this section was a live view from one of the balloons launched three and a half hours earlier , of the Olympic rings 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) above the Earth . The stadium was then lit up by searchlights piercing the smoke ( another iconic London image ) of the fireworks , the Orbit tower was illuminated , and Paul McCartney and his band performed the entirety of " The End " , and then " Hey Jude " , with its chorus sung by the audience to close the ceremony at 00 : 46 BST .
= = Music = =
The eclectic range of music was chosen to showcase almost exclusively British music with pieces representing the UK 's four nations . The programme included classical works by British composers such as Hubert Parry , and performances by UK choirs and orchestras . The focus was mainly on music of the 1960s onwards , causing one Chinese journalist to ask " Will this be the most rock and roll opening ceremony ever ? " .
Rick Smith and Underworld composed pieces especially for the ceremony , including ' And I Will Kiss ' performed by Evelyn Glennie and drummers during the ' Pandemonium ' section , and ' Caliban 's Dream ' heard during the lighting of the cauldron . Underworld 's original pieces were favourably reviewed . Writing in The Guardian , Michael Hann said " Underworld ... had a bit of a triumph : the builds and fades they learned in the world of dance music lent the sometimes overwhelming visual spectacle a sense of structure " .
Musical motifs were used to bind the whole programme together : for example , the ' whistling ' theme first heard during the minute 's silence embedded within " And I Will Kiss " returned frequently — behind the fury as the ring was being forged , emerging triumphant as the five rings came together , and again later as the main theme of ' Caliban 's Dream ' as the flame paraded the stadium with the young athletes .
Bells were a theme of the opening day of the Olympics , starting at 8.12am with artist Martin Creed 's Work No. 1197 : All the Bells , when bells were rung across the UK including 40 strikes of Big Ben . " The sound of bells is the sound of England " , Boyle had told volunteers during rehearsal . Much of the music for the ceremony contained ' bell ' references , linking to the large bell forged for the ceremony and evoking bells as " the sound of freedom and peace " . Modified sequences based on the traditional British eight @-@ bell peal underlay ' And I Will Kiss ' and carried through into the Tubular Bells / NHS section , with handbells and a tolling large bell featured on ' Caliban 's Dream ' and at key points in the ceremony . A handbell chime also played after the close as the stadium emptied .
Boyle approached many of the artists personally , to see if they would be interested in performing , and he also flew to Barbados for an hour @-@ long meeting with Mike Oldfield . A few turned him down , including Elvis Costello and David Bowie , and a well @-@ known group Boyle has not named " wanted £ 20 @,@ 000 and would not budge " , and so were not used . Artists performing at the ceremony were paid a nominal £ 1 fee to ensure their contracts were legally binding . Welsh drum and bass DJ High Contrast mixed and sequenced the music for the athletes ' parade .
The pre @-@ recorded soundtrack Isles of Wonder was released for download on iTunes at midnight of 28 July 2012 with the 2 @-@ disc CD released on 2 August . Within two days the download album had topped the iTunes album charts in Britain , France , Belgium and Spain , and reached No. 5 in the United States , as well as being at No. 5 in the British album charts . Rick Smith 's concluding comment in the CD cover notes was " The isle is full of noises . The soundtrack writes itself . "
= = Technical aspects = =
The main loading of the stadium started on 10 May and took place during ten weeks of what was the wettest summer for a hundred years , posing considerable challenges . Dismantling the staging took just 60 hours .
The infield staging area was 2 @.@ 5 metres high , and had to accommodate elements to be revealed during the ceremony , such as the chimneys and beam engines from ' Pandemonium ' , and the cauldron . To ensure that it remained secret , the cauldron was installed and tested at night .
The stadium was rigged with a one million watt sound system and more than 500 speakers . Some 15 @,@ 000 square metres ( 3 @.@ 7 acres ) of staging and 12 @,@ 956 props were used , as well as 7 @,@ 346 square metres ( 1 @.@ 815 acres ) of turf including crops .
70 @,@ 799 25 centimetre ( 10 inch ) pixel panels were placed around the stadium , including between every seat . Each panel connected to a central computer and was fitted with nine full @-@ colour LED pixels by Tait Technology . These enabled the audience to participate in broadcasting images during the performance , such as of a 1960s go @-@ go dancer , a London Underground train , and a representation of the birth of the internet . The audience was also able to wave with the paddles to create a twinkling effect . These animations were designed by 59 Productions and the video animations were produced by Chinese animation company Crystal CG . The 2D to 3D transformation and mapping of video content onto the LED panels was performed by Avolites Media media server consoles .
Technical director Piers Shepperd masterminded the complex change from rural to industrial during ' Pandemonium ' . The seven inflatable chimneys were made by Airworks , and varied in height ( three were 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) , two were 23 @-@ metre ( 75 ft ) and two were 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high ) . They were made with soft fabric , the outer layer of which had a printed brick pattern . Each contained four industrial fans at the base to inflate them , and a smoke machine near the mouth , and were hoisted into the air from the overhead rigs . Life @-@ size beam engines were constructed onstage by teams of stage hands and members of the Volunteer Staging Team . At the climax of the ' Pandemonium ' , in the Olympic ring forging scene , amber lights lit in sequence created the illusion of a 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) molten steel river , with pyrotechnic smoke and dry ice as the steam . The original grass floor surface had been removed to reveal a giant stylised map of London .
Working alongside the professional crew were over 800 volunteers ; some were production arts students from British drama schools . Many volunteers had been working on the Olympic and Paralympic ceremonies since early 2012 at the Three Mills Studios and Dagenham rehearsal sites , before moving to the Olympic Stadium on 16 June .
The thousands of cast were cued and co @-@ ordinated by verbal directions received through earphones ( ' in @-@ ear monitors ' ) , and adjustments were made during the performance : for example during Pandemonium extra volunteers were directed to make sure all the turf was cleared from the arena on time . The earphones also carried a continuous electronic metronomic four @-@ beat to keep all performers walking and moving in time with the music .
In July 2013 it was revealed that on the morning of the ceremony , Britain 's surveillance headquarters GCHQ had detected a credible cyber attack threat that would have killed the lighting system in the stadium . Counter @-@ measures were taken , and in the afternoon contingency plans were discussed with government ministers at a meeting in the Cabinet Office briefing room . However , this attack never materialised .
= = Ceremony key team = =
= = TV coverage = =
The BBC 's coverage started at 19 : 00 and continued uninterrupted until 00 : 50 . The BBC audience averaged about 24 @.@ 46 million viewers and peaked at approximately 26 @.@ 9 million . This was the largest average audience for any broadcast since 1996 and one of the top 20 most @-@ watched UK television broadcasts of all time . David Stringer of Associated Press described the coverage as " a success ... so far , the BBC 's ambitious – and technically tricky – Olympic plan has worked almost without a flaw . " Euan Ferguson of The Observer commented that " Coverage of the Olympics so far ... has been near perfect . " However , Clive James was critical of the build @-@ up programme . Commentators for the BBC were Gary Lineker , Gabby Logan , Huw Edwards , Hazel Irvine and Trevor Nelson , the latter criticised by Andy Dawson of the Daily Mirror as floundering " like a ventriloquist 's dummy pumped full of low @-@ grade ketamine " . Private talks were held between Boyle and BBC commentators in the run @-@ up to the ceremony . Boyle was unhappy with a voiceover being imposed on the ceremony , which he wanted viewers to be able to enjoy without commentary . The BBC offered several options including ' no commentary ' coverage for both its TV and online transmissions .
Nearly 41 million US viewers watched NBC 's coverage of the event . Criticism was levelled at its decision to tape @-@ delay this broadcast , and not make a live version available even to cable and web users . There were frequent interruptions by commercial breaks . Many US viewers looked for other ways to watch ( such as the live BBC feed ) , despite both NBC and the IOC vowing to crack down on unauthorised streams . More significant criticism was levelled at NBC for cutting to a Ryan Seacrest interview with Michael Phelps during the ' memorial wall ' tribute including commemoration of the victims of the 7 / 7 London bombings , which was seen as disrespectful and insensitive . An NBC spokesman said the network had left out that segment because its programming was " tailored for the US audience " . There was also criticism of commentators Matt Lauer and Meredith Vieira for suggesting that the Queen had actually jumped out of a helicopter . Vieira and Lauer admitted to not knowing that Tim Berners @-@ Lee was the inventor of the World Wide Web , as she commented " If you haven 't heard of him , we haven 't either " , before co @-@ host Matt Lauer told the audience to Google him . These failings were picked up on Twitter during the broadcast with the hashtag # nbcfail . Commentary by Bob Costas and Lauer during the Parade of Nations was also criticised for their negative opinions about some countries ' political environments and for leaving out information about the athletes , which was seen as " smug American elitism " .
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998 – present : Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment
Head coaches
Notes :
a A running total of the number of coaches of the Raptors and thus any coach who has two or more separate terms as head coach is only counted once
b Spent entire coaching career with the Raptors while in the NBA
c Elected into the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach
= = = Basketball Hall of Famers = = =
Notes :
1 In total , Wilkens was inducted into the Hall of Fame three times – as player , as coach and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
= = = FIBA Hall of Famers = = =
= = Awards and records = =
Since their inception in 1995 , the Raptors have made the playoffs eight times ( 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2007 , 2008 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) , advancing past the first round twice ( 2001 and 2016 ) . The Raptors have won the Atlantic Division four times ( 2007 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) , and the franchise record number of wins in the regular season is 56 ( 2016 ) . Five Raptors have been selected to play in the All @-@ Star game : Vince Carter , Antonio Davis , Chris Bosh , DeMar DeRozan and Kyle Lowry .
= = Broadcasters = =
Raptors games are primarily broadcast on television by TSN and Sportsnet . Through MLSE , the Raptors also operate the Canadian version of NBA TV ( formerly known as Raptors NBA TV ) , which airs reruns of Raptors telecasts along with other news and analysis programs focusing on the team and the rest of the NBA .
= = Fanbase and marketing = =
The Raptors have enjoyed a consistent fanbase throughout their history . The Toronto Raptors set NBA attendance records in their 2000 , 2001 , 2002 seasons when they made the playoffs . Attendance dipped slightly between 2003 and 2006 . This improved during the 2006 – 07 regular season to an average of 18 @,@ 258 fans ( 13th in the league ) , 92 @.@ 2 % of capacity at the ACC . Following the success of the 2006 – 07 season , Toronto became one of the league leaders in season ticket sales for the 2007 – 08 season . Their television ratings , however , are considerably lower than other more established Toronto sports teams and most other sporting events shown on Canadian television .
Another successful run starting in 2013 – 14 led to a spike in the Raptors ' support . For the 2014 – 15 season , the team sold out the 12 @,@ 500 season tickets , the first time it occurred since 2011 . Public watchings of the Raptors games , particularly during the playoffs , started being held at Maple Leaf Square , which the fans nicknamed " Jurassic Park " . MLSE decided to endorse this practice by setting up concession stands and branded sponsorships at the square , along with increased security . At times , footage from the square is broadcast to the Raptors locker room . The victorious Game 7 against the Indiana Pacers on the 2016 playoffs was the most watched Raptors broadcast ever , as well as the biggest television audience in Canada that day , averaging 1 @.@ 53 million viewers with a peak of 2 @.@ 63 million .
The value of the Raptors franchise has risen over the years . In 1998 , the franchise was bought for US $ 125 million . With the continued popularity of the Raptors , the value of the franchise doubled from US $ 148 million in 2000 to $ 297 million in 2004 . The value of the franchise grew again from $ 315 million in 2006 to $ 373 million in 2007 , and $ 400 million in 2008 . By 2016 , Forbes estimated the Raptors were worth $ 920 million .
On game day , the fans are usually entertained by the Raptor mascot , the Raptors Dance Pak , and the 4 Korners Raptors Soundcrew during pre @-@ game , time @-@ outs , and intervals . During the 2013 – 14 season , a new " Drake Zone " was created in the lower bowl . Limited edition shirts were given away to fans sitting in the Drake Zone . Giveaways are sometimes bundled with tickets to encourage attendance . Further , whenever Toronto scores more than 100 points in a home game and wins , fans can redeem their ticket for a cheese or pepperoni pizza slice at standalone Pizza Pizza locations throughout Ontario for the business day after the game that was played . This is part of a promotion made by the Raptors ' official pizza sponsor .
= = = " We The North " re @-@ branding = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the team 's 20th anniversary season in 2015 , and its hosting of the 2016 All @-@ Star Game , the Raptors began the process of re @-@ branding itself . On September 30 , 2013 , Toronto @-@ based rapper Drake was announced as the new " global ambassador " for the Toronto Raptors , thereby joining the executive committee of his hometown 's NBA team . In April 2014 , the Raptors unveiled a new imaging campaign developed by the agency Sid Lee , " We The North " , built around a manifesto that was meant to embrace the team 's trait of being an " outsider " from the " north side " , and the accompanying feelings of players and fans .
The " We The North " campaign was originally to be launched during the 2015 – 16 season ; however , the launch was hastened so it would be ready in time for the 2014 playoffs , taking into account the poor performance of Canada 's other pro sports teams at the time . An introductory commercial was quickly filmed , which featured the manifesto as narration , scenes of local basketball players in various outdoor locations around the city , and ended with a scene displaying a black , waving flag with the motto written on it . The campaign was immediately embraced by fans during the playoffs and following season ; the launch commercial was viewed over 500 @,@ 000 times in the two days following its release , " We The North " -branded shirts and flags became a common sight at games , while Ryerson University sports marketing professor Cheri Bradish compared the campaign to Molson 's former " I Am Canadian " alcohol advertising campaign in how it resonated with the country .
On December 19 , 2014 , the Raptors soft @-@ launched a new logo also designed by Sid Lee , which features a basketball with claw marks . The new logo was officially implemented during the 2015 – 2016 season . The logo 's introduction was marred by a disorganized launch , which saw a black and white version initially shown before the eventual unveiling of colored versions later in the day , mixed reviews for the design itself , with some ( especially on the black and white version ) comparing it to that of the Brooklyn Nets , and despite teasing merchandise with the new logo , not releasing any until at least mid @-@ 2015 . There were also alleged tensions between MLSE staff and Drake surrounding the new design — in particular , the performer had pushed for the team to change its primary colour from red to gold ( a colour seen in one of the official variants of the logo unveiled that day ) . In a response on Twitter , Drake distanced himself from the " execution " of the new logo .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = New Jersey / Brooklyn Nets = = =
The New Jersey / Brooklyn Nets and the Raptors have been minor rivals since the trade of Vince Carter to the Nets during the 2004 – 05 season . The rivalry began to heat up as the two teams faced each other in the opening round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs , with the Nets winning the series 4 – 2 after a go @-@ ahead shot by Richard Jefferson with 8 seconds left in Game 6 ensuring 98 – 97 defeat for the Raptors . The rivalry was rekindled during the 2013 – 14 season when the Nets and Raptors battled for the Atlantic Division . The Raptors won the division final but then they found themselves facing the Nets in the opening round of the 2014 NBA Playoffs . Prior to Game 1 of the series , Raptors GM Masai Ujiri spoke at a Raptors rally outside Air Canada Centre 's Maple Leaf Square . During the rally , Ujiri yelled " Fuck Brooklyn ! " which found its way quickly onto social media platforms within minutes . Masai was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 by the NBA for the quote and later apologized for the excessive language . The hard fought series lasted seven games , and was decided in the final seconds when Paul Pierce blocked Kyle Lowry 's shot giving the Nets the 104 – 103 victory .
= = = New York Knicks = = =
The New York Knicks and the Raptors had a playoff rivalry in 2000 and 2001 . The Raptors made their first @-@ ever playoff appearance during the 1999 – 2000 season , in which they were swept by the Knicks in the first round 3 – 0 . The following season , the Raptors redeemed themselves , defeating the Knicks in the first round 3 – 2 ; this effectively ended the Knicks ' run as perennial NBA championship contenders , which began in the early 1990s .
= = Community service = =
The Raptors Foundation was the charitable arm of the Raptors , dedicated to assisting Ontario 's registered charities that support programs and sports initiatives for at @-@ risk children and youth . The Foundation strove to lift spirits and change lives for young people by supporting local and provincial organizations that provide recreational , educational and other youth @-@ oriented activities . Through its community ties and with the help of its corporate partners , donors , Raptors players and volunteers , the Foundation has successfully raised more than $ 14 million between 1995 and 2007 , and reached out to thousands of other charities . The Raptors Foundation was one of three parts of the Raptors ' community service program . The other projects are Raptors Community Relations and Raptors Basketball Development , both of which focus on providing basketball development programs . The Toronto Raptors lead the NBA for amount of money donated to the community . In 2009 , the Raptors Foundation merged with the other charitable arms of MLSE 's other sports franchises to form the Team Up Foundation .
= Caesar ( cocktail ) =
A Caesar or Bloody Caesar is a cocktail created and primarily consumed in Canada . It typically contains vodka , Clamato ( a proprietary blend of tomato juice and clam broth ) , hot sauce and Worcestershire sauce , and is served with ice in a large , celery salt @-@ rimmed glass , typically garnished with a stalk of celery and wedge of lime . What distinguishes it from a Bloody Mary is the inclusion of clam broth . The cocktail may also be contrasted with the Michelada , which has similar flavouring ingredients but uses beer instead of vodka .
It was invented in Calgary , Alberta in 1969 by restaurateur Walter Chell to celebrate the opening of a new Italian restaurant in the city . It quickly became a popular mixed drink within Canada where over 350 million Caesars are consumed annually and it has inspired numerous variants . However , the drink remains virtually unknown elsewhere .
= = Origin = =
The Caesar was invented in 1969 by restaurant manager Walter Chell of the Calgary Inn ( today the Westin Hotel ) in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . He devised the cocktail after being tasked to create a signature drink for the Calgary Inn 's new Italian restaurant . He mixed vodka with clam and tomato juice , Worcestershire sauce , and other spices , creating a drink similar to a Bloody Mary but with a uniquely spicy flavour .
Chell said his inspiration came from Italy . He recalled that in Venice , they served Spaghetti alle vongole , spaghetti with tomato sauce and clams . He reasoned that the mixture of clams and tomato sauce would make a good drink , and mashed clams to form a " nectar " that he mixed with other ingredients .
According to Chell 's granddaughter , his Italian ancestry led him to call the drink a " Caesar " . The longer name of " Bloody Caesar " is said to differentiate the drink from the Bloody Mary , but Chell said it was a regular patron at the bar who served as the inspiration . During the three months he spent working to perfect the drink , he had customers sample it and offer feedback . One regular customer , an Englishman , who often ordered the drink said one day " Walter , that 's a damn good bloody Caesar " .
= = Popularity = =
Chell said the drink was an immediate hit with the restaurant 's patrons , claiming it " took off like a rocket " . Within five years of its introduction , the Caesar had become Calgary 's most popular mixed drink . It spread throughout Western Canada , then to the east . Coinciding with its 40th anniversary , a petition was launched in 2009 in the hopes of having the Caesar named the nation 's official mixed drink . In Calgary , Mayor Dave Bronconnier celebrated the drink 's anniversary by declaring May 13 , 2009 as Caesar Day in the city .
The Mott 's company was independently developing Clamato , a mixture of clam and tomato juices , at the same time the Caesar was invented . Sales of Clamato were initially slow : Mott 's sold only 500 cases of Clamato in 1970 , but sales consistently increased after the company 's distributors discovered Chell 's drink . By 1994 , 70 % of Mott 's Clamato sales in Canada were made to mix Caesars , while half of all Clamato sales were made in Western Canada . Motts claims that the Caesar is the most popular mixed drink in Canada , estimating that over 350 million Caesars are consumed every year .
Outside Canada , the Caesar is virtually unknown . In the United States , it is typically only available at bars along the Canadian border . Elsewhere , bartenders will frequently offer a Bloody Mary in its place . In Europe , the drink can be found wherever there are higher concentrations of Canadians . The drink 's anonymity outside Canada has come in spite of concerted marketing efforts . Producers of clam @-@ tomato juices have speculated that their beverages have been hampered by what they describe as the " clam barrier " . They have found that consumers in the United States fear that there is too much clam in the beverages .
The Caesar is popular as a hangover " cure " , though its effectiveness has been questioned . A study by the University of Toronto released in 1985 showed that drinking a Caesar when taking aspirin could help protect a person 's stomach from the damage aspirin causes .
= = Preparation and variants = =
Basic preparation of a Caesar follows the " one , two , three , four " rule . The recipe calls for 1 – 1 ½ oz of vodka , two dashes of hot sauce , three dashes of salt and pepper , four dashes of Worcestershire sauce and topped with 4 – 6 oz of Clamato and served with ice . The ingredients are poured into a glass rimmed with celery salt or a mixture of salt and pepper and garnished with a celery stalk and lime . The Caesar is an unusual drink in that it can be mixed in bulk and stored for a period of time before drinking .
Though it was not one of Chell 's original ingredients , Tabasco sauce is a frequent addition , as is horseradish . Vodka is occasionally replaced with gin , tequila or rum , though the Clamato may not be substituted . A variant that replaces vodka with beer is commonly called a " Red Eye " , and one without alcohol is a " Virgin Caesar " . The Toronto Institute of Bartending operates a " Caesar School " in various locations across Canada that teaches bartenders how to mix several variants of the drink .
Mott 's holds an annual " Best Caesar in Town " competition as part of the Prince Edward Island International Shellfish Festival . Contests held across Canada to celebrate the cocktail 's 40th anniversary in 2009 encouraged variants that featured the glass rimmed with Tim Hortons coffee grinds , Caesars with maple syrup and Caesars with bacon @-@ infused vodka .
= Joey Barton =
Joseph Anthony " Joey " Barton ( / ˈdʒoʊiː ˈbɑːrtən / ; born 2 September 1982 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Scottish Premiership club Rangers . He has made 240 appearances in the Premier League , including 130 for Manchester City .
Barton was born and raised in Huyton , Merseyside . He began his football career with Manchester City in 2002 after working his way through their youth system . His appearances in the senior side gradually increased over the following five years and he made more than 150 for the club . He earned his first cap for the England national team in February 2007 , despite his criticism of some of the team 's players . He then joined Newcastle United for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 8 million in July 2007 . After four years with the club , he joined Queens Park Rangers in August 2011 , from where he was loaned to Marseille in 2012 . He returned from his loan spell the following season , and helped QPR to promotion to the Premier League via the Championship play @-@ offs . However , QPR were relegated again , and Barton was released at the end of the season . He signed a one @-@ year deal to play for Burnley in 2015 , helping them win promotion to the Premier League , but left to join Rangers in May 2016 .
Barton 's career and life have been marked by numerous controversial incidents and disciplinary problems and he has been convicted twice on charges of violence . On 20 May 2008 he was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment for common assault and affray during an incident in Liverpool City Centre . Barton served 77 days of this prison term , being released on 28 July 2008 . On 1 July 2008 he was also given a four @-@ month suspended sentence after admitting assault occasioning actual bodily harm on former teammate Ousmane Dabo during a training @-@ ground dispute on 1 May 2007 . This incident effectively ended his Manchester City career . Barton has been charged with violent conduct three times by The Football Association : for the assault on Dabo , for punching Morten Gamst Pedersen in the stomach and for attacking three players on the final day of the 2011 – 12 season .
= = Early life = =
Born in Huyton , Merseyside , Barton is the oldest of four brothers . His parents separated when he was 14 years old and consequently he lived with his father at his grandmother 's house on a different estate . He has said that his grandmother 's influence helped him to avoid getting caught up in a recreational drug culture and attributes his work ethic to his father . His father , also named Joseph , worked as a roofer and played football semi @-@ professionally for Northwich Victoria . Barton enjoyed physical education at his school , St Thomas Becket , which he represented in various sports and was a talented Rugby League prospect . He left school with ten GCSEs .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Barton pursued his dreams of becoming a professional footballer by joining Everton 's youth system , but played for Liverpool when he was 14 . He underwent trials at Nottingham Forest , but was rejected when it was decided he was too small to become a footballer . Barton said his rejection by clubs only made him more determined to succeed as a footballer and prove his detractors wrong . He made his first appearance for the club 's under @-@ 17s team in 1999 and played regularly at Academy level for three years . His first reserve team appearance came at the end of the 2000 – 01 season , in his final year as a trainee . Uncertain about Barton 's future prospects , the club planned to release him , but reconsidered and gave him his first professional contract in the close season . Over the next two years , he successfully made the transition from the under @-@ 19s to regular reserve football . He was promoted to the first @-@ team squad in the 2002 – 03 season .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Barton would have made his debut for the City first @-@ team in November 2002 against Middlesbrough , had he not lost his shirt after leaving it on the substitutes bench at half @-@ time . He eventually made his first @-@ team debut for the club against Bolton Wanderers on 5 April 2003 . His first senior goal came two weeks later in a 2 – 0 win over Tottenham Hotspur on Good Friday . He ended the 2002 – 03 season with a run of seven consecutive starts .
After impressing in his first season at City , Barton was offered a new one @-@ year contract at the club by manager Kevin Keegan , which he signed in April 2003 . He featured in the first @-@ team more regularly during the 2003 – 04 season and , following a second Premiership goal , was rewarded with a call @-@ up to the England U21 squad for their 2004 European Championship qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal .
An FA Cup match against Tottenham saw Barton receive the first red card of his career in unusual circumstances : at half @-@ time , with his club 3 – 0 down , he argued with the referee and was sent off although the match was not in progress . In the second half , despite playing with 10 men , Barton 's team @-@ mates achieved an unlikely 4 – 3 victory . Barton left the City of Manchester Stadium in anger on 17 April , after not being named in the team to play Southampton . However he featured regularly in the 2003 – 04 season , which he completed with 39 appearances and one goal . His displays impressed City 's supporters , and at the end of the 2003 – 04 season he was awarded with the club 's Young Player of the Year award .
Barton sparked a ten @-@ man brawl in a friendly match against Doncaster Rovers on 25 July 2004 after " hacking " at an opposition player . Although he signed a new contract on 22 September 2004 , which would keep him at City until 2007 , the club considered sacking Barton in December 2004 after an incident at their Christmas party . He stubbed out a lit cigar in youth player Jamie Tandy 's eye , after he had caught Tandy attempting to set fire to his shirt . Barton subsequently apologised for his actions and was fined six weeks ' wages ( £ 60 @,@ 000 ) .
In May 2005 Barton broke a 35 @-@ year @-@ old pedestrian 's leg while driving his car through Liverpool city centre at 2 am . In the summer of 2005 , Barton was sent home from a pre @-@ season tournament in Thailand after assaulting a 15 @-@ year @-@ old Everton supporter who had provoked Barton by verbally abusing him and kicking his shin . Barton had to be restrained from attacking the boy further by teammate Richard Dunne . Barton underwent anger management therapy at the order of City manager Stuart Pearce and paid £ 120 @,@ 000 in club fines . In the autumn of 2005 , Barton began a seven @-@ day programme of behavioural management at the Sporting Chance clinic , a charity set up to help troubled sportsmen and women .
Barton handed in a written transfer request in January 2006 , which the club rejected . The following day , they also rejected a verbal offer for Barton from Middlesbrough , with Stuart Pearce asserting that a deal could still be made to keep him at the club . During the following week , Barton admitted that he was " a little bit impetuous " in making such a request and agreed to begin negotiations on a new contract at City . He was rewarded with a new four @-@ year deal , which he signed on 25 July , ending speculation about his future .
Barton 's behaviour appeared to improve after his participation at the Sporting Chance clinic . However , on 30 September 2006 , television cameras captured Barton exposing his backside to Everton fans , following City 's injury @-@ time equaliser in a game at Goodison Park . Barton had received abuse from Everton supporters throughout the match and the gesture has since been described as " light @-@ hearted " and " inoffensive " by people involved in football . Merseyside Police looked into the incident , but announced in October that no further action would be taken , although Barton was fined £ 2 @,@ 000 for bringing the game into disrepute and warned about his future conduct by The Football Association .
In December 2006 , Barton received the second red card of his career , for a late two @-@ footed tackle on Bolton Wanderers player Abdoulaye Faye .
Barton 's agent Willie McKay revealed in January 2007 that if any team offered at least £ 5 @.@ 5 million for Barton , it would trigger a release clause in his contract that would mean City would have to allow Barton to talk to the interested club . This reportedly prompted Everton manager David Moyes to make an inquiry to City about Barton 's availability . However , the next day Barton said " People are trying to unsettle me but I 'm happy to stay here " .
Barton was arrested on suspicion of assault and criminal damage after an alleged argument with a taxi driver in Liverpool while going to his hotel after a match on 13 March 2007 . He was cleared of this charge in May 2008 .
Barton displayed his outspokenness once again on 22 April 2007 when he publicly criticised City 's performances during the 2006 – 07 season , and described some of the players the club had signed as " substandard " . Following his comments , City 's manager Stuart Pearce banned him from speaking to the media .
Barton was fined £ 100 @,@ 000 and suspended by City until the end of the 2006 – 07 season on 1 May 2007 , following an incident during training when he assaulted his team mate Ousmane Dabo . Dabo said that he had been hit several times , was left unconscious and had to go to hospital after suffering injuries to his head , including a suspected detached retina . Dabo requested that the police press charges against Barton , and as a result , Barton was arrested and questioned by Greater Manchester Police . This altercation effectively ended Barton 's time at City , although he later cited a " relationship breakdown " with Stuart Pearce as the main reason he left the club . Barton was bailed until August and was later charged with assault , to which he initially pleaded not guilty . He later changed this to a guilty plea and on 1 July 2008 was sentenced to a four @-@ month suspended prison sentence plus 200 hours of community service and ordered to pay £ 3 @,@ 000 compensation and Dabo 's court costs . Barton was also charged with violent conduct by the FA . Barton pleaded guilty and on 1 September 2008 was banned for six games with a further six game ban suspended for two years and fined £ 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Following offers from Newcastle United and West Ham United , Barton joined Newcastle on 14 June 2007 for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 8 million . The contract negotiations had become protracted after Manchester City refused to pay Barton a fee of £ 300 @,@ 000 to which he was reported to be entitled if he left the club without submitting a request for transfer . Newcastle United consequently raised their initial offer of £ 5 @.@ 5 million to £ 5 @.@ 8 , in effect compensating Manchester City for the £ 300 @,@ 000 discrepancy . He said that his desire to win trophies helped him to make the decision , along with his admiration for manager Sam Allardyce . Barton made his Newcastle debut in a friendly against Hartlepool United on 17 July 2007 . Four days later , he was ruled out for six to seven weeks after fracturing the fifth metatarsal bone in his left foot during a friendly match with Carlisle United . He was ruled out for a further month in October 2007 . He eventually made his Premier League debut for Newcastle on 22 October 2007 , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute in a 3 – 1 win over Tottenham . During his first Tyne – Wear derby for Newcastle against Sunderland , Barton appeared to raise his foot dangerously in a challenge with Sunderland 's Dickson Etuhu , leading to the News of the World running with the headline " Ban Him " . However the FA were unable to charge Barton for the incident because match official Martin Atkinson had seen the act take place in the match , and had taken no action . FIFA regulations dictate that a retrospective charge for violent conduct can be made only if the match official did not notice the incident . Barton later apologised for the tackle . Early in December , he called for Newcastle fans to give the team more time after their abuse of manager Sam Allardyce , calling them " vicious " . He later played this down , saying his comments had been misrepresented .
On 27 December 2007 , Barton was arrested on suspicion of assault in the Church Street area of Liverpool city centre following an incident which took place at 5 : 30 am . He was remanded in custody on 28 December since the offence was committed whilst he was on bail for two prior offences ; the presiding magistrate noted " I also have to consider the safety of the public – you lashed out indiscriminately " . CCTV showed Barton punching a man twenty times , causing him to lose consciousness , and attacking a teenager , breaking some of his teeth . On 20 May 2008 , he was sentenced to six months in jail after pleading guilty for his part in the December 2007 assault . Barton 's cousin , Nadine Wilson and his brother Andrew Barton also pleaded guilty to their part in the assaults and received suspended sentences . Barton admitted to being an alcoholic and claimed he wanted to achieve " total abstinence " in order to improve his behaviour . He served 77 days of his prison term , being released on 28 July 2008 .
Barton 's subsequent conviction , a four @-@ month suspended sentence for the earlier assault on Ousmane Dabo at Manchester City was handed out while serving this sentence . He returned to playing action on 30 August 2008 , six days before his FA hearing , as a second @-@ half substitute during Newcastle 's 3 – 0 defeat to Arsenal . He came on to a chorus of boos from the Arsenal supporters . Shortly into this return game , Barton was involved in an incident with Samir Nasri , putting in a strong tackle , for which the referee did not give a foul . The tackle , though hard , was legal . Minutes later , Nasri deliberately clipped Barton while tracking back , for which he was booked . At the end of the game , Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan was involved in an altercation with Nasri and Arsenal captain William Gallas , in regards to the incident .
It was a brief stint back in the playing squad , with Barton banned for six games , with a further suspended six @-@ game ban , for his assault on Dabo . After serving his ban , he played 75 minutes in a reserve game and said he wanted to transform his image to become a role model , before he returned to action in the Tyne – Wear derby on 25 October . He was booed by Sunderland fans and had missiles thrown at him as he warmed up , as Newcastle lost 2 – 1 . Without him , Newcastle had not recorded a league victory since the second game of the season , but Barton scored a penalty in his second game back to lift the club out of the relegation zone . The suspended six @-@ game ban was nearly brought into action when Barton appeared to flick Aston Villa striker Gabriel Agbonlahor in the club 's next game , but the FA decided not to punish Barton . However , further allegations that Barton had made a racist remark to Agbonlahor were cause enough for the FA to reconsider this decision . The remarks remain unfounded and ' professional lip @-@ readers ' claimed he said nothing racist . In Newcastle 's 2 – 2 draw with Wigan on 15 November 2008 , Barton was injured after a tackle from Lee Cattermole . It was later confirmed that Barton would be out for two months with a medial ligament injury . Returning to the first team at the end of January , he played only twice before again breaking his metatarsal , during a 2 – 1 defeat to his old club Manchester City .
In his first appearance in over three months on 3 May 2009 , Barton was sent off late in a 3 – 0 loss to Liverpool at Anfield for a sliding challenge on Xabi Alonso . The red card ruled Barton out of Newcastle 's remaining three games of the season , with the club in danger of relegation from the Premier League . Newcastle manager Alan Shearer raised doubts about Barton 's future at the club , saying " I think it would be wrong to discuss his future now , but I 'm not very happy . " On 5 May , Newcastle United announced the suspension of Barton indefinitely , and Barton was told to stay away from the club . As a result , Barton 's future at Newcastle United was put in doubt . The club suspension was widely reportedly to have resulted not directly from the red card , but from a dressing room confrontation with Shearer and assistant manager Iain Dowie following the game . Shearer said he made a mistake putting Barton back into the team , and that his tackle was " a coward 's tackle " , to which Barton replied that he was " the best player at the club " , and Shearer had to play him . Shearer said that Barton was not that he was " shit " . Barton replied that Shearer was " a shit manager with shit tactics " . When Dowie intervened , Barton called him " a prick " . Barton was reportedly transfer listed , with former manager Sam Allardyce reported to have been interested in taking Barton to Blackburn Rovers . Barton 's counsellor has said that Barton " would love to work with Alan Shearer again " and " feels very much that he owes the club and the fans . "
Barton stayed on with Newcastle United after they were relegated to the Championship , playing six out of Newcastle 's opening eight league games , but suffered an injury to his foot in a 3 – 1 win against Plymouth Argyle on 19 September . He returned in April for Newcastle , playing all nine of Newcastle 's remaining league fixtures and scoring his only goal of the campaign from a free kick in a win over Peterborough United . Due to the form of Danny Guthrie and Kevin Nolan , Barton had to play left wing when he returned .
Barton started his new club season 2010 – 11 as a first team regular , playing against Manchester United on the opening day . On Barton 's and Newcastle 's second game , he scored against Aston Villa in a 6 – 0 victory for Newcastle . Immediately , after the game Barton removed a moustache which he had pledged to not shave until Newcastle United had won a game in the new season . On 10 November , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Blackburn , Barton again acted violently , punching Morten Gamst Pedersen in the chest . He was not punished during the game as the officials did not see the incident , but after reviewing the evidence , the FA again charged Barton with violent conduct . Barton apologised , accepted the charge , and was banned for three matches . Barton courted controversy once again during Newcastle 's 3 – 1 win over Liverpool on 11 December 2010 , when he appeared to direct homophobic remarks and a lewd gesture at Fernando Torres . Barton scored two penalties against Arsenal on 5 February 2011 as Newcastle came from a 4 – 0 deficit to draw 4 – 4 . He was involved in an altercation with Abou Diaby which led to a straight red card for Diaby . Diaby took offence to Barton 's strong challenge and retaliated by grabbing Barton by the neck and shoving him to the ground .
On 25 May 2011 , Barton 's agent Willie McKay confirmed that his client would not be signing a new contract at St James ' Park after contract talks broke down between the club and player . Barton was officially transfer listed by Newcastle on 1 August 2011 , and it was also stated that he could leave for free with his current contract yet to expire . Barton was set to leave Newcastle following his teammate Kevin Nolan , who had earlier joined West Ham United , but Barton insisted on not moving . Joey Barton also criticised the Newcastle board after it was decided he could leave the club on a free transfer . With Newcastle continuing to decline the offer of a new contract , after he refused an earlier offer , on 24 August 2011 , Barton was given permission to talk to QPR . Thanking the Newcastle fans , he left on 26 August 2011 .
A week before his signing with QPR , Barton was involved in an altercation with Gervinho of Arsenal , which resulted in Gervinho being sent off on his debut . Then , Alex Song stamped on Barton , for which Song received a three @-@ match ban . Barton later revealed he was on a verge of joining Arsenal but his incident with Gervinho ended his hopes of a move to the Emirates and instead , he joined Queens Park Rangers .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
On 26 August 2011 , Barton moved to Queens Park Rangers , signing a four @-@ year deal on a free transfer . He was handed the captain 's armband by manager Neil Warnock on his debut with the club , which was a 0 – 0 draw with former club Newcastle . On 17 September , he scored his first goal for QPR during a 3 – 0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers . Following his goal , Barton was involved in a physical confrontation with Wolves player Karl Henry . Henry and Barton had a previous physical confrontation in August 2010 when Barton was still at Newcastle . Barton accused Henry of " trying to hurt people " . Henry responded by calling Barton 's behaviour " embarrassing " .
On 2 January 2012 , Barton scored the opening goal in QPR 's game against Norwich City , his second for the club . However , he was given a straight red card after head @-@ butting Norwich midfielder Bradley Johnson , Barton 's first dismissal since May 2009 . With QPR down to ten men they went on to lose the game 2 – 1 . When Warnock was replaced as manager by Mark Hughes in January 2012 , Hughes confirmed that Barton would remain captain . Barton 's performance in QPR 's 3 – 2 home victory against Liverpool saw him booed by the QPR fans , who promptly cheered when he was substituted just after the hour mark . Barton admitted that his performance was " awful " and the " worst I 've ever played in my career " but also criticised the QPR fans for not sticking with the team in their battle against relegation . After being dropped for the club 's next game , an away defeat to Sunderland , he returned to the line @-@ up for the home game against Arsenal . Barton led QPR to a 2 – 1 victory and he was cheered by the supporters and praised by Hughes , who described his performance as " top @-@ class " . Barton 's third goal for the club came in a 3 – 0 victory at home to Swansea on 11 April 2011 .
On 13 May , on the final day of the season , with QPR requiring at least a draw in their match away at Manchester City or for Bolton Wanderers to not win in order to guarantee Premier League safety , Barton was sent off in the 55th minute for violent misconduct after elbowing Carlos Tevez in the face . Immediately after being shown a red card , he kicked Sergio Agüero in the back of the knee and attempted to head @-@ butt Vincent Kompany . Barton had to be dragged from the pitch by former team @-@ mate Micah Richards as he rowed with Manchester City players and staff and attempted to square @-@ off with striker Mario Balotelli . QPR went on to concede two late goals and lose the match 3 – 2 , but avoided relegation due to Bolton 's draw at Stoke City . Barton commented after the game saying that he was trying to " take [ one ] of their players with me . " The FA responded by issuing two charges of violent conduct against him , for the kick and the attempted head @-@ butt , the initial foul already carrying with it a charge of violent conduct . Barton accepted the charge for kicking Agüero but denied the charge for attempting to head @-@ butt Kompany . QPR also began an internal investigation into his behaviour , amid speculation that he will be stripped of the captaincy and fined and possibly shown the door by the club either by being sold , released on a free transfer or having his contract terminated for gross misconduct .
On 23 May , Barton attended an FA hearing . Punishing him for all three accounts of violent conduct , Barton was handed a twelve @-@ match ban and fined £ 75 @,@ 000 . On 25 June , QPR announced the results of their internal investigation . Barton was stripped of the captaincy and fined six weeks ' wages , believed to be around £ 500 @,@ 000 . Barton was also removed from the club 's pre @-@ season tour of Asia and in a statement , the club said that they had " also reached agreement with Barton that if he seriously breaches the club 's disciplinary procedures again , the club reserves the right to terminate his contract " . Barton responded by saying that " My behaviour was wrong and I accept the punishment that has been imposed upon me as a result . "
On 31 July 2012 , Barton played 45 minutes of a friendly match for League Two side Fleetwood Town in the club 's 4 – 0 win over Kilmarnock . He had been training with Fleetwood after being left out of Queens Park Rangers ' tour of Malaysia . Fleetwood attempted to sign Barton on a six @-@ month loan , but the deal was turned down by QPR .
Ahead of the 2012 @-@ 13 Premier League season , Barton was not given a squad number by QPR . Towards the end of the season , however , chairman Tony Fernandes identified the loss of Barton as a factor in the club 's poor performance and relegation from the Premier League , saying " We missed Joey . We needed a workhorse midfielder and we tried to get Scott Parker . We missed a real leader . "
= = = = Marseille ( loan ) = = = =
Barton completed a season long loan move to Marseille on 31 August 2012 . In September , the LFP confirmed that Barton 's twelve @-@ match ban would be upheld in French football , restricting Barton to UEFA Europa League football for the first four months of the season . On 20 September , Barton made his debut for the club in an away trip to Fenerbahçe in a UEFA Europa League tie , a match that ended 2 – 2 . Barton scored his first goal for Marseille on 8 November in the 2 – 2 draw with Borussia Mönchengladbach in Germany , netting directly from a corner kick in the 54th minute .
Barton told ESPN that he would not return to Queens Park Rangers after the loan spell , and he also said that he only joined the club for money because his partner was expecting a child . Following the comments , on 25 November 2012 , he made his league debut in a 1 – 0 home win against Lille . In his third league appearance on 2 December , Barton provided the assists for both Souleymane Diawara 's and André Ayew 's goals as Marseille defeated Brest 2 – 1 to remain two points behind leaders Lyon .
On 6 May 2013 , Barton was given a two @-@ match suspended ban for describing Thiago Silva of Paris Saint @-@ Germain as looking like an " overweight ladyboy " on Twitter . Laurent Davenas , the President of the French Football Federation 's National Council of Ethics said that Barton was punished only for making " inappropriate " remarks , and escaped a more severe punishment because his lawyers proved his lack of homophobic intent by showing the committee Barton 's appearance in the BBC Three documentary on homophobia in football .
= = = = Return to Queens Park Rangers = = = =
Barton returned to QPR for the 2013 – 14 Football League Championship season . During a match at Burnley in October , a plastic bottle thrown from the stands hit Barton on the head . He was sent off in QPR 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Leicester City on 21 December 2013 , receiving two yellow cards in quick succession for fouling and then throwing the ball in dissent at Gary Taylor @-@ Fletcher . On 21 February 2015 , Barton received the ninth red card of his career in the 32nd minute of a game against Hull City after swinging at Tom Huddlestone 's groin following a foul by Darnell Furlong . Chris Ramsey suggested that Barton , who would miss the club 's next three home matches as a result , would return to anger management therapy following the incident . In May 2015 , Queens Park Rangers announced the release of Barton in the summer of 2015 .
On 10 August 2015 , following his release from Queens Park Rangers , West Ham United were reportedly confident of signing Barton . Two days later , their co @-@ chairman David Gold confirmed that the deal was off after reported protests from some fans unhappy at the prospect of Barton turning out for the Hammers .
= = = Burnley = = =
On 27 August 2015 , Barton joined Championship side Burnley on a one @-@ year deal . On 17 April 2016 , he was named in the Championship PFA Team of the Year .
= = = Rangers = = =
On 24 May 2016 , Barton joined Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a two @-@ year deal . He made his first appearance for the club as a substitute in Rangers 2 @-@ 0 victory over Annan Athletic in the League Cup on 19 July .
= = International career = =
Barton represented the England under @-@ 21 team and was part of the squad for their 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal , scoring once against Portugal .
Following impressive form at club level , Barton received his first call @-@ up to the full England squad on 2 February 2007 for a friendly match against Spain , despite his recent criticism of certain members of the England squad for releasing autobiographies after an unimpressive 2006 FIFA World Cup . He had suggested such players had " cashed in " on the national team 's lack of success .
Barton later received support over his comments and Steven Gerrard , one of the players whom Barton had criticised , praised him for his honesty . However , Frank Lampard , who had also released an autobiography following the tournament , publicly stated his disapproval . Barton made his international debut on 7 February 2007 , replacing Lampard in the 78th minute of the 0 – 1 defeat to Spain at Old Trafford .
= = Style of play = =
Early in his career , Barton mainly played a defensive role , with a game based on tackling and tracking back to shield the defence . As his career has progressed , he has begun to incorporate a more attacking approach to his play , which has resulted in a greater number of goals and assists and his six goals from midfield made him Manchester City 's leading scorer in the 2006 – 07 season , ahead of strikers Georgios Samaras , Bernardo Corradi , Émile Mpenza and Darius Vassell .
Barton has been described as having a good work ethic and the ability to carry the ball and retain possession for the team . He has been praised for having a good passing range . This aspect of his game has shown improvement since the 2005 – 06 season , when he began to favour simpler passes over more ambitious ones , and his relatively high pass completion rate can be attributed to this change . Barton 's passes have often proved to be crucial ; in the past he has led the way in his team 's assists .
Barton has been described as the dirtiest player in the Premier League , a style reflected in the high number of fouls he has committed during his career . He received 39 bookings and three red cards during his time at Manchester City . This physical approach was occasionally criticised by Kevin Keegan as excessive . Opta statistics rated Barton as the tenth best tackler in the Premier League for the 2004 – 05 season .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Barton 's brother Michael Barton was sentenced to life imprisonment ( with a tariff of 17 years ) for his involvement in the racially motivated murder of Anthony Walker in 2005 . Joey made a public appeal to his brother to come forward and help with the police investigation following the attack , and also made a series of calls to Michael , enquiring about his involvement in the incident .
On 28 December 2011 , Barton became a father . His partner Georgia McNeil gave birth to a son , named Cassius . On 6 June 2014 , McNeil gave birth to the couple 's second child , a daughter named Pietà .
= = = Interests = = =
He is a good friend of the boxer Ricky Hatton and has supported him in some of his fights , and has trained with him . He is also a friend of former Oasis band member Noel Gallagher . Barton co @-@ owns a race horse called ' Crying Lightning ' ( named after the Arctic Monkeys song ) with fellow footballer Claudio Pizarro . In January 2011 , the horse competed at the Nad Al Sheba Racecourse in Dubai . He is also notable for his love of Manchester band The Smiths , citing Morrissey as an idol of his .
= = = Charity = = =
Barton is a patron of the Tamsin Gulvin Fund , a charity set up to support people who have addiction problems and no financial support . Tony Adams , who had been impressed with Barton 's attitude during his involvement in the Sporting Chance clinic , appointed him to this role . He is a part of the ' Get Hooked on Fishing ' campaign , designed to keep children out of trouble by encouraging them to take up fishing . He has also taken part in a celebrity cricket match for charity to help fund a new children 's rehabilitation unit at a hospital in Manchester . In 2011 he began writing a regular column in The Big Issue , a street newspaper sold by the homeless and vulnerably housed .
= = = Views = = =
Barton is a prominent user of Twitter , with over two million followers as for April 2013 . Commenting on figures from Friedrich Nietzsche and George Orwell to Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Morrissey , his eclectic tweets have resulted in him being described by the BBC as " a philosophical sportsman to rival Eric Cantona in his heyday " . Others in the media have criticised this description with Paul Hayward , chief sports writer for The Daily Telegraph writing that Barton " manages to be patronised [ by the media ] and held up as some kind of exemplar all at once ... he is skilled at tricking us into watching him veer between the extremes of thinker and thug . Either this is a repudiation of societal hypocrisy or , more likely , indicative of a sociopathic tendency . " Ellie Mae O 'Hagan of The Guardian commented that " the problem , I think , is not the belief that Barton is a reformed character , but the notion that one cannot possibly be a philosopher and violent at the same time : that quoting philosophy should automatically be taken as a sign of reformation ... In my mind , this all boils down to class snobbery . It is automatically assumed that Barton has violent tendencies because he 's a working @-@ class man who has chosen to play football for a living . So when he shows signs of intelligence , it 's treated as a sign of reform : intellect is the preserve of the gentlemanly middle @-@ classes . "
On 29 May 2014 , Barton appeared on the BBC 's Question Time discussion programme where , referring to the UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) , he said " If I 'm somewhere and there was four really ugly girls , I 'm thinking she 's not the worst – that 's all UKIP are , " . Barton 's comments were criticised as sexist by an audience member and he later apologised on air . The Independent newspaper deemed that despite the comments , Barton had produced a " strong performance " on the programme .
In a television programme broadcast on BBC Three on 30 January 2012 , Barton stated his beliefs in support of gay rights , in discussion with presenter Amal Fashanu , niece of Justin Fashanu , England 's only openly gay footballer . He described lack of any openly gay players in English professional football as " a subject that 's quite close to my heart " , as his uncle is gay . He stated his belief that there would be an openly gay player " within the next 10 years " and expressed his fear that " certain managers ... will discriminate against people " but that he feels " more fool them , and their lack of social awareness and intelligence " and wants his generation 's legacy to " help not only change the game for the better , and change the teams that they played in , but also change the culture and change the society and the football clubs that they played at .
In an article written in The Independent in February 2015 , Barton stated that : " If I were Prime Minister I would privatise religion . All public money would be withdrawn from religion . Taxpayers money will cease to sponsor religion in any and every form . " He said that the Church of England should be disestablished . In April of that year , he was appointed an honorary associate of the National Secular Society .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 20 July 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 7 February 2007 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Newcastle United
Football League Championship : 2009 – 10
Queens Park Rangers
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2013 – 14
Burnley
Football League Championship : 2015 – 16
= = = Individual = = =
Football League Championship PFA Team of the Year : 2015 – 16
Burnley Player of the Year : 2015 – 16
= Little Things ( One Direction song ) =
" Little Things " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . It was released by Syco Music on 3 December 2012 , as the record 's second single . The song was written by Fiona Bevan and Ed Sheeran , and produced by Jake Gosling . Bevan brought the song to Sheeran 's attention while he was in studio with the group in 2012 , resulting in the band recording it . " Little Things " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and folk ballad about the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique .
The track received mixed to negative reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom felt that the song is not tailored to them . The song became the group 's second number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom , while reaching the top ten in Australia , Ireland , and New Zealand . In addition , it attained top forty positions in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Canada , Denmark , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United States . The single has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
Directed by Vaughan Arnell , the accompanying music video was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and consists of a simplistic concept — One Direction recording the song . Upon release , it received positive reviews from reviewers , who noted that it was a perfect accompaniment for the song . The band performed the track on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor and during their 3 major conert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) and On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Background and conception = =
" Little Things " was written by British singer @-@ songwriters Ed Sheeran and Fiona Bevan , and produced by Jake Gosling . In February 2012 , One Direction expressed interest in working with Sheeran for their second studio album . In June 2012 , Sheeran disclosed that One Direction would be recording two of his songs . In October 2012 , Sheeran acknowledged Bevan 's songwriting credit in an interview with British radio network Capital FM : " The great thing about it is I wrote that song with a girl called Fiona Bevan when I was 17 and we lost the song . I 've kept in touch with Fiona , we 've done gigs and stuff and about two months ago she sent me the tune and was like , ' Oh , do you remember this ? ' I was like , ' Yeah , I do remember that ' , and I was in the studio with the One Direction boys at the time and I was playing it and they were like , ' We really like that ' . It 's got one of my favourite lines that I 've ever written in a song . " On 15 October 2012 , Louis Tomlinson confirmed via social networking website Twitter that " Little Things " would serve as the second single of their second studio album Take Me Home .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Little Things " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and folk ballad which runs for 3 : 39 ( 3 minutes , 39 seconds ) . Written in the key of G major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 110 beats per minute . One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of A3 to D5 . Instrumentation includes guitar strings , piano lines and vocals . The song utilises an acoustic guitar riff and a rotation of lead vocals . The song 's lyrics revolve around the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique . In a September 2012 interview with MTV News , Sheeran quipped that the song " is about the best things about someone , kind of like the things you wouldn 't expect . " He described " Little Things " as an " appreciation song , " and concluded : " Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Ed just wrote a lot of love songs " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Little Things " received mixed to negative reviews from music critics . Grady Smith for Entertainment Weekly described its lyricism as " terribly misguided " for One Direction 's target audience . Melinda Newman of HitFix , polarised by its lyrical content , wrote that women want men to pretend their flaws do not exist and not see them . Both Kate Wills of The Independent and Rolling Stone writer Jon Dolan criticised the lyrical content as jarring . Although Bill Lamb of About.com shared Smith 's sentiment , he favoured Gosling 's " beautiful " production of the song and the group 's " top notch " vocal performance . Al Fox of BBC Music , who noted a " pursuit for credibility " , felt that One Direction were " handing in their identity " with " Little Things " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times dismissed Sheeran 's songwriting as " unusually lumpy in the hands of such a polished group " . In contrast , Alexis Petridis for The Guardian described the track as " noticeably more sophisticated lyrically and emotionally than anything else on the album . " The Boston Globe editor Sarah Rodman selected the " essential " song as the album 's " best " attribute , and Matt Collar from AllMusic considered the ballad " an air of maturity to One Direction 's admittedly squeaky @-@ fresh sound . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy felt that " Little Things " can be interpreted as " minor signs of growth " for the boy band .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Little Things " made its Irish Singles Chart debut at number two in the week ending 15 November 2012 , marking One Direction 's fifth top @-@ ten hit in Ireland . The track debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 18 November 2012 , becoming One Direction 's second number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom . Their second studio album Take Me Home and the single both debuted simultaneously at number one in the UK , making One Direction the youngest act in British chart history to achieve the feat . In addition , the song became a top forty hit in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Denmark , Sweden , and Switzerland . It became their third song to attain a top @-@ forty position in both Sweden and Belgium ( Wallonia ) . Elsewhere in Europe , the song charted in lower regions on the singles charts of Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , France , Germany , and Slovakia .
The single bowed at number nine on the Australian Singles Chart of 25 November 2012 , marking its peak position and the group 's fourth top ten hit in Australia . It held that position for a second week and has been certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The track made its New Zealand Singles Chart debut at number two on 19 November 2012 , denoting its highest charting position and the quintet 's third top five appearance in New Zealand . " Little Things " has received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , indicating sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
The ballad became One Direction 's fourth top forty hit on the Canadian Hot 100 , peaking at number 20 . In the week ending 18 November 2012 , " Little Things " debuted on the United States Billboard Hot 100 at number 41 , selling 91 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As a result of an " end @-@ of @-@ year download rush " in the week ending 30 December 2012 , the single 's weekly sales rose 189 % from the previous week to 153 @,@ 000 copies sold . The sales rise signified a new peak of number 33 on the Hot 100 by the single 's seventh charting week . The track marks the boy band 's fourth top forty hit on the Hot 100 and also attained positions on the Pop Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts , peaking at numbers 19 and 61 , respectively . " Little Things " had sold 502 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by 7 January 2013 . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 9 May 2013 , denoting shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Little Things " was shot entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white and directed by Vaughan Arnell , who had previously directed the band 's music video for their previous single " Live While We 're Young " . Tomlinson disclosed via social networking website Twitter that an accompanying music video for " Little Things " was in production on 15 October 2012 . Band member Zayn Malik confirmed that they had finished filming the video the following day . On each of the five days preceding the video 's premiere , One Direction posted a teaser trailer of the video online . Each teaser showed footage from the video and behind the scenes , and one member of the band announcing how many days were left until the video premiere . The official video was uploaded to their Vevo account on YouTube on 2 November 2012 .
The music video consists of a simplistic concept — a One Direction recording session . In a November 2012 interview with MTV News , Arnell said he did not want to make it about anything more than that , " When I first heard the track , the mix on it was so simple and so pure and you could hear all the qualities of the voices on the track , I just wanted to come up with something that when the viewer watched it , it was almost like sitting there listening to the boys sing the track . " Arnell subsequently developed the idea of a recording studio setting , thinking that it was " the most pure way to do it " . He wanted to make the music video as " uncontrived as possible " without " any other bullsh-- or effects in the way of it . " While Arnell conceded that music video may seem like a simple concept , the shoot itself took over twelve hours to complete and said that it was " one of the hardest things I 've ever done . " The group performed it " over and over again because I was just trying to get different shots , different angles , different qualities . " As for the decision to shoot the video in black @-@ and @-@ white , Arnell felt it best captured the essence of the ballad . He also noted that was his intention to give the music video the feeling as if One Direction are singing it right to you , " It 's purely about the clarity of it . When you sit there watching it , it 's almost like these little bits of eye contact [ and ] you really feel like the guys are singing it to you . "
Upon release , ' # LittleThingsOnVEVO ' became the number @-@ one trending topic worldwide on social networking website Twitter . Following the release of the music video for " Little Things " and its accompanying teaser videos , One Direction posted a 138 % increase in Vevo plays and a 159 % increase in Facebook reaction in the United States . As a result of the video schedule , the group topped Billboard 's Social 50 chart for the first time in their 52nd week on the chart , rising 10 @-@ 1 from the previous week . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News characterised it as a straightforward video , which has a " quiet tone " that " complements the ballad 's sentimental lyrics . " Sam Lanksy for Idolator called it " sweet and subdued " and noted that the video is a significant transition from the " over @-@ the @-@ top jubilance " of their " Live While We 're Young " video , writing that the contrast " is nice — even if the ultimate effect is a little sleepy . " A reviewer of The Huffington Post favoured " the low @-@ key , laid @-@ back " approach to the video and concluded that the " intimate feel of the video perfectly accompanies the songs ' sweet lyrics " . An editor for Capital FM highlighted sequences in which the boy band " share individual emotionally charged scenes . "
= = Live performances = =
One Direction performed " Little Things " and " Live While We 're Young " on The X Factor USA ( 8 November ) , and " Little Things " on The X Factor UK ( 11 November ) . The band performed the song along with " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Live While We 're Young " , and " Kiss You " on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center ( 13 November ) , to a record crowd estimated at 15 @,@ 000 . They performed " Live While We 're Young " and " Little Things " on the BBC 's Children in Need 2012 telethon ( 16 November ) . In addition , they performed " Little Things " on British television series Surprise , Surprise ( 18 November - Recorded 21 October ) , at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance ( 19 November ) , in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II , and on The X Factor Australia ( 20 November ) . " Little Things " was included on the set list of the group 's headlining sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden ( 3 December ) . They also performed 3 major concert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) & On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Ed Sheeran — writing
Fiona Bevan — writing
Tommy Culm — backing vocals
Jake Gosling — production
Chris Leonard — guitar
Credits adapted from Take Me Home 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Suillellus amygdalinus =
Suillellus amygdalinus ( formerly Boletus amygdalinus ) is a fungus of the bolete family found in western North America . The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , are characterized by their thick , red to brown caps , red pores , and the strong bluing reaction observed when the mushroom tissue is injured or cut . The cap can reach diameters of up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and the stipe 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick at maturity . This mushroom has been found in manzanita and madrone woodlands of central California north to southern Oregon . Although the edibility of the mushroom is not known with certainty , it may be poisonous , and is not recommended for consumption . Other similar red @-@ pored , bluing boletes from North America , including Rubroboletus eastwoodiae , Boletus luridiformis , and B. subvelutipes , can be distinguished from S. amygdalinus either by the color of the cap , the degree of reticulation ( a network of raised ridges ) on the stipe , or by location .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first named Boletus puniceus by Harry D. Thiers in 1965 , based on specimens he found in Napa County , California , on 23 November 1963 . In 1975 , Thiers changed the name to Boletus amygdalinus ( a nomen nudum ) as he discovered that the epithet had already been used for a different bolete found in Yunnan , China , published in 1948 . The fungus was transferred to Suillell
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" I finally got the courage to ask you on a date , so just say yes and let the future fall into place , " a " twitchy Tyler asks the girl -- before the cops show up and arrest him . "
Tyler performed " She " and " Novacane " with Ocean at an Odd Future performance in New York . During Odd Future 2012 's tour promoting The Odd Future Tape Vol . 2 , Ocean performed with the group and played the song Tyler .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" She " ( featuring Frank Ocean ) — 4 : 13
= Big Brother 10 ( UK ) =
Big Brother 2009 , also known as Big Brother 10 , was the tenth series of the British reality television series Big Brother . It began on 4 June 2009 and was aired on Channel 4 and E4 for 93 days , concluding on 4 September 2009 when Sophie " Dogface " Reade was crowned the winner with 74 @.@ 4 % of the viewer 's vote . The format of the programme remained largely unchanged from previous series ; a group of people , referred to as housemates , are enclosed in the Big Brother House under the surveillance of cameras and microphones . Each week , the viewers decide which of a selection of housemates is evicted and , in the final week , one housemate is voted as the winner . The daily highlights programme was narrated by Marcus Bentley , Davina McCall fronted the launch programme , evictions , special episodes , the final and Big Brother 's Big Mouth and George Lamb presented Big Brother 's Little Brother .
The programme included 22 participants , four of whom left the programme voluntarily whilst the fate of the others was decided by the public vote . The housemates were originally competing to win a £ 100 @,@ 000 prize but , due to rule @-@ breaking by the participants , this was reduced to £ 71 @,@ 320 . The series , which was sponsored by Lucozade , achieved significantly less media coverage and viewing figures , resulting in it becoming the least @-@ watched series in Big Brother UK history until Big Brother 12 in 2011 . This series also attracted controversy , with accusations of bullying between contestants drawing complaints and criticisms levelled at the welfare of housemates after they left the programme .
No housemates represented from series participated in Ultimate Big Brother , neither did any participate in tasks during that series .
On 17 May 2012 , housemate Sophia Brown died at the age of 30 , after suffering from the condition Lupus almost all her life . Marcus Bentley , McCall and several former housemates including Karly , Lisa , Marcus , Rodrigo and winner Sophie sent their condolences on Twitter shortly after her death .
= = Production = =
Big Brother 10 was produced by Brighter Pictures , a division of Endemol . This series of the programme had been confirmed since 2006 as part of a £ 180 million contract between Endemol and Channel 4 . Phil Edgar @-@ Jones was the creative director of the series whilst Sharon Powers was the executive producer . Open auditions for the programme , which were confirmed during the final of Celebrity Big Brother 6 , began on 3 January 2009 in Edinburgh and ended on 7 February in Manchester . Internet auditioning via YouTube , which saw 2 @,@ 600 apply , ended on 3 February 2009 . Auditionees were subjected to three interviews with various producers , additional meetings with a psychologist and a psychiatrist and a final " talk of doom " , in which they were warned about the negative impact that appearing on Big Brother could have on their lives . In the weeks preceding the series , the selected housemates were put into " hiding " with no access to the outside world . Housemates were offered aftercare from the production team for up to six months after they left the programme .
= = = Eye logo = = =
The programme 's logo , the Big Brother Eye , is based on a black , purple and blue thumbprint and was released on 11 May . It was designed by Daniel Eatock . From 19 May , Channel 4 began uploading teaser clips to the official Big Brother UK YouTube channel ; these were also aired during commercial breaks on Channel 4 and its related channels . The series was sponsored by Lucozade Energy and the promotional break bumpers were created by M & C Saatchi and are based upon a ' little brother versus big brother ' scenario . The programme began on 4 June , with a 95 @-@ minute special programme which introduced the initial 16 participants , and was broadcast on Channel 4 and E4 over a period of 93 days , concluding with the final on 4 September .
= = = Broadcasts = = =
The main television coverage of Big Brother 10 was screened using daily highlights programmes , narrated by Marcus Bentley . These episodes summarised the events of the previous day in the House . Alongside these highlights shows were spin @-@ off programmes , Big Brother 's Big Mouth and Big Brother 's Little Brother , that commented on fandom , cultural reaction to the events within the House and included interviews with celebrities , former housemates and family and friends of housemates . On Fridays , a live eviction programme was hosted by Davina McCall in which the evicted contestant left the house and received an interview from McCall and two guests . For 2009 , BBLB returned with George Lamb presenting five weekday evening programmes and one Sunday edition per week . Big Mouth was also fronted by McCall and was broadcast on E4 on Friday nights for an hour after the main eviction programme .
= = = = Interview panel = = = =
In a change to normal eviction interviews this series saw McCall and the evictee on a panel joined by two celebrity fans or psychologists , joining them were :
Sophia Judi James and Dom Joly
Cairon Iain Lee and Vanessa Feltz
Angel Anthea Turner
Sree Kelly Osbourne
Kris Mel Blatt
Karly Judi James and Kathy Burke
Kenneth Terry Christian
Noirin Judi James and Jo Whiley
Hira Emma Kennedy and Bob Mortimer
Freddie Judi James and John McCririck
Bea Ulrika Jonsson
Marcus Grace Dent
Lisa Dave Schneider and Kim Woodburn
The panel was not used for the finale , however , Judi James made a recorded segment about each finalist . The panel format was scrapped for the following celebrity and regular series , where McCall interviewed the evictee in the traditional format .
= = House = =
As with each series since Big Brother 2002 , the programme was filmed at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire . A total of 27 editing suites , manned by over 300 members of staff , were situated in the " George Lucas Stage " to produce the programme . In the 18 May issue of Star magazine , aerial photographs of the House were published , showing the garden under construction . Official pictures of the House interior were released by Channel 4 on 1 June , showing the entrance stairway , living room and garden . The entrance stairway had images of insects on its walls whilst the garden and living room had a science fiction theme ; the former included a bus stop as the designated smoking area . On 3 June , Metro published an image of the Diary Room , which has a multicoloured chair and wall pattern . There was also a shipping container @-@ based bathroom , a sitting room with red sofas , a wood panelled kitched with purple , black and white fittings and a bedroom with splats of paint covering the walls . The house contained 44 cameras , 75 two @-@ way mirrors and 57 fixed microphones , as well as individual microphones for each housemate .
= = Format = =
The format remained largely unchanged from previous series . Housemates were incarcerated in the Big Brother House with no contact to and from the outside world . Each week , the housemates took part in a compulsory task that determined the amount of money they were allocated to spend on their shopping ; if they passed , they received a luxury budget and they were allocated a basic budget if they failed . Housemates were instructed to nominate two fellow housemates for eviction each week . This compulsory vote was conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room and housemates were not allowed to discuss the nomination process or influence the nominations of others . On Day 68 , Big Brother changed the rules to allow housemates to discuss nominations until further notice . The two or more housemates who gathered the most nominations per week faced a public vote and the housemate receiving the most votes was evicted from the House on the Friday and interviewed by Davina McCall . Housemates could voluntarily leave the House at any time and those who broke the rules could have been ejected by Big Brother .
In a change from previous series , Channel 4 announced that it would no longer donate any of its income from the premium @-@ rate telephone lines , by which viewers vote for whom they would like to see evicted or win the programme , to charitable organisations . The broadcaster said that the current economic downturn is to blame for this decision and that the change would bring Big Brother into line with other programmes of its kind , such as The X Factor and Strictly Come Dancing . The format of the live eviction interview programme was altered for this series . Unlike previous series in which McCall interviewed evicted housemates by herself , she was instead joined by two guest panellists to " interrogate " the evictee . Panellists included former housemates , journalists , psychologists , and fans of the programme . A new rule was added to the programme at the start of the series ; " fake romances " were not permitted .
= = Housemates = =
Big Brother 10 saw 22 contestants competing to win . Sixteen participants entered the House on Day 1 and an additional five housemates entered the House on Day 44 , followed by one other on Day 56 . Four housemates left the House on their own accord . This series also gains the distinction of featuring the first homosexual relationship in the programme 's history , which involved the housemates Charlie Drummond and Rodrigo Lopes .
Angel McKenzie ( born 10 June 1973 ) is a 35 @-@ year @-@ old professional boxer and artist from Moscow , Russia . She is the adoptive daughter of former British and European light welterweight boxing champion , Clinton McKenzie She became a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . She kept her birthday a secret from her fellow housemates , celebrating it alone in the Diary Room . On Day 21 , in a special live nominations show , she was nominated for the first time . On Day 23 , became the fourth housemate to be evicted with 81 % of the public vote . Angel later appeared in the first episode of game show Red or Black ? on 3 September 2011 , where she finished as a runner @-@ up .
Bea Hamill ( born 28 September 1984 ) entered the House on Day 44 with four other new housemates . Alongside them she was tasked with ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit received the most nominations but refused to participate claiming it went against her morals . She was evicted on Day 79 , in week twelve just one week before the final .
Beinazir Lasharie ( born 8 January 1981 ) is a study support assistant from Pakistan . Her family , after receiving death threats due to their support of former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto were given asylum in the United Kingdom when she was a year old . On Day 4 , Beinazir did not gain full housemate status by public vote and became the first evictee . There was no crowd present as she left the House and she was escorted from the premises in a red Routemaster Bus .
Cairon Reon Austin @-@ Hill ( born 5 July 1990 ) is a student and the youngest contestant in this year 's Big Brother . He became a housemate after winning the biscuit dunking task on Day 3 . On Day 12 , Cairon received four nominations by his fellow housemates which was enough to be up for eviction against Freddie . On Day 16 , he became the third evictee with 73 @.@ 16 % of the vote .
Charles Andrew " Charlie " Drummond ( born 3 January 1987 ) is a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Jobcentre customer service advisor from Cleadon . He was Mr Gay Newcastle 2007 and was a runner up for Mr Gay UK . He became a housemate for successfully walking barefoot on broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass . He finished in 4th place .
David Ramsden ( born 2 September 1980 ) is a clothing recycler from Dewsbury , near Leeds in West Yorkshire . He entered the House on Day 44 with four other new housemates . With them he was tasked with ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit received the most nominations , but the new housemates failed their task and faced the public vote , though the eviction was ultimately cancelled . On Day 91 , David celebrated his 29th birthday , and he received a birthday message from fashion designer Vivienne Westwood , who he claims is his hero . David has also been on UK television show Golden Balls . He finished 3rd .
Frederick " Freddie / Halfwit " George Fisher , ( born 21 June 1985 ) is an Oxford graduate and book reseller from Market Drayton , who lives with his parents at their stately home . He changed his name by deed poll to Halfwit in order to gain housemate status . On Day 6 Halfwit was nominated for eviction by his fellow housemates and on Day 9 he survived the public vote after receiving 8 @.@ 8 % of the vote . On Day 12 he was nominated for eviction along with Cairon and on Day 16 , with 26 @.@ 84 % , he survived his second public vote . On Day 21 , in a special live nominations show , he was nominated for the third time , surviving with 19 % of the public vote on Day 23 . On Day 26 , Halfwit was nominated for eviction along with Sree , surviving for the fourth consecutive time on Day 30 with 15 % of the public vote . Halfwit survived the most consecutive evictions out of anyone in the history of the show , having survived the public vote 5 times in a row and 7 times in total . On Day 72 as a special prize , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . On the same day Freddie was evicted from the house over Marcus gaining 53 @.@ 6 % of the public vote to evict .
Hira Habibshah entered on Day 44 , and was given a secret mission in which she had to brief her fellow new housemates , it involved ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit were nominated . The task was failed , resulting in her nomination along with the other new housemates . On Day 59 , she was named the ' Most Entertaining Housemate ' by Big Brother . On Day 65 she became the ninth person to be evicted with 5 @.@ 65 % of the public vote .
Isaac Stout is Noirin 's boyfriend and entered the house disguised as a fish and chips delivery @-@ man on Day 56 , and later walked out on day 58 after girlfriend , Noirin , was evicted . He originally met Noirin during his time as a castmate on MTV 's The Real World : Sydney .
Karly Ashworth ( born 14 April 1988 ) is a part @-@ time glamour model from Fife in Scotland . She was polled as one of FHM 's Top High Street Honeys . She became the seventh housemate after being tricked into believing that she had a motorbike ridden over her stomach . On Day 39 , Karly was nominated for eviction by her fellow housemates . Karly was evicted on Day 44 , the same night as her boyfriend , Kenneth , entered the house as a new housemate .
Kenneth Tong entered the house on Day 44 , minutes before his girlfriend Karly was evicted . Alongside his fellow new housemates , he had to ensure that both Noirin and Halfwit were nominated for eviction but the new housemates failed their task so faced the public vote . Tong blamed fellow housemate Bea Hamill for the task 's failure as she had refused to participate on " moral grounds " . Following an argument between the pair , Tong was warned by Big Brother for language that " could be perceived as threatening " when he said he would " pay someone to deal with her " . On Day 50 , Kenneth fled the house via the rooftop with Marcus ' assistance . As a result , the eviction for week eight was cancelled .
Kris Donnelly ( born 17 April 1985 ) is a visual merchandiser from Shrewsbury . He became the fourth person to be confirmed as a housemate when he was selected by Lisa , who had earned the privilege to choose by answering a ringing phone . On Day 33 , Big Brother told Kris to remain silent until 2 a.m. as punishment for discussing nominations or automatically face the public vote . He failed to keep quiet and faced eviction . On Day 37 , he was evicted with 63 % of the public vote .
Lisa Elizabeth Wallace ( born 12 February 1968 ) is the oldest contestant in the series who entered the House with a distinctive pink mohican haircut , which she shaved off during the series . She became the third person to be rewarded with housemate status when she answered a ringing telephone . She was evicted on day 90 in the final eviction of the series with 68 @.@ 59 % to evict .
Marcus Akin ( born 10 August 1973 ) was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 29 , Marcus was warned about comments he made to fellow housemate Sree , which Marcus hotly denied . On Day 50 , he helped Kenneth Tong escape from the Big Brother house . Marcus was the twelfth housemate to be evicted with 64 % of the vote on day 86 .
Noirin Kelly ( born 6 September 1983 ) from Dublin , Republic of Ireland is a former All Ireland athletics champion . She also appeared on The Real World : Sydney in 2007 as the girlfriend of fellow contestant Isaac Stout . She was granted housemate status when she allowed Rodrigo to shave her eyebrows and draw a moustache and glasses with permanent marker on her face . She had to do this every day until further notice . On Day 58 , Noirin was evicted from the Big Brother house with 60 @.@ 0 % of the public vote . Outside of the house in September 2009 Norin appeared on the front cover of Nuts and 10 pages of the magazine consisted of pictures of her and an interview with her .
Rodrigo Lopes born 1 December 1985 ) is a Brazilian student living in Leeds . Rodrigo was the twelfth person to enter the house and earned housemate status after convincing Noirin to allow her eyebrows to be shaved and to draw a moustache and glasses on her face under the order of Big Brother . Rodrigo had spoken of an ambition to drink tea with the " Queen of Britain " and on Day 61 Big Brother gave Rodrigo the opportunity to send a letter to the Queen . Big Brother offered Rodrigo a chance to have tea with the " Queen " . However , all of the other housemates had to trick Rodrigo into thinking the Queen lookalike was actually the Queen . Rodrigo finished in 5th place . In 2012 , Rodrigo told the press that she is a trans woman , and she now uses the name Rebekah Shelton .
Saffia May Corden ( born 14 October 1981 ) is a beauty consultant from Hucknall , Nottingham and single mother of two children . She became a housemate for successfully walking barefoot on broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass . She walked from the House on Day 8 .
Siavash Sabbaghpour ( born 25 April 1986 ) is an event organiser who left his homeland Iran at an early age to live in London . He was known in the house for wearing eccentric clothes and admitted he was a " slave to fashion " . Siavash was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 and finished in second place .
Sophia Brown ( 8 December 1983 - 17 May 2012 ) was from London and worked as a private banking assistant . She was is 4 ' 11 " , and had the autoimmune condition lupus . She was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 6 Sophia was nominated for eviction by her fellow housemates . On Day 9 she became the second evictee with 91 @.@ 2 % of the public vote . Sophia died on 17 May 2012 .
Sophie / Dogface Victoria Reade ( born 18 May 1989 ) is a glamour model from Nantwich , Cheshire and was the winner of the series . She changed her name by deed poll to Dogface in order to become a housemate . On Day 72 as a special prize , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . Sophie was announced the winner of the show on 4 September with 74 @.@ 4 % of the final vote .
Sree Dasari ( born 14 September 1984 ) is from India . A students ' union president , he was in the United Kingdom studying for a master 's degree in International Business at the University of Hertfordshire in Hatfield . He was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 31 , with 85 % of the public vote , Sree became the fifth evictee and crowned Best Housemate Award for the season 10 . He attempted suicide by slashing his wrists shortly after being evicted .
Thomas Martin " Tom " Oliver ( born 22 June 1981 ) entered on Day 44 . On Day 53 , Tom voluntarily left the Big Brother after 9 days .
= = Summary = =
During the first three days , the group undertook a series of tasks by which they could earn the right to become housemates . For the first task , Rodrigo was given four minutes to convince someone to let him shave off their eyebrows and have a moustache and a pair of glasses permanently drawn on to their face for an unstated period of time ; he successfully convinced Noirin and they both became housemates , gaining access to the previously locked bedroom . The remaining non @-@ housemates were instructed to change into a special uniform . Anyone not obeying would lose the opportunity to become a housemate . Lisa gained housemate status in the early hours of Day 2 when she answered a ringing phone in the living room . Given 15 minutes to select the fourth housemate , she chose Kris . Charlie and Saffia later became housemates after walking barefoot over broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass , and Karly became the seventh housemate after being tricked into believing that she had a motorbike ridden over her stomach . Freddie and Sophie became housemates after changing their names , documented by deed poll to Halfwit and Dogface respectively . On Day 3 Cairon earned housemate status by dunking a biscuit in a cup of tea for 25 @.@ 5 seconds without it disintegrating . Remaining non @-@ housemates Angel , Beinazir , Marcus , Siavash , Sophia and Sree faced the public vote on Day 4 to determine which five would become housemates and which one would be evicted . With 6 @.@ 8 % of a vote to save , Beinazir became the first evictee without ever becoming a housemate .
The first round of nominations took place on Day 6 and resulted in Halfwit and Sophia facing the public vote . On Day 8 , the first shopping task saw Kris negotiate his way through a field of laser beams to retrieve the " Emerald of Hope " , with one of his fellow housemates being soaked by a bursting balloon full of gunge whenever he interrupted a beam . He completed the task successfully , earning a luxury budget . However , as punishment for Marcus , Sophia and Sree discussing nominations , Big Brother doubled the price of every item on the shopping list . Later that day , Saffia left the House voluntarily to be with her children and Sophia was evicted with 91 @.@ 2 % of the public vote the following night . Cairon and Halfwit received the most nominations in week two and faced eviction . The housemates successfully learned and performed the song and dance routine " Me Ol ' Bamboo " from the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and won a luxury shopping budget of £ 5 per person per day . On Day 16 , Cairon was evicted with 73 @.@ 2 % of the vote .
Day 18 , the first day of week three , began with a day @-@ long hippy @-@ themed celebration of Halfwit 's 24th birthday , in which Big Brother gave him the " Gift of Normality " that he could keep for himself or give to either Dogface or Noirin . He chose Noirin , freeing her from the obligation to draw a moustache and glasses on her face each day . The housemates failed every part of the Tudor @-@ themed shopping task and received only a basic budget . During the task , Siavash , playing King Henry VIII , was called upon to ban one housemate from nominating and to grant another immunity . He chose Charlie and Marcus respectively . On Day 21 , the housemates nominated against the clock in a live programme , resulting in Angel and Halfwit facing the public vote . On Day 23 , Angel became the fourth person to be evicted with 81 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
Halfwit and Sree received the most nominations and faced the public vote in week four . In an Italy @-@ themed shopping task , Siavash played the role of a fashionista who was required to change his outfit at Big Brother 's request and strike a pose whenever Madonna 's " Vogue " was played into the House . Sree and Dogface 's contribution was to run a 24 @-@ hour ice cream delivery service , while Marcus and Noirin created paintings based on the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli . Charlie and Kris played Italian footballers and Lisa had to predict football scores correctly . The task climaxed in a performance of Giacomo Puccini 's Nessun Dorma with Karly , Halfwit and Rodrigo playing The Three Tenors . On Day 28 , the housemates were told they had passed the task , earning themselves a luxury shopping budget . On Day 30 , Sree became the fifth person to be evicted from the House with 85 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
In week five , on Day 33 , Big Brother punished Charlie for discussing nominations , telling him to remain silent for the rest of the day or else face the public vote . Later , Dogface and Kris were similarly punished , also for discussing nominations . All three failed to keep quiet and faced the public vote , along with Halfwit and Marcus , who received the most nominations . On Day 35 , the housemates failed the circus @-@ themed shopping task and received a basic shopping budget . On Day 37 , Kris became the sixth person to be evicted from the House with 63 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
In week six , on Day 39 , Big Brother told Siavash and Dogface that , because they had discussed nominations earlier in the week , they would face eviction if they uttered a single profanity before 3 p.m. They both failed and therefore faced the public vote , along with Karly and Noirin who received the most nominations . The shopping task consisted of nine separate challenges from previous editions of Big Brother , in which housemates had to compete against former contestants ( see the week seven shopping task section ) . The housemates failed to pass the required number of challenges and therefore failed the overall task . On Day 44 , five new housemates , Kenneth , Bea , David , Hira and Tom entered the House and Karly became the seventh person to be evicted with 50 @.@ 4 % of the vote .
Week seven saw housemates take part in a Greek @-@ themed shopping task with a twist , which involved Charlie and Rodrigo learning a routine by Stavros Flatley , a dance duo featured on Britain 's Got Talent . However , playing Zeus , Halfwit was the only housemate aware of the true nature of the task . In each of three challenges he had to ensure , while still keeping the secret , that his chosen champion defeated the appropriate Greek god . He failed and the housemates received a basic shopping budget . Bea , Charlie , David , Dogface , Halfwit , Hira , Kenneth , Marcus , Noirin , Siavash and Tom all faced eviction . In the early hours of Day 50 , Kenneth escaped from the House via the rooftop with help from Marcus , and this led to the eviction being cancelled .
In week eight , in the early hours of Day 53 , Tom voluntarily left the Big Brother House . With five nominations each , Marcus and Noirin faced the public vote . For the shopping task the housemates split into two groups , creating human puppets with one housemate providing the head and feet and another providing the arms , and making them dance to music by Girls Aloud and Take That . Visitors to the Big Brother web site decided by voting that the housemates had failed the task . On Day 56 , Noirin 's ex @-@ boyfriend Isaac entered the House , but left voluntarily shortly after Noirin 's eviction on Day 58 with 60 @.@ 0 % of the public vote .
Bea and Marcus received the most nominations in week nine , but Marcus 's attempts to persuade the housemates to nominate him and Siavash 's refusal to nominate backfired when Big Brother declared the result void and made all housemates face the public vote to save , not evict . The shopping task was based on Lewis Carroll 's Victorian children 's novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in which Hira , in the role of Alice , having first been " shrunk " in the Diary Room , spent more than five hours searching for a key buried inside a giant cupcake using only her face . The housemates passed the task and received a luxury shopping budget . On Day 65 , Hira became the ninth evictee , having received 5 @.@ 7 % of the vote to save .
In week ten , following continual rule breaking by a number of housemates , Big Brother decided to allow the discussion of nominations until further notice . Halfwit and Marcus received the most nominations and faced the public vote . The housemates took part in a " Best of British " shopping task in which they had to bog snorkel , play the bagpipes and convince Rodrigo he had met the Queen , who was in fact the impersonator Janette Charles . On Day 72 , as a special prize for succeeding in this task , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . On the same day , Freddie became the tenth evictee from the Big Brother House with 53 @.@ 6 % of the public vote .
Siavash and Sophie both refused to nominate in week eleven . As punishment for breaking this fundamental rule , Big Brother decided that the first two housemates with whom Siavash came into contact and the first two that Sophie mentioned by name after leaving the Diary Room would be taken as their nominations . Siavash touched Bea and Sophie , and Sophie named Rodrigo and Bea . Bea , David and Marcus received the most nominations and faced the public vote this week . In the House of Horrors @-@ themed shopping task Charlie , in the role of Dr Frankenstein , played a version of the game Operation in which Bea , playing his Monster , received a shock whenever his hand faltered . On Day 79 , Bea was evicted with 88 @.@ 2 % of the vote .
The housemates participated in a future @-@ related task during week twelve , in which Sophie and Rodrigo learned a robotic dance routine to Daft Punk 's song " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " and Lisa and David left the House with instructions to have photographs taken by members of the public in front of three London landmarks whilst dressed as aliens . While they were away , the rest of the housemates attempted to break out of the House and Big Brother responded by reducing the £ 100 @,@ 000 prize fund to zero , later announcing that the housemates would be given a chance to win back the money over the course of the next few days . As Siavash refused to nominate , Big Brother allocated his nominations to Charlie and Sophie and Marcus and Siavash were put up for eviction . On Day 85 , Siavash accepted the offer of £ 10 @,@ 000 towards the prize fund for exchanging his clothes with an outfit provided by Big Brother and the Housemates received a £ 20 cheque after requesting a mystery prize from the weekly shopping list . Later that day , Marcus rejected Big Brother 's offer of £ 15 @,@ 000 to shave his ponytail and the group turned down the chance to win £ 1 @,@ 500 by swimming 1 @,@ 500 lengths of the pool . On Day 86 , Rodrigo won £ 6 @,@ 000 towards the prize fund by correctly guessed the regional locations of three animals after listening to a series of sound effects . Later that day , Marcus was evicted with 64 @.@ 0 % of the public vote .
The housemates competed in a " task with no name " on Day 87 , the first day of week thirteen . In this task , the Housemates were provided with several challenges and puzzles but were unaware that they all had to leave the room in order to pass . The housemates passed the task and added £ 10 @,@ 000 to the prize fund . The following day , the housemates ' previous nominations were shown to the group and Big Brother set them a quiz on what they had seen in order to add money to the prize fund . The group answered 53 of the 60 questions correctly , gaining £ 5 @,@ 300 to the winner 's prize . A round of nominations took place on this day , which Charlie , Siavash and Sophie refused to participate in . This meant that all of the housemates faced eviction , as David , Lisa and Rodrigo received the most eligible nominations . On Day 89 , the housemates were shown the episode of Big Brother which documented Day 50 in the House and were told to re @-@ enact it over a five @-@ hour period . They passed this task , earning a luxury shopping budget . However , in order to view the reconstruction the group had to replicate the music video of " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , a song by Beyoncé Knowles . The group did so , with David portraying Knowles , and were therefore rewarded with a screening of the task after Lisa was evicted with 68 @.@ 6 % of the vote . On Day 91 , Charlie , Rodrigo , Sophie and Siavash were instructed to rank themselves in different categories , such as order of selfishness and likelihood to win . David , who was isolated in the Diary Room , had to answer questions based on their answers . As he answered four of the ten questions correctly , he added £ 40 @,@ 000 to the prize fund . This meant that the prize fund was settled at £ 71 @,@ 320 .
After Lisa 's eviction on Day 90 , the viewers began voting for who they wanted to win the programme . On Day 93 , the final day , Rodrigo was the first to be evicted with 11 @.@ 0 % of the five @-@ way vote and he was followed by Charlie , who received 13 @.@ 2 % of the five @-@ way vote . It was then announced that David had finished in third place after gaining 19 @.@ 0 % of the three @-@ way vote . Davina McCall then revealed that Sophie had won this series with 74 @.@ 4 % of the final two @-@ way vote , with Siavash finishing in second place .
= = Nominations table = =
= = Tenth year commemorations = =
= = = Additional programming = = =
Three special , one @-@ off programmes aired on E4 before the launch to commemorate ten years of the programme . The first of which , entitled Jade : As Seen On TV aired on 26 May and commented on the life of Big Brother 2002 contestant Jade Goody and the infamy that surrounded her . The most successful Big Brother housemate worldwide , Goody died of cervical cancer two months before the programme aired . The programme was watched by 305 @,@ 000 people ; 1 @.@ 8 % of the TV audience .
Big Brother 's Big Quiz , hosted by Davina McCall , aired on 29 May and featured celebrity team captains singer Jamelia , TV presenter and Celebrity Big Brother winner Ulrika Jonsson and comedians Danny Wallace and Jack Whitehall . It also featured former Big Brother housemates such as Craig Phillips and Sam and Amanda Marchant .
Big Brother : A Decade in the Headlines was transmitted on 30 May and looked back at the social , political and cultural changes that Big Brother had made to society since it began . The documentary was hosted by Grace Dent and featured participation from Mark Frith , Carole Malone , Oona King , Peter Tatchell , Krishnan Guru @-@ Murthy and Ian Hyland .
Spin @-@ off programme Big Brother 's Little Brother featured new competitions and features to mark the event . The first , The George Lamb Quiz of the Decade , was launched on 7 June . The participants had to show their knowledge of the programme by participating in a quiz relating to every series of Big Brother . Another competition was established as part of the Greek @-@ themed task in week eight . Here , male Big Brother 's Little Brother viewers were asked to apply to become a date for Bea Hammill , who was playing the role of Aphrodite . The contestant chosen was Robin from Bristol . The programme also offered a viewer the chance to become Big Brother and talk to the housemates via the Diary Room on the final day of the programme ; this was won by Simon " Jobby " Jobson , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old DJ from Alnwick , Northumberland . Former housemates , such as Nadia Almada and Rachel Rice , also appeared as guests to mark the occasion .
= = = Week seven shopping task = = =
The shopping task for week seven saw housemates from the previous nine series temporarily return , as current housemates competed against them in a series of " classic " tasks . Former housemates were not paid ; a donation was made to Jade Goody 's trust fund instead . On Day 40 , Craig Phillips , winner of the first series of Big Brother , entered the house to participate in a replica of his series ' assault course task alongside Halfwit . Phillips was drafted in after " Nasty " Nick Bateman withdrew . Later that day , Lisa competed in a task to build a sugar cube tower alongside Dean O 'Loughlin of series two . Day 41 saw Alex Sibley , Sophie Pritchard and Lee Davey from the programme 's third edition compete in a re @-@ creation of the egg and spoon race task with Rodrigo trying to predict the outcome . Later that day , Federico Martone from series four participated in a gymkhana competition against Noirin using fake horses and Dogface and Michelle Bass both sang Pie Jesu , which featured in the wedding task of series five , with viewers deciding which performance was the best . On Day 42 , Craig Coates and Makosi Musambasi challenged Siavash to the box task from the sixth series and series seven 's Nikki Grahame reenacted her silent disco task alongside Karly . Brian Belo from series eight took part in a word association game with Charlie . The task drew to a close on Day 43 when Rex Newmark from the previous series returned to participate in the electric shock task with Marcus , in which the rest of housemates were subjected to shocks . The housemates failed to pass the required minimum of seven of the nine challenges and therefore failed the overall task .
= = Reception = =
In comparison with other contemporary reality television programmes and previous editions of Big Brother , this series has received lower viewing figures and less press coverage . Bookmakers have also reported that this series has attracted the lowest amount of bets placed for any reality programme in the last decade . Four weeks before the programme began , former chat show presenter Michael Parkinson was critical of the programme ; " I object to the exploitation of the underclass in shows like Big Brother . It is the modern version of Bedlam , where you pay to see the poor benighted people making asses of themselves " . Charlie Brooker of The Guardian said that the series contained forgettable participants and that the producers were alienating the viewers with confusing tasks that seemed to take place " every four minutes " . Simmy Richman of The Independent wrote that the programme had become predictable after ten editions and that it had a " here @-@ we @-@ go @-@ again feel " . They also complained that the format had become clichéd and the housemates stereotypical , and they criticised the producers for enrolling participants who were using the programme as " a springboard to a Heat magazine cover and temporary free entry to dodgy nightclubs " . Maggie Brown , writing in her book A Licence to be Different — The Story of Channel 4 , believed that the programme limited its broadcaster as the cost to produce the programme were not justified by the number of viewers it attracted . Mark Lawson , also writing in The Guardian , suggested that the lack of viewers linked with a tired format and minimal press coverage , claiming that the newspapers had become preoccupied with stories such as the outbreak of swine flu , death of Michael Jackson and MPs ' expenses scandal . Lawson also believed that the death of Big Brother 2002 participant Jade Goody prior to the launch of Big Brother 2009 contributed to the low viewing figures . Journalist James Donaghy branded the programme a " sorry atrocity " and celebrity gossip blogger Darryn Lyons said that the series had been " massively disappointing " , pinpointing Isaac
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album 's lyrics have an " emotional and pictorial directness , rare for Yorke " . According to the Globe and Mail , " The Clock " , influenced by Arabic music , is a " gliding , droning song about losing control while pretending ' that you are still in charge ' . " " Analyse " was inspired by a blackout Yorke experienced in his hometown Oxford : " The houses were all dark , with candlelight in the windows , which is obviously how it would have been when they were built . It was beautiful . " The album title was inspired by " these huge elephants that we have in the room at the moment , in the West , and people are desperately trying to erase them from public consciousness . "
Yorke wrote " Harrowdown Hill " about David Kelly , a whistleblower who allegedly committed suicide after telling a reporter that the British government had falsely identified weapons of mass destruction in Iraq . Kelly 's body was found in the Harrowdown Hill woods near Yorke 's former school in Oxfordshire . According to the Globe and Mail , the song resembles a love song with a sense of " menace " and " grim political showdown " . Yorke was uncomfortable about the subject matter and conscious of Kelly 's grieving family , but felt that " not to write it would perhaps have been worse . " In an interview with the Observer , he said it was " the most angry song " he had ever written .
= = Artwork and packaging = =
The Eraser cover art was created by longtime Radiohead artist Stanley Donwood . The artwork , a linocut titled London Views , depicts a figure standing before London destroyed by flood in imitation of King Canute failing to command the ocean . It was inspired by the 2004 Boscastle flood and an article by the environmentalist Jonathan Porritt comparing the British government 's attitude to climate change to the Canute legend . The album is packaged as a single large foldout containing the CD ; Donwood and Yorke wanted to avoid using plastic .
= = Release = =
On 11 May 2006 , Yorke posted a link to theeraser.net on the official Radiohead website . Two days later , he wrote in a press a press announcing The Eraser : " I have been itching to do something like this for ages . It was fun and quick to do ... Yes , it 's a record ! No , it 's not a Radiohead record . " He emphasised that Radiohead were not splitting up and that the album was made " with their blessing " . Before the album 's release , " Black Swan " was used in the closing credits of the film A Scanner Darkly .
The Eraser was released on July 11 , 2006 by the independent label XL Recordings on CD and vinyl . Yorke said he chose the label because " it 's very mellow . There 's no corporate ethic . All [ major labels are ] like that . Stupid little boys ' games – especially really high up . " The album was also released on iTunes . It debuted at number three in the UK album chart and stayed in the top 100 for ten weeks . In the United States , it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling over 90 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album leaked online a month before release ; Yorke said he regretted not releasing the album as a download beforehand .
" Harrowdown Hill " was released as a single on August 21 and " Analyse " on November 6 . The album was followed in the same year by a B @-@ sides EP , Spitting Feathers , and in 2009 by The Eraser Rmxs , an album of remixes by various artists .
In 2009 , to perform The Eraser live , Yorke formed Atoms for Peace with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea . The band performed eight North American shows in 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
On the review aggregator site Metacritic , The Eraser has a score of 76 / 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Reviewing The Eraser for the NME , Louis Patterson praised Yorke 's vocals and wrote : " Some will mourn its lack of viscera ; its coldness ; its reluctance to rock . But it ’ s yet another revealing glimpse into Yorke 's cryptic inner @-@ world , and one that has the courage not to hide its political message in code . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone said : " These aren 't Radiohead songs , or demos for Radiohead songs . They 're something different , something we haven 't heard before ... it 's intensely beautiful , yet it explores the kind of emotional turmoil that makes the angst of [ Radiohead albums ] OK Computer or The Bends sound like kid stuff . " PopMatters wrote : " The Eraser isn ’ t a masterpiece , but it ’ s much more than solo @-@ project divergence . Yorke has stayed focused and created a tight album that draws on its predecessors without being held to or afraid of them . "
In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis wrote that the album " offers a plethora of low @-@ key delights " , but " you can 't help imagining what it might have sounded like if Yorke had turned it over to Radiohead . " The Village Voice praised Yorke 's vocals , but found that " without the hooks of his inspirations or [ Radiohead 's ] density , the results offer pleasantries where they could provoke profound unpleasantries . " Pitchfork wrote that The Eraser is " strikingly beautiful and thuddingly boring in maddeningly equal measure . "
The Eraser was named the 15th best album of 2006 by the NME , the 30th by the Observer , and the 34th by Rolling Stone . It was nominated for the 2006 Mercury Prize and the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Thom Yorke , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the album liner notes .
Stanley Donwood - artwork
Nigel Godrich – arrangement , production , mixing , extra instrumentation
Jonny Greenwood – piano on " The Eraser "
Graeme Stewart - engineering
Darrell Thorp - mixing
Thom Yorke – music , arrangement
= = Chart positions = =
= Stanley Kubrick =
Stanley Kubrick ( / ˈkuːbrɪk / ; July 26 , 1928 – March 7 , 1999 ) was an American film director , screenwriter , producer , cinematographer , editor , and photographer . Part of the New Hollywood film @-@ making wave , Kubrick 's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be " among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century " , and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history . His films , which are typically adaptations of novels or short stories , cover a wide range of genres , and are noted for their realism , dark humor , unique cinematography , extensive set designs , and evocative use of music .
Kubrick grew up in the Bronx in New York City , and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945 . Although he only received average grades , Kubrick displayed a keen interest in literature , photography , and film from a young age , and taught himself all aspects of film production and directing after graduating from high school . After working as a photographer for Look magazine in the late 1940s and early 1950s , he began making short films on a shoestring budget , and made his first major Hollywood film , The Killing , for United Artists in 1956 . This was followed by two collaborations with Kirk Douglas , the war picture Paths of Glory ( 1957 ) and the historical epic Spartacus ( 1960 ) . His reputation as a filmmaker in Hollywood grew , and he was approached by Marlon Brando to film what would become One @-@ Eyed Jacks ( 1961 ) , though Brando eventually decided to direct it himself . Creative differences arising from his work with Douglas and the film studios , a dislike of Hollywood , and a growing concern about crime in America prompted Kubrick to move to the United Kingdom in 1961 , where he spent most of the remainder of his life and career . His home at Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire , which he shared with his wife Christiane , became his workplace , where he did his writing , research , editing , and management of production details . This allowed him to have almost complete artistic control over his films , but with the rare advantage of having financial support from major Hollywood studios . His first British productions were two films with Peter Sellers , Lolita ( 1962 ) and Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) .
Kubrick is noted for his attention to detail and skillful use of music . A demanding perfectionist , he assumed control over most aspects of the filmmaking process , from direction and writing to editing , and took painstaking care with researching his films and staging scenes , working in close coordination with his actors and other collaborators . He often asked for several dozen retakes of the same scene in a movie , which resulted in many conflicts with his casts . Despite the resulting notoriety among actors , many of Kubrick 's films broke new ground in cinematography . The scientific realism and innovative special effects of 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) were without precedent in the history of cinema , and the film earned him his only personal Oscar , for Best Visual Effects . Steven Spielberg has referred to the film as his generation 's " big bang " , and it is often included in polls of the greatest films ever made . For the 18th @-@ century period film Barry Lyndon ( 1975 ) , Kubrick obtained lenses developed by Zeiss for NASA , to film scenes under natural candlelight . With The Shining ( 1980 ) , he became one of the first directors to make use of a Steadicam for stabilized and fluid tracking shots . While many of Kubrick 's films were controversial and initially received mixed reviews upon release — particularly A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) , which Kubrick pulled from circulation in the UK following a mass media frenzy — most of his films were nominated for Oscars , Golden Globes , or BAFTA Awards . His last film , Eyes Wide Shut , was completed shortly before his death in 1999 .
= = Early life = =
Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26 , 1928 , in the Lying @-@ In Hospital at 307 Second Avenue in Manhattan , New York City . He was the first of two children of Jacob Leonard Kubrick ( May 21 , 1902 – October 19 , 1985 ) , known as Jack or Jacques , and his wife Sadie Gertrude Kubrick ( née Perveler ; October 28 , 1903 – April 23 , 1985 ) , known as Gert , both of whom were Jewish . His sister , Barbara Mary Kubrick , was born in May 1934 . Jack Kubrick , whose parents and paternal grandparents were of Polish , Austrian , and Romanian origin , was a doctor , graduating from the New York Homeopathic Medical College in 1927 , the same year he married Kubrick 's mother , the child of Austrian immigrants . Kubrick 's great @-@ grandfather , Hersh Kubrick ( also spelled Kubrik or Kubrike ) , arrived at Ellis Island via Liverpool by ship on December 27 , 1899 , at the age of 47 , leaving behind his wife and two grown children , one of whom was Stanley 's grandfather Elias , to start a new life with a younger woman . Elias Kubrick followed in 1902 . At Stanley 's birth , the Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in the Bronx . Although his parents had been married in a Jewish ceremony , Kubrick did not have a religious upbringing , and would later profess an atheistic view of the universe . By the district standards of the West Bronx , the family was fairly wealthy , his father earning a good income as a physician .
Soon after his sister 's birth , Kubrick began schooling in Public School 3 in the Bronx , and moved to Public School 90 in June 1938 . Although his IQ was discovered to be above average , his attendance was poor , and he missed 56 days in his first term alone , as many as he attended . He displayed an interest in literature from a young age , and began reading Greek and Roman myths and the fables of the Grimm brothers which " instilled in him a lifelong affinity with Europe " . He spent most Saturdays during the summer watching the New York Yankees , and would later photograph two boys watching the game in an assignment for Look magazine to emulate his own childhood excitement with baseball . When Kubrick was 12 , his father Jack taught him chess . The game remained a lifelong interest of Kubrick 's , appearing in many scenes of his films . Kubrick himself , who later became a member of the United States Chess Federation , explained that chess helped him develop " patience and discipline " in making decisions . At the age of 13 , Kubrick 's father bought him a Graflex camera , triggering a fascination with still photography . He became friends with a neighbor , Marvin Taub , who shared his passion for photography . Taub had his own darkroom , where the young Kubrick and he would spend many hours perusing photographs and watching the chemicals " magically make images on photographic paper " . The two indulged in numerous photographic projects for which they roamed the streets for interesting subjects to capture , and spent time in local cinemas studying films . Freelance photographer Weegee ( Arthur Fellig ) had a considerable influence on Kubrick 's development as a photographer ; Kubrick would later hire Fellig as the special stills photographer for Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) . As a teenager , Kubrick was also interested in jazz , and briefly attempted a career as a drummer .
Kubrick attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945 . One of his classmates was Edith Gormezano , later known as the singer Eydie Gorme . Though he joined the school 's photographic club , which permitted him to photograph the school 's events in their magazine , he was a mediocre student , with a meager 67 grade average . Introverted and shy , Kubrick had a low attendance record , and often skipped school to watch double @-@ feature films . He graduated in 1945 , but his poor grades , combined with the demand for college admissions from soldiers returning from the Second World War , eliminated hope of higher education . Later in life , Kubrick spoke disdainfully of his education and of contemporary American schooling as a whole , maintaining that schools were ineffective in stimulating critical thinking and student interest . His father was disappointed in his son 's failure to achieve excellence in school , of which he felt Stanley was fully capable . Jack also encouraged Stanley to read from the former 's library at home , while at the same time permitting Stanley to take up photography as a serious hobby .
= = Photographic career = =
While still in high school , Kubrick was chosen as an official school photographer for a year . In the mid @-@ 1940s , since he was not able to gain admission to day session classes at colleges , he briefly attended evening classes at the City College of New York . Eventually , he sold a photographic series to Look magazine , having taken a photo to Helen O 'Brian , head of the photographic department , who purchased it without hesitation for £ 25 on the spot . It was printed on June 26 , 1945 . Kubrick supplemented his income by playing chess " for quarters " in Washington Square Park and various Manhattan chess clubs .
In 1946 , he became an apprentice photographer for Look and later a full @-@ time staff photographer . G. Warren Schloat , Jr . , another new photographer for the magazine at the time , recalled that he thought Kubrick lacked the personality to make it as a director in Hollywood , remarking , " Stanley was a quiet fellow . He didn 't say much . He was thin , skinny , and kind of poor — like we all were " . Kubrick quickly became known , however , for his story @-@ telling in photographs . His first , published on April 16 , 1946 , was entitled " A Short Story from a Movie Balcony " and staged a fracas between a man and a woman , during which the man is slapped in the face , caught genuinely by surprise . In another assignment , 18 pictures were taken of various people waiting in a dental office . It has been said retrospectively that this project demonstrated an early interest of Kubrick in capturing individuals and their feelings in mundane environments . In 1948 , he was sent to Portugal to document a travel piece , and covered the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus in Sarasota , Florida . Kubrick , a boxing enthusiast , eventually began photographing boxing matches for the magazine . His earliest , " Prizefighter " , was published on January 18 , 1949 , and captured a boxing match and the events leading up to it , featuring Walter Cartier . On April 2 , 1949 , he published a photo essay , named " Chicago @-@ City of Extremes " in Look , which displayed his talent early on for creating atmosphere with imagery , including a photograph taken above a congested Chicago street at night . The following year , on July 18 , 1950 , the magazine published his photo essay , " Working Debutante - Betsy von Furstenberg " , which featured a Pablo Picasso portrait of Angel F. de Soto in the background . Kubrick was also assigned to photograph numerous jazz musicians , from Frank Sinatra and Errol Garner to George Lewis , Eddie Condon , Phil Napoleon , Oscar Celestin , Alphonse Picou , Muggsy Spanier , Sharkey Bonano , and others .
Kubrick married his high @-@ school sweetheart Toba Metz on May 28 , 1948 . They lived together in a small apartment at 36 West 16th Street , off 6th Avenue just north of Greenwich Village . During this time , Kubrick began frequenting film screenings at the Museum of Modern Art and the cinemas of New York City . He was inspired by the complex , fluid camerawork of the director Max Ophüls , whose films influenced Kubrick 's later visual style , and by the director Elia Kazan , whom he described as America 's " best director " at that time , with his ability of " performing miracles " with his actors . Friends began to notice that Kubrick had become obsessed with the art of filmmaking — one friend , David Vaughn , observed that Kubrick would scrutinize the film at the cinema when it went silent , and would go back to reading his paper when people started talking . He also spent many hours reading books on film theory and writing down notes . Sergei Eisenstein 's theoretical writings had a profound impact on Kubrick , and he took a great number of notes from books in the library of Arthur Rothstein , the photographic technical director of Look magazine .
= = Film career = =
= = = Short films ( 1951 – 53 ) = = =
Kubrick shared a love of film with his school friend Alexander Singer , who after graduating from high school had the intention of directing a film version of Homer 's The Iliad . Through Singer , who worked in the offices of the newsreel production company , The March of Time , Kubrick learned that it could cost $ 40 @,@ 000 to make a proper short film , money he could not afford . However , he had $ 1500 in savings and managed to produce a few short documentaries fueled by encouragement from Singer . He began learning all he could about filmmaking on his own , calling film suppliers , laboratories , and equipment rental houses .
Kubrick decided to make a short film documentary about boxer Walter Cartier , whom he had photographed and written about for Look magazine a year earlier . He rented a camera and produced a 16 @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white documentary , Day of the Fight . Kubrick found the money independently to finance it . He had considered asking Montgomery Clift to narrate it , whom he had met during a photographic session for Look , but settled on CBS news veteran Douglas Edwards . According to Paul Duncan the film was " remarkably accomplished for a first film " , and was notable for using the reverse tracking shot to film a scene in which the brothers walk towards the camera , a device later to become one of Kubrick 's characteristic camera movements . Vincent Cartier , Walter 's brother and manager , later reflected on his observations of Kubrick during the filming . He said , " Stanley was very stoic , impassive but imaginative type person with strong , imaginative thoughts . He commanded respect in a quiet , shy way . Whatever he wanted , you complied , he just captivated you . Anybody who worked with Stanley did just what Stanley wanted " . After a score was added by Singer 's friend Gerald Fried , Kubrick had spent $ 3900 in making it , and sold it to RKO @-@ Pathé for $ 4000 , which was the most the company had ever paid for a short film at the time . Kubrick described his first effort at filmmaking as having been valuable since he believed himself to have been forced to do most of the work , and he later declared that the " best education in film is to make one " .
Inspired by this early success , Kubrick quit his job at Look and visited professional filmmakers in New York City , asking many detailed questions about the technical aspects of film @-@ making . He stated that he was given the confidence during this period to become a filmmaker because of the number of bad films he had seen , remarking , " I don 't know a goddamn thing about movies , but I know I can make a better film than that " . He began making Flying Padre ( 1951 ) , a film which documents Reverend Fred Stadtmueller , who travels some 4 @,@ 000 miles to visit his 11 churches . The film was originally going to be called " Sky Pilot " , a pun on the slang term for a priest . During the course of the film , the priest performs a burial service , confronts a boy bullying a girl , and makes an emergency flight to aid a sick mother and baby into an ambulance . Several of the views from and of the plane in Flying Padre are later echoed in 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) with the footage of the spacecraft , and a series of close @-@ ups on the faces of people attending the funeral were most likely inspired by Sergei Eisenstein 's Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) and Ivan the Terrible ( 1944 / 1958 ) .
Flying Padre was followed by The Seafarers ( 1953 ) , Kubrick 's first color film , which was shot for the Seafarers International Union in June 1953 . It has shots of ships , machinery , a canteen , and a union meeting . For the cafeteria scene in the film , Kubrick chose a long , sideways @-@ shooting dolly shot to establish the life of the seafarer 's community ; this shot is an early demonstration of a technique which would become a signature of his . The montage of speaker and audience echoes scenes from Eisenstein 's Strike ( 1925 ) and October ( 1928 ) . Day of the Fight , Flying Padre and The Seafarers constitute Kubrick 's only surviving documentary works , although some historians believe he made others .
= = = Early feature work ( 1953 – 55 ) = = =
After raising $ 1000 showing his short films to friends and family , Kubrick found the finances to begin making his first feature film , Fear and Desire ( 1953 ) , originally running with the title The Trap , written by his friend Howard Sackler . Kubrick 's uncle , Martin Perveler , a Los Angeles businessman , invested a further $ 9000 on condition that he be credited as executive producer of the film . Kubrick assembled several actors and a small crew totaling 14 people ( five actors , five crewmen , and four Mexicans to help transport the equipment ) and flew to the San Gabriel Mountains in California for a five @-@ week , low @-@ budget shoot . Later renamed The Shape of Fear before finally being named Fear and Desire , it is a fictional allegory about a team of soldiers who survive a plane crash and are caught behind enemy lines in a war . During the course of the film , one of the soldiers becomes infatuated with an attractive girl in the woods and binds her to a tree . This scene is noted for its close @-@ ups on the face of the actress . Kubrick had intended for Fear and Desire to be a silent picture in order to ensure low production costs ; the added sounds , effects , and music ultimately brought production costs to around $ 53 @,@ 000 , exceeding the budget . He was bailed out by producer Richard de Rochemont on the condition that he help in de Rochemont 's production of a five @-@ part television series about Abraham Lincoln on location in Hodgenville , Kentucky .
Fear and Desire garnered several positive reviews upon release , but was nonetheless a commercial failure . Critics such as the reviewer from The New York Times believed that Kubrick 's professionalism as a photographer shone through in the picture , and that he " artistically caught glimpses of the grotesque attitudes of death , the wolfishness of hungry men , as well as their bestiality , and in one scene , the wracking effect of lust on a pitifully juvenile soldier and the pinioned girl he is guarding " . Columbia University scholar Mark Van Doren was highly impressed by the scenes with the girl bound to the tree , remarking that it would live on as a " beautiful , terrifying and weird " sequence which illustrated Kubrick 's immense talent and guaranteed his future success . Kubrick himself later expressed embarrassment with Fear and Desire , however , and attempted over the years to keep prints of the film out of circulation .
Following Fear and Desire , Kubrick began working on ideas for a new boxing film . Due to the commercial failure of his first feature , Kubrick avoided asking for further investments , but commenced a film noir script with Howard O. Sackler . Originally under the title Kiss Me , Kill Me , and then The Nymph and the Maniac , Killer 's Kiss ( 1955 ) is a 67 @-@ minute film noir about a young heavyweight boxer 's involvement with a woman being abused by her criminal boss . Like Fear and Desire , it was privately funded by Kubrick 's family and friends , with some $ 40 @,@ 000 put forward from Bronx pharmacist Morris Bousse . Kubrick began shooting footage in Times Square , and frequently explored during the filming process , experimenting with cinematography and considering the use of unconventional angles and imagery . He initially chose to record the sound on location , but encountered difficulties with shadows from the microphone booms , restricting camera movement . His decision to drop the sound in favor of imagery was a costly one ; after 12 – 14 weeks shooting the picture , he spent some seven months and $ 35 @,@ 000 working on the sound . Alfred Hitchcock 's Blackmail ( 1929 ) directly influenced the film with the painting laughing at a character , and Martin Scorsese has , in turn , cited Kubrick 's innovative shooting angles and atmospheric shots in Killer 's Kiss as an influence on Raging Bull ( 1980 ) . Actress Irene Kane , the star of the film , observed : " Stanley 's a fascinating character . He thinks movies should move , with a minimum of dialogue , and he 's all for sex and sadism " . Killer 's Kiss met with limited commercial success and made very little money in comparison with its production budget of $ 75 @,@ 000 . Although critics have praised the film 's camerawork , its acting and story are generally considered mediocre .
= = = Hollywood success ( 1956 – 61 ) = = =
While playing chess in Washington Square , Kubrick met producer James B. Harris , who considered Kubrick to be " the most intelligent , most creative person I have ever come in contact with " , and the two formed the Harris @-@ Kubrick Pictures Corporation in 1955 . Harris purchased the rights to Lionel White 's novel Clean Break for $ 10 @,@ 000 and Kubrick wrote the script , but upon Kubrick 's suggestion , they hired film noir novelist Jim Thompson to write the dialog for the film — which later became The Killing ( 1956 ) — about a meticulously planned racetrack robbery gone wrong . The film starred Sterling Hayden , with whom Kubrick had been impressed in The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) . Kubrick and Harris moved to Los Angeles from New York and signed with the Jaffe Agency to shoot the picture , which became Kubrick 's first full @-@ length feature film shot with a professional cast and crew . The Union in Hollywood stated that Kubrick would not be permitted to be both the director and the cinematographer of the movie , so veteran cinematographer Lucien Ballard was hired for the shooting . Kubrick agreed to waive his fee for the production , which was shot in just 24 days on a budget of $ 330 @,@ 000 . He clashed with Ballard during the shooting , and on one occasion Kubrick threatened to fire Ballard following a camera dispute , despite being only 27 years old at the time and 20 years Ballard 's junior . Hayden recalled that Kubrick was " cold and detached . Very mechanical , always confident . I 've worked with few directors who are that good " . The Killing failed to secure a proper release across the United States ; the film made little money , and was promoted only at the last minute , as a second feature to the Western movie Bandido ! ( 1956 ) . Several contemporary critics lauded the film , however , with a reviewer for TIME comparing its camerawork to that of Orson Welles . Today , critics generally consider The Killing to be among the best films of Kubrick 's early career ; its nonlinear narrative and clinical execution also had a major influence on later directors of crime films , including Quentin Tarantino . Dore Schary of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer was highly impressed as well , and offered Kubrick and Harris $ 75 @,@ 000 to write , direct , and produce a film , which ultimately became Paths of Glory ( 1957 ) .
Paths of Glory , set during World War I , is based on Humphrey Cobb 's 1935 antiwar novel , which Kubrick had read while waiting in his father 's office . Schary of MGM was familiar with the novel , but stated that the company would not finance another war picture , given their backing of the anti @-@ war film The Red Badge of Courage ( 1951 ) . After Schary was fired by MGM in a major shake @-@ up , Kubrick and Harris managed to interest Kirk Douglas in playing Colonel Dax . The film , shot in Munich , from January 1957 , follows a French army unit ordered on an impossible mission , and follows with a war trial of Colonel Dax and his men for misconduct . For the battle scene , Kubrick meticulously lined up six cameras one after the other along the boundary of no @-@ man 's land , with each camera capturing a specific field and numbered , and gave each of the hundreds of extras a number for the zone in which they would die . Kubrick himself operated an Arriflex camera for the battle , zooming in on Douglas . Paths of Glory became Kubrick 's first significant commercial success , and established him as an up @-@ and @-@ coming young filmmaker . Critics praised the film 's unsentimental , spare , and unvarnished combat scenes and its raw , black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote : " The close , hard eye of Mr Kubrick 's sullen camera bores directly into the minds of scheming men and into the hearts of patient , frightened soldiers who have to accept orders to die " . Despite the praise , the Christmas release date was criticized , and the subject was a controversial one in Europe . The film was banned in France until 1974 for its " unflattering " depiction of the French military , and was censored by the Swiss Army until 1970 .
Marlon Brando contacted Kubrick , asking him to direct a film adaption of the Charles Neider western novel , The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones , featuring Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid . Brando was highly impressed with the director , remarking that " Stanley is unusually perceptive , and delicately attuned to people . He has an adroit intellect , and is a creative thinker — not a repeater , not a fact @-@ gatherer . He digests what he learns and brings to a new project an original point of view and a reserved passion " . The two worked on a script for six months , begun by a then unknown Sam Peckinpah . Many disputes broke out over the project , and in the end , Kubrick distanced himself from what would become One @-@ Eyed Jacks ( 1961 ) .
In February 1959 , Kubrick received a phone call from Kirk Douglas asking him to direct Spartacus ( 1960 ) , based on the true life story of the historical figure Spartacus and the events of the Third Servile War . Douglas had acquired the rights to the novel by Howard Fast and blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo began penning the script . It was produced by Douglas , who also starred as rebellious slave Spartacus , and cast Laurence Olivier as his foe , the Roman general and politician Marcus Licinius Crassus . Douglas hired Kubrick for a reported fee of $ 150 @,@ 000 to take over direction soon after he fired director Anthony Mann . Kubrick had , at 31 , already directed four feature films , and this became his largest by far , with a cast of over 10 @,@ 000 and a large budget of $ 6 million . At the time , this was the most expensive film ever made in America , and Kubrick became the youngest director in Hollywood history to helm an epic . It was the first time that Kubrick filmed using the anamorphic 35mm horizontal Super Technirama process to achieve ultra @-@ high definition , which allowed him to capture large panoramic scenes , including one with 8 @,@ 000 trained soldiers from Spain representing the Roman army . Disputes broke out during the filming . Kubrick complained about not having full creative control over the artistic aspects , insisting on improvizing extensively during the production . Kubrick and Douglas were also at odds over the script , with Kubrick angering Douglas when he cut all but two of his lines from the opening 30 minutes . Despite the on @-@ set troubles , Spartacus was a critical and commercial success , earning $ 14 @.@ 6 million at the box office in its first run . The film established Kubrick as a major director , receiving six Academy Award nominations and winning four ; it ultimately convinced him that if so much could be made of such a problematic production , he could achieve anything . Spartacus also marked , however , the end of the working relationship between Kubrick and Douglas .
= = = Collaboration with Peter Sellers ( 1962 – 64 ) = = =
Kubrick and Harris made a decision to film Kubrick 's next movie Lolita ( 1962 ) in England , due to clauses placed on the contract by producers Warner Bros. that gave them complete control over every aspect of the film , and the fact that the Eady plan permitted producers to write off the costs if 80 % of the crew were English . Instead , they signed a $ 1 million deal with Eliot Hyman 's Associated Artists Productions , and a clause which gave them the artistic freedom that they desired . Lolita , Kubrick 's first attempt at black comedy , was an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Vladimir Nabokov , the story of a middle @-@ aged college professor becoming infatuated with a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Stylistically , Lolita , starring Peter Sellers , James Mason , Shelley Winters , and Sue Lyon , was a transitional film for Kubrick , " marking the turning point from a naturalistic cinema ... to the surrealism of the later films " , according to film critic Gene Youngblood . Kubrick was deeply impressed by the chameleon @-@ like range of actor Peter Sellers and gave him one of his first opportunities to improvize wildly during shooting , while filming him with three cameras .
Lolita was shot over 88 days on a budget of $ 2 million at Elstree Studios , between October 1960 and March 1961 . Kubrick often clashed with Shelley Winters , whom he found " very difficult " and demanding , and nearly fired at one point . Because of its provocative story , Lolita was Kubrick 's first film to generate controversy ; he was ultimately forced to comply with censors and remove much of the erotic element of the relationship between Mason 's Humbert and Lyon 's Lolita which had been evident in Nabokov 's novel . The film was not a major critical or commercial success upon release , earning $ 3 @.@ 7 million at the box office on its opening run . Lolita has since become acclaimed by film critics . Social historian Stephen E. Kercher documented that the film " demonstrated that its director possessed a keen , satiric insight into the social landscape and sexual hang @-@ ups of cold war America " , while Jon Fortgang of Film4 wrote : " Lolita , with its acute mix of pathos and comedy , and Mason 's mellifluous delivery of Nabokov 's sparkling lines , remains the definitive depiction of tragic transgression " .
Kubrick 's next project was Dr. Strangelove or : How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb ( 1964 ) , another satirical black comedy . Kubrick became preoccupied with the issue of nuclear war as the Cold War unfolded in the 1950s , and even considered moving to Australia because he feared that New York City might be a likely target for the Russians . He studied over 40 military and political research books on the subject and eventually reached the conclusion that " nobody really knew anything and the whole situation was absurd " . After buying the rights to the novel Red Alert , Kubrick collaborated with its author , Peter George , on the script . It was originally written as a serious political thriller , but Kubrick decided that a " serious treatment " of the subject would not be believable , and thought that some of its most salient points would be fodder for comedy . Kubrick and George then reworked the script as a satire ( provisionally titled " The Delicate Balance of Terror " ) in which the plot of Red Alert was situated as a film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film made by an alien intelligence , but this idea was also abandoned , and Kubrick decided to make the film as " an outrageous black comedy " . Just before filming began , Kubrick hired noted journalist and satirical author Terry Southern to transform the script into its final form , a black @-@ comedy , loaded with sexual innuendo , becoming a film which showed Kubrick 's talents as " unique kind of absurdist " according to the film scholar Abrams . Although Southern certainly made major contributions to final script , and was co @-@ credited ( above Peter George ) in the film 's opening titles , his perceived role in the writing later led to a public rift between Kubrick and Peter George , who subsequently complained in a letter to Life magazine that Southern 's intense but relatively brief ( November 16 to December 28 , 1962 ) involvement with the project was being given undue prominence in the media , while his own role as the author of the film 's source novel , and his ten @-@ month stint as the script 's co @-@ writer , were being downplayed - a perception Kubrick evidently did little to address .
Kubrick found that Dr. Strangelove , a $ 2 million production which employed what became the " first important visual effects crew in the world " , would be impossible to make in the U.S. for various technical and political reasons , forcing him to move production to England . It was shot in 15 weeks , ending in April 1963 , after which Kubrick spent eight months editing it . Peter Sellers again agreed to work with Kubrick , and ended up playing three different roles in the film . Upon release , the film stirred up much controversy and mixed opinions . The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther worried that it was a " discredit and even contempt for our whole defense establishment ... the most shattering sick joke I 've ever come across " , while Robert Brustein of Out of This World in a February 1970 article called it a " juvenalian satire " . Kubrick responded to the criticism , stating : " A satirist is someone who has a very skeptical view of human nature , but who still has the optimism to make some sort of a joke out of it . However brutal that joke might be " . Today , the film is considered to be one of the sharpest comedy films ever made , and holds a near perfect 99 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 68 reviews as of August 2015 . It was voted the 39th @-@ greatest American film and third @-@ greatest comedy film of all time by the American Film Institute , and in 2010 , it was voted the sixth @-@ best comedy film of all time by The Guardian .
= = = Ground @-@ breaking cinema ( 1965 – 71 ) = = =
Kubrick spent five years developing his next film , 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) , having been highly impressed with science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke 's novel Childhood 's End , about a superior race of alien beings who assist mankind in eliminating their old selves . After meeting Clarke in New York City in April 1964 , Kubrick made the suggestion to work on his 1948 short story The Sentinel , about a tetrahedron which is found on the Moon which alerts aliens of mankind . That year , Clarke began writing the novel 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and the screenplay was written by Kubrick and Clarke in collaboration . The film 's theme , the birthing of one intelligence by another , is developed in two parallel intersecting stories on two very different times scales . One depicts transitions between various stages of man , from ape to " star child " , as man is reborn into a new existence , each step shepherded by an enigmatic alien intelligence seen only in its artifacts : a series of seemingly indestructible eons @-@ old black monoliths . In space , the enemy is a supercomputer known as HAL who runs the spaceship , a character which novelist Clancy Sigal described as being " far , far more human , more humorous and conceivably decent than anything else that may emerge from this far @-@ seeing enterprise " .
Kubrick spent a great deal of time researching the film , paying particular attention to accuracy and detail in what the future may look like . He was granted permission by NASA to observe the spacecraft being used in the Ranger 9 mission for accuracy . Filming commenced on December 29 , 1965 , with the excavation of the monolith on the moon , and footage was shot in Namib Desert in early 1967 , with the ape scenes completed in the summer of that year . The special effects team continued working diligently until the end of the year to complete the film , taking the cost to $ 10 @.@ 5 million . 2001 : A Space Odyssey was conceived as a Cinerama spectacle and was photographed in Super Panavision 70 , giving the viewer a " dazzling mix of imagination and science " through ground @-@ breaking effects , which earned Kubrick his only personal Oscar , an Academy Award for Visual Effects . Louise Sweeney of the Christian Science Monitor called the film the " ultimate trip " while praising one of the scenes where the viewer moves through space while witnessing a vibrant mix of lighting , color , and patterns . Kubrick said of the concept of the film in an interview with Rolling Stone : " On the deepest psychological level , the film 's plot symbolized the search for God , and finally postulates what is little less than a scientific definition of God . The film revolves around this metaphysical conception , and the realistic hardware and the documentary feelings about everything were necessary in order to undermine your built @-@ in resistance to the poetical concept " .
Upon release in 1968 , 2001 : A Space Odyssey was not an immediate hit among many critics , who faulted its lack of dialogue , slow pacing , and seemingly impenetrable storyline . The film appeared to defy genre convention , much unlike any science @-@ fiction movie before it , and clearly different from any of Kubrick 's earlier films or stories . Kubrick was particularly outraged by a scathing review from Pauline Kael , who called it " the biggest amateur movie of them all " , with Kubrick doing " really every dumb thing he ever wanted to do " . Despite the initial poor critical response , 2001 : A Space Odyssey gradually gained popularity and earned $ 31 million worldwide by the end of 1972 . Today , it is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential films ever made , and is a staple on All Time Top 10 lists . Baxter describes the film as " one of the most admired and discussed creations in the history of cinema " , and Steven Spielberg has referred to it as " the big bang of his film making generation " . For LoBrutto it " positioned Stanley Kubrick as a pure artist ranked among the masters of cinema " .
After completing 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Kubrick searched for a project that he could film quickly on a small budget . He settled on A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) at the end of 1969 , an exploration of violence and experimental rehabilitation by law enforcement authorities , based around the character of Alex ( portrayed by Malcolm McDowell ) . Kubrick had originally received a copy of Anthony Burgess 's novel of the same name from Terry Southern while they were working on Dr. Strangelove , but had rejected it on the grounds that Nadsat , a street language for young teenagers , was too difficult to comprehend . In 1969 , the decision to make a film about the degeneration of youth was a more timely one ; the New Hollywood movement was witnessing a great number of films that were centered around the sexuality and rebelliousness of young people , which no doubt influenced Kubrick in Baxter 's opinion . A Clockwork Orange was shot over the winter of 1970 @-@ 1 on a budget of £ 2 million . Kubrick abandoned his use of CinemaScope in the filming , deciding that the 1 @.@ 66 : 1 widescreen format was , in the words of Baxter , an " acceptable compromise between spectacle and intimacy " , and favored his " rigorously symmetrical framing " , which " increased the beauty of his compositions " . The film heavily features " pop erotica " of the period , including a giant white plastic set of male genitals , decor which Kubrick had intended to give it a " slightly futuristic " look . McDowell 's role in Lindsay Anderson 's if .... ( 1968 ) was crucial to his casting as Alex , and Kubrick professed that he probably would not have made the film if McDowell had been unavailable .
Because of its depiction of teenage violence , A Clockwork Orange became one of the most controversial films of the decade , and part of an ongoing debate about violence and its glorification in cinema . It received an X @-@ rated certificate upon release , just before Christmas in 1971 , though many critics saw much of the violence depicted in the film as satirical , and less violent than Straw Dogs , which had been released a month earlier . Kubrick personally pulled the film from release in the United Kingdom after receiving death threats following a series of copycat crimes based on the film ; it was thus completely unavailable legally in the UK until after Kubrick 's death , and not re @-@ released until 2000 . John Trevelyan , the censor of the film , personally considered A Clockwork Orange to be " perhaps the most brilliant piece of cinematic art I 've ever seen , and believed it to present an " intellectual argument rather than a sadistic spectacle " in its depiction of violence , but acknowledged that many would not agree . Ignoring the negative media hype over the film , A Clockwork Orange received four Academy Award nominations , for Best Picture , Best Director , Best Screenplay and Best Editing , and was named by the New York Film Critics Circle as the Best Film of 1971 . After William Friedkin won Best Director for The French Connection that year , he told the press : " Speaking personally , I think Stanley Kubrick is the best American film @-@ maker of the year . In fact , not just this year , but the best , period " .
= = = Period and horror filming ( 1972 – 80 ) = = =
Barry Lyndon ( 1975 ) is an adaptation of William Makepeace Thackeray 's The Luck of Barry Lyndon ( also known as Barry Lyndon ) , a picaresque novel about the adventures of an 18th @-@ century Irish rogue and social climber . John Calley of Warner Bros. agreed in 1972 to invest $ 2 @.@ 5 million into the film , on condition that Kubrick approach major Hollywood stars , to ensure it of success . Like previous films , Kubrick and his art department conducted an enormous amount of research , and he went from knowing very little about the 18th century at the start of the production to becoming an expert on it . Extensive photographs were taken of locations and artwork in particular , and paintings were meticulously replicated from works of the great masters of the period in the film . The film was shot on location in Ardmore , County Waterford , Ireland , beginning in the autumn of 1973 , at a cost of $ 11 million with a cast and crew of 170 . The decision to shoot in Ireland stemmed from the fact that it still retained many buildings from the 18th century period which England lacked . The production was problematic from the start , plagued with heavy rain and political strife involving Northern Ireland at the time . After Kubrick received death threats from the IRA in the New Year of 1974 due to the shooting scenes with English soldiers , he fled Ireland with his family on a ferry from Dún Laoghaire under an assumed identity , and filming resumed in England .
Baxter notes that Barry Lyndon was the film which made Kubrick notorious for paying scrupulous attention to detail , often demanding twenty or thirty retakes of the same scene to perfect his art . Often considered to be his most authentic @-@ looking picture , the cinematography and lighting techniques that Kubrick and cinematographer John Alcott used in Barry Lyndon were highly innovative . Most notably , interior scenes were shot with a specially adapted high @-@ speed f / 0 @.@ 7 Zeiss camera lens originally developed for NASA to be used in satellite photography . The lenses allowed many scenes to be lit only with candlelight , creating two @-@ dimensional , diffused @-@ light images reminiscent of 18th @-@ century paintings . Cinematographer Allen Daviau states that the method gives the audience a way of seeing the characters and scenes as they would have been seen by people at the time . Many of the fight scenes were shot with a hand @-@ held camera to produce a " sense of documentary realism and immediacy " .
Although Barry Lyndon found a great audience in France , it was a box office failure , grossing just $ 9 @.@ 5 million in the American market , not even close to the $ 30 million Warner Bros. needed to generate a profit . The pace and length of Barry Lyndon at three hours put off many American critics and audiences , but the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four , including Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , Best Costume Design , and Best Musical Score , more than any other Kubrick film . As with most of Kubrick 's films , Barry Lyndon 's reputation has grown through the years and it is now considered to be one of his best , particularly among filmmakers and critics . Numerous polls , such as Village Voice ( 1999 ) , Sight & Sound ( 2002 ) , and Time ( 2005 ) , have rated it as one of the greatest films ever made . As of August 2015 , it has as 96 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 52 reviews . Roger Ebert referred to it as " one of the most beautiful films ever made " , " certainly in every frame a Kubrick film : technically awesome , emotionally distant , remorseless in its doubt of human goodness . "
The Shining , released in 1980 , was adapted from the novel of the same name by bestselling horror writer Stephen King . The Shining was not the only horror film to which Kubrick had been linked ; he had turned down the directing of both The Exorcist ( 1973 ) and Exorcist II : The Heretic ( 1977 ) , despite once claiming in 1966 to a friend that he had long desired to " make the world 's scariest movie , involving a series of episodes that would play upon the nightmare fears of the audience " . The film stars Jack Nicholson as a writer who takes a job as a winter caretaker of a large and isolated hotel in the Rocky Mountains . He spends the winter there with his wife , played by Shelley Duvall , and their young son , who displays paranormal abilities . During their stay , they confront both Jack 's descent into madness and apparent supernatural horrors lurking in the hotel . Kubrick gave his actors freedom to extend the script , and even improvise on occasion , and as a result , Nicholson was responsible for the ' Here 's Johnny ! ' line and scene in which he 's sitting at the typewriter and unleashes his anger upon his wife . So determined to produce perfection was Kubrick , he often demanded up to 70 or 80 retakes of the same scene . The bar scene with the ghostly bartender was shot 36 times , while the kitchen scene between the characters of Danny ( Danny Lloyd ) and Halloran ( Scatman Crothers ) ran to 148 takes . The aerial shots of the Overlook Hotel were shot at Timberline Lodge on Mount Hood in Oregon , while the interiors of the hotel were shot at Elstree Studios in England between May 1978 and April 1979 . Cardboard models were made of all of the sets of the film , and the lighting of them was a massive undertaking , which took four months of electrical wiring . Kubrick made extensive use of the newly invented Steadicam , a weight @-@ balanced camera support , which allowed for smooth hand @-@ held camera movement in scenes where a conventional camera track was impractical . According to Garrett Brown , Steadicam 's inventor , it was the first picture to use its full potential .
Five days after release on May 23 , 1980 , Kubrick ordered the deletion of a final scene , in which the hotel manager Ullman ( Barry Nelson ) visits Wendy ( Shelley Duvall ) in hospital , believing it to have been unnecessary after witnessing the audience excitement in cinemas at the climax of the film . The Shining opened to strong box office takings , earning $ 1 million on the first weekend and earning $ 30 @.@ 9 million in America alone by the end of the year . The original critical response was mixed , and King himself detested the film and disliked Kubrick . Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the " eerie way " in which Kubrick turned an " enormous building into something cramped and claustrophobic " , which would " undoubtedly amount to one of the screen 's scarier haunted houses " . The Shining is now considered to be a horror cult classic , and the American Film Institute has ranked it as the 27th greatest thriller film of all time .
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calling itself the Edible Ballot Society , the members of which ate their ballots ( Hudema stir @-@ fried his ) as a protest against what they saw as a lack of true democracy and a system that only asked for individuals ' participation once every four years . He was charged , along with other members of the EBS , with " unlawfully and willfully altering , defacing or destroying a ballot or the initials of the Deputy Returning Officer signed on a ballot contrary to section 167 ( 2 ) ( a ) of the Canada Elections Act thereby committing an offence under subsection 489 ( 3 ) ( e ) " . The charges were eventually dropped .
In March 2004 , Hudema said that he was unsure whether he was going to vote in the 2004 federal election , saying that he went " back and forth " on the question of whether it was more useful to perform a " theatrical " stunt to draw attention to problems with the electoral system or to work to get progressive candidates elected .
= = Other activism = =
Hudema was critical of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq , which he called " an occupation by a rogue state " . He has also attributed the invasion to North America 's " addiction to oil " .
Hudema opposes most trade liberalization , and protested at both the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas negotiations in Quebec City with the theatre troupe FUNK ( Fighting Unaccountable Naughty Korporations ) in 2001 and the G8 summit in Kananaskis in 2002 .
During the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , Hudema travelled to China to participate in protests in favour of Tibetan independence . In what he alleges was a pre @-@ emptive move , Chinese authorities entered the apartment he was sharing with fellow activists and expelled him from the country .
= = Writing and journalism = =
Hudema is the author of An Action a Day Keeps Global Capitalism Away ( ISBN 1896357903 ) , which was published in 2004 . It is described as " fifty @-@ two tried and tested actions , one for every week--an action guide for the 21st century . "
Hudema was featured in the 2011 Canadian documentary Peace Out where he discussed impacts of Alberta 's Athabasca oil sands .
He is also co @-@ founder and former co @-@ host and co @-@ producer of Rise Up : Radio Free Edmonton , a current affairs show on CJSR , the University of Alberta 's campus @-@ community radio station .
= = Electoral politics = =
Hudema ran in the 2001 Alberta election as a candidate for the Alberta New Democrats in the riding of Edmonton Meadowlark . He finished third of four candidates with 5 @.@ 1 % of the vote , well behind winner Bob Maskell of the Progressive Conservatives and incumbent Karen Leibovici of the Alberta Liberal Party .
= Lithium ( Nirvana song ) =
" Lithium " is a song by American rock band Nirvana . Written by frontman Kurt Cobain , the song is about a man who turns to religion amid thoughts of suicide . Nirvana first recorded " Lithium " in 1990 but then re @-@ recorded the song the following year for the group 's second album Nevermind ( 1991 ) .
Released as the third single from Nevermind in July 1992 , " Lithium " peaked at number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . The accompanying music video , directed by Kevin Kerslake , is a montage of concert footage .
= = Background and recording = =
Nirvana singer / guitarist Kurt Cobain described " Lithium " as " one of those songs I actually did finish while trying to write it instead of taking pieces of my poetry and other things . " Nirvana recorded " Lithium " with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin during April 1990 . The material recorded at Smart Studios was intended for the group 's second album for the independent record label Sub Pop . The book Classic Rock Albums : Nevermind ( 1998 ) stated that observers considered the session for " Lithium " as a key event in the developing rift between Cobain and drummer Chad Channing . Cobain was dissatisfied with Channing 's drumming as their musical styles were inconsistent . Cobain told Channing to perform the drum arrangement he had devised for the song . According to Vig , Cobain overexerted his voice while recording vocals for " Lithium , " which forced the band to halt recording . The songs from these sessions were placed on a demo tape and circulated within the music industry , generating interest in the group among major record labels .
After signing to DGC Records , Nirvana reconvened with Vig in May 1991 to work on its major label debut , Nevermind , at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California . Between the sessions , bassist Krist Novoselic simplified the bassline ; he said , " I enriched the bass @-@ playing a little more but that was about all that we changed . " The recording session for " Lithium " was one of the most arduous for Vig and the group at Sound City . The band repeatedly sped up while recording the song , so Vig resorted to using a click track to maintain a consistent tempo . The producer suggested that new drummer Dave Grohl use simpler fills and patterns for the song , which resulted in a satisfactory instrumental take . Cobain 's guitar track was more difficult to record . " Kurt wanted to be able to play the guitar very . . . not methodical — it needed to have this space , " Vig recalled . " It had to be relaxed . " Every time Cobain sped up , Vig called for another take . During the first day of recording the song , Cobain became so frustrated at the slow progress that the band instead began playing an instrumental jam it had been working on . Vig recorded the jam , later titled " Endless , Nameless , " and it was inserted as a hidden track at the end of Nevermind .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Lithium " is representative of the musical style Nirvana had developed during work on Nevermind , alternating between quiet and loud sections . In the song , Cobain fingers chord shapes on his guitar but varies between playing single notes and double stops on the instrument , giving the track a loose feel .
Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad described the song 's title as a reference to Karl Marx 's statement that religion is the " opiate of the masses . " Cobain said the song is about a man who , after the death of his girlfriend , turns to religion " as a last resort to keep himself alive . To keep him from suicide . " While Cobain said the narrative of " Lithium " was fictional , he said , " I did infuse some of my personal experiences , like breaking up with girlfriends and having bad relationships . " Cobain acknowledged that the song was possibly inspired in part by the time he spent living with his friend Jesse Reed and his born @-@ again Christian parents . He explained to Azerrad , " I 've always felt that some people should have religion in their lives [ . . . ] That 's fine . If it 's going to save someone , it 's okay . And the person in [ ' Lithium ' ] needed it . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Lithium " was released as the third single from Nevermind on July 13 , 1992 . Featuring a cover photo by Cobain , the single contained a sonogram of the musician 's then @-@ unborn child Frances Bean Cobain , as well as full lyrics for all the songs on Nevermind . Cassette , CD , 12 @-@ inch vinyl , and British 12 @-@ inch vinyl picture disc editions included " Curmudgeon " and a live version of " Been a Son " ( performed on Halloween the previous year ) as B @-@ sides . The British 7 @-@ inch and cassette featured only " Curmudgeon " as an extra track , while the UK CD release added a cover of the Wipers ' " D @-@ 7 " recorded for BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel 's program in 1990 .
In the United States , the single charted at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 single chart . " Lithium " peaked at number 16 and 25 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock Tracks airplay charts , respectively . The song was tied at number 20 with singles by Ministry , Lisa Stansfield , and Utah Saints in the 1992 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . In 2012 , NME ranked Lithium at number 52 on its list of the " 100 Best Tracks Of The ' 90s " in 2012 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Lithium " was the second Nirvana video directed by Kevin Kerslake . Cobain originally wanted the video to feature an animated story about a girl named Prego who discovers some eggs that hatch . When Cobain and Kerslake discovered the animation would take four months to produce , they instead created a film collage of Nirvana performing in concert . Among the concert footage used was material from the trio 's 1991 Halloween performance and scenes from the film 1991 : The Year Punk Broke ( 1992 ) . Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad commented , " Although [ the video ] was enlivened by Kerslake 's neat trick of using more violent footage during the quiet parts of the song and vice versa , it was something of a disappointment from a band and a song that promised so much . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Kurt Cobain , except where noted .
US 12 @-@ inch , cassette , CD , and UK 12 @-@ inch vinyl picture disc
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Been a Son " ( live - Seattle - 31 @.@ 10 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 14
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
UK 7 @-@ inch vinyl and cassette
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
UK CD
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Been a Son " ( live ) – 2 : 14
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
" D @-@ 7 " ( John Peel Radio Session ) ( Greg Sage ) – 3 : 45
= = Charts = =
= = Accolades = =
Ranked number 20 in Kerrang ! magazines " 100 Greatest Rock Tracks Ever ! " ( 1999 ) .
= = Personnel = =
Kurt Cobain : vocals , guitar
Krist Novoselic : bass guitar
Dave Grohl : drums
Butch Vig : recording and mixing engineer , producer
= The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is a 1980 science fiction novel by Doris Lessing . It is the second book in her five @-@ book Canopus in Argos series , the first being Shikasta ( 1979 ) . It was first published in the United States in January 1980 by Alfred A. Knopf , and in the United Kingdom in May 1980 by Jonathan Cape .
The novel takes place in three of six metaphysical Zones that encircle the planet Shikasta ( an allegorical Earth ) , and concerns two ordained marriages that link the patriarchal and militaristic Zone Four with the matriarchal and egalitarian Zone Three , and the tribal and barbaric Zone Five . The story is told from the point of view of the matriarchal utopian Zone Three , and is about gender conflict and the breaking down of barriers between the sexes . Lessing called the Canopus in Argos series " space fiction " , but The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is generally referred to as feminist science fiction .
In the mid @-@ 1960s Lessing had become interested in Sufism , an Islamic belief system , and she used many Sufi concepts in the Canopus in Argos series . In The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , the zones are said to correspond to Sufism 's different levels of consciousness , and symbolise the " Sufi ladder to enlightenment " . Lessing was criticised for abandoning her traditional fiction and switching to science fiction with spiritual and mystical themes . Notwithstanding this criticism , The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was generally well received by critics , with some reviewers calling it one Lessing 's best works on the topic of gender conflict .
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was also adapted as an opera by composer Philip Glass with story @-@ libretto by Lessing , and premiered in Heidelberg , Germany in May 1997 . The US premiere was performed in Chicago in June 2001 .
= = Zones = =
First described in the opening book of the series , Shikasta , six metaphysical Zones ( akin to cosmological planes ) encircle the planet Shikasta ( an allegorical Earth ) . These " concentric shells " ( numbered One to Six ) each represent different " levels of spiritual being . " Shikasta only deals with Zone Six , the innermost and least pure of the Zones , which is " a kind of purgatory in which humans wait out the time between incarnations on earth " .
In The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , Lessing describes some of the higher Zones in this " spiritual landscape " as self @-@ contained " countries " , each with their own " societies " that have evolved independently of the others over time . Adjacent Zones in the sequence border each other , from Zone Six ( the lowest ) up to Zone One ( the highest and purest ) , each with " increasingly mountainous topography . "
Crossing the frontiers from one Zone to another is possible , but generally avoided as straying too close to the border leaves one feeling ill @-@ at @-@ ease and sometimes even physically sick . For those who need to move into another Zone , special shields are provided for protection against the debilitating effects of the foreign atmosphere ( both physical and ideological ) .
= = Plot = =
The story opens when the Providers , the invisible and unidentified rulers of all the Zones , order Al • Ith , queen of the peaceful paradise of Zone Three , to marry Ben Ata , king of the militarised and repressive Zone Four . Al • Ith is repulsed by the idea of consorting with a barbarian , and Ben Ata does not want a righteous queen disturbing his military campaigns . Nevertheless , Al • Ith descends to Zone Four and they reluctantly marry . Ben Ata is not used to the company of women he cannot control , and Al • Ith has difficulty relating to this ill @-@ bred man , but in time they grow accustomed to each other and gain new insights into each other 's Zones . Al • Ith is appalled that all of Zone Four 's wealth goes into its huge armies , leaving the rest of its population poor and underdeveloped ; Ben Ata is astounded that Zone Three has no army at all .
The marriage bears a son , Arusi , future heir to the two Zones . Some of the women of Zone Four , led by Dabeeb , step in to help Al • Ith . Suppressed and downtrodden , these women relish being in the presence of the queen of Zone Three . But soon after the birth of Arusi , the Providers order Al • Ith to return to Zone Three without her son , and Ben Ata to marry Vahshi , queen of the primitive Zone Five . Al • Ith and Ben Ata have grown fond of each other , and are devastated by this news .
In Zone Three , Al • Ith finds that her people have forgotten her , and her sister , Murti • has taken over as queen . Disturbed by the changes she sees in Al • Ith , Murti • exiles her to the frontier of Zone Two . Al • Ith , drawn by its allure , tries to enter Zone Two , but finds an unworldly and inhospitable place and is told by invisible people that it is not her time yet . At the frontier of Zone Five , Ben Ata reluctantly marries Vahshi , a tribal leader of a band of nomads who terrorise the inhabitants of her zone . But Ben Ata 's marriage to Al • Ith has changed him , and he disbands most of his armies in Zone Four , sending the soldiers home to rebuild their towns and villages and uplift their communities . He also slowly wins over Vahshi 's confidence and persuades her to stop plundering Zone Five .
When Arusi is old enough to travel , Dabeeb and her band of women decide to take him to Zone Three to see Al • Ith . This cross @-@ border excursion is not ordered by the Providers , and Ben Ata has grave misgivings about their decision . In Zone Three the women are shocked to find the deposed Al • Ith working in a stable near Zone Two . While Al • Ith is pleased to see her son , she too has misgivings about Dabeeb 's action . The bumptious women 's travels through Zone Three evoke feelings of xenophobia in the locals .
After five years of silence , the Providers instruct Ben Ata to go and see Al • Ith in Zone Three . At the border , he is surprised to find a band of youths armed with crude makeshift weapons blocking his way . Clearly they want no more incursions from Zone Four . Ben Ata returns with a large army and enters Zone Three unchallenged . He is not well received , but finds Al • Ith with a small band of followers who have moved to the frontier of Zone Two to be close to her . Ben Ata and Al • Ith reunite ; he tells her of the reforms he has introduced in Zone Four and his taming of the " wild one " from Zone Five .
One day Al • Ith enters Zone Two and does not return . But the changes set in motion by the two marriages are now evident everywhere . The frontiers between Zones Three , Four and Five are open , and people and knowledge are flowing between them . Previously stagnant , the three Zones are now filled with enquiry , inspiration and renewal .
= = Background = =
When Lessing published Shikasta in 1979 , the first book in her Canopus in Argos series , it represented a major shift of focus for the author . In her earlier books , Lessing had established a name for herself as a writer of realistic fiction ; in Shikasta she introduced her readers to the spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism . In the mid @-@ 1960s Lessing had become interested in Sufism , an Islamic belief system , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah . She described The Sufis as " the most surprising book [ she ] had read " , and said it " changed [ her ] life " . Lessing later met Shah , who became " a good friend [ and ] teacher " . In the early 1970s Lessing began writing " inner space " fiction , which included the novels Briefing for a Descent into Hell ( 1971 ) and Memoirs of a Survivor ( 1974 ) , and in the late 1970s she turned to science fiction when she wrote Shikasta , in which she used many Sufi concepts . Shikasta was intended to be a " single self @-@ contained book " , but as Lessing 's fictional universe developed , she found she had ideas for more than just one book , and ended up writing a series of five .
Lessing 's switch to science fiction was not well received by all . By the late 1970s Lessing was considered " one of the most honest , intelligent and engaged writers of the day " , and Western readers unfamiliar with Sufism were dismayed that Lessing had abandoned her " rational worldview " . George Stade of The New York Times complained that " our Grand Mistress of lumpen realism has gone religious on us " . The reaction of reviewers and readers to the first two books in the series , Shikasta and The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , prompted Lessing to write in the Preface to the third book in the series , The Sirian Experiments ( 1980 ) :
I would so like it if reviewers and readers could see this series , Canopus in Argos : Archive , as a framework that enables me to tell ( I hope ) a beguiling tale or two ; to put questions , both to myself and to others ; to explore ideas and sociological possibilities .
Further criticism of the Canopus series followed , which included this comment by New York Times critic John Leonard : " One of the many sins for which the 20th century will be held accountable is that it has discouraged Mrs. Lessing . [ ... ] She now propagandizes on behalf of our insignificance in the cosmic razzmatazz . " Lessing replied by saying : " What they didn 't realize was that in science fiction is some of the best social fiction of our time . I also admire the classic sort of science fiction , like Blood Music , by Greg Bear . He 's a great writer . " Lessing said in 1983 that she would like to write stories about red and white dwarves , space rockets powered by anti @-@ gravity , and charmed and coloured quarks , " [ b ] ut we can 't all be physicists " .
In an interview published in 1996 , Lessing spoke passionately of The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five : " Something happened when I wrote the book . I hit some other level . And is it a legend or a myth or a fairy tale or a fantasy ? That isn 't the word for what I ’ ve written , I think . You see , only I could have written The Golden Notebook , but I think Anon wrote this other book . " Lessing considered Marriages one of her better books , and said , " this book goes down into me pretty deep ... it will never happen again " .
= = Genre and themes = =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is told largely from the point of view of the matriarchal utopian Zone Three , which places the novel in the category of feminist utopias or feminist science fiction . The Canopus in Argos series in general falls under the banner of soft science fiction , or " space fiction " as Lessing called it , due to its focus on characterisation and social and cultural issues , and the de @-@ emphasis of science and technology . Comparative literature professor Robert Alter suggested that this kind of writing belongs to a genre that literary critic Northrop Frye called the " anatomy " , which is " a combination of fantasy and morality " . Author Gore Vidal placed Lessing 's " science fiction " " somewhere between John Milton and L. Ron Hubbard " .
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five differs from the other books in the Canopus in Argos series in that it reads like a fable and is set in a metaphysical , or " psychic " space , outside the rest of the series ' " normal " space / time universe . The story concerns two ordained marriages that link the patriarchal and militaristic Zone Four with the matriarchal and egalitarian Zone Three , and the tribal and barbaric Zone Five . It focuses on , what Time magazine reviewer Paul Gray calls , the " struggles between men and women and the dimensions of sex and love " . Literary critic Diana Sheets says that the book is about overcoming gender differences and opening up new possibilities . She argues that the premise of the story is that " cosmic order is ideally realized when men and women cross the gender divide and attempt genuine communication — sexually , emotionally , [ ... ] thereby setting the preconditions for the attainment of enlightened consciousness . "
The marriages were ordained by the Providers because the zones had stagnated and the birth rate of both humans and animals had fallen . Lessing does not identify the Providers , but some reviewers and critics have assumed that they are the Canopeans from the benevolent galactic empire Canopus , introduced in the first book of the series , Shikasta . Author Thelma J. Shinn says that , as in Shikasta , Lessing 's " pessimistic view of human capabilities still keeps control in a benevolent power rather than in the hands of the individual " . But after a push in the right direction , the individual triumphs : Al • Ith and Ben Ata initiate changes in both their own and their neighbouring zones .
Literature academic Jayne Ashleigh Glover says that while Zone Three on the surface appears to be a feminist utopia , Lessing shows that it is far from idyllic . The story narrators , the Chroniclers of Zone Three , question their zone 's behaviour and attitudes , and warn of the dangers of stagnation . Al • Ith , upon returning to Zone Three , is shunned by its inhabitants for failing to attend to their zone 's needs , and Zone Three 's stasis manifests itself in xenophobia when Al • Ith brings back new perspectives , followed by visitors from Zone Four .
Glover sees Al • Ith , Ben Ata and Vahshi as allegories for their respective zones , and the marriages between them as marriages between the zones , as stated by the title of the book . Author Müge Galin says that Al • Ith functions according to the nature of Zone Three rather than as an individual . Galin also argues that the six zones correspond to Sufism 's different levels of consciousness . Both Al • Ith and Ben Ata are able to experience other levels of consciousness when they travel to each other 's zones , but Al • Ith can perceive and experience the neighbouring zone far deeper than Ben Ata because she is from a higher zone / level of consciousness . Galin says that on the " Sufi ladder to enlightenment " , those on higher rungs must pull up those on lower rungs . Thus Al • Ith can only move to Zone Two after she has pulled Ben Ata up to Zone Three .
= = Reception = =
In a review of The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five in Time magazine , Paul Gray described the novel as " part fertility myth , part comedy of manners " . Gray said that Lessing often wrote about gender conflict , but " never with more sweetness , compassion and wisdom " as she has in this novel . Writing in HuffPost Culture , University of Bristol academic Tom Sperlinger called the book " a legend " and listed it amongst his " Five Doris Lessing Books to Read " . Critic John Leonard in a review in The New York Times called The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five " an act of magic " , and " a remarkable recovery " from Shikasta , which Leonard called a " disaster " .
British writer Graham Sleight in a review of the Canopus in Argos series in Locus magazine said The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five comes closest to Ursula K. Le Guin 's works in the way that both Lessing and Le Guin scrutinise societies . Sleight compared The Marriages to Le Guin 's The Dispossessed , saying that each revolves around conflicts between differing worldviews , namely the Zones in The Marriages , and Anarres and Urras in The Dispossessed .
Kirkus Reviews said that Lessing often tackled the subject of sexual politics , but The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is her " most humane and loving variation on the theme " . While the review was critical of Lessing 's prose style , saying its " gracelessness [ ... ] has never been more conspicuous " , and called her descriptions of the Zone Four war economy " a silly cartoon sketch " , it said that " there is a sweetness and generosity about this work not quite like anything she has done " .
= = Adaptations = =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was adapted for the opera in 1997 by composer Philip Glass with story @-@ libretto by Doris Lessing . The two @-@ act opera for orchestra , chorus and soloists first premiered in Heidelberg , Germany in May 1997 under the direction of Thomas Kalb ( music ) and Birgitta Trommler ( stage ) . Lessing said that for the opera she expanded her allegory about gender relations : " There was room for two festivals : a woman 's festival and a marriage festival . There are a lot of lyrics not in the novel . " The libretto was translated by Saskia M. Wesnigk into German . The first US premiere was in June 2001 at the Merle Reskin Theatre in Chicago , Illinois , and was directed by Harry Silverstein .
The German premiere was not well received by the press , and Chicago Tribune music critic John von Rhein found faults in the US production . He said that the novel " falls flat as music theater " , there is " no compelling dramatic narrative " , and the music " drifts along innocuously " . Von Rhein also complained that " score breaks no new stylistic ground , nor does it define the characters dramatically " .
In 1986 , Glass adapted another book from the Canopus in Argos series , The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 , into a three @-@ act opera with story @-@ libretto by Lessing . It premiered in Houston , Texas in July 1988 .
= Bosa of York =
Bosa ( died c . 705 ) was an Anglo @-@ Saxon Bishop of York during the 7th and early 8th centuries . He was educated at Whitby Abbey , where he became a monk . Following Wilfrid 's removal from York in 678 the diocese was divided into three , leaving a greatly reduced see of York , to which Bosa was appointed bishop . He was himself removed in 687 and replaced by Wilfrid , but in 691 Wilfrid was once more ejected and Bosa returned to the see . He died in about 705 , and subsequently appears as a saint in an 8th @-@ century liturgical calendar .
= = Life = =
Bosa was a Northumbrian , educated at Whitby Abbey under the abbess Hilda . He subsequently joined the monastery as a monk , and became one of five men educated at Whitby who went on to become bishops .
In 678 , after Wilfrid was removed from the bishopric of York and banished from Northumbria , the diocese of York was divided into three . Bosa was appointed to the now greatly reduced diocese of York , which included the sub @-@ kingdom of Deira , thanks to the support of King Ecgfrith of Northumbria and Theodore of Tarsus , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Bosa was consecrated in his cathedral at York in 678 by Theodore , but Wilfrid declared that he was unable to work with Bosa because he did not consider him to be a member of the Catholic Church . Bosa 's episcopate lasted nine years , but with Wilfrid back in favour , in 687 Bosa was removed just as his predecessor had been . He returned to York in 691 , after Wilfrid was once again expelled . While bishop , Bosa introduced a communal life for the clergy of the cathedral , and set up a continuous liturgy in the cathedral .
= = Death and legacy = =
The date of Bosa 's death is unknown ; he was still alive in 704 but must have died before 706 , when his successor was named . His successor at York was John of Beverley , the Bishop of Hexham . A contemporary writer , Bede , praised Bosa as a man of " singular merit and sanctity " . Bede also praised Bosa 's humility . Bosa was also responsible for the early education of Acca , later Bishop of Hexham , who grew up in his household .
Bosa appears as a saint in an 8th @-@ century liturgical calendar from York , the only sign that he was venerated as a saint before the Norman Conquest of England . The 16th @-@ century English antiquary John Leland included Bosa in his list of saint 's resting places in England , giving it as York . Bosa 's feast day is 9 March .
= Colross =
Colross , ( also historically known as Belle Air and Grasshopper Hall ) , is a Georgian mansion in Princeton , New Jersey ; it was built as the center of an estate in the Old Town neighborhood of Alexandria , Virginia . Colross is currently the administration building of Princeton Day School . The Colross property originally occupied the entire 1100 block of Oronoco Street ; Alexandria merchant John Potts developed it as a plantation and began building the mansion in 1799 – 1800 . In 1803 , Jonathan Swift — also an Alexandria merchant and a city councilman — purchased the property and during his ownership continued constructing the mansion . After Swift 's death in 1824 , Colross was purcheased by Thomson Francis Mason ( 1785 – 1838 ) , son of Thomson Mason ( 1759 – 1820 ) and grandson of Founding Father George Mason ( 1725 – 1792 ) of Gunston Hall . Mason served as a judge of the Criminal Court of the District of Columbia and as mayor of Alexandria . During his ownership , Mason made Colross his chief homestead ; he substantially modified and added to the mansion . After successive ownerships , the area around Colross became heavily industrialized . The mansion was bought by John Munn in 1929 ; between that year and 1932 it was transported brick @-@ by @-@ brick to Princeton , where in 1958 it was sold to Princeton Day School , which uses it as a school administration building housing its admission and advancement offices .
The Colross mansion is a two @-@ story , brick , Georgian @-@ style structure that features an architectural plan similar to those of Mount Vernon and Woodlawn , and was originally flanked by two wings . The front entrance is covered by a spacious Neoclassical portico supported by wooden doric columns . The roof is topped by a balustraded deck and is further embellished by three Dormer windows .
Following the 2005 purchase of the original Colross site by a real estate development company , an archaeological excavation was undertaken between March and June that year at the behest of the city of Alexandria . Archaeologists uncovered an underground domed brick cistern and evidence of slave outbuildings , in addition to the foundations of the estate 's peripheral walls and several ancillary structures . The excavation of the Colross site resulted in 79 condominium buyers abandoning their purchase agreements because of the delay in construction of a luxury Monarch Condominium project .
Colross served as the venue for several significant Mason family events , including the wedding ceremonies of Thomson Francis Mason 's daughters Sarah Elizabeth Mason ( 1819 – 1907 ) and Virginia Mason ( 1830 – 1919 ) . According to local tradition , two children in the Mason family died on the property and were interred in the estate 's burial vault . Successive owners of the Colross estate claimed it was haunted by the deceased Mason children .
= = History = =
= = = Virginia = = =
The land on which Colross was first located was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
John Potts , a prominent Alexandria merchant , developed the Colross property as a plantation . He began building a brick mansion on the property between 1799 and 1800 . Potts encountered financial difficulties and placed the unfinished mansion on the market in 1801 . In December 1803 , Jonathan Swift , a merchant and Freemason , bought the property for $ 9 @,@ 000 . Swift purchased Colross for his bride , Anne Roberdeau , daughter of Brigadier General Daniel Roberdeau ( 1727 – 1795 ) . Some sources say Swift 's wife reportedly named the estate Belle Air ; according to other sources , Swift referred to his estate as both " Belle Air " and " Grasshopper Hall " . Swift presided over Alexandria City Council from 1822 through 1823 . His wife , two daughters , and three sons lived with him at the mansion . As Alexandria expanded , Colross evolved from a rural plantation into an urban estate . Between 1791 and 1847 , the city of Alexandria was a part of Alexandria County within the District of Columbia . Swift continued to construct the mansion . After his death in 1824 , the estate transferred to the ownership of Lee Massey Alexander and his sister , Mrs. Chapman . The Alexander family owned the estate for a brief period ; they renamed it " Colross " .
Colross was then purchased by Thomson Francis Mason ( 1785 – 1838 ) , a prominent jurist , lawyer , councilman , judge of the Criminal Court of the District of Columbia , and mayor of Alexandria between 1827 and 1830 . Mason was the eldest son of Thomson Mason ( 1759 – 1820 ) , and was the grandson of U.S. Founding Father George Mason ( 1725 – 1792 ) of Gunston Hall . According to Mason 's daughter Virginia Mason Davidge , her father won Colross " at a game of cards " from Lee Massey Alexander . Mason used Colross as his chief homestead and made substantial modifications and additions to it . Mason built a 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high brick wall around the exterior of the Colross property . Around the same time Mason acquired Colross , he built Huntley in Fairfax County , Virginia as a rural retreat and summer villa . Mason 's son , Arthur " Pen " Pendleton Mason ( 1835 – 1893 ) , later inherited the Colross estate . Pen Mason was married to Mary Ellen Campbell , a daughter of John Archibald Campbell ( 1811 – 1889 ) , an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Orlando B. Willcox , who later served as a Union Army general , visited Colross on several occasions around 1851 ; he described it as a " fine house and ground and the chief residence of the Masons of Alexandria , much frequented by officers of the army " . Willcox also remarked on the " hospitality and civility of the head of the house " , Pen Mason 's mother , Elizabeth " Betsey " Clapham Price ( 1802 – 1873 ) .
During the American Civil War , Colross was seized by Union authorities . According to local tradition and to Alexandria resident Julian Taylor , at least two Union deserters were executed with their backs against the estate 's high brick exterior wall . In addition , a " famous ' bounty jumper ' " by the name of Downey was also shot and killed against the wall after being captured by his own soldiers . Local traditions also tell of the ghost of a soldier who haunts the former location of the estate 's brick perimeter wall .
William Albert Smoot , a lumber merchant and coal businessman , purchased Colross from the Mason family and lived there with his family between 1885 and 1917 . Smoot 's wife was a member of the Alexander family , and was therefore a descendant of the estate 's former owners . While there , the Smoots ' daughter Betty wrote , " the grounds included a whole square block and were enclosed with an ancient brick wall ten feet in height " . The Smoots ' son William Albert later served as mayor of Alexandria from 1922 to 1930 .
The parents of Cornell University professor and activist Alice Cook ( 1903 – 1998 ) lived at the then @-@ dilapidated Colross with her father 's superior from the Southern Railway . Her father worked for the railroad 's bookkeeping department . Cook spent her early childhood at the house . In c . 1913 , when Cook was about ten , her mother took her to Colross for a visit . She remarked that Colross " had no gaslights , and running water only in the kitchen " , and that the house " stood in the midst of railroad tracks " . Cook also said the house 's adjacent stables still had horses , the " elegant plaster ceilings " remained intact , and " great oak doors " still stood within the house 's main doorway behind the white columns of the front portico .
In 1917 , another lumber merchant , William Hoge , acquired ownership of the mansion . Under similar circumstances to those of nearby Abingdon , properties surrounding Colross underwent industrialization with the construction of a warehouse complex and ancillary industrial buildings associated with Alexandria Hay & Grain . The mansion at Colross became a storage facility within a lumber yard operated by another planing mill owner . In 1927 , the mansion and the adjacent warehouses were substantially damaged by a tornado , making the mansion uninhabitable .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Between 1929 and 1932 , John Munn purchased the mansion , dismantled it , and shipped the structure brick @-@ by @-@ brick to Princeton , New Jersey , where it was restored . Following Munn 's death in 1956 , Colross was purchased by Dr. Geoffrey W. Rake . After Rake died in 1958 , Colross was sold to Princeton Day School . The mansion became the school 's administrative building , which it remains to this day . As of 2015 , Colross houses the admission and advancement offices of Princeton Day School , and serves as a venue for the institution 's events .
In Alexandria , the mansion 's remaining brick foundation was buried beneath a slab of reinforced concrete for over 50 years . After the mansion 's relocation , its site was the location — among other structures — of a large 50 @-@ truck garage , Andy 's Car Wash , a Dominion Virginia Power substation , and the Hennage Creative Printers facility .
= = Architecture = =
The mansion at Colross was built in the Georgian architectural style between 1799 and 1800 . It is a two @-@ story brick house featuring a rectangular architectural plan , which was originally flanked by two wings . Colross features wide halls and spacious rooms . One wing housed facilities for the estate 's service staff ; the other wing served as a carriage shed . Colross ' architectural plan is similar to that of nearby estates Mount Vernon and Woodlawn , and is an example of the country house style of American colonial architecture common in Maryland and Virginia . It has been described as the " largest and most beautiful mansion ever erected in Alexandria " . The Colross property originally occupied the entire 1100 block of Oronoco Street . The grounds of the estate also contained ancillary outbuildings .
The exterior brick walls of the mansion are laid in a Flemish bond pattern , exhibiting a " well proportioned width " of mortar joint between the bricks . Two sets of double inside chimneys extend above the roofline on each side of the mansion 's main structure . The front façade of the mansion 's main structure , which originally faced Oronoco Street in Alexandria , is five bays wide and contains the house 's front entrance at the first floor 's center bay . The front entrance is covered by a spacious Neoclassical architecture style portico , which is supported by two sets of double wooden doric columns at the front and engaged columns on the brick façade . The portico 's frieze is subordinated to the architrave . The mansion 's front door is topped by a leaded fanlight in the shape of a segmented arch . Leaded sidelights flank both sides of the main doorway . All of the mansion 's windows feature colonial @-@ style lintels .
The mansion 's roof is covered by gray slate and is further embellished with three dormer windows facing from the home 's front façade . The roof is topped by a balustraded deck . Similar moulding contours were used at varying scales throughout the mansion 's exterior construction . The mansion 's cornice is composed of ornamented moldings .
To the north of the mansion was a garden , which was purportedly well known for its boxwoods , lilacs , and roses . The garden remained through the ownership of the Smoot family . A winding path led from the mansion to a large burial vault , which was closed by a great iron lock . According to members of the Smoot family , the lock to the burial vault would " never stay locked more than three days " at a time . A vase of urn stood in the front lawn of the mansion ; according to tradition this marked the location where Pocahontas was baptized . The urn remained in its location throughout the American Civil War and was later acquired by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities .
= = Archeological excavation = =
The former Colross land tract on the 1100 block of Oronoco Street , which is bounded by North Fayette , Oronoco , Henry , and Pendleton streets , was purchased in 2003 by Diamond Properties , a real estate development company with plans to build a mixed @-@ use mid @-@ rise luxury condominium project called Monarch Condominium . In 2005 , Alexandria 's Archaeological Protection Code requirement forced Diamond Properties to halt its construction to allow for an archaeological excavation of the Colross site . The excavation occurred between March and June 2005 , as mandated by the city of Alexandria . Diamond Properties paid R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates Inc . , a cultural resource management firm , approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 to explore the site for historical artifacts and to ensure all burial plots had been removed .
While only a few artifacts were recovered , historians said the dig offered a clearer view of early 19th @-@ century life at Colross . Discoveries included an underground domed brick cistern that served as a water purification system and evidence that slaves lived in outbuildings on the Colross estate . Archaeologists also discovered the mansion 's original basement floor , which was laid in a herringbone bond . Evidence of the estate 's exterior walls , the foundations of the smokehouse , stables , and a burial vault were also unearthed . In the northwestern portion of the property , what is thought to have been the foundation of a rectangular burial vault was found . No burial remains were discovered . All interments were presumably removed in the early 20th century . Thomson Francis Mason was originally interred at the Colross graveyard in 1838 , as were two of his daughters . Subsequent residents had their remains reinterred at Christ Church Episcopal Cemetery in Alexandria . According to the Alexandria Economic Development Partnership , the delay in construiction caused 79 condominium buyers to abandon their purchases .
= = Significant Mason family events = =
The Colross estate was the location for several significant events involving the Mason family . Sarah Elizabeth Mason ( 1819 – 1907 ) , a daughter of Thomson Francis Mason and his wife Elizabeth Clapham Price , married St. George Tucker Campbell at Colross on November 17 , 1841 . Virginia Mason ( 1830 – 1919 ) , another daughter of Thomson and Elizabeth married William Hathorn Stewart Davidge at Colross on February 1 , 1853 . Colross was also the venue for the funeral of Mrs. Virginia King , wife of Dr. Benjamin King , on December 31 , 1850 . Mrs. King was a sister of Mrs. Judge Mason .
According to local tradition , two small Mason children , William and Ann , were playing in the estate 's yard when a storm arrived . William took shelter in the estate 's chicken coop but the wind toppled the structure , killing him . Soon after William 's death , his sister Ann drowned in a bathtub at Colross . Both children were interred in the estate 's burial vault in the garden . Successive residents at Colross , including members of the Smoot family , claimed the estate was haunted by the deceased Mason children ; they reported hearing children " giggling , singing , and talking " , and witnessed apparitions of children in pre @-@ Civil War attire .
= Political career of John C. Breckinridge =
The political career of John C. Breckinridge included service in the state government of Kentucky , the United States federal government , and the government of the Confederate States of America . In 1857 , at 36 years old , he was inaugurated as James Buchanan 's vice president , and remains the youngest person to ever hold the office . Four years later , he ran as the presidential candidate of a dissident group of Southern Democrats , but lost the election to the Republican candidate , Abraham Lincoln .
A member of the Breckinridge political family , in 1849 John C. Breckinridge became the first Democrat to represent Fayette County in the Kentucky House of Representatives , and in 1851 , he was the first Democrat to represent Kentucky 's 8th congressional district in over 20 years . A champion of strict constructionism , states ' rights , and popular sovereignty , he supported Stephen A. Douglas 's Kansas – Nebraska Act as a means of addressing slavery in the territories acquired by the U.S. in the Mexican – American War . Considering his re @-@ election to the House of Representatives unlikely in 1854 , he returned to private life and his legal practice . He was nominated for vice president at the 1856 Democratic National Convention , and although he and Buchanan won the election , he enjoyed little influence in Buchanan 's administration .
In 1859 , the Kentucky General Assembly elected Breckinridge to a U.S. Senate term that would begin in 1861 . In the 1860 presidential contest , he captured the electoral votes of most of the Southern states , but finished a distant second among four candidates . Lincoln 's election as president prompted the secession of the Southern states to form the Confederate States of America . Though Breckinridge sympathized with the Southern cause , in the Senate he worked futilely to reunite the states peacefully . After the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter , beginning the Civil War , he opposed allocating resources for Lincoln to fight the Confederacy . Fearing arrest after Kentucky sided with the Union , he fled to the Confederacy , joined the Confederate States Army , and was subsequently expelled from the Senate . He served in the Confederate Army from October 1861 to February 1865 , when Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Confederate States Secretary of War . Concluding that the Confederate cause was hopeless , he encouraged Davis to negotiate a national surrender . Davis 's capture in April , 1865 ended the war , and Breckinridge fled to Cuba , then Great Britain , and finally Canada , remaining in exile until President Andrew Johnson 's offer of amnesty in 1868 . Returning to Kentucky , he refused all requests to resume his political career and died of complications related to war injuries in 1875 .
= = Formative years = =
Historian James C. Klotter has speculated that , had John C. Breckinridge 's father , Cabell , lived , he would have steered his son to the Whig Party and the Union , rather than the Democratic Party and the Confederacy , but the Kentucky Secretary of State and former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives died of a fever on September 1 , 1823 , months before his son 's third birthday . Burdened with her husband 's debts , widow Mary Breckinridge and her children moved to her in @-@ laws ' home near Lexington , Kentucky , where John C. Breckinridge 's grandmother taught him the political philosophies of his late grandfather , U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge . John Breckinridge believed the federal government was created by , and subject to , the co @-@ equal governments of the states . As a state representative , he introduced the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799 , which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts and asserted that states could nullify them and other federal laws that they deemed unconstitutional . A strict constructionist , he held that the federal government could only exercise powers explicitly given to it in the Constitution .
Most of the Breckinridges were Whigs , but John Breckinridge 's posthumous influence inclined his grandson toward the Democratic Party . Additionally , John C. Breckinridge 's friend and law partner , Thomas W. Bullock , was from a Democratic family . In 1842 , Bullock told Breckinridge that by the time they opened their practice in Burlington , Iowa , " you were two @-@ thirds of a Democrat " ; living in heavily Democratic Iowa Territory further distanced him from Whiggery . He wrote weekly editorials in the Democratic Iowa Territorial Gazette and Advisor , and in February 1843 , he was named to the Des Moines County Democratic committee . A letter from Breckinridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law related that , when Breckinridge 's uncle William learned that his nephew had " become loco @-@ foco " , he said , " I felt as I would have done if I had heard that my daughter had been dishonored . " On a visit to Kentucky in 1843 , Breckinridge met and married Mary Cyrene Burch , ending his time in Iowa .
= = Views on slavery = =
Slavery issues dominated Breckinridge 's political career , although historians disagree about Breckinridge 's views . In Breckinridge : Statesman , Soldier , Symbol , William C. Davis argues that , by adulthood , Breckinridge regarded slavery as evil ; his entry in the 2002 Encyclopedia of World Biography records that he advocated voluntary emancipation . In Proud Kentuckian : John C. Breckinridge 1821 – 1875 , Frank Heck disagrees , citing Breckinridge 's consistent advocacy for slavery protections , beginning with his opposition to emancipationist candidates — including his uncle , Robert Jefferson Breckinridge — in the state elections of 1849 .
= = = Early influences = = =
See also John C. Breckinridge : Early life
Breckinridge 's grandfather , John , owned slaves , believing it was a necessary evil in an agrarian economy . He hoped for gradual emancipation but did not believe the federal government was empowered to effect it ; Davis wrote that this became " family doctrine " . As a U.S. Senator , John Breckinridge insisted that decisions about slavery in Louisiana Territory be left to its future inhabitants , essentially the " popular sovereignty " advocated by John C. Breckinridge prior to the Civil War . John C. Breckinridge 's father , Cabell , embraced gradual emancipation and opposed government interference with slavery , but Cabell 's brother Robert , a Presbyterian minister , became an abolitionist , concluding that slavery was morally wrong . Davis recorded that all the Breckinridges were pleased when the General Assembly refused to repeal the ban on importing slaves to Kentucky in 1833 .
John C. Breckinridge encountered conflicting influences as an undergraduate at Centre College and in law school at Transylvania University . Centre President John C. Young , Breckinridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , believed in states ' rights and gradual emancipation , as did George Robertson , one of Breckinridge 's instructors at Transylvania , but James G. Birney , father of Breckinridge 's friend and Centre classmate William Birney , was an abolitionist . In an 1841 letter to Robert Breckinridge , who became his surrogate father after Cabell Breckinridge 's death , John C. Breckinridge wrote that only " ignorant , foolish men " feared abolition . In an Independence Day address in Frankfort later that year , he decried the " unlawful dominion over the bodies ... of men " . An acquaintance believed that Breckinridge 's move to Iowa Territory was motivated , in part , by the fact that it was a free territory under the Missouri Compromise .
After returning to Kentucky , Breckinridge became friends with abolitionists Cassius Marcellus Clay , Garrett Davis , and Orville H. Browning . He represented freedmen in court and loaned them money . He was a Freemason and member of the First Presbyterian Church , both of which opposed slavery . Nevertheless , because blacks were educationally and socially disadvantaged in the South , Breckinridge concluded that " the interests of both races in the Commonwealth would be promoted by the continuance of their present relations " . He supported the new state constitution adopted in 1850 , which forbade the immigration of freedmen to Kentucky and required emancipated slaves to be expelled from the state . Believing it was best to relocate freedmen to the African colony of Liberia , he supported the Kentucky branch of the American Colonization Society . The 1850 Census showed that Breckinridge owned five slaves , aged 11 to 36 . Heck recorded that his slaves were well @-@ treated but noted that this was not unusual and proved nothing about his views on slavery .
= = = Moderate reputation = = =
Because Breckinridge defended both the Union and slavery in the General Assembly , he was considered a moderate early in his political career . In June 1864 , Pennsylvania 's John W. Forney opined that Breckinridge had been " in no sense an extremist " when elected to Congress in 1851 . Of his early encounters with Breckinridge , Forney wrote : " If he had a conscientious feeling , it was hatred of slavery , and both of us , ' Democrats ' as we were , frequently confessed that it was a sinful and an anti @-@ Democratic institution , and that the day would come when it must be peaceably or forcibly removed . " Heck discounts this statement , pointing out that Forney was editor of a pro @-@ Union newspaper and Breckinridge a Confederate general at the time it was published . As late as the 1856 presidential election , some alleged that Breckinridge was an abolitionist .
By the time he began his political career , Breckinridge had concluded that slavery was more a constitutional issue than a moral one . Slaves were property , and the Constitution did not empower the federal government to interfere with property rights . From Breckinridge 's constructionist viewpoint , allowing Congress to legislate emancipation without constitutional sanction would lead to " unlimited dominion over the territories , excluding the people of the slave states from emigrating thither with their property " . As a private citizen , he supported the slavery protections in the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 and denounced the Wilmot Proviso , which would have forbidden slavery in territory acquired in the Mexican – American War . As a state legislator , he declared slavery a " wholly local and domestic " matter , to be decided separately by the residents of each state and territory . Because Washington , D.C. , was a federal entity and the federal government could not interfere with property rights , he concluded that forced emancipation there was unconstitutional . As a congressman , he insisted on Congress 's " perfect non @-@ intervention " with slavery in the territories . Debating the 1854 Kansas – Nebraska Act , he explained , " The right to establish [ slavery in a territory by government sanction ] involves the correlative right to prohibit ; and , denying both , I would vote for neither . "
= = = Later views = = =
Davis notes that Breckinridge 's December 21 , 1859 , address to the state legislature marked a change in his public statements about slavery . He decried the Republicans ' desire for " negro equality " , his first public indication that he may have believed blacks were biologically inferior to whites . He declared that the Dred Scott decision showed that federal courts afforded adequate protection for slave property , but advocated a federal slave code if future courts failed to enforce those protections ; this marked a departure from his previous doctrine of " perfect non @-@ interference " . Asserting that John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry proved Republicans intended to force abolition on the South , he predicted " resistance [ to the Republican agenda ] in some form is inevitable " . He still urged the Assembly against secession — " God forbid that the step shall ever be taken ! " — but his discussion of growing sectional conflict bothered some , including his uncle Robert .
Klotter wrote that Breckinridge 's sale of a female slave and her six @-@ week @-@ old child in November 1857 probably ended his days as a slaveholder . Slaves were not listed among his assets in the 1860 Census , but Heck noted that he had little need for slaves at that time , since he was living in Lexington 's Phoenix Hotel after returning to Kentucky from his term as vice president . Some slavery advocates refused to support him in the 1860 presidential race because he was not a slaveholder . Klotter noted that Breckinridge fared better in rural areas of the South , where there were fewer slaveholders ; in urban areas where the slave population was higher , he lost to Constitutional Unionist candidate John Bell , who owned 166 slaves . William C. Davis recorded that , in most of the South , the combined votes for Bell and Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas exceeded those cast for Breckinridge .
After losing the election to Abraham Lincoln , Breckinridge worked for adoption of the Crittenden Compromise — authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden — as a means of preserving the Union . Breckinridge believed the Crittenden proposal — restoring the Missouri Compromise line as the separator between slave and free territory in exchange for stricter enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and federal non @-@ interference with slavery in the territories and Washington , D.C. — was the most extreme proposal to which the South would agree . Ultimately , the compromise was rejected and the Civil War soon followed .
= = Early political career = =
A supporter of the annexation of Texas and " manifest destiny " , Breckinridge campaigned for James K. Polk in the 1844 presidential election , prompting a relative to observe that he was " making himself very conspicuous here by making flaming loco foco speeches at the Barbecues " . He decided against running for Scott County clerk after his law partner complained that he spent too much time in politics . In 1845 , he declined to seek election to the U.S. House of Representatives from the Eighth District but campaigned for Alexander Keith Marshall , his party 's unsuccessful nominee . He supported Zachary Taylor for the presidency in mid @-@ 1847 but endorsed the Democratic ticket of Lewis Cass and William O. Butler after Taylor became a Whig in 1848 .
= = = Kentucky House of Representatives = = =
In October 1849 , Kentucky voters called for a constitutional convention . Emancipationists , including Breckinridge 's uncles William and Robert , his brother @-@ in @-@ law John C. Young , and his friend Cassius Marcellus Clay , nominated " friends of emancipation " to seek election to the convention and the state legislature In response , Breckinridge , who opposed " impairing [ slavery protections ] in any form " , was nominated by a bipartisan pro @-@ slavery convention for one of Fayette County 's two seats in the Kentucky House of Representatives . With 1 @,@ 481 votes , 400 more than any of his opponents , Breckinridge became the first Democrat elected to the state legislature from Fayette County , which was heavily Whig .
When the House convened in December 1849 , a member from Mercer County nominated Breckinridge for Speaker against two Whigs . After receiving 39 votes — 8 short of a majority — on the first three ballots , he withdrew , and the position went to Whig Thomas Reilly . Assigned to the committees on the Judiciary and Federal Relations , Breckinridge functioned as the Democratic floor leader during the session . Davis wrote that his most important work during the session was bank reform .
Breckinridge 's first speech favored allowing the Kentucky Colonization Society to use the House chamber ; later , he advocated directing Congress to establish an African freedmen colony , and to meet the costs of transporting settlers there . Funding internal improvements was traditionally a Whig stance , but Breckinridge advocated conducting a state geologic survey , making the Kentucky River more navigable , chartering a turnpike , incorporating a steamboat company , and funding the Kentucky Lunatic Asylum . As a reward for supporting these projects , he presided over the approval of the Louisville and Bowling Green Railroad 's charter and was appointed director of the asylum .
Resolutions outlining Kentucky 's views on the proposed Compromise of 1850 were referred to the Committee on Federal Relations . The committee 's Whig majority favored one calling the compromise a " fair , equitable , and just basis " for dealing with slavery in the territories and urging Congress not to interfere with slavery there or in Washington , D.C. Feeling this left open the issue of Congress 's ability to legislate emancipation , Breckinridge asserted in a competing resolution that Congress could not establish or abolish slavery in states or territories . Both resolutions , and several passed by the state Senate , were laid on the table without being adopted .
Breckinridge left the session on March 4 , 1850 , three days before its adjournment , to tend to John Milton Breckinridge , his infant son who had fallen ill ; he died on March 18 . To distract from his grief , he campaigned for ratification of the new constitution , objecting only to its difficult amendment process . He declined renomination , citing concerns " of a private and imperative nature " . Davis wrote that the problem was money , since his absence from Lexington had hurt his legal practice , but his son 's death was also a factor .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
At an October 17 , 1850 , barbecue celebrating the Compromise of 1850 , Breckinridge toasted its author , Whig Party founder Henry Clay . Clay reciprocated by praising Breckinridge 's grandfather and father , expressing hope that Breckinridge would use his talents to serve his country , then embracing him . Some observers believed that Clay was endorsing Breckinridge for higher office , and Whig newspapers began referring to him as " a sort of half @-@ way Whig " and implying that he voted for Taylor in 1848 .
= = = First term ( 1851 – 1853 ) = = =
Delegates to the Democrats ' January 1851 state convention nominated Breckinridge to represent Kentucky 's Eighth District in the U.S. House of Representatives . Called the " Ashland district " because it contained Clay 's Ashland estate and much of the area he once represented , Whigs typically won there by 600 to 1 @,@ 000 votes . A Democrat had not represented it since 1828 , and in the previous election no Democrat had sought the office . Breckinridge 's opponent , Leslie Combs , was a popular War of 1812 veteran and former state legislator . As they campaigned together , Breckinridge 's eloquence contrasted with Combs ' plainspoken style . Holding that " free thought needed free trade " , Breckinridge opposed Whig protective tariffs . He only favored federal funding of internal improvements " of a national character " . Carrying only three of seven counties , but bolstered by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin in Owen County , Breckinridge garnered 54 % of the vote , winning the election by a margin of 537 .
Considered for Speaker of the House , Breckinridge believed his election unlikely and refused to run against fellow Kentuckian Linn Boyd . Boyd was elected , and despite Breckinridge 's gesture , assigned him to the lightly @-@ regarded Foreign Affairs Committee . Breckinridge resisted United States Democratic Review editor George Nicholas Sanders ' efforts to recruit him to the Young America movement . Like Young Americans , Breckinridge favored westward expansion and free trade , but he disagreed with the movement 's support of European revolutions and its disdain for older statesmen . On March 4 , 1852 , Breckinridge made his first speech in the House , defending presidential aspirant William Butler against charges by Florida 's Edward Carrington Cabell , a Young American and distant cousin , that Butler secretly sympathized with the Free Soilers . He denounced Sanders for his vitriolic attacks on Butler and for calling all likely Democratic presidential candidates except Stephen Douglas " old fogies " .
The speech made Breckinridge a target of Whigs , Young Americans , and Douglas supporters . Humphrey Marshall , a Kentucky Whig who supported incumbent President Millard Fillmore , attacked Breckinridge for claiming Fillmore had not fully disclosed his views on slavery . Illinois ' William Alexander Richardson , a Douglas backer , tried to distance Douglas from Sanders ' attacks on Butler , but Breckinridge showed that Douglas endorsed the Democratic Review a month after it printed its first anti @-@ Butler article . Finally , Breckinridge 's cousin , California 's Edward C. Marshall , charged that Butler would name Breckinridge Attorney General in exchange for his support and revived the charge that Breckinridge broke party ranks , supporting Zachary Taylor for president . Breckinridge ably defended himself , but Sanders continued to attack him and Butler , claiming Butler would name Breckinridge as his running mate , even though Breckinridge was too young to qualify as vice president .
After his maiden speech , Breckinridge took a more active role in the House . In debate with Ohio 's Joshua Reed Giddings , he defended the Fugitive Slave Law 's constitutionality and criticized Giddings for hindering the return of fugitive slaves . He opposed Tennessee Congressman Andrew Johnson 's Homestead Bill , fearing it would create more territories that excluded slavery . Although generally opposed to funding local improvements , he supported the repair of two Potomac River bridges to avoid higher costs later . Other minor stands included supporting measures to benefit his district 's hemp farmers , voting against giving the president ten more appointments to the U.S. Naval Academy , and opposing funds for a sculpture of George Washington because the sculptor proposed depicting Washington in a toga .
Beginning in April , Breckinridge made daily visits to an ailing Henry Clay . Clay died June 29 , 1852 , and Breckinridge garnered nationwide praise and enhanced popularity in Kentucky after eulogizing Clay in the House . Days later , he spoke in opposition to increasing a subsidy to the Collins Line for carrying trans @-@ Atlantic mail , noting that Collins profited by carrying passengers and cargo on mail ships . In wartime , the government could commandeer and retrofit Collins 's steamboats as warships , but Breckinridge cited Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's opinion that they would be useless in war . Finally , he showed Cornelius Vanderbilt 's written statement promising to build a fleet of mail ships at his expense and carry the mail for $ 4 million less than Collins . Despite this , the House approved the subsidy increase .
= = = Second term ( 1853 – 1855 ) = = =
With Butler 's chances for the presidential nomination waning , Breckinridge convinced the Kentucky delegation to the 1852 Democratic National Convention not to nominate Butler until later balloting when he might become a compromise candidate . He urged restraint when Lewis Cass 's support dropped sharply on the twentieth ballot , but Kentucky 's delegates would wait no longer ; on the next ballot , they nominated Butler , but he failed to gain support . After Franklin Pierce , Breckinridge 's second choice , was nominated , Breckinridge tried , unsuccessfully , to recruit Douglas to Pierce 's cause . Pierce lost by 3 @,@ 200 votes in Kentucky — one of four states won by Winfield Scott — but was elected to the presidency , and appointed Breckinridge governor of Washington Territory in recognition of his efforts . Unsure of his re @-@ election chances in Kentucky , Breckinridge had sought the appointment , but after John J. Crittenden , rumored to be his challenger , was elected to the Senate in 1853 , he decided to decline it and run for re @-@ election .
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1 film The Warrior , introduced him to Wright . In their first conversation , Marianelli and Wright discussed the early piano sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven , which " became a point of reference " and " starting point " for the original score . In addition to Beethoven , pieces such as " Meryton Townhall " and " The Militia Marches In " ( featuring the flute ) were inspired by the film 's period , with the intention that they could conceivably have been heard during that time . " Meryton Townhall " and " Another Dance " contained actual dance cues that were fitting for the late eighteenth century . According to music critic William Ruhlmann , Marianelli 's score had a " strong Romantic flavour to accompany the familiar romantic plot " .
Multiple scenes feature actors playing pianos , forcing Marianelli to complete several of the pieces before filming began . According to him , " Those pieces already contained the seeds of what I developed later on into the score , when I abandoned historical correctness for a more intimate and emotional treatment of the story " . Marianelli was not present when the actors played his music due to the birth of his second daughter . The soundtrack featured French pianist Jean @-@ Yves Thibaudet , whom Wright considered one of the greatest piano players in the world . Thibaudet was accompanied by the English Chamber Orchestra . The soundtrack ultimately contained seventeen instrumental tracks of music organised in a different way from the film .
= = = Editing = = =
In contrast to the five @-@ hour BBC adaptation , Wright compressed his film into two hours and nine minutes of screen time . He remarked that the film is " obviously about Elizabeth and Darcy , following them and anything that detracts or diverts you from that story is what you have to cut " . Some of the most notable changes from the original book include time compression of several major sequences , including the departure of Wickham and the militia , Elizabeth 's visit to Rosings Park and Hunsford Parsonage , Elizabeth 's visit to Pemberley , Lydia 's elopement and subsequent crisis ; the elimination of several supporting characters , including Mr and Mrs Hurst , Mr and Mrs Phillips , Lady and Maria Lucas , Mrs Younge , several of Lydia 's friends ( including Colonel and Mrs Forster ) and various military officers and townspeople ; and the elimination of several sections in which characters reflect or converse on events that have recently occurred — for example , Elizabeth 's chapter @-@ long change of mind after reading Darcy 's letter .
Moggach and Wright debated how to end the film , but knew they did not want to have a wedding scene " because we didn 't want Elizabeth to come off as the girl who became a queen at this lavish wedding , or for it to be corny " . Shortly before the North American release , the film was modified to include a final scene ( not in the novel ) of the married Darcys enjoying a romantic evening and passionate kiss at Pemberley in an attempt to attract sentimental viewers ; this became a source of complaint for the Jane Austen Society of North America ( JASNA ) . After watching a preview of the film before its wide release , former JASNA president Elsa Solender commented , " It has nothing at all of Jane Austen in it , is inconsistent with the first two @-@ thirds of the film , insults the audience with its banality and ought to be cut before release " . It had been removed from the British version after preview audiences found it unintentionally humorous ; however , later audiences complained that they were excluded from viewing this version , causing the film to be re @-@ released in the UK and Ireland 10 weeks after the original UK premiere date . The original British version ended with Mr Bennet 's blessing upon Elizabeth and Darcy 's union , thus circumventing the last chapter in the novel , which summarises the lives of the Darcys and the other main characters over the next several years .
= = Major themes and analysis = =
= = = Romanticism and realism = = =
Film , literary , and Austen scholars noted the appearance of romance and romanticism within Pride & Prejudice , especially in comparison to previous adaptations . Sarah Ailwood marked the film as " an essentially Romantic interpretation of Austen 's novel " , citing as evidence Wright 's attention to nature as a means to " position Elizabeth and Darcy as Romantic figures ... Wright 's Pride & Prejudice takes as its central focus Austen 's concern with exploring the nature of the Romantic self and the possibilities for women and men to achieve individual self @-@ fulfillment within an oppressive patriarchal social and economic order . " Likewise , Catherine Stewart @-@ Beer of Oxford Brookes University called Elizabeth 's presence on the Derbyshire cliff a " stunning , magical evocation of Wright 's strong stylistic brand of Postmodern Romanticism " , but found this less like Austen and more reminiscent of Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights . In her analysis , University of Provence scholar Lydia Martin concluded that the " Romantic bias of the film is shown through the shifts in the characters ' relationships , the soundtrack and the treatment of landscape " .
Realism is a prominent aspect of the film , a theme confirmed by Wright in interviews as well as the DVD audio commentary . In a 2007 article , Ursinus College film studies professor Carole Dole argued that Pride & Prejudice is " a hybrid that embraces both an irreverent realism to which younger audiences are accustomed ( and which reflects the director 's realist aesthetic ) and the classic heritage film 's reverence for country houses , attractive landscapes and authentic period detail " . Such " irreverent realism " included the depiction of Longbourn as a working farm complete with chickens , cattle and pigs ; as Dole explains , " The agricultural realities of 1790s England are equally evident in the enclosed yard with barn and hay where Lizzie twirls barefoot over the mud on a rope swing " . Referring to recent adaptations such as 1999 's gritty Mansfield Park , Dole cited Pride & Prejudice as evidence that the heritage film is still around but has " been transformed into a more flexible genre " . Jessica Durgan agreed with this assessment , writing that the film " simultaneously reject [ s ] and embrac [ es ] heritage to attract a larger audience " .
= = = Family = = =
Raised with three sisters , Moggach was particularly interested in the story 's family dynamics . Brock University professor Barbara K. Seeber believed that in contrast to the novel , the 2005 adaptation emphasises the familial over the romantic . Evidence of this can be seen in how Pride & Prejudice " significantly recast the Bennet family , in particular its patriarch , presenting Mr Bennet as a sensitive and kind father whose role in the family 's misfortunes is continually downplayed . " Seeber further observed that the film is " the first to present Mrs Bennet in a sympathetic light " , with Mr Bennet displayed as " an attentive husband as well as a loving father . "
Stewart @-@ Beer and Austen scholar Sally B. Palmer noted alterations within the depiction of the Bennet family ; Stewart @-@ Beer remarked that while their family home " might be chaotic , in this version it is , at heart , a happy home — much happier and much less dysfunctional , than Austen 's original version of Longbourn ... For one , Mr and Mrs Bennet actually seem to like each other , even love each other , a characterisation which is a far cry from the source text . " Producer Paul Webster acknowledged the familial theme in the DVD featurette " A Bennet Family Portrait " , remarking " Yes , it 's a great love story between Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy , but underpinning it all is the kind of love that runs this family . "
= = = Depiction of Elizabeth Bennet = = =
Wright intended for the film to be " as subjective as possible " in being from Elizabeth 's perspective ; the audience first glimpses Darcy when she does . This focus on Elizabeth features some dramatic changes from the novel . Knightley 's Elizabeth has an " increasingly aloof and emotionally distant " relationship with her family . Evidence of this can be seen with Elizabeth 's gradual alienation from Jane as the film progresses ; this is in contrast to the book , where Elizabeth confides more of her feelings to Jane after difficult events . Wright wanted to create a " real " relationship between the two sisters and have them grow apart , as he thought the book depicted them as too " syrupy . " Moggach 's intent was for Elizabeth to " keep secrets to herself . They are a great burden to her ... As she keeps all this to herself , we feel for her more and more . The truest comedy , I believe , is born from pain . "
In her " feisty , impassioned " interactions with Darcy and " rebellious refusal to ' perform ' " for Lady Catherine , Stewart @-@ Beer sees Knightley 's depiction as " far removed from Austen 's original Elizabeth , who has a greater sense of grounded maturity , even though both Elizabeths have an occasional inclination to fluster , fun and giggles . " According to George Washington University professor Laurie Kaplan , while Wright 's focus on Elizabeth is consistent with the novel , the screenplay removed her line of self @-@ recognition : " Till this moment , I never knew myself " . Kaplan characterises the sentence as Elizabeth 's " most important " , and believes its deletion " violates not only the spirit and the essence of Austen 's story but the viewer 's expectations as well . "
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
After a string of Jane Austen semi @-@ adaptions in the late 1990s and early 2000s , Pride & Prejudice was positioned to take audiences " back into the world of period drama and what many saw as a more authentic version of Austen . " While the novel was known to audiences , the large number of related productions required the film to distinguish itself . It was marketed to attract mainstream , young viewers , with one observer referring to it as " the ultimate chick @-@ flick romance " and " more commercial than previous big @-@ screen Austen adaptations . " Another wrote that it brings " millennial girlhood to the megaplex ... If Ehle 's Lizzie is every forty- , or fifty @-@ something 's favorite independent , even ' mature , ' Austen heroine , Knightley is every twenty @-@ something 's sexpot good girl . " An ampersand replaced the word " and " in the film title , similar to the 1996 postmodern film Romeo + Juliet .
Already a star at the time of release , Knightley 's appearance in the film was emphasised by featuring her in all promotional materials ( similar to Colin Firth 's prominent appearance in the 1995 adaptation ) . Several commentators likened the main poster of Pride & Prejudice to that of 1995 's Sense and Sensibility , which was seen as an attempt to attract the same demographic . Advertising noted that the film came " from the producers of Bridget Jones 's Diary " , a 2001 romantic comedy film , before mentioning Austen . Leading up to the release , fans were allowed to download pictures and screensavers online , which emphasised the differences between Pride & Prejudice and previous adaptations . Lydia Martin wrote that in contrast to past Pride and Prejudice productions , marketing materials downplayed the " suggested antagonism between the heroes " in favour of highlighting a " romantic relationship " , as can be seen with the positioning of the characters as well as with the tagline , " Sometimes the last person on earth you want to be with is the one you can 't be without . "
= = = Box office = = =
On 11 September 2005 , Pride & Prejudice premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival as a special Gala Presentation . The film was released in cinemas on 16 September in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It achieved the number one spot in its first week , earning £ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million ) while playing on 397 screens . The film stayed at the top for two more weeks , earning by then a total of over £ 9 million at the UK box office . It was featured on 412 screens at its widest domestic release .
On 11 November 2005 , the film debuted in the United States with an opening weekend of $ 2 @.@ 9 million on 215 screens . Two weeks later , it played on 1 @,@ 299 screens and box office returns increased to $ 7 @.@ 2 million ; the film left cinemas the week of 24 February 2006 with a total US gross of $ 38 @,@ 405 @,@ 088 . Jack Foley , the president of distribution of Focus Features , the film 's US distributor , attributed Pride & Prejudice 's success in America to Austen 's appeal to " the boomer market " and its status as a known " brand " .
Pride & Prejudice was released in an additional fifty @-@ nine countries between September 2005 and May 2006 by United International Pictures . With a worldwide gross of $ 121 @,@ 147 @,@ 947 , it was the 72nd highest grossing film of 2005 in the US and was the 41st highest internationally .
= = = Home media = = =
In the US and UK , Universal Studios Home Entertainment released the standard VHS and DVD in February 2006 for both widescreen and fullframe ; attached bonus features included audio commentary by director Joe Wright , a look into Austen 's life and the ending scene of Elizabeth and Darcy kissing . On 13 November 2007 , Universal released the deluxe edition DVD to coincide with the theatrical arrival of Wright 's 2007 film Atonement . The deluxe edition included both widescreen and fullscreen features , the original soundtrack CD , a collectible book and booklet , as well as a number of special features not included in the original DVD . In the US , a Blu @-@ ray version of the film was released by Universal on 26 January 2010 , which also contained bonus features .
= = Reception = =
Pride & Prejudice was only the second faithful film version after " the famed , but oddly flawed , black @-@ and @-@ white 1940 adaptation , starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier " , and until 2005 , The Times considered the 1995 television adaptation " so dominant , so universally adored , [ that ] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard . " Wright 's film consequently met with some initial scepticism from fans , especially in relation to plot changes and casting choices . Comparing six major adaptations of Pride and Prejudice in 2005 , The Daily Mirror gave the only top marks of 9 out of 10 to the 1995 serial and the 2005 film , leaving the other adaptations behind with six or fewer points . The film received a " certified fresh " approval rating of 85 % , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 , according to review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . The website 's consensus reads : " Sure , it 's another adaptation of cinema 's fave Jane Austen novel , but key performances and a modern filmmaking sensibility make this familiar period piece fresh and enjoyable . " Metacritic reported an average score of 82 out of 100 , based on 37 reviews and classified the film as " universally acclaimed " .
Critics claimed the film 's time constraints did not capture the depth and complexity of the television serials and called Wright 's adaptation " obviously [ not as ] daring or revisionist " as the serial . JASNA president Joan Klingel Ray preferred the young age of Knightley and Macfadyen , saying that Jennifer Ehle had formerly been " a little too ' heavy ' for the role . " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , while praising Knightley for an outstanding performance " which lifts the whole movie " , considered the casting of the leads " arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle . " He does add that " Only a snob , a curmudgeon , or someone with necrophiliac loyalty to the 1995 BBC version with Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle could fail to enjoy [ Knightley 's ] performance . " At the time , BBC film critic Stella Papamichael considered it Knightley 's " best performance yet . " Critics were divided about Macfadyen 's portrayal of Darcy , expressing pleasant surprise , dislike for his lack of gradual emotional shift as in the novel , and praise for his matching the insecure and sensitive personality of the book character better than Firth .
Critics also drew attention to other aspects of the film . Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , Sandra Hall criticised Wright 's attention to realism for being " careless with the customs and conventions that were part of the fabric of Austen 's world . " In another review , Time Out magazine lamented the absence of Austen 's " brilliant sense of irony " , remarking that the film 's " romantic melodrama 's played up at the expense of her razor @-@ sharp wit . " More positively , Derek Elley of Variety magazine praised Wright and Moggach for " extracting the youthful essence " of the novel while also " providing a richly detailed setting " under Greenwood and Durran 's supervision . Equally pleased with the film was the San Francisco Chronicle 's Ruthe Stein , who wrote that Wright made a " spectacular feature film debut " that is " creatively reimagined and sublimely entertaining " . Claudia Puig of USA Today called it " a stellar adaptation , bewitching the viewer completely and incandescently with an exquisite blend of emotion and wit . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Impact and legacy = =
Wright 's adaptation failed to have the same cultural impact as the 1995 serial and has since attracted sharply @-@ divided opinions . However , even three years after the release , Knightley was still associated with Elizabeth Bennet among a generation of young viewers who had not seen the 1995 production . Given the varied opinions about the film , JASNA published an edited special issue of its online journal Persuasions On @-@ Line in 2007 with the collaboration of nineteen Austen scholars from six countries ; the intent was to foster discussion and stimulate scholarly analysis . JASNA had done this only once before , for the 1996 film Emma .
Pride & Prejudice impacted later productions in the costume drama and heritage film genres . Literary critics protested that Wright 's adaptation effectively " popularized Austen 's celebrated romance and brought her novel to the screen as an easy visual read for an undemanding mainstream audience . " Carole Dole noted that the film 's success " only made it more likely that future adaptations of Austen will feature , if not necessarily mud , then at least youthful and market @-@ tested performers and youth @-@ oriented filmmaking techniques balanced with the visual pleasures of the heritage film . " She cited Anne Hathaway in the 2007 film Becoming Jane as an example . Jessica Durgan added that Pride & Prejudice conceived a new hybrid genre by rejecting the visual cues of the heritage film , which attracted " youth and mainstream audiences without alienating the majority of heritage fans . "
Production of Pride & Prejudice began Wright 's relationship with Working Title Films , the first of four collaborations . Many members of the film 's cast and crew joined Wright in his later directorial efforts . For his adaptation of Atonement , which he viewed as " a direct reaction to Pride & Prejudice " , Wright hired Knightley , Blethyn , Marianelli , Thibaudet , Greenwood , and Durran . Atonement employed themes similar to Austen 's , including the notion of a young writer living in " an isolated English country house " who " mixes up desires and fantasies , truths and fiction . " Wright 's 2009 film The Soloist included Hollander , Malone , and Marianelli , while Hollander was also featured in Hanna ( 2011 ) . Wright 's 2012 adaptation of Anna Karenina features Knightley , Macfadyen , Marianelli , Durran , and Greenwood and is produced by Bevan , Eric Fellner , and Webster .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Essays and journals = = = =
= = = = Interviews = = = =
= = = = Newspaper and magazine articles = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
= = = = Press releases = = = =
= = = = Visual media = = = =
= Michael the Brave =
Michael the Brave ( Romanian : Mihai Viteazu ( l ) pronounced [ miˈhaj viˈte ̯ azu ( l ) ] or Mihai Bravu pronounced [ miˈhaj ˈbravu ] , Hungarian : Vitéz Mihály ; 1558 – 9 August 1601 ) was the Prince of Wallachia ( as Michael II , 1593 – 1601 ) , and of Moldavia ( 1600 ) . He is regarded as one of Romania 's greatest national heroes .
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593 . Two years later , war with the Ottomans began , a conflict in which the Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni , considered one of the most important battles of his reign . Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle , Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies , Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II . The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597 , but this lasted for only a year and a half . Peace was again reached in late 1599 , when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies .
In 1599 , Michael won the Battle of Şelimbăr and soon entered Alba Iulia , becoming the imperial governor ( i.e. de facto ruler ) of Transylvania . A few months later , Michael 's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital , Iaşi . The Moldavian leader Ieremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael was declared Prince of Moldavia . Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the nobles of Transylvania and certain boyars in Moldavia and Wallachia rose against him in a series of revolts . Thereafter , Michael allied with the Imperial General Giorgio Basta and defeated an uprising of the Hungarian nobility at Gurăslău in Transylvania . Immediately after this victory , Rudolf ordered the assassination of Michael , an action carried out on 9 August 1601 by Basta 's men .
= = Early life = =
Michael was born under the family name of Pătraşcu . In 1601 , during a stay in Prague , he was portrayed by the painter Aegidius Sadeler , who mentioned on the portrait the words aetatis XLIII ( " in the 43rd year of life " ) , which indicates 1558 as the year of Michael 's birth . Very little is known about his childhood and early years as an adult . He is argued by most historians to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătraşcu cel Bun , ( Pătrașcu the Good ) of the Drăculeşti branch of the House of Basarab , while others believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule . His mother was Theodora Kantakouzene , a member of the Kantakouzenoi , a noble family present in Wallachia and Moldavia , and allegedly descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos .
Michael 's political rise was quite spectacular , as he became the Ban of Mehedinţi in 1588 , stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588 , and Ban of Craiova in 1593 – during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău . The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent . Still , in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael , who was forced to flee to Transylvania . He was accompanied by his half @-@ brother Radu Florescu , Radu Buzescu and several other supporters . After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Báthory , he left for Constantinople , where with help from his cousin Andronikos Kantakouzenos ( the eldest son of Michael " Şeytanoğlu " Kantakouzenos ) and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne . He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital , Edward Barton , and aided by a loan of 200 @,@ 000 florins . Michael was invested Prince by Sultan Murad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October . He was considered a traitor as he had been forced to purchase the title of Domnitor ( ruler ) .
= = Wallachia = =
Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia , he turned against the Ottoman Empire . The next year he joined the Christian alliance of European powers formed by Pope Clement VIII against the Turks , and signed treaties with his neighbours : Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania , Aron Tiranul of Moldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II ( see Holy League of Pope Clement VIII ) . He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594 , conquering several citadels near the Danube , including Giurgiu , Brăila , Hârşova , and Silistra , while his Moldavian allies defeated the Turks in Iaşi and other parts of Moldavia . Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire , taking the forts of Nicopolis , Ribnic , and Chilia and even reaching as far as Adrianople . At one point his forces were only 24 kilometers from Constantinople .
In 1595 , Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant , voivode of Moldavia , removed from power . István Jósika ( Báthory 's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian ) masterminded the operation . Ştefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April ( 5 May ) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia ( Gyulafehérvár ) with his family and treasure . Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of Vinc . Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers , since Aron had played an active role in the anti @-@ Ottoman coalition . Later on , in the same city of Alba Iulia , Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael 's behalf . From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics , the Treaty of Alba Iulia officialized what could be called a boyar regime , reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite . According to the treaty , a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in the executive rule of the country .
Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and , if convicted for treason , their fortunes could no longer be confiscated . Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys , but was forced to comply . Prince Michael said in a conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki : ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves . He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign .
During his reign , Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords , the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers ( Romanian : Fraţii Buzeşti ) and his own relatives on his mother 's side , the Cantacuzinos . He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign ; for example , he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats . From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction , the Treaty of Alba Iulia had another important consequence : it placed all the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgovişte .
During this period , the Ottoman army , based in Ruse , was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack . Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on 4 August 1595 . As his army was outnumbered , Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field , and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of Călugăreni on the Neajlov river . The Battle of Călugăreni started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha . Despite the victory , he retreated to his winter camp in Stoieneşti because he had too few troops to mount a full @-@ scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces . He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ man army ( led by István Bocskay ) and counterattacked the Ottomans , freeing the towns of Târgovişte ( 8 October ) , Bucharest ( 12 October ) and Brăila , temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty .
The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at Vidin , Pleven , Nicopolis , and Babadag , where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the First Tarnovo Uprising .
During late 1596 , Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the Tatars , who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and Buzău . By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack , the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought . Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans , but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II . On 7 January 1597 Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael 's rule , but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack . Michael again requested Rudolf II 's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler . On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II . According to the treaty , the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , as well as armaments and supplies . Shortly after the treaty was signed , the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged Nicopolis on 10 September 1598 and took control of Vidin . The war with the Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599 , when Michael , lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war , signed a peace treaty .
= = Transylvania = =
In April 1598 , Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II ( who was also the King of Hungary ) ; reversed his decision in October 1598 ; and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory , his cousin . Báthory had strong ties to the Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland , Sigismund III Vasa . He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , one of Michael 's greatest enemies . Movilă had deposed Ştefan Rǎzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595 .
Having to face this new threat , Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia . On 25 September ( 5 October ) Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne . Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion . He would later describe the events :
I rose with my country , my children , taking my wife and everything I had and with my army [ marched into Transylvania ] so that the foe should not crush me here .
He left Târgovişte on 2 October , and 9 by October he had reached Prejmer in southern Transylvania , where he met envoys from the city of Braşov . Sparing the city , he moved on to Cârţa where he joined forces with the Székelys .
On 18 October Michael won a decisive victory against the army of prince @-@ cardinal Andrew Báthory at the Battle of Şelimbăr , giving him control of Transylvania . As he retreated from the battle , Andrew Báthory was killed by anti @-@ Báthory Székely on 3 November near Sândominic and Michael gave him a princely burial in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Alba Iulia . With his enemy dead , Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Naprágyi , later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian historiography . Historian István Szamosközy , keeper of the Archives at the time , recorded the event in great detail . He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on 10 October , Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania . As the Diet was assembled , Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf , then to himself and thirdly to his son . Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor subject to the Holy Roman Emperor , he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania .
In Transylvania Michael used the following signature on official documents : Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda , Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens , cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus " . ( " Michael , voivode of Wallachia , the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King , his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania . " )
When Michael entered Transylvania , he did not immediately free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants , who were primarily peasants but , nevertheless , constituted a significant proportion of the population ( see estimations ) . Michael demonstrated his support by upholding the Union of the Three Nations , which recognized only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians Székelys and Saxons , but he didn 't recognize the rights of the Romanians . There is no evidence that Michael wanted Transylvania 's Romanians to play a political role . Indeed , while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania , he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia , where he wished to transplant Transylvania 's far more advanced feudal system .
Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania . The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor . The Wallachian voivode , on the other hand , wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the Partium region . Michael was , nevertheless , willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship .
= = Moldavia = =
The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael , having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication . His brother , Simion Movilă , claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595 . Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented , Michael had created the Banate of Buzău and Brăila in July 1598 and the new ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian , Tatar and Cossack moves , although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years .
On 28 February Michael met with Polish envoys in Braşov . He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs ' hereditary right over the three principalities , Transylvania , Moldavia and Wallachia . This did not significantly delay his attack however ; on 14 April 1600 Michael 's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes , the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuş and Roman . He reached the capital of Iaşi on 6 May . The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael 's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă , who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear @-@ guard . Movilă took refuge in the castle of Khotyn together with his family , a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince , Sigismund Báthory . The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted , leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders . Under the cover of dark , sometime before 11 June , Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski 's camp .
Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power , especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania , who rose against Michael in rebellion . With the help of Basta , they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău , forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops . A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni , Ceptura , and Bucov ( Battle of the Teleajăn River ) . The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler . Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia .
= = Last victory and the assassination = =
Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf during a visit in Prague between 23 February and 5 March 1601 , which was granted when the emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory , who accepted Ottoman protection . Meanwhile , forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son , Nicolae Pătraşcu , drove Simion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania . Michael , allied with Basta , defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău . A few days later Basta , who sought to control Transylvania himself , executed the assassination of Michael by the order of the Habsburgian Emperor ; it took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601 . According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu :
= = = Seal of Michael the Brave = = =
The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia , Wallachia , and Transylvania : in the middle , on a shield the Moldavian urus , above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak , below Transylvanian coat of arms : two meeting , standing lions supporting a sword , treading on seven mountains . The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures .
There are two inscriptions on the seal . First , circular , in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet " IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI " , meaning " Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands " . Second , placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition , " I ML BJE MLRDIE " , could be translated " Through The Very Grace of God " .
= = Legacy = =
The rule of Michael the Brave , with its break with Ottoman rule , tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states , was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania , a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu . This theory became a point of reference for nationalists , as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state . To Romanian Romantic nationalists , he was regarded as one of Romania 's greatest national heroes .
The prince , who managed for a short time in 1600 to rule the three territories that were to be united some three centuries later in modern Romania , begins to be perceived as a unifier only towards the middle of the 19th century . Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th @-@ century chroniclers , and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800 . What they emphasized , apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself , were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf . The conqueror 's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action , occupying in the interpretative schema the place which was later to be occupied by the Romanian idea .
In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin , Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia , " the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians " , and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians : " The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai " .
The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in The History of the Princes of Wallachia , attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu ( 1655 – 1729 ) , which bundles together all Michael 's adversaries without distinction . Romanians and foreigners alike : " He subjected the Turks , the Moldavians , and the Hungarians to his rule , as if they were his asses . " The picturesque flavor of the expression serves only to confirm the absence of any Romanian idea .
Samuil Micu , a member of the Transylvanian School said in his work Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians ( written in the 1790s ) : " In the year 1593 , Michael , who is called the Brave , succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia . He was a great warrior , who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians . And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf " .
Petre P. Panaitescu states that in Mihai 's time , the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist . A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael 's politics , holding that Michael 's lack of desire to join the principalities ' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept .
Mihai Viteazul , a commune in Cluj County , was named after Michael the Brave . Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery which had been destroyed by a fire .
Mihai Viteazul , a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu , a famous Romanian film director , is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities ( Wallachia , Moldavia , and Transylvania ) in one country .
The Order of Michael the Brave , Romania 's highest military decoration , was named after Michael .
Mihai Viteazul name and portrait appear on at least 2 Romanian coins : 5 Lei 1991 which only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation , and on 100 Lei which circulated through the 1990s .
= Andrea Corr =
Andrea Jane Corr MBE ( born 17 May 1974 ) is an Irish musician , songwriter , and actress . Corr debuted in 1990 as the lead singer of the Celtic folk rock and pop rock group The Corrs along with her three elder siblings Caroline , Sharon , and Jim . Aside from singing lead vocals Corr plays the tin whistle , the ukulele , and the piano .
With the others , Corr has released six studio albums , two compilation albums , one remix album and two live albums . Andrea has also pursuing a solo career , releasing her debut album , Ten Feet High , in 2007 . The album moved away from the sound of the Corrs and features a dance @-@ pop sound . Her next album , released on 30 May 2011 , was entirely made up of covers of songs that were important to her when younger .
Andrea is involved in charitable activities . She has played charity concerts to raise money for the Pavarotti & Friends Liberian Children 's Village , Freeman Hospital in Newcastle upon Tyne , England , the victims of the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland and The Prince 's Trust in 2004 . She is an ambassador for the Nelson Mandela 's " 46664 " campaign , raising awareness towards AIDS in Africa . During the Edinburgh Live 8 on 2 July 2005 The Corrs performed " When the Stars Go Blue " alongside Bono to promote the Make Poverty History campaign . Along with her siblings , she was appointed an honorary M.B.E. in 2005 by Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain for her contribution to music and charity .
= = Early years = =
Andrea Corr was born to Gerry Corr , a manager of the payroll department of the Irish Electricity Supply Board ( the E.S.B. ) , and his wife , Jean , a housewife . She is the youngest of the four Corr children . The family was raised in Dundalk , Ireland . Gerry and Jean had their own band , Sound Affair , which played songs by ABBA and The Eagles in local pubs in Dundalk where they would often bring along their children .
With the encouragement of her parents , Andrea took up the tin whistle and was taught the piano by her father . Throughout their teenage years , she and her siblings would often practice in Jim 's bedroom at a house he had rented . Andrea sang lead vocals , Sharon played the violin and both Caroline and Jim played keyboards . Andrea took part in school plays at her school , Dundalk 's Dun Lughaidh convent .
= = Career = =
= = = The Corrs = = =
In 1990 she and her siblings formed a quartet called The Corrs . Their career launched in 1991 when they auditioned for the film The Commitments in which Andrea gained a speaking role as Sharon Rabbitte . John Hughes noticed the quartet when they auditioned for the movie , and agreed to become their manager . The Corrs signed with Atlantic Records in 1995 and travelled to North America to record their debut album Forgiven , Not Forgotten . The album featured six instrumental selections among its Celtic @-@ influenced tracks . When released , it was successful in Ireland , Australia , Japan , and Spain . The album reached platinum status in the United Kingdom and Australia , and quadruple platinum in Ireland , which made it one of the most popular debuts by an Irish group .
Following on from the success of their debut album , they released Talk on Corners and In Blue in 1997 and 2000 respectively . Originally Talk on Corners met with lukewarm success , until a remix version was released , when it topped the charts in many countries , and reached platinum status in the United Kingdom and Australia . In Blue moved towards mainstream pop , placing heavy emphasis on electronic synthesisers . It was successful , and was No. 1 in its first sales week in the UK , Ireland , Australia , Germany , Switzerland , and Austria and debuted at No. 2 in France and Norway . It climbed to the top position during its second week in Sweden and Spain .
During the production of In Blue , their mother , Jean , died while waiting for a lung transplant in the Freeman Hospital in Newcastle , Britain . She was laid to rest at St. Patrick 's cemetery in Dundalk . Bono , Larry Mullen , Brian Kennedy and Paul Brady were among the attendees . " No More Cry " , written by Andrea and Caroline Corr for the album , was dedicated to their father hoping to help with his grief .
In 2003 , Andrea recorded " Time Enough For Tears " , a song written by Bono and Gavin Friday for the film In America . This track was featured on The Corrs ' 2004 album Borrowed Heaven . Borrowed Heaven was dedicated to their late mother , Jean , and their father , Gerry . The band also dedicated their 2005 tribute album Home to their deceased mother . The band covered many traditional Irish songs taken from their mother 's songbook to commemorate their 15 years as a band .
In an interview with Chris Evans in June 2015 , Andrea confirmed that The Corrs were working on a new album and would play the BBC Radio 2 ' Live in Hyde Park ' festival . Their sixth studio album , White Light , was released on 27 November 2015 , and was accompanied by a world tour .
= = = Solo career = = =
While her siblings were on hiatus to raise their families , Andrea launched a solo career . She released her first album , Ten Feet High , on 25 June 2007 . It was produced by Nellee Hooper , who has worked with Gwen Stefani and Madonna ; Bono was an executive producer . Her first single , " Shame on You " was an up @-@ tempo pop song about men and women going to war and leaving behind partners they may never see again . It received positive reviews from music critics ; IndieLondon described the song as a " slick package " that was " polished , well produced and with a message that 's difficult to ignore " . Losing Today 's David Adair gave the song a strong review , writing that Corr 's vocals were " crisp and uplifting " . Liverpool 's Daily Post gave the song a three @-@ star rating , commenting that it was " deceptively upbeat " , which masked its " heavier message about conscription and war " .
On 10 April 2009 Andrea announced on Claudia Winkleman 's BBC Radio 2 show that she would be releasing a second album of old songs and covers . She spoke of her disappointment and how ' gutted ' she had been when her 2007 album Ten Feet High had failed to gain commercial success . She also spoke at length of her experiences while acting in the play Dancing at Lughnasa and how it has given her hope for upcoming projects , including a second solo album of ' old songs ' :
I loved the play ; I saw its original production when I was a teenager so I really worked hard on it and tried to dispel any prejudices that might be there . I 'm sensitive about the idea of a singer @-@ turned @-@ actress , it could give across the impression that a celebrity gets bored and goes " hey , what 'll I do " and that 's really not where I 'm coming from , I 'm very passionate about this and I have been for a lot of years .
It 's a totally different experience , this is the real thing . Fortunately everybody ( in the play ) is incredibly talented ( and ) really lovely people too and it has been an incredible learning experience for me . It 's not my responsibility to draw ( the audience ) in , I just have to play the character . The way I would perform songs was always about the lyrics and always about trying to speak to everybody and make them watch and believe what I 'm saying and I suppose I 'm essentially doing that here but I 'm not looking at the audience I 'm obviously looking at the other actors . I 'm really happy to do this . I feel rejuvenated by it , I feel excited again . You 're very much alive , you 're very much in the moment , so I feel I 'm really living . After I released my solo record I felt really disappointed , I believed in the record I made but if you don 't have the back @-@ up of your record company investing and marketing it . It 's a really tough job and because I wrote the whole thing I really believed in this record , as did Nellee Hooper , I was jaded and disappointed . Last year I decided I 'm not doing music until I 'm excited again , then this came along and also I did end up making another record which I 'll release at some point . It 's just being mastered , it 's a lovely album ; I didn 't write this one , this is old songs and I have to sort out my situation- I don 't want the same problem as before .
I think everybody 's enjoyed doing their own thing . Sharon and Caroline are young mothers , they have young children . Our mother and father were really were great parents and they hope to be as good a mother as mine , but Sharon 's making her own record and will hopefully release it at some point . But we ( the band ) never finished , we 'll keep it open.'
In late January 2011 , her new album was announced for " early summer " , and a downloadable MP3 of her cover of John Lennon 's Number 9 Dream was made available to subscribers . Lifelines was released on 30 May . In the summer of 2012 , she re @-@ recorded the track " Pale Blue Eyes " ( which had first appeared on her album " Lifelines " ) with German electronic musician Christopher von Deylen , better known under his alias Schiller . It was released in Germany on 5 October on the Schiller album Sonne .
= = = Acting = = =
Andrea Corr entered the film industry in 1991 with Alan Parker 's film , The Commitments where she had a speaking part as Sharon Rabbitte . In 1996 , Parker was directing the film version of the rock opera Evita which starred Madonna . He was so keen on having Andrea in the film that he cast her as Juan Peron 's mistress . Corr provided the singing voice for Kayley in Warner Brothers ' first fully animated film , 1998 's The Quest for Camelot .
Corr resumed her acting career in 2003 where she was cast as Anne in The Boys from County Clare . The film was not a commercial success , but she won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Actress in the US Comedy Arts Festival and was nominated for Best Actress in the IFTA Awards . During the Corrs ' hiatus she was featured in the 2005 film The Bridge and the 2006 film Broken Thread . Corr appeared as Christina in the play Dancing at Lughnasa staged at The Old Vic theatre in London from February until May 2009 .
She played the title role in Jane Eyre by Alan Stanford at the Gate Theatre in Dublin which opened on 9 November 2010 .
= = Charitable activities = =
Andrea Corr and her siblings have played charity concerts to raise money for the Pavarotti & Friends Liberian Children 's Village , Freeman Hospital in Newcastle , the victims of the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland , and The Prince 's Trust in 2004 . They are also ambassadors for the Nelson Mandela 's " 46664 " campaign , where they performed live to raise awareness towards AIDS in Africa . During the Edinburgh Live 8 on 2 July 2005 The Corrs performed " When the Stars Go Blue " alongside Bono to promote the Make Poverty History campaign . In recognition for their charity performances , The Corrs were made Honorary Members of the Order of the British Empire in 2005 by Queen Elizabeth II .
Corr also partook in a tribute single to the late member of The Dubliners , Ronnie Drew . Called " The Ballad of Ronnie Drew . " The song was released on 19 February 2008 and was performed by a number of famous Irish musicians . This included members of U2 , Sinéad O 'Connor Christy Dignam of Aslan , Robert Hunter of the Grateful Dead , who wrote the song , Kíla , Christy Moore , Moya Brennan , Shane MacGowan , Bob Geldof , Damien Dempsey , Gavin Friday , Iona Green , Jerry Fish , Paul Brady , Paddy Casey , Mick Pyro , Mundy , Chris de Burgh , Ronan Keating , Jack L , Eleanor Shanley , Mary Black , Declan O 'Rourke , Mary Coughlan , Joe Elliott of Def Leppard The Dubliners themselves and The Chieftains . The single was written to originally include Ronnie himself but was changed to be a tribute to him as his health was declining . Proceeds from sale of the single went to The Irish Cancer Society at the request of Drew himself . The song was performed live on The Late Late Show aired by RTE Entertainment on 22 February with Ronnie Drew in attendance as an audience member , and entered the Irish Single Charts at No. 2 .
On 10 October 2010 , Corr , amongst others , contributed to the Kirsty MacColl tribute concert held at Shepherd 's Bush Empire to commemorate MacColl 's birthday and raise money for charity . She also wrote and sang the song ' Oh Brother ' on the album ' Music of Ireland – Welcome Home.'
On 30 November 2012 , Corr lent her support to Kate Winslet 's Golden Hat Foundation together with Tim Janis , Sarah McLachlan , Loreena McKennitt , Hayley Westenra , performing on " The American Christmas Carol " concert in Carnegie Hall .
= = Personal life = =
Corr is married to Brett Desmond , son of billionaire Dermot Desmond . They married in St Joseph 's Church in Milltown Malbay , County Clare , Ireland on 21 August 2009 .
Sharon Corr and Caroline Corr sang " No Frontiers " at the wedding , and Damien Dempsey , Sharon Shannon and Seamus Begley also performed on stage in the church , as did Corr herself . In November 2011 , Corr 's first pregnancy was announced . Corr gave birth to daughter Jean on 28 April 2012 , and son Brett Jr. on 4 January 2014 .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Stage roles = =
= Sheet Harbour , Nova Scotia =
Sheet Harbour is a rural community on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia , Canada . It is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality and lies along the Marine Drive on Trunk 7 approximately 117 kilometres ( 73 mi ) northeast of Halifax . Sheet Harbour is the commercial , employment and educational hub for around 5 @,@ 500 people . The community is located along the shores of Sheet Harbour , which has two arms : the Northwest Arm and the Northeast Arm . Two rivers flow into the harbour : West River into the Northwest Arm , and East River into the Northeast Arm . Little West River , a minor river , also flows into the Northwest Arm . The Grand Lake , a large lake west of Sheet Harbour , empties into the Atlantic Ocean , via the Little West River . Adjacent to the community is the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port , an important regional deep @-@ water port . The majority of the land was granted in 1773 and the colony was established in 1784 . Forestry was prominent in Sheet Harbour during its early years . The first sulphide pulp mill in the Dominion of Canada was constructed along the East River in 1885 . However , it was closed in 1891 , due to the high prices of importing sulphide . Another pulp mill was constructed beside the West River Falls in 1925 , but it was destroyed by Hurricane Beth in August 1971 . The community today relies on forestry , fishing and tourism .
Trunk 7 runs directly through Sheet Harbour . Route 224 and Route 374 both have junctions in Sheet Harbour . A new bridge was built across the Northeast Arm . It was named the East River Bridge , after its predecessor . Construction started in September 2014 and it was opened on 17 December 2015 , with a bridge walk to commemorate the event . Sheet Harbour has a hospital , named Eastern Shore Memorial Hospital ( ESMH ) , which is connected to Harbourview Lodge . The community is located about ten minutes northeast of Taylor Head Provincial Park . Sheet Harbour has two schools : Sheet Harbour Consolidated School ( SHCS ) and Duncan MacMillan High School ( DMHS ) . There is a plan currently proposed by the Halifax Regional School Board to replace the four schools in the Sheet Harbour area , one of which is defunct , with one P @-@ 12 school . Tom McInnis , a former Conservative Party politician and member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1978 @-@ 1993 , resides in Sheet Harbour .
= = Location = =
Sheet Harbour is a small rural community located on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia , in the eastern area of the Halifax Regional Municipality . It is the major community in the area as it is the commercial , employment and educational hub for about 5 @,@ 500 people . Sheet Harbour is located slightly more northward compared to other coastal communities in the area , due to the shape of the harbour . The population of Census Tract 2050154 @.@ 00 , which includes Sheet Harbour and a large amount of land around Sheet Harbour 's land borders , is 3 @,@ 478 as of the 2011 Canadian Census . Census tracts are small subdivisions of land that are used by Statistics Canada that usually have a population of 2 @,@ 500 to 8 @,@ 000 . Each census tract has a numerical designation . The population of the community of Sheet Harbour is about 800 . Immediately west of Sheet Harbour is Sheet Harbour 36 , a small Mi 'kmaq reserve .
= = Topography = =
The community of Sheet Harbour is located along the shores of Sheet Harbour , a saltwater harbour , which has two arms : The Northwest Arm and the Northeast Arm .
The western and the wider arm is referred to as the Northwest Arm , while the eastern arm is known as the Northeast Arm . The two arms connect just below Church Point , southeast of where West River meets the Northwest Arm . The harbour continues southeast @-@ ward , then southward toward the Atlantic Ocean . The Northwest Arm extends northwest until it meets the mouth of West River at the West River Falls . The Northeast Arm extends north , then curves northeast under the East River Bridge , until it meets the mouth of the East River . There is a very small island in the arm , named Hen Island .
The harbour from Church Point , where the two arms meet , to the Atlantic Ocean is referred to as Sheet Harbour . It is wider than either arm . It is approximately 11 @-@ 15 metres ( 36 @-@ 49 ft ) deep at low tide . It gradually widens as it flows southward the Atlantic Ocean . After Church Point , it flows southeast @-@ ward past the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port and west of the small community of Watt Section . It then curves and flows southwest @-@ ward to southward toward the Atlantic .
The area around Sheet Harbour is heavily forested and rich in lakes . The coastline is also very rocky and eroded by the Atlantic Ocean , as is typical with most of the Eastern Shore . Sheet Harbour has average tides of about 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 to 5 ft ) .
= = Rivers = =
Two major rivers , one minor river and several small streams empty into the harbour . West River flows into the Northwest Arm , and East River empties into the Northeast Arm .
= = = Northwest Arm = = =
West River , formally West River Sheet Harbour , begins near the Musquodoboit Valley . The main branch of the river , named West River Main , is 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) long . The river has two secondary branches , the Killag River , which is 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) long , and Little River , which is 16 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Several smaller streams flow into the river as it progresses southeast @-@ ward toward Sheet Harbour . Lake Alma flows into West River via Little River . A while downstream , the river flows into Sheet Harbour Lake . Sheet Harbour Lake ends just before the West River Bridge , where Trunk 7 passes over the West River , just before the West River Falls . The falls carry water from 22 metres ( 72 ft ) elevation down to sea level . The river then empties into the Northwest Arm . The river area has been deforested and is prone to flash @-@ flooding .
Sheet Harbour was the first community in North America to use a lime doser , which sprays limestone in to the water , to lower acid rain levels , starting in September 2005 in the West River . It was successful in stabilizing the pH of the river at 5 @.@ 5 , a healthy level for salmon and other aquatic life .
The Grand Lake , a large lake west of Sheet Harbour , also empties into the Northwest Arm via West Lake and Little West River in West Sheet Harbour . The river empties into West Cove , then into the Northwest Arm .
= = = Northeast Arm = = =
East River , formally East River Sheet Harbour , is the other main river that discharges into Sheet Harbour . It flows through the Marshall Flowage , a large flowage , then past the Ruth Falls Power Plant , a hydropower generating station . It narrows back into a river for a short while , then flows into the head of the Northeast Arm .
= = History = =
Almost all of the present land area of Sheet Harbour was granted in 1773 , and the settlement was established around 1784 , by Loyalist refugees and British veterans of the American Revolution and became a prosperous centre for the lumber industry . The Mi 'kmaq name for the settlement was Weijooik , which translates to " flowing wildly " . Sheet Harbour was named " Port North " on the Royal Navy Chart that was published in 1778 . The settlement was called Port North until 1807 . Alternate names for the settlement were Campbelltown and Manchester . Campbelltown would have been named after Lord William Campbell , who was a Captain General as well as a Governor @-@ in @-@ Chief in 1776 – 1773 . It was decided that " Port North " was not descriptive enough , so the name was changed to Sheet Harbour , starting in 1818 because of a white , flat rock that looks like a sheet , named Sheet Rock ; the rock is located at the entrance of the harbour . Sheet Harbour was known as Cambell Town for about two decades , after which this name fell into disuse and became known by its present name .
Around 1863 , a sawmill was built at the tide head of the East River Sheet Harbour , by Demming and McFarlane , a lumber company . However , they did not succeed financially , and they dissolved a few years later .
In October 1885 , the Halifax Wood Fibre Company built the first sulphide pulp mill in Canada , which at the time was the Dominion of Canada , at East River , Sheet Harbour . Since the discovery of the sulphite process happened earlier in 1866 , the news had traveled to William Chisholm , who was a lumber manufacturer in Halifax . He decided to try the sulphite method out for himself at the head of the East River . He had 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 @,@ 281 hectares , or 242 km2 ) of woodland on the Sheet Harbour rivers . The mill closed in January 1891 , due to the high costs of importing sulphide from the United States . The cookhouse which was used at the mill was bought by the residents of Watt Section and was floated down the harbour to the community .
In 1922 , a ground @-@ wood pulp mill , owned by the American Pulp and Wrapping Paper Co. of Albany , began operation on the West River at the head of the Northwest Arm of Sheet Harbour . They had purchased it from Rhodes and Currie , the previous owners who were a lumber company . It produced its first ground @-@ wood pulp on October 5 , 1925 . It remained in operation until it was destroyed by Hurricane Beth in August 1971 .
A steel arch bridge was built in the 1950s over the Northeast Arm . It was named the East River Bridge .
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It was replaced by a new bridge in December 2015 .
= = Industry = =
The economy of Sheet Harbour is primarily based on fishery and forestry , as well as tourism , to a lesser extent .
Sheet Harbour has a Chamber of Commerce . The SHCOC was formed more than 75 years ago , in 1935 , and were formerly known as the Sheet Harbour Board of Trade . They comprise 25 of the businesses in Sheet Harbour and they also operate a Visitor Information Centre at the MacPhee House , situated on the site of the ground @-@ wood pulp mill just east of the West River Bridge , where Trunk 7 crosses the West River at the entrance to Sheet Harbour . There is a community museum at the MacPhee House and they have a collection interpreting " Life before plastic " .
In the 1990s , the Government of Nova Scotia built a common user deep water dock and industrial park just west of Sheet Harbour , named the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port . It was purchased by and is currently operated by the Halifax Port Authority . It currently ships wood chips for the pulp industry and imports wind turbine segments , which are then transported across Nova Scotia and to the rest of North America . The port was used to service the Sable Offshore Energy Project with natural gas pipes processed at coating plant therefore making them suitable for placement on the ocean floor . The port is the closest marine terminal to the fields , at a distance of 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) . It is also approximately 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) west of the Great Circle Route , a major shipping lane between North America and Europe . The docking area is 152 metres ( 499 ft ) long and 36 @.@ 5 metres ( 120 ft ) wide . It also has 10 @.@ 3 metres ( 34 ft ) of draft , which is connected to a concrete pad .
= = Transportation = =
The community is situated at the junction of Route 374 and Route 224 with Trunk 7 . The community has sidewalks that run from West River Bridge to East River Bridge , through the main part of Sheet Harbour . They were opened in 2010 , and cost $ 2 @,@ 895 @,@ 040 ( US $ 2 @,@ 204 @,@ 569 @.@ 46 ) .
= = = 2014 – 15 East River Bridge replacement = = =
A new bridge was built across the Northeast Arm from September 2014 to December 2015 , to replace the East River Bridge .
The bridge was built because the previous bridge , built in 1956 , was nearing the end of its life span . The Nova Scotia Government had proposed minor repairs , but it was decided by the N.S. Government that an entirely new bridge would be more cost @-@ effective . The new bridge was designed , unlike its predecessor , without large , overhead steel arches , because it would have been twice as costly to build . The new bridge was constructed on the same site as the old bridge 's predecessor which was constructed just south of the East River Bridge in 1907 .
The bridge cost $ 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 14 @,@ 671 @,@ 644 ) to build and construction began in September 2014 . The contractor , Dexter Construction , poured 2 @,@ 260 cubic metres ( 79 @,@ 811 cubic feet ) of concrete over 650 @,@ 000 kg ( 1 @,@ 430 @,@ 000 lb ) of rebar . The new bridge relies on two pillars set in the granite below the Northeast Arm . When it was near completion in December 2015 , a deck , along with railings and sidewalks , were laid .
Construction was completed and the bridge was opened on 17 December 2015 to pedestrians and opened the next day to traffic .
There were also a few road modifications on the Sheet Harbour side of the bridge as a result of the new bridge . Trunk 7 was aligned with what was Riverside Drive , which is now nonexistent . Church Point Road and Pool Road were slightly modified . The access road to Sheet Harbour Consolidated School and Duncan MacMillan High School was slightly modified . Sprott Lane , a minor loop , was extended along a part of the old Trunk 7 for a few households .
Shortly after the new bridge was opened , the old East River Bridge was closed and is currently being demolished as of July 2016 . Demolition is expected to be complete in mid @-@ late 2016 .
= = Amenities = =
Sheet Harbour has a Home Hardware store an NSLC liquor store a post office , run by Canada Post , a public library , which is owned and operated by Halifax Public Libraries , a convenience store , a small park , a takeout , a police station , which is run by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , a fire station , and three churches . Sheet Harbour also has a Ground Search and Rescue . Sheet Harbour also hosts one apartment building , two gas stations , operated by Irving Oil and Wilson Fuel , who run the Wilsons Gas Stops chain of gas stations , respectively , a Foodland grocery store and two banks , operated by Scotiabank and Credit Union respectively . The Sheet Harbour Industrial Port is located five minutes west of Sheet Harbour . It is run by the Halifax Port Authority . Sheet Harbour has two motels : Fairwinds Motel and Restaurant and the Sheet Harbour Motel . There is a campground located along the East River , named East River Lodge Campground and Trailer Park .
Eastern Shore Cartage serves Sheet Harbour and its surroundings . Watts Wind Energy , Inc. built a wind turbine in Watt Section , a small community immediately east of Sheet Harbour , in 2010 . It was the outcome of favourable wind data that was obtained by a meteorological tower near what would be the site of the wind turbine . It was constructed and was producing power by October 2011 . It produces about 1 @.@ 5 MW of power and powers approximately 375 households . It stands 85 metres ( 279 ft ) tall .
Every August , the " Seaside Festival " is hosted by the local Lions Club .
The 2610 Royal Canadian Army Cadet Corps is based in Sheet Harbour . They were originally formed on 1 October 1957 , but were disbanded on 31 December 1973 . Twelve years later , the corps was reformed on 1 February 1985 and is still active today . They have earned fame by winning the Strathcona cup five times . The Strathcona cup is an award given to the best performing cadet corps in Nova Scotia .
Eastern Shore Memorial Hospital is a hospital located in Sheet Harbour . Construction began in 1947 , and was opened on May 24 , 1949 . It is owned and operated by the Capital District Health Authority , which amalgamated in to the Nova Scotia Health Authority in 2015 . It has sixteen beds for patients . There is a cenotaph and gardens in front of the site where Duncan MacMillan Nursing Home ( DMNH ) once stood . The hospital offers quite a few services . It is connected to Harbourview Lodge , a nursing home , by a corridor . Harbourview Lodge was built in 2011 to replace DMNH , which was nearing the end of its life span .
Just ten minutes west of Sheet Harbour on Trunk 7 in Spry Bay is Taylor Head Provincial Park . It has two beaches . The entire park is located on a peninsula which juts out into the Atlantic Ocean . Hunting and firearms are forbidden in the park . The park contains over 22 km ( 14 mi ) of hiking trails , and over a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi . ) of beach . The park is open from May – October each year . Near , but outside of the park , is the Spry Bay Campground . It is also located in Spry Bay . Also in Spry Bay is a Dept. of Transportation and Public Works , owned and operated by the Nova Scotia Government .
= = = Education = = =
There are two schools in Sheet Harbour : Sheet Harbour Consolidated School ( SHCS ) and Duncan MacMillan High School ( DMHS ) .
SHCS is a feeder school of DMHS . When students graduate from SHCS , they move on to DMHS . In 2015 , there was 95 students enrolled in the school . The school offers Canadian French . SHCS teaches grades primary through six . The school was built in 1957 .
DMHS is the only high school in the Sheet Harbour area . Consequently , it has three feeder schools : SHCS and Lakefront Consolidated School ( LCS ) , which is located in Tangier , and Eastern Consolidated School ( ECS ) , which is located in Moser River . But , as of 2016 , ECS is closed , due to zero student enrollment . The school offers Integrated French for all grades . DMHS teaches grades seven through 12 . There was 174 students enrolled in the school in 2015 . The school was built in 1963 .
Since early 2013 , a plan has been in the works for the Halifax Regional School Board to close and possibly demolish all three of the DMHS feeder schools and replace them with a larger , more modern grade primary @-@ 12 school somewhere in Sheet Harbour . This new school would teach about 350 students and would serve a large area around Sheet Harbour . On 26 April 2016 , the site for the project was chosen . The new school will be built on the site that Duncan MacMillan High School occupies . A school steering team will be established thereafter and will cooperate with work with the design team for the new school , the Halifax Regional School Board and two government departments ; the Department of Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal and the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development for the design and planning phases .
= = Notable residents = =
Tom McInnis , former Conservative Party politician and member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1978 @-@ 1993
= Delaware Route 23 =
Delaware Route 23 ( DE 23 ) is a 14 @.@ 76 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 23 @.@ 75 km ) state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . Its southern terminus is at Massey 's Landing in Long Neck , near the confluence of Rehoboth Bay and Indian River Bay and its northern terminus is at the Five Points intersection , where it ends at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) , DE 1 , and DE 404 . From the southern terminus , route runs west through residential areas of Long Neck before heading north through rural areas with some development . DE 23 is concurrent with DE 5 between the DE 24 intersection in Long Neck and Fairmount . It is also concurrent with DE 24 Alternate ( DE 24 Alt . ) between Hollymount and the DE 1D intersection in Five Points . The road originally existed as an unnumbered road except along the DE 5 concurrency , becoming fully paved by 1970 . The DE 23 designation was assigned by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
DE 23 begins at a boat ramp parking lot at Massey 's Landing in Long Neck , near the confluence of the Rehoboth Bay and the Indian River Bay . From here , the route heads west on two @-@ lane undivided Long Neck Road , passing through a mix of residential areas and marshland between Rehoboth Bay to the north and Indian River Bay to the south . The road winds west through homes , commercial development , and a few farms . Farther west , DE 23 comes to an intersection with DE 5 / DE 24 . At this intersection , the name changes to Indian Mission Road , and DE 23 begins a concurrency with DE 5 . The two routes head northwest through a mix of farmland and woodland with some housing subdivisions .
In Fairmount , DE 5 splits to the northwest and DE 23 continues north on Beaver Dam Road . In Hollymount , DE 23 intersects DE 24 Alt. and forms a concurrency with that route , with the road curving northeast . In Five Points , DE 23 intersects DE 1D and turns to the north , with DE 1D / DE 24 Alt. continuing straight and curving to the southeast . A short distance later , DE 23 intersects US 9 / DE 404 and turns east @-@ northeast to join those two routes on the four @-@ lane divided Lewes Georgetown Highway . DE 23 reaches its northern terminus at an intersection with DE 1 , at which point DE 404 also ends and US 9 turns east to join DE 1 . Past this intersection , the road becomes US 9 Business ( US 9 Bus . ) .
DE 23 has a total length of 14 @.@ 76 mi ( 23 @.@ 75 km ) . The route has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 167 vehicles at the northern terminus at DE 1 to a low of 1 @,@ 671 vehicles at the south end of the DE 24 Alt. concurrency . The small portion of DE 23 that is concurrent with US 9 / DE 404 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 23 existed as an unimproved county road . The portion of the present route that is concurrent with DE 5 was upgraded to a state highway by 1931 and became a part of DE 5 by 1938 . By 1970 , the road was paved . DE 23 was assigned onto its current alignment by 1994 . DE 24 Alternate was designated to run along DE 23 between Hollymount Road and Plantation Road by 2006 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= Lord of the Flies ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Lord of the Flies " is the fifth episode of the ninth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the show 's 187th episode overall . It first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 16 , 2001 , and was subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on BBC Two . The episode was written by Thomas Schnauz , and was directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . " Lord of the Flies " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , and was watched by 9 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , with many critical of the episode 's reliance on humor .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , an amateur stunt performer is killed while performing a daring act for a local cable reality show , Scully , Doggett and Reyes discover that the culprit was apparently a swarm of killer flies hidden in the victim 's brain .
" Lord of the Flies " marked a return of comedic episodes to the series . Due to this , Patrick had issues with his acting because , initially , he felt the entry was too foolish . The aggressiveness of flies in the episode was inspired by the actual habits of Australian blow flies . The episode 's title , " Lord of the Flies " , is an English translation for the name of the semitic demon Beelzebub , and may be a reference to the classic novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding . In addition , the episode makes several references to musician Syd Barrett , the original singer and guitarist for Pink Floyd .
= = Plot = =
A group of teenagers , led by " Sky Commander Winky " ( Aaron Paul ) , film one of their friends , nicknamed " Cap 'n Dare " ( played by Branden Williams ) , doing stunts for a cable TV show called Dumbass . The last stunt of which involves a ramp @-@ jump in a shopping cart . During the stunt , Dare veers off and falls out of the cart and is found dead after part of his skull collapses . The local coroner calls in John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) to investigate the death . During the autopsy , flies erupt from Dare 's eye sockets . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) examines the body and finds that the insects had fed on Dare 's brain to such a degree that it simply collapsed .
At a local high school , Winky and his brother film a memorial service for Dare , much to the annoyance of his girlfriend Natalie . The teens harass Dylan Lokensgard , the son of the principal and a social outcast . Doggett and Reyes arrive at the school to talk to Winky . During their interview , body lice mysteriously attack him and bite " Dumbass " into his flesh . While watching the Dumbass recordings , Doggett notices that Dylan was at each of the stunts and decides to question him . While the two agents talk to Dylan , his mother appears and tries to stop the questioning . During the proceedings , Dylan becomes covered in flies ; subsequently , Reyes starts to believe that Dylan is behind the attack . The agents take a tissue soaked with Dylan 's sweat back for Scully to analyze . The results show that Dylan 's body fluids contain a high number of insect pheromones .
That night , Natalie sneaks into Dylan 's house . When they kiss , something apparently cuts her mouth , causing her to leave in tears . Dare 's friends , who believe Dylan is responsible for his death , pull up moments later and abduct him . During the drive , an insect like protrusion comes out of Dylan 's mouth and sprays webbing everywhere , causing the car to flip and crash . Doggett and Reyes arrive at the scene , and are told that Dylan chewed his way out the back window . Meanwhile , Scully and a bug specialist search Dylan 's home . Scully leaves to help Reyes find the teenager while the specialist stays behind ; the specialist is subsequently attacked by Dylan 's mother .
Reyes tracks down Natalie , but Reyes is attacked and cocooned by Dylan . Dylan 's mother approaches him , and tells him that he is not like other kids and never will be . Doggett arrives at the girl 's home and finds Reyes and Natalie alive . Dylan and his mother , however , are nowhere to be found . A subsequent search of the Lokensgard home reveals other bodies , including the bug specialist , cocooned but survived , and Dylan 's father , who supposedly ran off years earlier . After leaving with his mother , Dylan sends Natalie one last message in the form of fireflies : " I love you . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Thomas Schnauz , and was directed by Kim Manners . It was Schnauz 's first writing credit , and Manner 's second directing credit for the season . The episode marked a return of " the comedy episode " for the series . According to Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles in their book The Complete X @-@ Files , the episode " revisit [ s ] [ the ] themes of genetic grafting experiments from ' Travelers ' in a humorous context . " Series co @-@ star Robert Patrick had a difficult time with the episode ; he later explained , " I couldn 't deal with some of the material . As an actor , I found some of it to be a little silly . " Accordingly , Manners helped Patrick traverse the script , an action that helped him achieve the desired delivery for his lines .
A few of the flies on the dead body of " Cap 'n Dare " were real , but the rest were created via CGI , according to special effects supervisors John Wash . The eye of the body was opened by a cable . Hank Harris , the boy who played Dylan , wore a suit made of rubber for the swarming scene . 30 @,@ 000 live flies were then " dumped " onto him during filming . The opening for the episode was filmed at Cheviot Hills Park in Los Angeles . The site had previously been used for various shots in the sixth season episode " The Unnatural " and the eighth season episode " Three Words " . Garfield High School in Sherman Oaks , California , stood in for Grant High School . During filming breaks , Robert Patrick spent his time listening to his brother Richard Patrick 's industrial rock band , Filter .
The aggressiveness of flies in the episode was inspired by the actual habits of Australian blow flies . The episode 's title , " Lord of the Flies " , is an English translation for the name of the semitic demon Beelzebub . The name was also used as the title for 1954 novel of the same name by British author William Golding . The episode makes several references to Syd Barrett . Barrett was the original singer , songwriter , and lead guitarist for British band Pink Floyd . Two of his songs , " No Good Trying " and " Terrapin " , are featured in the episode .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Lord of the Flies " first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 16 , 2001 . " Lord of the Flies " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 6 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 6 @.@ 54 million households , and 9 @.@ 9 million viewers . " Lord of the Flies " was the 51st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending December 16 . The episode eventually aired on BBC Two in the United Kingdom on December 1 , 2002 .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a " C " grade rating . She derided the show 's need to place The X @-@ Files logo in the teaser , but ultimately concluded that the episode was a " decent [ one ] to recap " . John Keegan from Critical Myth wrote that the episode " ranks right in the mediocre range " and awarded it a 5 out of 10 . He noted , " Overall , this episode did very little for me . I ’ m sure that the writing staff could have come up with something better than a bad sixth season plot when the idea of a humorous ninth season episode came to the table . Is there any hope that there might be a truly memorable episode where Doggett is allowed to be amused ? " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two argued that the entry was trying to " be a ' Rain King ' or a ' Terms of Endearment ' and would like to recapture the sweet and charming feel of those early Season Six experiments . " However , they noted that because the show was in a different stage — Mulder and Scully were no longer the focus of the show 's attention — that " the same style falls flat on its face " . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson complained that " The X @-@ Files is draining the trough of teenage angst again " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , felt that the teaser " intrigues for a moment " , but that the competing elements of " quirky humour , body horror and teen love story quickly sink this disappointing outing . "
= Hurricane Alex ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Alex was a rare June hurricane and the first tropical cyclone to develop in the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . Originating from an area of disturbed weather on June 25 , 2010 , it slowly developed in the western Caribbean Sea and struck Belize as a strong tropical storm . After entering the Gulf of Mexico , Alex became very large and encountered conditions favorable for gradual development . Early on June 30 , the cyclone attained hurricane status as it approached northeastern Mexico , the first June hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Allison in 1995 , and the storm rapidly intensified just off the coast of Tamaulipas . Alex came ashore near Soto la Marina as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .
Alex caused the deaths of at least 51 people along its path , and produced over $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ( 2010 USD ) in damage . The precursor of the hurricane produced substantial rainfall across the Greater Antilles , causing one death in the Dominican Republic . Fourteen people were killed in Central America as a result of flooding during the first landfall of Alex . In Mexico , the storm 's outer rainbands killed three people in Acapulco , one person in Oaxaca , and another in Chiapas . At its final landfall , Alex caused at least fifteen deaths in Nuevo León , eight in Coahuila , six in Guanajuato , and one in both Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí ; an additional twenty persons were reported missing .
Alex triggered widespread power outages throughout northeastern Mexico and southern Texas . Damage was most evident in the Monterrey metropolitan area , which faced what Nuevo León governor Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz described as , " the worst weather phenomenon in its history . " Following Alex 's final landfall , a state of emergency was declared for most of Nuevo León , portions of Tamaulipas , and Texas . Widespread flooding from the storm affected 500 @,@ 000 people throughout northeast Mexico , and ruined over 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops in the region , equivalent to 11 % of the region 's total farmland .
= = Meteorological history = =
The weather system from which Hurricane Alex developed was first discernible as a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on June 17 , 2010 . Over the next few days , most of its associated thunderstorm activity was embedded within the ITCZ . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) first mentioned it as a candidate for tropical cyclone formation on June 20 , while it was crossing the Windward Islands into the southeastern Caribbean Sea ; at the time , some upper @-@ level wind shear was present , leading to conditions only marginally favorable for development . The system moved through the Caribbean , and on June 21 , it developed to the extent that the NHC assessed a 50 % chance of development into a tropical depression within 48 hours . The next day , however , the feature deteriorated as thunderstorm activity spread across the Greater Antilles , although the upper @-@ level regime remained favorable for eventual redevelopment .
On June 24 , a low @-@ level circulation had gradually become better established to the south of Jamaica , although it was displaced from its poorly organized convection . By 1800 UTC , a surface low @-@ pressure area had formed about 105 miles ( 165 km ) to the northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , Nicaragua , but due to a lack of persistent thunderstorm activity , it was not yet considered a tropical cyclone . Later that day , convection increased over the center of circulation , and atmospheric pressures dropped across the region . Late on June 25 , Hurricane Hunters verified the development of a surface low pressure area , which , combined with the increase of thunderstorm activity , indicated the system was a tropical depression . Accordingly , the cyclone was classified as Tropical Depression One at 2200 UTC , while located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) to the east @-@ southeast of Chetumal , Quintana Roo . After the end of the hurricane season , the National Hurricane Center revised their analysis and estimated that the system had actually become a tropical depression at around 1800 UTC . At the time of its formation , the depression was moving to the west @-@ northwest , steered by a high pressure system over the northern Gulf of Mexico . An anticyclone positioned over the storm created an environment of minimal wind shear , and the depression quickly intensified . At 0900 UTC on June 26 , it obtained tropical storm status and was given the name Alex .
As Tropical Storm Alex progressed through the western Caribbean Sea towards the Yucatán Peninsula , it developed a large field of clouds accompanied by well @-@ established outflow throughout its circulation . Its inner structure was initially disorganized , although by late on June 26 , it became better defined . At about 2100 UTC , as the tropical storm approached the Belize coast , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; early on June 27 , Alex made landfall just north of Belize City at this intensity . Upon moving ashore , an area of convection increased over the center , and the convection initially became better defined as it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula . While most tropical cyclones weaken and become disorganized after landfall , Alex seemed to become stronger when viewed on radar and satellite imagery — the National Hurricane Center noted in one of its forecast discussions that the cyclone 's structure more closely resembled a hurricane than a deteriorating storm . Still , after enough time over land , convective activity markedly decreased , and Alex weakened to tropical depression status as it approached the peninsula 's western coastline . Late on June 27 , the depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico with a large overall convective structure but little thunderstorm activity near the center due to the interaction with land .
When Alex was still located over the Yucatán Peninsula , the NHC remarked upon the potential for significant strengthening . Because of low wind shear and very warm water temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico , the possibility existed that Alex could intensify into a major hurricane — a Category 3 storm on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale — before its next landfall . Early on June 28 , thunderstorm activity had reformed over the center , and the depression re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm . For the next day , the combination of dry air , increasing wind shear and slightly cooler water temperatures prevented significant convection from developing over the center . At the same time , Alex was moving slowly off the northwest coast of the Yucatán Peninsula , and the environment 's conditions became more favorable for intensification as the tropical storm tracked away from the coast . The circulation envelope of Alex remained very large , and by June 29 , the storm 's rainbands covered the entire western half of the Gulf of Mexico ; rainfall was reported along the Texas and Louisiana coasts , even while the center was still several hundred miles offshore . The tropical storm continued to strengthen , and based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated that Alex attained hurricane status at 0300 UTC on June 30 , about 255 miles ( 415 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
Upon becoming a hurricane , Alex was located in a moist , low shear environment , which led to steady intensification on June 30 . The pressure continued to fall — a sign of an intensifying cyclone — with a more rapid drop occurring that afternoon and evening . The hurricane strengthened into a Category 2 storm late on June 30 as it approached the northeastern Mexican coast . At 0200 UTC on July 1 , Alex made landfall at peak strength , with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , gusts of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and an unusually low central pressure of 947 millibars ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) in the municipality of Soto la Marina in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas . After the storm , the National Hurricane Center revised the landfall intensity estimate , showing Alex was even stronger when it struck the Mexican coast , with sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a central pressure of 946 millibars ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Several hours after moving ashore , the storm weakened to Category 1 status , and its structure began to deteriorate . However , deep convection persisted around the center . By 1200 UTC , Alex had weakened into a tropical storm ; by 0000 UTC July 2 , the Sierra Madre Oriental disrupted Alex 's core , causing the storm to weaken into a tropical depression and dissipate over San Luis Potosí . However , the interaction with the mountain range caused orographic lift on the eastern side of the storm after the center of circulation had ceased to exist , producing torrential rainfall throughout northern and central Mexico . Following the dissipation of Alex , divergence at the 200 mb atmospheric pressure level ( approximately at 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of altitude ) , a ridge of high pressure located over southern Texas , and Alex 's residual moisture interacted to produce intense convection over Nuevo León , Tamaulipas and Coahuila for the next 72 hours .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
Immediately after the storm formed on June 25 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the entire east coast of Quintana Roo on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula . Shortly thereafter , the tropical storm warning was extended to include the east coast of Belize . Late on June 25 , the Government of Honduras issued a tropical storm warning for the islands of Roatan , Guanaja and Utila . A tropical storm watch was also issued from Limón to the border with Guatemala .
= = = Western Gulf Coast = = =
As Alex neared hurricane strength on the evening of June 28 , a hurricane warning was issued for the coast of Texas south of Baffin Bay to the mouth of the Rio Grande . The Mexican government also issued a hurricane warning from the Rio Grande south to La Cruz . A tropical storm warning was posted for coastal Texas from Baffin Bay northward to Port O 'Connor . Governor of Texas Rick Perry declared a state of disaster in 19 counties and ordered the deployment of Texas Military Forces personnel ( including 80 citizen @-@ soldiers of the Texas State Guard Medical Brigade ) to the Rio Grande Valley . President Barack Obama also declared a state of emergency , freeing federal funds for 25 counties in Texas .
On June 29 , authorities began evacuations of residents of coastal areas in the Tamaulipas municipalities of Soto la Marina , Matamoros and San Fernando municipalities . On June 30 , the state 's civil defense agency and education secretary announced that schools would be closed throughout the state during the storm . Thirteen shelters were opened in Reynosa , twenty @-@ two in Matamoros , and ten in San Fernando ; a total of 3 @,@ 000 people sought protection from the storm in the three municipalities . Throughout the state , 20 @,@ 000 people were asked to evacuate to safer areas . Nuevo León schools were also ordered to be closed for at least 24 hours ; the Universidad Regiomontana , Universidad de Monterrey and Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León followed suit . In Monterrey , mandatory evacuations alongside the Santa Catarina River were ordered , as well as the evacuation of 5 @,@ 000 families in the highlands of the city . Throughout the state , a total of 90 shelters were opened . Coahuila did not close its schools , expecting Alex to reach the state as a tropical depression or weaker , but asked its schools to not take attendance .
Prior to Alex making landfall , the Brownsville , Texas National Weather Service issued a flood watch for the southernmost region of the state . The storm was expected to produce heavy rainfall for up to 18 hours , which had the potential to cause significant flooding in poor drainage areas , especially those flooded by Hurricane Dolly in 2008 . Officials opened hurricane shelters , and voluntary evacuations were put into place for South Padre Island ; at least 1 @,@ 000 people sought shelter in Cameron and Hidalgo counties .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean and Central America = = =
The tropical wave from which Alex developed produced rainfall across the Greater Antilles in the central Caribbean Sea . In the Dominican Republic , the rainfall triggered flooding that prompted the evacuations of over 3 @,@ 000 people , mostly due to swollen rivers . In the capital city of Santo Domingo , 160 houses were flooded , and one person was killed by the storm ; one additional person was reported missing . In nearby San Juan de la Maguana , more than 500 homes were inundated . In neighboring Haiti , minor flooding was reported in Gonaïves . The Jamaica Meteorological Service issued a flash flood warning for its entire island in response to the tropical wave producing thunderstorms across the nation .
Fourteen people were killed in Central America as a result of flooding related to Alex : six in Nicaragua , six in El Salvador , and two in Guatemala . In El Salvador , the national chapter of the Red Cross evacuated over 150 families from La Paz and Sonsonate departments . The El Salvador government reported nine injuries , and 5 @,@ 000 people in the country evacuated their residences ; the majority of the evacuees was temporarily relocated to 55 shelters . Alex inflicted damage to 349 homes , 31 schools and 10 bridges , and 27 highways were compromised or blocked . In Guatemala , 350 homes and eight highways were damaged , affecting 9 @,@ 000 people ; 2 @,@ 000 sought shelter in the country . A landslide was reported in a village in Santa Lucía Utatlán , along with flooding in Flores . Corn , bean , and potato crops were damaged in Suchitepéquez , San Marcos and Jutiapa departments . The National Emergency Management Organization of Belize reported that property damage in the country was minimal .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
According to the Mexican government , Alex stopped the production of 420 @,@ 000 barrels ( 67 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil per day from the Gulf of Mexico , which corresponds to a quarter of the country 's total oil production . Pemex evacuated 66 personnel from oil rigs offshore of Tamaulipas and Veracruz , Petrobras evacuated its oil rig in the Gulf , while Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 930 personnel from its rigs in the area . In total , six rigs and 69 production platforms faced evacuations , causing 21 % of U.S. Gulf oil output and 14 % of U.S. Gulf natural @-@ gas flows to remain offline .
The storm was expected to impact operations regarding the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill , with both containment and cleanup operations being affected by repercussions from the storm ( such as wave action and wind direction ) . Although Alex stayed relatively away from the site , the storm caused BP to delay plans to increase oil capture from the leak by a week . Tarballs from the spill as large as apples washed onshore around Grand Isle , as well as other parts of Louisiana , Alabama and Florida , from high storm tides created by the hurricane .
= = = Southern Mexico = = =
In Chiapas , one person from Guatemala died and four others were injured when their bus rolled over as it traveled over a damaged highway . The state 's civil defense system reported that 984 families from 17 municipalities were evacuated to shelters , and that Alex 's torrential rainfall also produced 23 landslides in six counties of the state . On June 30 , a mudslide knocked down a tree onto a 115 @-@ kV transmission line near El Vergel , causing 82 cities and towns in the municipalities of Villaflores and Villa Corzo to lose power ; 32 @,@ 000 residents were left without electricity from this outage alone . Power was restored the same evening . In Yucatán , a boat carrying seven passengers capsized ; all were eventually rescued . In Campeche , 937 dwellings suffered minor damage as a result of the storm .
Prior to its second landfall , Alex caused one death in the state of Oaxaca when a wall collapsed on a dwelling in San Juan Chapultepec , killing the woman who was sleeping inside . Near San Francisco Ixhuatán , the Ostuta river breached its banks , flooding 1 @,@ 000 homes . Farther upstream , in Reforma de Pineda , over 100 families were affected by the river 's rise , which flooded their homes with 3 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 m ) of water . Overall , 3 @,@ 500 families were affected by the storm in the state .
The outer rainbands of Alex caused three deaths in Acapulco , Guerrero , after a retaining wall collapsed over the occupants of an improvised shack in a vacant lot . The investigation that followed found that the wall had been built without structural enforcements , and that the torrential rainfall had weakened the wall 's foundation .
= = = Northeastern Mexico = = =
The storm 's most significant effect in the region was excessive rainfall , which was reported throughout the region . In Tamaulipas , between 3 @.@ 829 to 12 @.@ 421 in ( 97 @.@ 25 to 315 @.@ 5 mm ) of precipitation were reported at weather stations statewide . In Nuevo León , an average of 9 @.@ 5 in ( 242 mm ) of rain was reported statewide up to July 1 . The pluviometer at Estanzuela reported that a total of 35 in ( 890 mm ) of rainfall were recorded ; in Arroyo Seco , in San Pedro Garza García , a total of 23 @.@ 1 in ( 588 mm ) of precipitation was recorded between June 29 and 6 a.m. on July 1 . Other rainfall stations in Monterrey recorded between 14 @.@ 163 in ( 359 @.@ 75 mm ) and 24 @.@ 4 in ( 619 mm ) of rain , while Santa Catarina recorded 23 @.@ 297 in ( 591 @.@ 75 mm ) of precipitation . The Comisión Nacional del Agua ( CNA ) noted that the storm rainfall totals greatly exceed the totals produced by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 , which only produced 11 in ( 280 mm ) of rain in the city .
The historic rainfall caused several dams to fill throughout northeast Mexico . In Nuevo León , due to the heavy rainfall , CNA also began water discharges of 25 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 713 m3 / s ) from the La Boca Dam in Santiago , 58 @,@ 200 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 648 m3 / s ) from Cerro Prieto in Linares , and 109 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 3 @,@ 080 m3 / s ) from Cuchillo Dam in China ; the dams were at 98 % , 114 % , and 124 % of operating maximum capacity , respectively . Cuchillo Dam saw water inflows of 145 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 4 @,@ 118 m3 / s ) . The water releases from these dams raised a state of alert in Tamaulipas , which was slated to receive the discharged water . In Coahuila , the rainfall caused La Fragua Dam to release 35 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) of water into the Rio Grande , and Amistad Dam to reach 119 % of normal operating capacity . In the case of the latter dam , the excess storage in Amistad Lake sparked fears of flooding in downstream municipalities , although the possibility of overtopping of the dam was discarded by the Mexican section of the International Boundary and Water Commission . However , contingency plans were put in place to prepare for the crest of the Sabinas River , a tributary of the Rio Grande , and the subsequent crest on the Rio Grande itself , which was expected to carry at least 140 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 4 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) due to additional inflows from other tributaries . At one point , the Rio Grande was clocked at 195 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 530 m3 / s ) due to its many flooded tributaries . The river 's rise forced the evacuation of 40 families in Piedras Negras , and required the closure of the Gateway to the Americas International Bridge and Colombia – Solidarity International Bridge between Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas and Laredo , Texas on July 8 . The bridges were expected to be closed until at least July 10 . The rise of the Escondido River forced the evacuation of 1 @,@ 000 families in Villa de Fuente , as the river rose to carry 23 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 650 m3 / s ) through the town .
The rainfall also caused Venustiano Carranza Dam in Coahuila to fill completely ; the large water pressure in the dam forced the dam 's gates shut , and cranes were employed to open them . The rest of the gates were unable to be opened due to lack of electrical power , sparking fears of a potential dam overtopping or rupture . The municipality of Anáhuac in Nuevo León was evacuated after reports early on July 6 that the dam had overtopped ; Anáhuac 's municipal president stated that the flood could cause the " total destruction " of the city . On July 7 , as water releases from the dam were increased to 120 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 3 @,@ 300 m3 / s ) , the town was reported to be 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 m ) underwater , with more discharge expected . Personnel from the Mexican Army and the city 's prison population were evacuated from Anáhuac that same day . In San Luis Potosí , the rainfall from Alex was beneficial , as it caused increases in dam water levels of up to 20 % in very dry areas .
= = = = Tamaulipas = = = =
Along the coast , 13 ft ( 4 m ) waves were reported when the storm came ashore . Following the hurricane 's landfall in Tamaulipas , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man was rescued from a storm drain . 60 @,@ 000 people in San Fernando lost power , as did all of Ciudad Victoria , the capital of the state . Throughout the state , 256 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . Heavy winds and rainfall knocked down billboards and trees in the capital , but no injuries were reported in the city . The storm dropped 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rainfall in Matamoros , flooding 120 colonias , and leaving six of the 120 underwater . About 400 neighborhoods of Matamoros , comprising 80 % of the city , were flooded . Some areas of the city were under 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water , forcing 4 @,@ 000 people to shelters . In Reynosa , 80 colonias were flooded , and 15 trees were uprooted ; in Río Bravo , seven neighborhoods were flooded . In Nuevo Laredo , three young persons were rescued from a flooded arroyo . The San Fernando River also breached its banks , flooding communities in San Fernando and Méndez . The overflow of the Rio Grande following water discharges from Nuevo León isolated two communities in Miguel Alemán . One death was reported in the state on July 7 when a man died while trying to cross a flooded river .
Throughout the state , the storm and resultant floods damaged at least 6 @,@ 000 homes , 202 schools , and 500 businesses . Additionally , 28 roadways and bridges were damaged , and left over 193 @,@ 000 power consumers lost electric service . Property damage was placed at $ 1 @.@ 084 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 83 @.@ 8 million USD ) in the 19 municipalities of the state that were declared federal disaster areas .
= = = = Nuevo León = = = =
In Nuevo León , fifteen people were confirmed to have died : one bricklayer who died after a housing unit under construction collapsed on top of him ; two men and a woman who died after their vehicle rolled over and crashed into a semi @-@ trailer truck due to the intense rainfall ; a 25 @-@ year @-@ old who was swept away by swift currents and pinned against a fence ; an elderly man who died after a wall toppled over him , a woman who died after a large boulder from a rock slide fell on her home , and a young man who fell onto the Arroyo Topo Chico . Eight more bodies were found after floodwaters began receding , although one is believed to have been washed away from a cemetery . Twenty people in Nuevo León were reported missing .
According to the Comisión Federal de Electricidad , 4 @,@ 000 customers lost electric power in the Monterrey metropolitan area , as did 61 @,@ 000 people statewide . 18 wells lost power , leaving 110 @,@ 000 without water service in the municipalities of Santa Catarina and García . Heavy flooding occurred along the Santa Catarina River in Monterrey , normally a dry river bed that flows into the Rio Grande , causing it to reach a record flow of 88 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) . The flooded stream washed away multiple parked vehicles , a popular flea market , and sport facilities built within a riverside greenway . The Santa Catarina River also destroyed about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) of Monterrey 's main arterial streets . Multiple washouts caused the closure of the divided highway between Monterrey and Saltillo , Coahuila . In San Nicolás de los Garza , the Arroyo Topo Chico exceeded its banks , forcing multiple street closures . An explosion and fire occurred on a bridge in the Guadalupe municipality when a transformer fell on an old gas pipe . No injuries were reported due to the fire . In Linares , the rainfall from Alex 's remnants caused a wing of the municipal townhouse , which was built in 1896 , to collapse . The building was listed as a protected historic building . A bridge on the Pilón River collapsed in Montemorelos , rupturing a 24 @-@ inch oil pipeline in the process . However , the valves on both ends of the pipeline section were closed , minimizing the leak over the river , and the leak was not expected to adversely impact drinking water supplies in El Cuchillo Dam . Hurricane Alex affected the infrastructure of 1 @,@ 077 schools in the state , 60 of which were severely damaged and 552 held intermediate damage . Nationwide disruption in Internet connection and cell phone services was caused by damage to optical fibers , backbone nodes and telephonic central stations in Monterrey . Additionally , Telefónica reported damage to its network in Monterrey and Saltillo , causing intermittent unavailability of telecommunication services . Preliminary estimates of the damage in the state rose to $ 10 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 762 million USD ) ; final damage estimates released on August 5 totaled $ 16 @.@ 9 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 1 @.@ 35 billion USD ) statewide .
= = = = Coahuila = = = =
In Coahuila , rainfall from Alex 's remnants caused a small dam in an ejido in Castaños to overtop , forcing the evacuation of 50 people in the municipality 's seat . The ensuing flood rose 3 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 m ) and damaged 15 homes . The coal @-@ producing region of the state was left isolated after the Álamos River broke its banks . Hundreds of residents in Nueva Rosita and Sabinas were evacuated ; in the latter case , the Sabinas River flooded to become 980 ft ( 300 m ) in width , causing 400 – 500 homes to go underwater . Some bridges on Mexican Federal Highway 57 were covered in water . Thousands of citizens in Ciudad Acuña were evacuated when the Arroyo Las Vacas flooded after 40 in ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain fell on nearby mountain ranges . The flood damaged 1 @,@ 000 homes , damaging urban infrastructure , power , water and telecommunication services ; 500 people sought refuge in shelters . The loss of power caused 40 maquiladoras to suspend their activities , stopping 16 @,@ 000 workers . The rainfall caused damage in 15 municipalities of Coahuila , affecting 10 @,@ 000 people , and causing at least $ 1 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 76 million USD ) in damage in the state .
= = = United States = = =
In southern Texas , the feeder bands on the northern side of the hurricane began producing tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds throughout Cameron , Willacy and Kenedy Counties starting on June 30 . The highest reported sustained wind was of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at the southeast tip of Port Isabel . The strongest gust occurred over the Queen Isabella Causeway , where a wind speed of 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) was measured . Sustained winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and gusts of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) were measured in Bayview .
The feeder bands also produced heavy rainfall , leading to flooding on South Padre Island . A storm surge of 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) was reported on the island , causing moderate beach erosion . However , more significant damage was avoided as the bulk of the 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) storm tide hit South Padre and Port Isabel at low tide . Nine tornadoes were confirmed to have touched down in the state in association with the storm , one of which overturned a mobile home . Other tornadoes caused mainly minimal damages to trees and shrubbery . About 9 @,@ 000 customers lost power throughout Texas .
Large amounts of precipitation fell throughout the Lower Rio Grande Valley , with 6 to 9 inches ( 150 to 230 mm ) of rainfall recorded throughout the region . Brownsville Airport had 6 @.@ 80 inches ( 173 mm ) of precipitation in a 36 @-@ hour period . The 5 @.@ 86 inches ( 149 mm ) of rain that fell alone on June 30 broke the daily rainfall record of 3 @.@ 80 inches ( 97 mm ) from 1995 . McAllen , Texas , measured 6 @.@ 66 inches ( 169 mm ) of rain on June 30 , which now constitutes the city 's wettest June day on record . In Houston , more rain fell on the first two days of July than the average rainfall for the entire month of July . Some parts of the city received nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain over three days , causing scattered street flooding .
Flooding caused by the rainfall from the remnants of Alex caused the Rio Grande at Foster Ranch , in far western Texas , to exceed 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) , well above the flood stage at 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and the record stage at 25 @.@ 9 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . Combined with the rainfall produced by Tropical Depression Two , the Rio Grande was under flood conditions for much of the month of July . About $ 10 million ( 2010 USD ) of agricultural damage was reported in Hidalgo County from Alex .
= = Aftermath and records = =
= = = Government response = = =
Following the storm 's final landfall , Mexico 's Secretariat of National Defense deployed 800 troops to Nuevo León and Tamaulipas under Plan DN @-@ III @-@ E to help aid operations . The troops enforced mandatory evacuations of 3 @,@ 337 residents of San Fernando and Soto la Marina in Tamaulipas . Throughout Nuevo León , 60 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from their homes . In Tamaulipas , 263 @,@ 000 people were affected by Hurricane Alex , and 2 @,@ 260 homes were flooded . In Coahuila , 80 @,@ 000 were affected by Alex 's remnants , leaving 30 % of the municipalities of the state without communication with the outside world . 20 @,@ 000 were considered total losses , most of them in Sabinas . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people were affected by floods throughout northeastern Mexico .
The Secretaría de Gobernación declared a state of emergency in 21 of Nuevo León 's 51 municipalities , freeing federal disaster funds for use in aid operations . An additional 10 municipalities were placed under the state of emergency on July 8 . A similar declaration was made for 8 municipalities in Oaxaca , and for 14 municipalities in Tamaulipas ; the state of emergency in Tamaulipas was later expanded to 30 municipalities . Mexican President Felipe Calderón requested adding resources to the federal disaster fund , as the $ 3 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 235 million USD ) it held would not be sufficient to face the damage in Coahuila , Nuevo León and Tamaulipas . In the months following the storm , a total of $ 4 @.@ 8 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 375 million USD ) was released by the federal and state governments to aid in the reconstruction of the disaster areas in Nuevo León and Tamaulipas . In Texas , Governor Rick Perry activated the state 's search and rescue capabilities in Laredo and San Antonio . This activation was due to the flooding on the Rio Grande Valley , which was expected to worsen due to the approach of Tropical Depression Two to the area affected by Alex .
Even after its dissipation , Alex continued causing deaths throughout Mexico , particularly due to
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flooding . One death was reported in Tamaulipas and another one in San Luis Potosí ; another six were reported to have died in Guanajuato as a result of Alex . In Coahuila , eight people died after a plane crashed while surveying the water discharges from dams in the state ; the Coahuila secretary of public works and the municipal president of Piedras Negras were among the victims .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
The storm caused severe devastation in Nuevo León , and in particular throughout the Monterrey metropolitan area . State governor Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz noted that the city of Monterrey had " collapsed due to the worst weather phenomenon in its history . " In the municipality of Santa Catarina alone , 50 @,@ 000 people were affected , with property damage being estimated at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 93 @.@ 5 million USD ) . Residents from three colonias in García had to be permanently relocated as 800 homes were destroyed ; the storm caused $ 900 million ( 2010 MXN ; 70 million USD ) in damage in the municipality . The flooding Santa Catarina River destroyed four bridges in Monterrey ; at least 60 bridges were damaged statewide . Governor Medina also announced on July 3 the allocation of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 107 million USD ) for repairs to Monterrey 's arterial streets . Municipalities in the metropolitan area used contraflow during part of the day to re @-@ establish traffic in sections where the arterial streets bordering the Santa Catarina River were damaged only in one direction . The repairs to Monterrey 's main roadways were estimated to take up to three months to complete .
Railway traffic throughout the state was paralyzed , as some train bridges collapsed , and extensive damage was found in the track ballast in multiple rail lines . Kansas City Southern Railway reported it expected a net loss of five cents per share on its annual earnings due to the stoppage affecting its Mexican subsidiary . The company later reported a drop of $ 33 million ( 2010 USD ) in revenue due to hurricane damage . The damage to the railway infrastructure caused automotive part shortages throughout North America . General Motors was forced to cancel shifts at plants in Michigan , Missouri and Kansas . Ford also idled production in its Oakville , Ontario assembly plant , and suffered two @-@ week delays in U.S. deliveries of its Fiesta model due to the rail track damage . The damage to the road system paralyzed a route used by 40 % of the trade between the United States and Mexico , as 22 @,@ 000 trucks were stalled after damage to the Nuevo Laredo – Monterrey highway .
Alex destroyed the potable water infrastructure in portions of Nuevo León , causing widespread shortages of water . The damage to the water infrastructure was described as being of " unexpected magnitude , " with 160 @,@ 000 left without water a week after the storm made landfall . The standing water left following the rainfall caused concern of outbreaks of various diseases , including cholera . Consequently , the population was warned to boil or otherwise disinfect water to prevent disease . In areas where the storm 's impact made it difficult to boil water due to the unavailability of gas or stoves , 70 @,@ 000 jars with colloidal silver were distributed . Additionally , laboratory testing of refuse coming from individuals with gastrointestinary illnesses commenced as a precaution to identify outbreaks of cholera and other diseases , and over 82 @,@ 000 vaccines were applied throughout the region . Following the storm 's passage , PROFECO announced fines of up to $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 2010 MXN ; $ 191 @,@ 000 USD ) to merchants guilty of price gouging when selling bottled water . This occurred after the agency received complaints of 1500 % markups when compared to bottled water 's pre @-@ storm price . On July 7 , the agency announced it had applied sanctions to 20 businesses who were found overcharging for bottled water .
= = = Economic and environmental effects = = =
According to estimates from the Mexican Secretariat of Agriculture , Livestock , Rural Development , Fisheries and Food ( SAGARPA ) , 504 @,@ 000 acres ( 203 @,@ 800 ha ) of farmland were damaged as a result from Alex in northeastern Mexico , corresponding to 11 % of the total farmland in Tamaulipas , Nuevo León and Coahuila . Most of the agricultural damage occurred in Tamaulipas , where 270 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 @,@ 000 ha ) of sorghum and 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 80 @,@ 000 ha ) of maize were damaged , corresponding to 15 @.@ 6 % of the entirety of the state 's farmland , and 76 % of the state 's maize crop ; 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 700 ha ) of grapefruit and limes were also damaged , corresponding to 15 % of the state 's citrus production . Two thousand heads of cattle were also lost in Nuevo Laredo . In Nuevo León and Coahuila , most of the damage was to animal husbandry ; in Nuevo León , 3 @,@ 645 heads of cattle , 3 @,@ 580 goats , 7 @,@ 265 sheep and 194 horses were lost , while in Coahuila , 3 @,@ 709 goats , 258 cattle and 56 sheep were killed .
The storm also affected commerce throughout the region . The Mexican Secretariat of Economy calculated that Alex affected 2 @,@ 500 small and medium enterprises in Nuevo León , 500 in Tamaulipas , and 500 – 700 in Coahuila . In Monterrey , the local chapter of the Confederation of National Chambers of Commerce reported that in the first two days after Hurricane Alex affected the city , businesses in the city lost $ 750 million ( 2010 MXN ; 58 million USD ) . Overall , the lost business due to Alex is expected to total about $ 2 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 156 million USD ) .
As floodwaters receded from the Pesquería River in Escobedo , Nuevo León , the remnants of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old mammoth were discovered by local residents . It is believed that the remains were carried from the state of Coahuila to Escobedo by the floodwaters . The remnants were identified and dated by personnel from the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia .
= = = Meteorological records = = =
Alex was the first Atlantic hurricane in the month of June since Hurricane Allison in 1995 , and the strongest in terms of wind speed since Hurricane Alma in 1966 . Its barometric pressure recording of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 96 inches ) is the most intense from any Atlantic hurricane in June , although Hurricane Audrey in 1957 ties this intensity . Alex is thus tied for the most intense June Atlantic hurricane on record overall . However , as Audrey 's pressure was estimated , Audrey 's actual pressure might be as low as 925 mbar .
= Roman Lyashenko =
Roman Yurievich Lyashenko ( May 1 , 1979 – July 7 , 2003 ) was a Russian ice hockey player . He played professionally in North America for the Dallas Stars and New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and also spent time with affiliate teams in the American Hockey League ( Utah Grizzlies and Hartford Wolfpack ) and the now @-@ defunct International Hockey League ( Michigan K @-@ Wings ) . Lyashenko also played professionally in Russia for Yaroslavl Torpedo before joining the Stars . He was drafted by the Stars in the second round ( 52nd overall ) of the 1997 NHL Entry Draft .
Lyashenko represented Russia internationally at both the junior and senior levels , capturing three medals ( gold , silver and bronze ) at the World Junior Championships and a silver medal at the World Championships . Lyashenko committed suicide while on vacation with his family on July 7 , 2003 .
= = Playing career = =
Lyashenko spent three seasons playing with Yaroslavl Torpedo in his home country of Russia . In 130 games , he recorded 22 goals and 22 assists for 44 points . While playing with Yaroslavl , he was selected in the second round ( 52nd overall ) of the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by the Dallas Stars . Leading up to the draft , scouts described him as a defensive forward with good character and leadership skills . He was considered an atypical Russian prospect due to his attention to defensive play . One source had him ranked as a first round prospect . He signed with the Stars in July 1999 .
Lyashenko made his NHL debut with the Dallas Stars during the 1999 – 2000 season , seeing action in 58 games , while recording six goals and six assists . He also spent time with the Stars ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate Michigan K @-@ Wings , notching five points in nine games . During his rookie season in the NHL , Lyashenko played center on the Stars second line , earning praise from coach Ken Hitchcock , " His game has risen beyond his years . He 's 20 years old in age only . He looks like a real good fit for us . " The Stars went to the Stanley Cup Finals that season , but lost to the New Jersey Devils . In the Stars ' first round playoff series against the Edmonton Oilers , Lyashenko scored the winning goal in the first game of the series . During the 2000 Western Conference final against the Colorado Avalanche , Lyashenko scored the series clinching goal in game seven . Lyashenko played in 16 playoff games for the Stars . During the playoffs in his rookie season , Hitchcock was happy with Lyashenko 's play , saying , " He 's an exceptional defensive player -- his offensive skills have improved as the season 's gone on . "
During the 2000 – 2001 season , Lyashenko again split time between the Stars and the Utah Grizzlies , who were the Stars ' new IHL affiliate . At the end of the season , Lyashenko had played 60 games with the Stars and recorded nine points . At the IHL level , he played in six games and had one assist . Lyashenko was popular with his teammates in Dallas , at one point his teammates lobbied Hitchcock to get him more playing time .
On March 12 , 2002 , Lyashenko and Martin Rucinsky were traded to the New York Rangers for Manny Malhotra and Barrett Heisten . During the 2001 – 2002 season , Lyashenko played for four different teams , the Stars and Rangers at the NHL level as well as the IHL 's Grizzlies , and the Hartford Wolfpack of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . In his last season of professional hockey , Lyashenko played two games with the Rangers , and 71 with the Wolfpack . He put up the best numbers of his career in North America , with 23 goals and 35 assists . He played in the 2003 AHL All @-@ Star Game , despite having asked for a release midway through the season to return to Russia . The request was denied by the Rangers , but his agent , Todd Diamond , said there were other teams interested in the forward 's services ; " Several teams were interested in him because they knew he wasn 't a fourth @-@ line guy . "
= = International play = =
Lyashenko represented Russia internationally at both the junior and senior levels . His first experience with Russia 's junior team was at the 1997 World Junior Championships , recording three points in six games as Russia defeated the Czech Republic for the bronze medal . At the 1998 World Junior championships , Lyashenko again represented Russia , as the team captured a silver medal . In seven games at the tournament , he recorded three assists . Lyashenko captained Russia 's team at the 1999 World Junior Championships , which were held in Winnipeg . The Russian team captured the gold medal , defeating Canada in overtime . Lyashenko scored three goals and added two assists in seven games . With the gold medal , Lyashenko and teammate Mikhail Donika became the only two players to win a medal of each colour ( gold , silver and bronze ) at the World Junior Ice Hockey Championships .
Lyashenko played in a single tournament at the senior international level , representing Russia at the 2002 World Championships . He left his AHL team , the Hartford Wolf Pack , during their playoff run to join Russia at the tournament . Wolf Pack general manager Al Coates was disappointed to lose Lyashenko from his club , but understood the decision : " Everyone wants to play for his country , and he shouldn 't be portrayed as a bad guy . He 's a good guy and a good player . " In nine games , he recorded two assists and 14 penalty minutes . Russia captured a silver medal at the tournament .
= = Death = =
While on vacation in Antalya , Turkey with his mother and sister , Lyashenko was found dead in his hotel room on July 7 , 2003 . His death was initially reported to be a suicide . Reports by Turkish police confirmed this , stating that Lyashenko had left a suicide note and attempted to cut his arms and wrists before hanging himself . A Turkish police officer , speaking anonymously , said that Lyashenko apologized for killing himself in the note . New York Rangers general manager Glen Sather said of Lyashenko , " Roman was a quality individual who had a positive impact on everyone he touched , both on and off the ice . " Dallas Stars general manager Doug Armstrong expressed similar sentiments : " Roman was a quality young man who we were privileged to have in our organization for three years . " Lyashenko was buried in Yaroslavl on July 12 , 2003 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International play = = =
= Presidential Council ( Benin ) =
The Presidential Council ( French : Conseil Présidentiel ) was a triumvirate system of government in the Republic of Dahomey ( present @-@ day Benin ) from 7 May 1970 until 26 October 1972 . The Presidential Council included Hubert Maga ( former president from 1960 @-@ 1963 ) , Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin ( former prime minister from 1964 @-@ 1965 ) , and Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy ( former president from 1964 @-@ 1965 ) as equal members of a council which held all legislative and executive power in the state of Dahomey .
Following independence from France , the Republic of Dahomey saw a division of the country between different political / ethnic parties with one party representing the northern part of the country , one party representing the former Kingdom of Dahomey in the southwest , and one party representing Porto @-@ Novo in the southeast . The result was a highly unstable system of governance with the leaders of each of these different parties struggling with each other for power . Hubert Maga from the north was deposed in a military coup in 1963 which eventually appointed Apithy from Porto @-@ Novo and Ahomadégbé from the former kingdom of Dahomey as the divided rulers of the country . Ahomadégbé was eventually able to gain the support of Maga to gain the upper hand over Apithy and become the leader in the country only to be deposed two days later by the military . Five years of political instability , including multiple other military coups and a failed election eventually resulted in the 1970 Presidential election which largely divided the country and , when there was violence , the military annulled the results . In the political crisis that resulted , the military was able to get the three main candidates , Maga , Ahomadégbé , and Apithy to agree to form a Presidential Council with all three holding all executive and legislative authority .
In the charter of the Presidential Council , each of the three leaders would sit on a Presidential Council which would be tasked with approving all major policy decisions of the country . At the same time , each would get two years as the President of the country able to implement many of the ongoing tasks of managing the military and civil service in the country . The various ministerial positions would be divided between the three leaders ; however , the Ministry of the Interior and the Minister of the Army would be appointed by the sitting president . It was decided that Maga would be the first President from 1970 until 1972 , followed by Ahomadégbé until 1974 , and then Apithy until 1976 . One peaceful transition occurred with Hubert Maga giving power to Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin on 7 May 1972 . However , stalled politics ensued with Maga and Apithy working to undermine Ahomadégbé 's ability to govern and the Presidential Council was ended on 26 October 1972 when a military coup led by Mathieu Kérékou assumed power and ruled the country until 1991 .
= = Background = =
The colony of French Dahomey was created as a part of French West Africa in 1904 . The colony was constructed of two coastal kingdoms with a long history of antagonism with one another ( Dahomey and Porto @-@ Novo ) with a large area to the north controlled by a variety of mostly Mahi and Bariba peoples .
After World War II , the colonies of French West Africa began a 15 year process towards independence . French Dahomey , like many other colonies , saw domestic political parties emerge in the mid @-@ 1950s . However , in contrast to many of the other colonies , political parties in French Dahomey did not become predominant through the whole colony , but largely adhered to the precolonial regions . In the northern part of the country , the Groupement Ethnique du Nord and then the Rassemblement Démocratique du Dahomé led by Hubert Maga were the most dominant party . In the area that was formerly the kingdom of Dahomey , the Union Démocratique du Dahomé led by Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin became the most powerful party . And in Porto @-@ Novo , the Parti des Nationialistes Dahoméens led by Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy was the major party . Although there were some efforts by the various parties to become predominant throughout the colony , the division of the colony into three distinct spheres for the different parties had largely solidified by 1957 . Apithy was the major political leader in the colony , being elected twice to the French National Assembly in 1946 and 1951 . Maga was also elected in 1951 as the colony 's second representative to the National Assembly .
Apithy won the 1958 election in the colony to select the Premier who would guide the country to independence and lead until the first elections .
= = = Musical chairs ( 1960 @-@ 1965 ) = = =
Following independence in 1960 , Dahomey had its first elections in December . As a result of Fon ethnic identification with Ahomadégbé and perceived corruption and ineffectiveness of the Apithy administration , Ahomadégbé made large gains in the Porto @-@ Novo region traditionally aligned with Apithy . Apithy responded to this by making a parliamentary alliance with Maga which made Maga the first President of Dahomey and made Apithy the first Minister of Finance and then later the Vice President . To consolidate his power , Maga promoted a number of allies and people from the north through the new positions in the country 's civil service . In addition , he tried to weaken his ally 's political power by appointing Apithy to be the Ambassador of France while he was still the Vice President . Unfortunately giving political positions and channeling money to the north caused severe budgetary problems in the country which eventually led Maga to freeze wages for public employees leading to a general strike by unionists and students in October 1963 . On 28 October , Christophe Soglo , the Army Chief of Staff , removed Maga from power and created a new system of government with Apithy being appointed the head of state and Ahomadégbé the head of government . However , the division between these roles and the responsibilities between the two leaders was not clearly defined . During the 1963 coup , Maga and many of his inner circle were arrested and tried for mismanagement of public funds .
In the new arrangement , Apithy and Ahomadégbéd wrestled constantly with one another for power . Seeing an opportunity to become the primary political power in the government , Ahomadégbé released Maga from prison and the coalition between the two leaders named Ahomadégbé the provisional president of the legislature on 27 November 1965 . Soglo grew increasingly concerned with the situation and believed that Ahomadégbé was forming an alliance with Soglo 's second in command ( Colonel Philippe Aho , who was a Fon like Ahomadégbé ) . The result was that Soglo suspended the constitution and removed Ahomadégbé from power on 29 November . Following the 1965 coup , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga all went into exile in France . Soglo ruled for two years until union strikes and dissatisfaction within the ranks of the military led to the 17 December 1967 coup where two junior military officers , Maurice Kouandété and Mathieu Kérékou , overthrew Soglo and sent him into exile in France . Following the removal of Soglo from power , the military decided to transition to a civilian government and appointed Colonel Alphonse Alley , Soglo 's chief of staff , as the provisional president until such a transition could occur . A new constitution was prepared and approved in a vote by 92 % of the population in March 1968 .
In the elections which followed to elect a civilian president , all former presidents , prime ministers , and ministers were prohibited from running . This excluded Apithy , Ahomadégbé , Maga , and former foreign minister Émile Derlin Zinsou from running for the position . Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga declared a general boycott of the election which proved highly successful with only 33 % of the eligible voters casting ballots . With such low turnout , the military invalidated the election results and , after consulting with unions and other activists in the country , the military selected Zinsou as the new president .
With the appointment of Zinsou as a civilian leader of the country , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga tried to return to the country but were informed that their plane would be shot down if they entered Dahomey airspace ; they instead flew to neighboring Togo . Zinsou , who had a history of advocacy against the policies of the military , quickly drew the ire of the military leaders by pursuing a host of policies without consultation with them . In addition , to control continued deficits , Zinsou instituted a number of austerity measures and as a result alienated unions and the urban population . The result was that on 10 December 1969 , Zinsou was taken into custody by military officers organized by Kouandété and Zinsou was sent to a remote military garrison near Natitingou . Following the coup , Kouandété found that he did not have the support to rule throughout the entire military , and so instead Paul @-@ Emile de Souza ( the director of military affairs for Zinsou 's government ) was named the provisional head of state as the head of a three person Military directorate ( with Kouandété and Colonel Benoît Sinzogan holding the other seats ) . The military directorate decided to release Zinsou and hold new presidential elections in 1970 without the restrictions of the 1968 elections , thus allowing Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga to run .
= = = 1970 Election = = =
The 1970 election included all of the civilian leaders of the country since independence with Apithy , Ahomadégbé , Maga , and Zinsou running against one another . The military decided to hold the elections on a staggered schedule with different areas of the country voting on different dates . This staggering meant that each of the candidates strategically tried to gain votes in later voting regions based upon the earlier results : bribery and irregularities in the election were rampant . Just before voting began in the final region of Atakora , which was a stronghold for Maga , Ahomadégbé supporters instigated violence to undercut the turnout for Maga in the region . Maga would have won the presidency if he had earned the most votes in Atakora , but instead of allowing the vote to go forward , de Souza suspended the election and immediately called on all sides to come to an agreement forming the next government .
The situation became quite tense with each of the sides making threats and refusing to meet with each other . Maga threatened that the north would secede if his victory was not validated , and Apithy threatened that his base of Porto @-@ Novo would join with Nigeria . Ethnic tensions increased with these threats and with mass migration of people back to their traditional ethnic territories . Many inside the country considered Dahomey to be close to civil war .
On 16 April 1970 , Ahomadégbé and Maga met in the town of Savé , under French pressure , and agreed to the notion of a single party controlling government with a rotating presidency . Apithy did not attend the meeting and rejected the proposal , suggesting to the military that they instead pick one of their own to be the next president . The military leaders rejected this proposal and endorsed the shared presidency idea . Apithy then agreed to participate in the Presidential Council . Zinsou , with only 3 % of the vote , was ignored in the discussions and left the country for France . Historian Samuel Decalo commented that although coups and crises were regular in the country 's short history , " the April 1970 crisis was the most ominous Dahomey had ever faced . "
= = The triumvirate = =
To reduce the tension throughout the country , all three candidates accepted the military governing council 's resolution ( written closely with Maga ) , which stipulated that starting in May 1970 , each of the three main candidates would be part of a Presidential Council that would hold all legislative and executive power in the government and decide on all major policy issues . The charter of the Council established that one member of the council would serve as the head of state for two @-@ year periods before rotating to other members until all three leaders had held the position of president . The individual president would govern some of the affairs of the state , managing the civil service , military and bureaucracy . However , policy decisions would be set by unanimous decision of the entire Presidential Council , and if a unanimous decision could not be reached , a vote of the majority could pass policies . Ministry posts in the country would be divided evenly between the three members of the council with each one appointing four ministers , and the sitting president would have the power to appoint the Minister of the Military and the Minister of the Interior . Each individual also pledged not to abuse their control of the military to try and remain in power after the two @-@ year period had ended . Under the chairmanship of de Souza , the military was largely stabilized in its leadership and returned to the barracks .
On 7 May 1970 , Maga became the head of state and began governing the country . Although unions and the military had agreed to the agreement and all three candidates supported it , there remained tension between the various powers in the new arrangement . In order to appease unions , Maga promised that public service union salaries would be immune from any budget cuts . Although there were forces in the military opposed to the government , many of the coup leaders of the 1960s had largely left the country or withdrawn from politics . The relationship between the three leaders remained tense , but a Maga @-@ Ahomadégbé alliance against Apithy on a number of issues kept the triumvirate functioning during Maga 's tenure . With unions largely docile , the high ranks of the military committed to the council , and the members of the council waiting for their turns to govern , domestic and foreign policy were able to come to the fore in 1971 ( the first year without a major political crisis in the government since 1966 ) . Although some small policies were began , the council passed few policies and largely simply " froze the status quo . "
Various development attempts dominated the domestic agenda during Maga 's administration . Unlike many other countries in Africa at the time , this did not involve nationalizing many of the industries in the country . Instead the country sought to expand its foreign tourism sector and oil exploration along the coast . The country , using French and German investment , began a series of projects to create resorts and tourist potential along the coast of the country . Union Oil had begun oil exploration off the coast of the country in the 1960s but had withdrawn in the chaos of 1970 . Maga was able to secure a new contract with Shell Oil to begin a 9 @-@ year exploration deal in 1971 . The agreement with the unions and other investments within the country were largely financed through a significant loan from the French government . However , at the same time , the three members of the council were provided significant personal wealth through the arrangement . Each was provided significant funds to spend on their presidential residences , payment for a many members of a personal staff , and given identical Mercedes @-@ Benz W108s . Trade from the country increased by 14 % during the Presidential Council although large trade and budget deficits remained .
On foreign policy , the Republic of Dahomey split with France and other African countries on the issues of China and South Africa . On the recognition of China , Dahomey broke with France and sided with the United States in voting against the recognition of Communist China in the United Nations . On the issue of South Africa , Dahomey was one of five countries to walk out of discussions in the Union of African States on opening contact with the apartheid regime in South Africa . Dahomey supported opening contact and trade relations with the regime , unlike much of the rest of the African states , and abstained on the final vote .
Military tension increased with a mutiny in the Ouidah barracks on 28 January 1972 by young officers demanding the removal of de Souza from his position at the head of the military . This coup was ended when Maga sent two military officers to discuss with the mutineers and made them some agreements which have never bee disclosed . This was followed on 23 March with a double coup attempt ( two simultaneous coups organized by two different factions within the military ) which only resulted in an attempted assassination attempt against de Souza who was slightly injured in the attack . The leaders of the two different factions ( one faction led by Kouandété and one led by supporters of Zinsou ) , included 20 different officers and many civilians . Many were tried and six were sentenced to death , including Kouandété , although he was never executed by Maga or Ahomadégbé for fear of a hostile military reaction .
With the scheduled transfer of power from Maga to Ahomadégbé on 7 May 1972 , there were rumors throughout the country that the transfer would not occur ( often rumored that troops loyal to Maga would march south and prevent the transfer ) . Maga had promoted many northerners through the civil service and military ranks and many of them saw Ahomadégbé as a threat to these new positions . However , all three members stood together for the ceremony and power was transferred from Maga to Ahomadégbé . Maga declared the Presidential Council to be " one of the most beneficial institutions " because it allowed the country to heal . The alliance between Maga and Ahomadégbé which had allowed Maga to govern the country quickly broke apart , and instead Maga and Apithy made an alliance which kept Maga 's associates in their ministerial positions and prevented Ahomadégbé from effectively governing . The only major policy effort pushed by Ahomadégbé was the declaration to create a single political party from the various regional political parties which would be the only party allowed when the Presidential Council would end , although in practice the divisions between the parties largely remained . The tensions between the three members reportedly became their most tense with the planned visit of French President Georges Pompidou in November .
After almost 6 months in power , a military coup was started on 26 October 1972 which removed Ahomadégbé from power and ended the Presidential Council . Major Kerekou , a protege of Kouandété , led the first armor company of the military to break into a Presidential Council meeting , where he declared the end of the Presidential Council . Kerekou announced the coup on national radio by saying that the " three headed figure [ was ] truly a monster " beset by " congenital deficiency ... notorious inefficiency and ... unpardonable incompetence . " Similarly to the coup in 1963 , the military intervention was viewed favorably by much of the population of the country . Kouandété was released from prison and Kerekou named himself the new head of state appointing military officers to the various ministerial posts . All the senior military officers were discharged from their positions . An alleged counter @-@ coup led in May 1973 by Colonel Alley was suppressed by Kerekou and Alley was sentenced to 20 years in prison . The members of the Presidential Council and other prominent political figures were arrested and imprisoned or placed under house arrest until 1981 . After they were released from house arrest in 1981 , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga all moved to Paris . Following the coup , Kerekou proceeded to rule the country as a military dictator until 1991 .
= Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots is the official expansion pack to the real @-@ time strategy video game Rise of Nations . The game is the second in a series of Rise of Nations games by Big Huge Games . Thrones and Patriots had its premiere release for Microsoft Windows on April 27 , 2004 in North America . It was ported to and released for Mac OS X in November 2004 . Rise of Nations : Extended Edition was released on Steam on June 12 , 2014 and includes both the original game and Thrones and Patriots with updated graphics and Steamworks integration for multiplayer .
Thrones and Patriots expanded on a variety of features in the original game , such as new monuments ( called " Wonders " ) , nations , governments , and campaigns . Gameplay still remains similar to Rise of Nations , with its wide span of ages and players still manage and expand their nations at the macro and micro levels . However , Thrones and Patriots has campaigns which offer more turn @-@ based strategy features than the original and the ability to make decisions outside of combat . Up to eight players can play in multiplayer matches , with artificial intelligence being able to fill slots at the server host 's choice .
Tim Train , executive producer of Thrones and Patriots , stated that various features were added to the game in an attempt to balance gameplay , including the addition of armed caravans and merchants . IGN claimed that Thrones and Patriots is " a great game [ which ] gets better , " in reference to its predecessor Rise of Nations and other critical reviews also praised many features of the game , though some noted deficiencies . Thrones and Patriots has received a compilation score of 87 @.@ 86 % and 88 % on Game Rankings and Metacritic respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Within Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots players control various units during battles , including land , sea , and aerial units . Units used during gameplay include slingers , musketeers , tanks , large Persian war elephants , aircraft carriers , and nuclear missiles . Players progress in different ways in Thrones and Patriots by using various means including espionage , political strategy , technology races and population growth . The gameplay takes place from ancient history to modern times . Players are able to lead their nations at the macro and micro levels , and build their nation up and expand it throughout the game .
Thrones and Patriots added six new nations to the original Rise of Nations game . The ' New World ' situation playable in the game was enhanced by the introduction of the European nation — the Dutch . Three North American nations were added , the Americans , referring to the ex @-@ colonial civilization , and two Native American nations were added , which were the Lakota and the Iroquois . Two Asian nations , the Indians and the Persians , were introduced . The other nation to be added was the Dutch . New Wonders were made available for building , such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Forbidden City , and the Red Fort .
New features of the game were added to the new nations , for instance the Lakota , which is unable to build farms to generate food , instead receive a constant food supply for each of their citizens , scouts , and cavalry units . They can make buildings in any region that is not possessed by their enemy , can raze buildings quickly , receiving a full refund . Additionally , they receive resources when enemy resources are destroyed .
= = = Campaigns = = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots added four new " Conquer the World " campaigns : Alexander the Great , Napoleon , the New World , and the Cold War . The Alexander the Great campaign allows the player to choose whether or not to raze or incorporate conquered territories . A player 's decision to raze may cause the rest of the enemies to either fight harder , or question their casus belli and ally with you . The Napoleon campaign challenges the player to conquer Europe in a limited amount of time , with diplomacy , alliances , conquest , and bribing with land . Players must have intuitive leadership in this campaign because faulty decisions by the player can force themselves , that is to say , Napoleon , into exile . The New World campaign allows the player to choose either the Americans , a European power , or a Native American tribe . If the player chooses to lead the Americans , they must pay taxes to Great Britain , until they declare independence . The map of a battle incorporates the region 's environment , for example large forests in the Pacific Northwest . The Cold War introduces the ability to fire nuclear missiles in the main map and initiate espionage missions . Armies can also move anywhere in their nation 's territory without using up a turn.Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots ' campaigns now offer more turn @-@ based strategy into the game rather than real @-@ time strategy being the only gameplay aspect .
= = = Governments = = =
Once the player builds the Senate building , he or she may choose a government " upgrade " of either a Despotism or a Republic , each giving the player a different permanent gameplay bonus . Each government has a different " Patriot " , effectively a stronger version of the " General " unit with different bonuses , depending on which government is chosen . They are used during combat to assist players in battle . A player can only have one Patriot unit at a time . When a Patriot unit is killed , a new one is automatically created in the Senate afterwards .
After reaching the Gunpowder Age , the player may choose to upgrade to either a Monarchy or a Democracy , each with its own different permanent gameplay bonus , and then after reaching the Industrial Age , the player may upgrade again , to either Capitalism or Socialism . The previous gameplay bonuses remain , allowing players to select the most appropriate combination of benefits as the game evolves .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Rise of Nations features a highly customizable multiplayer mode . Up to eight players can play in a game with a variety of modes to choose from , with AI filling spots at the server host 's choice . GameSpy Technologies had hosted matchmaking and other servers for multiplayer games played online through their dedicated server until December 2012 . A new feature that was introduced into the game was the ability to use homemade scripts in online play . The scripts are able to be made in the built in script editor , and came with a pre @-@ made script that disallowed missile silos .
= = Development = =
Microsoft Game Studios and Big Huge Games announced the development of the expansion pack for Rise of Nations , Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots , on November 21 , 2003 . By December 16 of that year , the game 's development was about 70 % complete . A website was launched for the game on February 13 , 2004 , which contained information , screenshots , and other details about the expansion pack .
Big Huge Games added multiple new features to the game during its development , in an attempt to fix issues with the original version . In an interview with GameSpot , executive producer Tim Train explained the development of the expansion pack . He stated how some nations were previously either too weak or too strong , and so features were added to balance gameplay . One way they did this is armed caravans and merchants were added to the Dutch nation , in order to weaken raids initiated by other players who rush their opponent . He said Big Huge Games brought in professional players in order to get suggestions on how to improve the game .
The expansion pack Thrones and Patriots was released for Microsoft Windows in North America on April 27 , 2004 , and subsequently in Europe on May 21 , 2004 . NPD sales figures for May , the first full month of Thrones and Patriots release in the United States , showed it as fourth in PC sales for the month , with its predecessor needed for the expansion pack going from twelfth in sales in April to fifth in sales in May . By October 27 , 2004 , combined sales of Thrones and Patriots and the base game Rise of Nations had passed one million copies worldwide . On October 28 , 2004 , Rise of Nations : Gold Edition was released for Microsoft Windows . The new product included both the original Rise of Nations and Thrones and Patriots . In November 2004 , a port of Rise of Nations : Gold Edition was released for Mac OS X. It was published by MacSoft Games and developed by both Big Huge Games and Westlake Interactive .
In December 2012 , official servers for Thrones and Patriots were shut down by GameSpy Technologies , which made it difficult for multiplayer matches to be played officially online . Programs like GameRanger could be used to continue playing multiplayer games online without the usage of official game servers .
The rights to the assets and intellectual property of Rise of Nations , Thrones and Patriots , and Rise of Legends and the Big Huge Games trademark were sold in the bankruptcy auction of 38 Studios to Microsoft Studios on December 11 , 2013 . Gross proceeds of the auction totaled $ 320 @,@ 000 .
Rise of Nations : Extended Edition is a re @-@ release of the main game and the expansion on Steam that was released on June 12 , 2014 . Graphical changes to the game include updated textures , lighting and water . Other changes to the game include Steamworks integration which will add cloud saves , Steam Trading Cards , achievements , Twitch integration and multiplayer with Elo ranked matches to the game . Extended Edition is developed by SkyBox Labs .
= = = Modding = = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots retains the support of a loyal fanbase as of June 2012 , which continues to produce a variety of mods for the game . The game can be modified in many aspects by enthusiasts , including the addition of new units , nations , buildings , scenarios , conquer the world campaigns and scripts . The modding community has been supported by the release of various packs by Big Huge Games , including the 3dsmax5 exporter plugin , and a detailed guide on the scenario editor and creating scripts . Modifications released so far by the community have encompassed themes such as the Second World War , Vietnam War , a hypothetical Third World War , Medieval combat and Roman era warfare . While a variety of modding communities came into existence after the game 's release , most sources assert that the most popular remains Rise of Nations Heaven .
= = Reception = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots has received a compilation score of 88 % on both Game Rankings and Metacritic . In its review , IGN claimed that Thrones and Patriots is " a great game [ which ] gets better , " in reference to its predecessor Rise of Nations . 1UP.com stated that the game is what expansion packs should try to mimic . Game Informer declared that Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots is " one of the essential pieces of any strategy gamer ’ s collection . " GameSpot commented that the game is a terrific experience and it not only provides exceptional content , but that it also improves an already good game .
In the expansion pack , many insignificant changes were introduced to complement the existing game structure , rather than radically alter it , and critics considered the continuing of the original game format to be good . GameSpy claimed that , even with all of Thrones and Patriots ' additions , the framework of the game still feels excellent . However , IGN declared that the developers only added many features into the game " in the hopes that it would seem coherent , " rather than actually giving the game a " central theme . "
Both IGN and GameSpot claimed the game 's government mechanics were similar to those of the game series Civilization . However , GameSpy stated the game 's artificial intelligence for " managing the individual movements of units and citizens ... [ was ] strategically brain dead . " Their review explained that the wide range of upgrades , units , and technology research in different buildings requires micromanagement and the use of hotkeys , especially during online play . The review stated that the game had biased gameplay times in single @-@ player with different nations , such as Lakota having very limited use , and Americans having a massive amount of playtime .
GameSpot stated that the multiplayer functionality of Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots had some lag , even when on a local network . 1UP.com reported problems with crashes in both the single and multiplayer modes of Thrones and Patriots .
In awarding Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots " Best Expansion Pack " of 2004 , IGN acclaimed the additions of more playable nations and new government mechanics that Rise of Nations didn 't have , and the new " Conquer the World " campaigns .
= Worcester Castle =
Worcester Castle was a Norman fortification built between 1068 and 1069 in Worcester , England by Urse d 'Abetot on behalf of William the Conqueror . The castle had a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design and was located on the south side of the old Anglo @-@ Saxon city , cutting into the grounds of Worcester Cathedral . Royal castles were owned by the king and maintained on his behalf by an appointed constable . At Worcester that role was passed down through the local Beauchamp family on a hereditary basis , giving them permanent control of the castle and considerable power within the city . The castle played an important part in the wars of the 12th and early 13th century , including the Anarchy and the First Barons ' War .
In 1217 , Henry III 's government decided to break the power of the Beauchamps and reduce the ongoing military threat posed by the castle by returning much of the castle 's bailey to the cathedral . Without an intact bailey the castle was no longer valuable militarily , although it played a small part in the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s . A gaol had been built in the castle by the early 13th century and the castle continued to be used as Worcestershire 's county gaol until the 19th century , when a new prison was built on the north side of Worcester and the old site completely redeveloped . Today nothing remains of Worcester Castle with the exception of Edgar 's Tower , a cathedral gatehouse built on the former entrance to the castle .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
Worcester Castle was built after the Norman conquest of England in the Anglo @-@ Saxon city of Worcester . The castle was constructed between 1068 and 1069 on the orders of William the Conqueror as part of a wave of royal castle building in major Roman or Anglo @-@ Saxon towns across England . Constructed in timber , the castle had a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design , with a bailey to the north and south of the motte . The top of the motte was later recorded as being around 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The castle was defensively well situated on the eastern bank of the River Severn in the south @-@ west corner of the borough , taking advantage of the old burh walls and ditches . Urse d 'Abetot was appointed as the sheriff of Worcester and the constable of the new castle .
Worcester was an urban castle , built within an existing settlement . Many such castles required the clearance of local properties , but unusually at Worcester Castle the ditch of the outer bailey cut through part of Worcester Cathedral 's cemetery . It is unclear whether the cemetery was still in use at that time , but the desecration resulted in Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , with extensive interests in Worcester , complaining about the seizure of the land and formally cursing Urse .
= = = 12th – 13th centuries = = =
Worcester remained a royal castle , but within a few years the post of sheriff and that of constable became hereditary in the Beauchamp family , the successors to Urse d 'Abitot . Urse 's son , Roger , inherited them , followed by Walter de Beauchamp , who married Urse 's daughter , and William de Beauchamp . The castle was effectively run by the Beauchamps , largely independent of the king . Despite controlling Worcester , the Beauchamps preferred to use Elmley Castle , 12 miles ( 20 k ) away , as their main residence . In 1113 Worcester was attacked by Welsh raiders , who broke into the outer bailey of the castle and set fire to the buildings there ; the timber castle was destroyed and had to be rebuilt , again in wood .
In the late 1130s a period of civil war – the Anarchy – broke out in England , in which the rival factions of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda contested the kingdom ; Worcestershire proved to be a key battleground in the war . The first attack on Worcester itself occurred in late 1139 , when an Angevin army from Gloucestershire assaulted the city ; after an attempt to take the castle on the south side of the city , the Gloucester forces entered from the north , looting and burning the city . As a result , Walter de Beauchamp chose to side with Matilda . Worcester became a base for Stephen 's forces for a period , with Stephen replacing Walter as the constable with Waleron de Beaumont , before the city and castle were reclaimed for the Empress by Robert of Gloucester . In response , Stephen first stormed and burnt the city in 1148 , and then attacked it again in 1150 , shortly before the end of the conflict . Two neighbouring siege castles were built by Stephen as part of these operations , designed to contain Worcester Castle itself , one at Henwick Hill the other at Red Hill . After the conflict , Walter was finally reaffirmed as the constable of Worcester Castle by Henry II , the Empress 's son .
By the end of the 13th century , William de Beauchamp – the grandson of Walter de Beauchamp – controlled the castle on behalf of the king . In the 12th century there was a trend in England for stone castles to replace their earth and timber counterparts , and in 1204 King John ordered the sheriff of Worcester to rebuild the gatehouse " which is now of timber , with good and fine stone " . John 's work cost £ 25 , and was one of a number of repairs and improvements during the period : £ 12 was spent maintaining the castle in 1183 , for example , while in 1192 £ 5 4s was spent on the internal buildings and in 1203 work on the stables came to £ 6 3s .
Civil war broke out again in England in 1215 between forces loyal to King John and rebel barons , supported in due course by Prince Louis of France . John annexed the castle in 1214 and William sided with the rebels in 1216 . King John responded by sending forces to attack the castle and successfully retook it . Despite John 's death , the war continued until forces loyal to John 's young son , Henry III , finally achieved victory over the rebels in 1217 .
Meanwhile , the 11th century dispute over the cathedral graveyard had continued unabated and in 1217 Henry III 's government decided to announce that the disputed land would be granted to the cathedral . A panel met to agree exactly how the land should be divided , concluding that the division should run straight across the bailey ; the far side was returned to the cathedral , making the remainder of the castle unusable from a military perspective . Henry thus ingratiated himself with the church and broke the power of the Beauchamps in the city by crippling their local fortress .
The castle nevertheless continued in use for a time , partially because the Worcestershire County gaol was situated in the outer bailey ; the earliest record of this gaol is from 1221 , when a porter was recorded as being employed as a gaoler . The gaol appears to have been built of wood during the medieval period . Escapees remained a problem ; some were recorded during the 1220s , and during Second Barons ' War , Worcester was captured and all the prisoners released . Later in the same war , Henry III was imprisoned there for a period by Simon de Montfort . The castle was also used as one of the locations for the Worcestershire county court and election of local officials .
= = = 14th – 19th centuries = = =
The sheriffs of Worcestershire continued to control the castle as constables , and the property passed along hereditary lines from the Beauchamps to the Earls of Warwick until Richard Neville , also known as the " Kingmaker " , died during the Wars of the Roses in 1471 . The victorious Edward IV divided up the various estates that Neville had owned and gave the castle to his son , severing the link between Worcester and the earldom of Warwick . The final constables were appointed during the 1540s , after which the practice of appointing constables ceased altogether . The castle 's walls were quarried for stone , the motte was used to keep animals on and only the sheriff 's county gaol remained intact . The antiquarian John Leland recorded in the 1540s that the castle was " now clean down " , and that the motte was still of an impressive size but heavily overgrown . A gatehouse known as Edgar 's Tower was built by the cathedral on the site of the earlier castle gatehouse , to control access to the former bailey .
In 1628 the castle site was granted by the Crown to Giles Clutterbuck ; the local gentry complained , leading to a legal case in which the county successfully reclaimed the site . In 1642 England descended into a period of civil war between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and the supporters of Parliament . Worcester 's city walls were refortified and a sconce , or small fort , was built on top of the motte of Worcester Castle .
The castle continued to be used as the county gaol after the war and in 1653 a new gaol , built from stone and brick , was constructed in the castle grounds . In the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard inspected the gaol and was very critical of the facility . In particular he complained about the castle 's underground dungeon , accessed down a flight of 26 steps ; the room was circular , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) across , and guarded by an iron grill . Worcester conducted extensive work after the report at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 431 ( £ 364 @,@ 000 at
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= = Background = =
= = = Jewish community = = =
The existence of a Jewish community in Rhodes was first documented toward the end of the Hellenistic period . In a Roman decree dated to 142 BC , Rhodes is listed among the areas notified of the renewal of the pact of friendship between the Roman senate and the Jewish nation . The Jews of Rhodes are mentioned in documents at the time of the Arab conquest of the island in the 7th century . In the 12th century , Benjamin of Tudela found some 400 Jews in the city of Rhodes .
In 1481 and 1482 , earthquakes destroyed the Jewish quarter , so that only 22 families remained in the city . After an epidemic of plague in 1498 – 1500 , the Knights Hospitaller , who ruled the island at that time , expelled those of the remaining Jews who would not be baptized . In the next two decades , the Hospitallers brought to the island between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 captured Jews who were kept as slaves to work on fortifications .
In 1522 , these Jews and their descendants helped the Ottomans seize Rhodes . Under the Ottoman rule , Rhodes became an important Sephardi center , home to many famous rabbis . By the 19th century , the wealthier Jews were merchants in cloth , silk , sulfur , and resins . The rest were small shopkeepers and artisans , street vendors , and fishermen . The community was governed by a council of seven officials . Sources give the number of Jews during the 19th century between 2 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 .
= = = Blood libel against the Jews in the Ottoman Empire = = =
The blood libel against Jews originated in England in 1144 with the case of William of Norwich . The accusation that Jews used the blood of Christian children to prepare matzos for the Passover became a staple of Christian antisemitism of the Middle Ages , with the total number of recorded ritual murder accusations reaching 150 . With the strengthening of standards of evidence in legal cases , the number of charges began to decline , and few blood libel cases reached European courts after 1772 . Nevertheless , some instances of ritual murder accusation arose as late as the 19th century .
In the Middle East , the blood libel was deeply ingrained in the consciousness of local Christian communities . Accusations of blood libel were commonplace in the Byzantine Empire . After the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine lands , Greek communities were usually the source of ritual murder charges against Jews , often at times of social and economic tensions . The first appearance of the blood libel under Ottoman rule took place in the reign of Mehmet II . Subsequently , accusations of ritual murder were only sporadic and Ottoman authorities usually condemned them . In the 16th century , Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent issued a firman , formally denouncing blood libel charges against the Jews .
With the increase of Christian influence in the Ottoman Empire , the standing of the Jews declined . The sultan 's Hatt @-@ i Sharif of Gulhane , proclaimed in 1839 , ushered in an era of liberal reforms known as Tanzimat . This period further enhanced the status of the Christians and eroded the power of authorities to protect the Jews . Before 1840 , cases of blood libel occurred in Aleppo in 1810 and in Antioch in 1826 .
In 1840 , contemporaneous with the affair in Rhodes , a more famous case of blood libel , known as the Damascus affair , was developing in Damascus , while the city was under the short @-@ lived control of Muhammad Ali of Egypt . On February 5 , Capuchin friar Thomas and his servant Ibrahim Amara went missing , and the Jews of Damascus were accused of murdering them to collect their blood for Passover matzos . The local Christian community , the governor , and the French consul , who received full support from Paris , actively pursued the ritual murder charge . The accused Jews were tortured , and some of them confessed to having killed Father Thomas and his servant . Their testimonies were used by the accusers as the irrefutable proof of guilt . The case drew international attention , arousing active protests from the European Jewish diaspora .
= = Accusation = =
= = = Disappearance = = =
On February 17 , 1840 , a boy from a Greek Orthodox family in Rhodes went for a walk and did not return . The next day his mother reported the disappearance to the Ottoman authorities . The island 's governor , Yusuf Pasha , ordered a search , but several days ' efforts proved fruitless . The European consuls pressed the governor to solve the case : the boy 's family was Christian , though without foreign protection . The Greek Christian population of Rhodes , meanwhile , had no doubts that the boy had been murdered by the Jews for ritual purposes . An eyewitness reported : " It was firmly believed that the child in question was doomed to be sacrificed by the Jews . The whole island was agitated from one end to the other . " The assurance of the local Christians having been impressed upon the Ottoman authorities , they began searching the Jewish quarter , again in vain .
= = = Arrests , interrogations , and torture = = =
Several days later , two Greek women reported having seen the boy walking towards the city of Rhodes accompanied by four Jews . The women claimed that one of the Jews was Eliakim Stamboli , who was arrested , questioned , and subjected to five hundred blows of the bastinado . On February 23 , he was interrogated again and tortured in the presence of many dignitaries , including the governor , the qadi ( Muslim judge ) , the Greek archbishop , and European consuls . Jews of Rhodes reported that Stamboli was " loaded with chains , many stripes were inflicted upon him and red @-@ hot wires were run through his nose , burning bones were applied to his head and a very heavy stone was laid upon his breast , insomuch as he was reduced to the point of death . " Under torture , Stamboli confessed to the ritual murder charge and incriminated other Jews , opening the door to further arrests . Some half dozen Jews were accused of the crime and tortured , and the chief rabbi was intensely questioned as to whether Jews practice ritual murder .
= = = Blockade = = =
At the instigation of the Greek clergy and the European consuls , the governor Yusuf Pasha blockaded the Jewish quarter on the eve of Purim and arrested Jacob Israel the chief rabbi . The inhabitants could obtain neither food nor fresh water . The Jews thwarted a subversive attempt to smuggle a dead body into the Jewish quarter . The Muslim authorities , on the whole , were not keen to pursue the ritual murder accusation against the Jews . The Muslim official in charge of the blockade was found smuggling bread to the imprisoned residents ; at the insistence of the British consul , he was bastinadoed and dismissed from service . The qadi openly sympathized with the Jews . At the end of February , he initiated further hearings on the case , after which evidence was declared insufficient to convict the prisoners . The governor , on the other hand , refused to lift the blockade of the Jewish quarter , though he seemed to waver somewhat . In early March he sent to Constantinople asking for instructions . Only after the blockade had lasted for twelve days was the governor forced to lift it by a high treasury official who visited the island on a tour of inspection . At that point , the Jews thought that the affair was over and " returned thanks to the Almighty for their deliverance " .
= = = Influence of the Damascus affair = = =
The relief , however , was dashed in early March by news of the Damascus affair . Reports that the Jews of Damascus had confessed to having murdered Father Thomas reinforced the belief of the Christian community in the ritual murder charge . The British consul reported that " the Greeks cried loud that justice had not been rendered to them and that the rabbi and chiefs ought to have been imprisoned … In order to keep the populace quiet … it was decided that these should be arrested . " Eight Jews were arrested , including the chief rabbi and David Mizrahi , who were tortured by being suspended swinging from hooks in the ceiling in the presence of the European consuls . Mizrahi lost consciousness after six hours , while the rabbi was kept there for two days until he suffered a hemorrhage . Nevertheless , neither confessed and they were released after a few days . The other six Jews remained in prison in early April .
= = = Consular involvement = = =
The European vice @-@ consuls in Rhodes were united in believing the ritual murder charge . They played the key role in the interrogation , with J. G. Wilkinson , the British consul , and E. Masse from Sweden being involved . During the interrogation of the chief rabbi , Wilkinson asked , referring to the qadi 's decision to dismiss the case : " What signifies the Mollah 's judgment to us after what happened in Damascus and it is proved that , according to the Talmud , Christian blood must be used in making your Passover bread ? " The consuls were also present during much of the torture . When the chief rabbi , an Austrian subject , was tortured , he appealed to Austrian vice @-@ consul Anton Giuliani , who replied : " What rabbi ? What do you complain about ? So you are not dead yet . "
Some Jewish inhabitants of Rhodes accused the consuls of a conspiracy to exploit the case in order to eliminate Elias Kalimati , a local Jew , who represented the business interests of Joel Davis , a Jewish businessman from London . Davis was rapidly increasing his share in the profitable sponge exports from the island , and he was a major business rival of the European consuls . Elias Kalimati , however , was not among the persons held in the affair , calling that allegation into question . Other Jewish sources claimed that " [ t ] he consuls stated openly … their purpose of exterminating the Jews of Rhodes or to compel them to change their religion . "
= = European diplomatic involvement = =
In the first days of the blockade , someone managed to smuggle a letter out of the Jewish quarter to the Jewish leadership in Constantinople . It was not until March 27 that the leaders of the Jewish community in the Ottoman capital forwarded it to the Rothschild family , together with a similar call for help from the Jews of Damascus . To these documents , the Jewish leaders attached their own statement in which they cast doubt on their ability to influence the sultan .
The intervention of the Rothschilds bore the quickest fruit in Austria . The head of the Rothschild family bank in Vienna , Salomon Mayer von Rothschild , played the key role in raising financing for the Austrian Empire , and he had a very close relationship with the Austrian chancellor von Metternich . On April 10 , Metternich dispatched instruction regarding both the Damascus and Rhodes affairs to Bartholomäus von Stürmer , ambassador in Constantinople , and Anton von Laurin , consul in Alexandria . In his dispatch , Metternich wrote : " The accusation that Christians are deliberately murdered for some blood @-@ thirsty Passover festival is by its nature absurd … " Regarding the Rhodes case , the chancellor instructed von Stürmer " to tip the wink to the Turkish regime , so that they instruct pasha of Rhodes accordingly and that you let [ our ] vice @-@ consul in Rhodes know that in such cases he should work in the spirit of sensible mediation . " Von Stürmer , responded , " [ T ] here have been no persecutions against the Jewish population , at least not by the authorities . "
In the UK , it took the Jewish community longer to react to the calls for help from Rhodes and Damascus . The Board of Deputies of the British Jews convened on April 21 to discuss the blood libels . They resolved to request the British , Austrian , and French governments to intercede with the Ottoman government and stop the persecutions . The resolution condemning the ritual murder charges was published as a paid advertisement in 35 British journals ; it appeared twice in the most important newspapers . On April 30 , a delegation elected by the Board met with the foreign secretary Lord Palmerston , who called the blood libel a " calumny " and promised that " the influence of the British government should be exerted to put a stop to [ the ] atrocities . " In his dispatch of May 5 , the foreign secretary told Lord Ponsonby , the British ambassador in Constantinople , to communicate the material on the Rhodes affair to the Ottoman government " officially and in writing " and to " request … an immediate and strict inquiry to be made … especially into the allegation that these atrocities were committed at the instigation of the Christians and the European consuls . "
A consensus formed within the European diplomatic community in Constantinople that the persecution of the accused Jews had to be stopped . This opinion was held not only by Lord Ponsonby , but also by von Stürmer , whose correspondence revealed that he was not at all convinced of the innocence of the Jews ; by the French ambassador Edouard Pontois , whose government stood by the French consuls who supported blood libels in Rhodes and Damascus ; and by the Prussian ambassador Hans von Königsmark . Consequently , the way was open for Lord Ponsonby , by far the most powerful diplomat in Constantinople , to intervene unopposed on behalf the Jews of Rhodes .
= = Investigation and trial = =
= = = Intervention of the Ottoman government = = =
In response to Yusuf Pasha 's request , the Ottoman government sent its instructions to Rhodes , where they arrived at the end of April . The government would set up an official investigatory commission before which representatives of the Jewish and Greek communities were ordered to present their evidence . In mid @-@ May , the government sent orders to release the six remaining Jewish prisoners . On May 21 , they were ceremoniously called before the court ( shura ) and freed under the guarantees of the elders of the Jewish community .
The Christians responded to these actions of the central government with a fresh wave of fury against the Jews so that in late May violence was in the air . The Jews described many cases in which they were assaulted or beaten by the Greeks , and the sons of the British and the Greek consuls were among those who beat up a number of Jews . When the Jews complained to the governor , he ordered the complainants subjected to four to five hundred blows of the bastinado . The qadi disassociated himself from the actions of the governor , who declared that he had acted upon the demands of the consuls . On top of that , the governor ordered five other Jews arrested .
= = = Acquittal = = =
The Greek and Jewish delegations from Rhodes , each numbering five , arrived at Constantinople on May 10 . In the capital they were joined by the qadi , the French consul , and the Austrian vice @-@ consul . On May 26 , the investigatory tribunal held its first open session chaired by Rifaat Bey . The qadi argued that " the entire affair is the product of hatred ; [ and ] was instigated by the English and Austrian consuls alone . " The consuls insisted on the guilt of the Jews , and they presented a concurring written testimony from their colleagues who stayed on Rhodes .
The case dragged on for two more months , as the British ambassador insisted on bringing to light the facts implicating the Rhodes governor of torture . Finally , on July 21 the verdict was announced . In its first part , the case between " the Greek population of Rhodes , the plaintiff , and the Jewish population , defendant " , the result was acquittal . In its second part , Yusuf Pasha was dismissed from his post as governor of Rhodes because " he had permitted procedures to be employed against the Jews which are not authorized in any way by the law and which are expressly forbidden by the Hatt @-@ i Sharif of 3 November " . The British ambassador praised the investigation as one during which " [ t ] he affair of Rhodes was examined with fairness " and called the verdict " a signal proof of the justice and humanity with which the Sublime Porte acts . "
= = = Sultan 's firman = = =
In July 1840 , a delegation headed by Adolphe Crémieux and Sir Moses Montefiore left for Egypt to save the Jews of Damascus . Crémieux and Montefiore requested Muhammad Ali to transfer the investigation to Alexandria or have the case considered by European judges . However , their request was denied . The delegation , concerned primarily with the release of the imprisoned Jews of Damascus , decided to accept their liberation without any judicial declaration of their innocence or formal denunciation of the blood libel . The liberation order was issued on August 28 , 1840 , and , as a compromise , it stated explicitly that it was an act of justice rather than a pardon granted by the ruler .
After completing his mission to Muhammad Ali , Montefiore was returning to Europe by way of Constantinople . On October 15 , 1840 , in the Ottoman capital he had a meeting with Lord Ponsonby , to whom Montefiore suggested that following the precedent set by Suleiman the Magnificent , the sultan should issue a decree ( firman ) formally denouncing the blood libel and effectively sealing the cases both in Rhodes and in Damascus . The British ambassador was enthusiastic about the idea , and within one week he arranged for Montefiore a meeting with Reshid Pasha . Montefiore prepared a draft text of the firman and had its French translation read to Reshid Pasha , who responded encouragingly .
Montefiore 's audience with the sultan took place at the palace late in the evening on October 28 . Montefiore described in his diary that as he and his party were driving to the palace , " [ t ] he streets were crowded ; many of the Jews had illuminated their houses . " During the audience , Montefiore read aloud a formal address in which he thanked the sultan for his stand in the Rhodes case . In turn , the sultan assured his guests that their request would be granted . The firman was delivered to Montefiore on November 7 , and a copy was subsequently provided to the Hakham Bashi . Citing the judgment in the Rhodes case , the decree stated that a careful examination of Jewish beliefs and " religious books " had demonstrated that " the charges brought against them … are pure calumny . The Jewish nation shall possess the same privileges as are granted to the numerous other nations who submit to our authority . The Jewish nation shall be protected and defended . "
= Marvel Science Stories =
Marvel Science Stories was a U.S. pulp magazine which published a total of fifteen issues in two separate runs , both edited by Robert O. Erisman . The publisher for the first run was Postal Publications , and the second run was published by Western Publishing ; both companies were owned by Abraham and Martin Goodman . It appeared in August 1938 , and carried stories with more sexual content than was usual for the genre , including several stories by Henry Kuttner , under his own name and also under pseudonyms . Reader reaction was generally negative , with one reader referring to Kuttner 's story " The Time Trap " as " trash " . The magazine was cancelled after the April 1941 issue , but when a boom in science fiction magazines began in 1950 , the publishers revived it . The first issue of the new series was dated November 1950 ; a further six issues appeared , with the last issue dated May 1952 . In addition to Kuttner , contributors to the first run included Arthur J. Burks and Jack Williamson ; the second run published stories by Arthur C. Clarke , Isaac Asimov , Jack Vance and L. Sprague de Camp , among others . The quality of the second incarnation of the magazine was better than the first , but it was unable to compete with the new , higher @-@ quality magazines that had appeared since the magazine 's first series .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared for several years . In 1936 Abraham and Martin Goodman , two brothers who owned a publishing company with multiple imprints , launched Ka @-@ Zar , an imitation Tarzan magazine with some borderline sf content . It lasted for three issues , with the last issue dated January 1937 . In addition to this marginal science fiction magazine , in 1937 the Goodmans began publishing several " weird @-@ menace " pulps . These were a genre of pulp magazine known for incorporating " sex and sadism " , with story lines that placed women in danger , usually because of a threat that appeared to be supernatural but was ultimately revealed to be the work of a human villain . The Goodmans ' titles were Detective Short Stories , launched in August 1937 , and Mystery Tales , which published its first issue in March 1938 . These were followed up by Marvel Science Stories , edited by Robert O. Erisman , which was not intended to be a weird @-@ menace pulp , but an sf magazine . The influence of the " sex and sadism " side of the Goodman 's portfolio of magazines was apparent , however : authors were sometimes asked to add more sex to their stories than was usual in the science fiction field at the time .
The first issue contained " Survival " by Arthur J. Burks as the lead novel ; this was well received by the readers , and was free of any taint of sex . The first couple of issues contained several stories that did little to offend readers , but they also contained two stories by Henry Kuttner , who was selling regularly to the Goodman 's other publications . Erisman and the Goodmans had asked Kuttner to spice up his submissions to Marvel Science Stories . He obliged with " Avengers of Space " in the first issue , which included " scenes of aliens lusting after unclothed Earth women " , in the words of sf historian Mike Ashley ; and " The Time Trap " in the second issue . Reader reaction was strongly negative : a typical letter , from William Hamling , later to become a publisher and editor of science fiction magazines in his own right , commented , " I was just about to write you a letter of complete congratulations when my eyes fell upon Kuttner 's " The Time Trap " . All I can say is : PLEASE , in the future , dislodge such trash from your magazine " . In addition to these two stories published under Kuttner 's name , there were two more stories in the same two issues by him under pseudonyms which were equally offensive to readers such as Hamling .
After five issues , the title was changed to Marvel Tales ; at the same time the number of stories advertised as " passionate " or containing " sin @-@ lost " or " lust @-@ crazed " characters sharply increased . Though some of the stories contained little to match the titillating blurbs , there were some that did , with " women entrapped , burned and otherwise maltreated , and whips cracking into use with uninventive frequency " , according to sf historian Joseph Marchesani . The magazine ceased publication with the April 1941 issue , but in 1950 the Goodmans saw an opportunity to revive it when a new boom in science fiction magazines got under way . Erisman was still working for the Goodmans , and was listed as editorial director of the new version of the magazine , but much of the editorial work was done by Daniel Keyes , who was credited as " Editorial Associate " on the 1951 issues . The first issue of the new incarnation of Marvel Science Stories was dated November 1950 . After two issues Erisman switched the magazine to a digest format , but the final issue , dated May 1952 , was once again a pulp . The post @-@ war issues contained stories by well @-@ known writers , including Arthur C. Clarke , Isaac Asimov , Richard Matheson , William Tenn , Jack Vance , and Lester del Rey , but the stories were of only average quality . Erisman and Keyes were able to improve on the material published in the pre @-@ war Marvel Tales , but the field had grown more sophisticated since those days , and the writers who sold to Marvel Tales were now publishing their best work elsewhere .
= = Bibliographic details = =
There were nine issues in the first sequence , in one volume of six numbers and a second volume of three numbers . All issues in the first run were in pulp format and were priced at 15 cents . The first four issues were 128 pages ; the next five were 112 pages . The title was Marvel Science Stories for five issues , then Marvel Tales for two issues , and then Marvel Stories for the last two issues of the first run . The publisher for the first series was listed as Postal Publications of Chicago for the first four issues , and as Western Publishing of New York and Chicago ; in both cases the owner was Martin and Abraham Goodman . The intended schedule was bimonthly but this was never achieved . The editor was Robert O. Erisman .
The second incarnation of the magazine lasted for six issues on a more regular quarterly schedule , starting in November 1950 . The price was 25 cents and the page count was 128 pages for all six issues ; the first two issues and last issue of this sequence were in pulp format , and the three from May 1951 to November 1951 were in digest format . The title returned to Marvel Science Stories for the first three issues of this series , and to Marvel Science Fiction for the last three issues . The publisher was listed as Stadium Publishing of New York ; as with the first series Martin and Abraham Goodman were the owners .
There was a British reprint of the February 1951 issue , published by Thorpe & Porter and dated May 1951 . Science fiction bibliographer Brad Day lists five other British reprints of the second series of Marvel Science Stories , but no copies are recorded by more recent bibliographers . In 1977 the Goodmans launched a digest science fiction magazine titled Skyworlds , which has been described by Mike Ashley as " without any shadow of a doubt , the worst " of the 1970s crop of science fiction magazines ; the fiction it contained was almost entirely reprinted from the second series of Marvel Science Stories .
= Fairy Cube =
Fairy Cube ( Japanese : 妖精標本 , Hepburn : Yōsei Hyōhon ) is a fantasy , gothic shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume from February 2005 to 2006 , the Fairy Cube chapters were collected into three bound volumes by Hakusensha and published from October 2005 to July 2006 . A related short story , " Psycho Knocker " , appeared in the October 2004 issues of the same magazine . Yuki began Fairy Cube with the intent of writing a shorter manga . Set in a fictional universe in which a fairy @-@ inhabited Otherworld exists alongside present @-@ day Earth , the series focuses on Ian Hasumi , a teenager who can see fairies , and his childhood friend Rin . After Ian 's body is stolen from him , he starts on a journey to reclaim it and soon finds himself in conflict with a group of fairies who hope to capture the Earth by opening a pathway from the Otherworld .
Viz Media licensed Fairy Cube for an English @-@ language release in North America . It previewed the series in its manga anthology Shojo Beat and released the series from May 2008 to November 2008 . A digital edition was published in 2011 . Another English translation has been published by Chuang Yi in Singapore , and the series has been translated into several other languages . The series received a range of reviews : reviews of the first volume were generally positive , although the reviewers differed in their thoughts on the conclusion . The final volume placed in ICv2 's list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels for November 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Fairy Cube takes place in a fictional universe in which an Otherworld , inhabited by a variety of fairies and other nonhuman entities , exists alongside present @-@ day Earth . The series focuses on Ian Hasumi ( 羽住 衣杏 , Hasumi Ian ) , a timid fifteen @-@ year @-@ old who sees fairies — invisible to normal people — and is stalked by Tokage ( トカゲ , Tokage ) , a spiteful spirit only he can see . In his backstory , it is revealed that before the start of the series , his mother , Kureha Hasumi ( 羽住 呉葉 , Hasumi Kureha ) left , causing his novelist father , Kazumi Hasumi ( 羽住 一巳 , Hasumi Kazumi ) , to burn wing marks on Ian 's back to prevent him from doing the same . Rin Ishinagi ( 石椛 鈴 , Ishinagi Rin ) , Ian 's abused childhood friend and secret " crush " , later returns to the city where he lives after being separated for years . Stumbling upon the scene of a murder and seeing a man retrieve a cube from the victim 's body , Ian follows him back to an antique shop , where the man , actually a Gancanagh named Kaito ( 界外 , Kaito ) , gives him Tokage 's fairy cube — a cube belonging to a fairy that can allow the fairy to take over the human who has it . Soon after , Ian is killed by his own father , who was manipulated by Tokage , and now exists as a spirit , with Tokage possessing his body . Returning to Kaito 's shop and after a trip through the Otherworld with Ainsel ( エインセル , Einseru ) , a small yet powerful and vicious fairy in love with Kaito , Ian takes control of the body of a deceased young boy , Eriya Barnett ( エリヤ ・ バレット , Eriya Barutto ) . Moved by his determination , Ainsel agrees to aid him in his quest to regain his body .
Along the way , Ian encounters his maternal aunt Lise ( 梨世 , Rise ) , a leanan sídhe like Kureha , who explains that Kureha left before she completely drained the life force of Kazumi ; Shira Gotoh ( 神門 姿良 , Gotō Shira ) , a cross @-@ dressing girl born in the Otherworld who , as the chairperson for the multi @-@ million land development company Gotoh Group , aims to restore the environment for the fairies ; and Raven ( レイヴン , Reivan ) , Shira 's supernatural bodyguard whose clan guards a " demon door " . Additionally , Ian learns that Tokage grew up in the Otherworld , abandoned by his parents Kureha and Kazumi , but loved by a non @-@ native fairy ; when his village tried to sacrifice him to the god of war and death , he slaughtered them and the god escaped . To infiltrate Gotoh Group , Rin allows herself to be captured , and under the pretense of a beauty contest , the company plans to harvest the energy of the fairy cubes and bystanders to open a " demon door " to the Otherworld . Ian rescues Rin , and the fairy god Balor is revealed to be inhabiting the body of Shira 's bedridden father and behind the plan . Ian eventually returns to his body through fairy magic , while Eriya 's body accepts Tokage . Having been held captive by Gotoh for most of the series , Kureha appears and before dying , reveals that Tokage is Ian 's stillborn twin . Shira is killed after cutting Balor 's life @-@ line , and Raven realizes that his fiancée , whom Kaito had seduced , had actually unsealed the demon door prior to the start of the series , angry with the two for playing with her feelings . Ainsel , secretly the consciousness of the door 's sealing spell , and Kaito die together as a sacrifice to seal the demon door , as Ian and Rin help by letting the people of earth glimpse the fairies and using the energy of their belief .
= = Development = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki 's earlier , related short manga " Psycho Knocker " appeared in the October 2004 issues of the Japanese shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Hana to Yume published twice a month . It focuses on a pessimistic , heartbroken teenager who makes a pact with a lonely ghost , unknowningly exchanging her life for two wishes . Chasing down spirits that have escaped from the demon door , Raven and Tokage rescue her from the ghost , a young girl who died suddenly , and seal a spirit which feeds on negative emotions . Yuki wrote the story as a reminder to herself not to be so pessimistic , a trait she shares with the teenage protagonist .
Yuki started Fairy Cube with the goal of writing a short series . Because of the story 's nature as a serial , she faced page limitations . When deciding on the ending , she considered having Ian and Rin as the sacrifice to close the demon door , but rejected it , feeling that it would be too unpleasant for the readers , although she expressed her fondness for sad endings . She was also unable to include Ian and Tokage 's newfound friendship , because Rin and Ian 's romantic relationship served as the focus of the story .
= = Release = =
The eighteen chapters of Fairy Cube appeared as a serial in Hana to Yume from February 2005 to 2006 . Hakusensha collected the chapters into three bound volumes and published them from October 19 , 2005 , to July 19 , 2006 .
At the 2007 Comic @-@ Con International , a convention held in San Diego , California , Viz Media announced that it had licensed Fairy Cube for an English @-@ language release in North America . Viz included a preview of Fairy Cube in the April 2008 issue of its manga anthology Shojo Beat , and published the series from May 6 , 2008 , to November 4 , 2008 . A digital edition of the series was also released in 2011 . The series is also licensed in Singapore by Chuang Yi , and published in several other languages , among them German , Italian , and French .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
The final volume placed at the 221st spot on ICv2 's list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels for November 2008 , with an estimated 516 copies sold .
Writing for School Library Journal , Cara von Wrangel Kinsey found Fairy Cube " more accessible than Yuki 's previous works , " despite covering subjects such as murder and revenge . A. E. Sparrow of IGN gave the first volume a favorable review , enjoying the series ' different view of the fairies . Mania Entertainment 's Danielle Van Gorder wrote that the story reminded her of the pre @-@ Victorian version of the fairytale " Snow White " or the British Sidhe fairies , in her review of the first volume . Van Gorder worried that the cover would mislead readers into believing that it was " a light and fluffy kind of story " and drive away the target audience . In a follow @-@ up review of the final volume , she wrote that the conclusion of the series was less confusing than that of Yuki 's earlier work Angel Sanctuary ( 1994 – 2000 ) and thought the story was " well @-@ executed , " though it still had some flaws . Rating the series 3 out of 4 stars , Jason Thompson , author of Manga : The Complete Guide ( 2007 ) , wrote that while it reminded him of Angel Sanctuary , it covered " more original subject matter " and had " tighter " plotting . Anime News Network 's Casey Brienza highly recommended the first volume , praising her inclusion of Celtic mythology . She enjoyed the plot and described the cover as beautiful , though she disliked the artistic inconsistencies caused by Yuki 's use of assistants . According to Katherine Dacey of PopCultureShock in her review of the first volume , the story succeeded through Yuki 's use of " outlandish touches , " creating " an intoxicating — if occasionally ridiculous — mix of horror , romance , and revenge . " In her review of the final volume , Dacey expressed her feelings of annoyance that the characters spent much of the volume talking with very little action , and wrote that the story , despite a promising start , went downhill with the introduction of the beauty contest in the second volume . Categorizing " Psycho Knocker " as " comeuppance theater , " she enjoyed it more than Fairy Cube 's conclusion , though still wrote that " it isn 't her best work . " A reviewer of the French edition disliked how quickly the story progressed , commenting that the protagonists ' personalities were not fully explored as a result . The reviewer praised the covers of the first and third volumes as " magnificent " .
= Bob Ferguson ( infielder ) =
Robert Vavasour Ferguson ( January 31 , 1845 – May 3 , 1894 ) was an American infielder , league official , manager and umpire in the early days of baseball , playing both before and after baseball became a professional sport . In addition to playing and managing , he served as president of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players from 1872 through 1875 , the sport 's first entirely professional league . His character and unquestioned honesty were highly regarded during a period in baseball history where the game 's reputation was badly damaged by gamblers and rowdy behavior by players and fans . However , his bad temper and stubbornness were traits that created trouble for him at times during his career , and caused him to be disliked by many . His nickname , " Death to Flying Things " , was derived from his greatness as a defensive player .
= = Early career = =
A native of Brooklyn , Ferguson played for two of New York 's earliest semi @-@ professional clubs in the late 1860s and early 1870s , the Atlantics and Mutuals . On June 14 , 1870 , Ferguson provided the hit that created the tying run and he later scored the winning run in a match against the famous Cincinnati Red Stockings , the first team that was composed entirely of professional players . This win brought to an end the Red Stockings ' 81 consecutive game winning streak . He is credited with being the first player to bat from both sides of home plate , known as switch @-@ hitting , but the practice was not popular at first . Among the explanations for this , it is claimed that , due to his personality , players did not want to emulate him . Managers , however , recognized the practice 's importance soon after , and began to play their players according to the opposing pitcher that day , known today as platooning , and the advantages that switch @-@ hitting posed would later become accepted strategic baseball philosophy , and many players began to experiment with the idea .
= = National Association = =
In 1871 , Ferguson took over the Mutual team as the player @-@ manager . In 33 games , he batted .241 , while the team finished with a 16 – 17 record , which put them in fifth place at the season 's end . As manager , Ferguson insisted upon implicit obedience from his men , but was forced to leave following the season due to heavy rumors of gambling surrounding the team . For the 1872 season , Ferguson re @-@ joined his Atlantics team , which was now a member of the National Association as well , and he would stay there through the 1874 season . In 1872 , he was elected by the players to be the president of the National Association , an office he held through the 1875 season , the last season of the Association .
On September 1 , 1872 , Ferguson arranged a benefit game for Al Thake , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old left fielder for the Atlantics , who drowned during a fishing trip off Fort Hamilton , in New York Harbor . The old Brooklyn Atlantics and Members of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings played against each other in the benefit game .
While serving as a substitute umpire during a game between the Baltimore Canaries and Mutuals on July 24 , 1873 , Ferguson received continuous , loud , verbal abuse from Mutuals catcher Nat Hicks . Ferguson and Hicks got into an altercation at the conclusion of the game , which Ferguson ended by hitting Hicks in the left arm with a bat , breaking his arm in two places . Ferguson required a police escort to leave the playing field , and Hicks refused to press charges and the two reconciled afterwards . During the final season of the Association , he played and managed the Hartford Dark Blues .
= = National League = =
When the Association dissolved , his Hartford team was accepted into the National League for its inaugural season in 1876 , and Ferguson became a League Director . As a league official , he was involved in a landmark decision that season . The case involved Jim Devlin , pitcher for the Louisville Grays . Devlin wanted to be released from his contract , claiming that Louisville had failed to fulfill the terms of his contract . Surrounding Devlin were rumors that he took money from gamblers to throw games , known in the day as " hippodroming " . Ferguson , along with fellow league directors , ruled in favor of the Grays ' Vice @-@ President Charles Chase , and Devlin was ordered to remain with the Grays . The following season , Devlin and three other teammates , SS / 2B Bill Craver , OF George Hall and 3B Al Nichols would receive life suspensions for throwing games . Devlin attempted to gain reinstatement for a number of years , but this was never granted .
The Dark Blues had turned to Ferguson to play for and manage the team because of his reputation as the most authoritarian captain in the game . He was an honest and upstanding citizen in a time when not many ballplayers could say the same . However , he was also a domineering , dictatorial captain with a violent streak . Team discipline did improve in his first season , but his overbearing ways proved divisive , causing the team to bicker amongst themselves . Ferguson 's temper would flare up often , even when the team was winning . The Chicago Tribune reported that if anyone on the Hartford nine committed an error , " Ferguson [ would ] swear until everything looks blue . " He was particularly rough on second baseman Jack Burdock , who on more than one occasion heard his captain publicly threaten " to ram his fist down Burdock 's throat . " Some players tolerated his behavior ; others , however , refused to comply . Shortstop Tom Carey and center fielder Jack Remsen did not hesitate to yell back , while Burdock and pitcher Candy Cummings , on the other hand , often sulked . The situation in Hartford came to a head after a tough loss to the Red Stockings , a game in which Ferguson had committed several errors . Hartford 's main pitcher , Tommy Bond , suggested that Ferguson was " crooked " . Ferguson denied the charge , and Bond quickly retracted his statement , claiming that he said it in anger . Bond then requested that he be able to leave the team because he could not play for Ferguson , a request that was granted by league president Morgan Bulkeley , a former owner of the Dark Blues .
Hartford finished third in both of its two seasons in the National League , and when the team folded , Ferguson became the new Chicago White Stockings player @-@ manager . It would be his only season in Chicago . Al Spalding had hired Ferguson to captain his Chicago team because of his reputation , openly saying that he admired Ferguson 's style and leadership that made the Hartford teams successful . Ferguson personally had his most successful season as a player that season , as he batted .351 , which was third in the league , led the league in on @-@ base percentage , tied for fourth in runs batted in , and ranked fourth in hits . Unfortunately , the White Stockings finished at .500 , and in Spalding 's memoirs he called Ferguson " tactless " and hopelessly lacking any knowledge " of the subtle science of handling men by strategy rather than by force . " Cap Anson would eventually take over that role in 1879 .
Ferguson again moved on , this time accepting the player @-@ manager role with the new Troy Trojans team who began their time in the National League in 1879 , and would stay in that role until the team folded after the 1882 season . In 1883 , he became the first manager in the history of the Philadelphia Phillies franchise , which was known at the time as the Quakers , but was relieved of command when the team won only four of its first 17 games . On August 21 of that season , his Quakers traveled to Providence , Rhode Island to play the Grays . To increase ticket sales , he gave the day 's pitching duty to Rhode Island native Art Hagan in hopes that Hagan 's appearance would attract more locals to come watch the game . The strategy worked , but Hagen surrendered 28 runs and the Quakers made 20 errors behind him and did not score a run . Financially sound decision as it was , a bad decision for public relations as Ferguson was labeled a sadist for not relieving Hagen .
= = American Association = =
Ferguson 's last two managerial positions were in the American Association . He was player @-@ manager for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys , who later became the Pittsburgh Pirates , in 1884 and later took over the managerial role for parts of two seasons with the New York Metropolitans . Overall , as manager , his teams won 417 games and lost 516 , for a winning percentage of .447 , and never finished higher than the third @-@ place finishes his Trojans achieved . The totals reflect his time in the National Association as well as the National League and American Association .
= = Umpiring career = =
Ferguson had , on numerous occasions during his playing and managerial career , served as a substitute umpire , but did not start doing it full @-@ time until after his departure from Philadelphia . In 1888 , he became a full @-@ time professional umpire , working in the American Association , and later in the Players ' League in 1890 . By the end of the 1890 season he had passed Kick Kelly to take over the record for career games as an umpire with 650 ; John Gaffney surpassed his final total of 786 in 1893 . Ferguson officially umpired 804 games if his National Association games are taken into account , and his career came to a close after the 1891 season . On his umpiring philosophy , he once stated " Umpiring always came as easy to me " , he said , " as sleeping on a featherbed . Never change a decision , never stop to talk to a man . Make ' em play ball and keep their mouths shut , and never fear but the people will be on your side and you 'll be called the king of umpires . "
= = Post @-@ career = =
Ferguson died in Brooklyn of apoplexy at the age of 49 . Initially buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn , he was later reinterred in Cypress Hills Cemetery , also in the borough of Brooklyn . Despite his career that was filled with incidents of turmoil between him and his players and other baseball people , his funeral , which was held at his home , was quickly crowded , as was the front stoop . Eventually , they had to turn people away .
= Too Tough to Die =
Too Tough to Die is the eighth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones . It was released on October 1 , 1984 , and is the first Ramones record to feature Richie Ramone on drums . With ex @-@ member Tommy Ramone producing , the recording process was similar to that of the band 's 1976 debut album , Ramones . Likewise , the record 's style — both lyrically and compositionally — saw the band returning to their roots . The photograph on the album cover , which features silhouettes of the band members , resulted from a " lucky accident " after photographer George DuBose 's camera malfunctioned .
The album 's overall style leaned toward that of hardcore punk and heavy metal music , rather than pop music which had been a focus of several of the band 's previous albums . Too Tough to Die borrows upon elements such as guitar riffs from 1983 's Subterranean Jungle . For the second time , after " Time Bomb " on Subterranean Jungle , bassist Dee Dee Ramone performs lead vocals on the album and receives vocal credits for two tracks . The album also contains the band 's only instrumental piece , " Durango 95 " .
Critics appreciated the band 's return to earlier methods of writing , recording , and production , noting they had strayed from the pop music genre . Despite critical acclaim , Too Tough to Die performed poorly in album sales . At this point in their career , the album was the band 's lowest peaking record on the Billboard 200 .
= = Recording and production = =
The recording of Too Tough to Die began in the summer of 1984 at the Media Sound Studios in New York City . The album 's recording process used similar techniques which were used to record their 1976 eponymous album , with Rolling Stone 's Kurt Loder describing it as " virtually live in the studio . " The album marked the debut of new drummer Richie Ramone , who replaced Marky Ramone after he was fired for excessive drinking . The album 's lyrics were written mainly by guitarist Johnny Ramone and bassist Dee Dee Ramone , while lead singer Joey Ramone did not participate in the process because he " wasn 't feeling well " prior to recording . Joey did , however , write the lyrics for " Daytime Dilemma ( Dangers of Love ) " after receiving help with the guitar part by Daniel Rey . Johnny Ramone recalled :
As we got ready to make Too Tough To Die , we were focused in the same direction , and it made a difference . We knew we needed to get back to the kind of harder material we 'd become known for . The pop stuff hadn 't really worked , and we knew we were much better off doing what we did best .
Previous Ramones records featured celebrity record producers in an attempt to gain some sort of popularity . Since this method did not yield the results which they were expecting , Sire Records contacted the producers of 1978 's Road to Ruin : Ed Stasium and ex @-@ band member Tommy Ramone . Too Tough to Die has less production value than previous recordings by the Ramones . Because critics often disapproved of the sound quality on End of the Century and Pleasant Dreams , the band leaned towards a harsher sound .
Too Tough to Die was also the first of three studio albums that were licensed from Sire Records to the independent record label Beggars Banquet Records for release in the UK . The deal saw the group 's work promoted better and resulted placings on the UK album and singles charts . The group had not charted in the UK since 1980 's End of the Century .
= = Cover art = =
The cover photo for the album was taken by photographer George DuBose in a subway in Central Park , New York City , near the Central Park Zoo . In the photo , the band members are standing side @-@ by @-@ side underneath an underpass arch , with their dark silhouettes illuminated in the background with blue lighting and dry ice fog . Johnny wanted the artwork to conceptually refer to the A Clockwork Orange film , released in 1971 . DuBose relates : " Johnny wanted a picture that would evoke memories of the gang in A Clockwork Orange . " DuBose also stated that the band did not need their faces on the cover because they had grown significantly in popularity ; however , he originally intended to include their faces . The photograph on the album cover was a " lucky accident " after DuBose 's camera malfunctioned and he unintentionally shot the band members in silhouette .
= = Music and compositions = =
Just as the recording methods resembled that of the band 's 1970 's era , the musical style which they produced also favored the band 's earlier approach to punk rock . Even though " Howling at the Moon ( Sha @-@ La @-@ La ) " featured a synthpop feel , the overall genre leaned more so toward heavy metal music rather than pop music , which had been a major focus of the band 's writing process throughout the 1980s . Authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz explained :
With Tommy Ramone / Erdelyi and Ed Stadium returning as producers , the album was , to some degree , the Ramones ' response to America 's burgeoning hard @-@ core punk scene , and did much to restore the band 's musical credibilty ... Too Tough to Die reclaimed the Ramone 's original values of energy , catchiness , and brevity without resorting to retro pandering . It also featured the band 's strongest set of songs since Rocket to Russia , with Dee Dee ( who wrote or co @-@ wrote nine of the album 's thirteen songs ) demonstrating a thoughtful , introspective edge on ' I 'm Not Afraid of Life ' and an apocalyptic social conscience on ' Planet Earth 1988.'
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the album uses the " big guitar riffs " featured on Subterranean Jungle and transfigures them to be " shorter and heavier . " The songs featured on the album are mostly rather short and have a considerably fast tempo , which was a typical quality of the band 's early work . The album features the only instrumental piece which the band released : " Durango 95 , " which clocks in at under a minute , being the shortest Ramones track on a studio album . ( Interestingly , the album also includes one of the longest Ramones studio recordings , " Daytime Dilemma ( Dangers of Love ) " on side two . ) " Durango 95 " ' s name is a reference to a car driven in A Clockwork Orange .
Too Tough to Die is also the first Ramones ' release which did not feature lead singer Joey Ramone on each track ; both " Wart Hog " and Endless Vacation " feature bassist Dee Dee Ramone as lead vocalist . Initially , " Wart Hog " ' s appearance on the album was declined by Joey , but Johnny argued for including the song , later stating , " If I hadn 't lobbied for them , they wouldn 't be on the [ album ] . " The lyrics to the song were not included on the initial printing of the album because Sire considered the drug @-@ inspired lyrics to be too explicit for potential fans .
= = Reception = =
Too Tough to Die was generally well received by critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it " the last great record [ the Ramones ] would ever make " and noted that the use of Tommy Ramone as the album 's producer was beneficial since it aided in the group returning " to simple , scathing punk rock . " He also stated that the album reads " like a reaction to hardcore punk , " while still maintaining their more melodic style in songs . Music critic Robert Christgau also suggested that the album 's sound was a retreat to their earlier styles " with the cleansing minimalism of their original conception evoked , " saying their initial sound is " augmented rather than recycled . " Kurt Loder of the Rolling Stone concluded his review by saying that " Too Tough to Die is a return to fighting trim by the kings of stripped @-@ down rock & roll . "
The album was the band 's lowest peaking record at that point in their career , debuting at number 171 on the US Billboard 200 . It also peaked at number 49 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan chart , and in a revival of fortunes spent three weeks on the UK Albums Chart where it peaked at number 63 . The only single released from the
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her vocals , which is time compression ... It just digitally goes in and snipes out tiny little digital slices of the actual sound and squeezes it together so that her tempo is a new tempo but her pitch stays the same . " According to Vasquez , Madonna was " on top of everything " including the house mixes as well as the other mixes created .
The song also had dance mixes created by Vasquez . There are two versions of " Junior 's Luscious Mix " , those being a single edit and a longer version , which has a piano introduction and turns " Secret " into a dancefloor track . According to Larry Flick from Billboard these versions have " vibrant keyboards and an elastic bassline " . Like the house mixes , here also Madonna 's vocals were re @-@ edited to fit in with the faster beats . According to Jose F. Promis of AllMusic , the sped @-@ up vocals made Madonna 's voice have a " robotic , detached feel that the original doesn 't have . " Promis also noted that Vasquez 's " Sound Factory Mix " had " swirling instrumentals recalling flashing lights in a nightclub " . This remix also incorporated tribal percussion sounds and synth looping . Similarly he noted that the " Some Bizarre Mix " gave the song a " groovier , funkier spin " , while the " Allstar Mix " , gave it " a cold , hip @-@ hop feel " . Flick was positive towards all the remixes , noting that " this single is a promising preamble to what will likely be a cool , new chapter in the career of dance mu- sic 's most successful graduate . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Secret " received generally positive reviews from music critics . In his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , author J. Randy Taraborrelli described the song as " clever " , adding that no matter how many time one listens to it , " it never ceases to intrigue " . Chris Wade , author of The Music of Madonna recalled that " Secret " had been his favorite song , and commended the track 's production , Madonna 's vocals and mixing . He declared it as " one of Madonna 's finest cuts from the whole of her 90s output . " Wade described the chorus as " sinister and catchy ; a strange eeriness about it that only the mystery of the forbidden can conjure . " Matthew Rettenmund wrote in his Encyclopedia Madonnica that " Secret " paved way a new direction musically for Madonna ; he believed that the track was more haunting musically than Madonna 's previous single " Who 's That Girl " ( 1987 ) and comparable to " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) . Rettenmund complimented the cover artwork , saying that " a dozen years into her career , it was one of her most arresting poses shot by Demarchelier , a testament to the durability of her star appeal " . Author Lucy O 'Brien described the song in her book , Madonna : Like an Icon :
With its chunky backbeat , gentle strings and funky guitar motif , ' Secret ' is both languid and tense at the same time . The song has the air of quiet revelation and a relaxation of spirit . Madonna insisted later that the song wasn 't just about love but also about spiritual self @-@ empowerment . [ Austin 's reworked demo ] brought out a new warm , soulful tone in her voice , and making her swoony humming sound a central feature of the track .
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the song a rating of A , and noted that " Secret " was probably the most naked performance of Madonna 's career , with " acoustic guitars , expertly sweetened vocals and producer Dallas Austin 's signature R & B beats [ which ] soulfully transport the listener into Madonna 's troubled yet soothing world . " Barbara O 'Dair from Rolling Stone called the song " infectiously funky " , adding that her delivery of the lyrics " Happiness lies in your own hand / It took me much too long to understand " shows a downbeat restraint in her vocals that proves the singer is " drawn to sadness " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic listed it as one of the best songs from Bedtime Stories , stating that along with other album tracks — " Take a Bow " , " Inside of Me " , " Sanctuary " and " Bedtime Story " — it slowly " works its melody into the subconscious as the bass pulses " . Paul Verna from Billboard described the song as a " pop smash " that is one of the most " seductive " songs from Bedtime Stories . Alex Needham of NME called the song an " underrated gem " , adding that the track has a " brilliant bluesy strut " . In his 2011 review of Bedtime Stories , Brett Callwood of the Detroit Metro Times called the song " spectacular " . Charlotte Robinson , writer from PopMatters , wrote that the gentle grooves of " Secret " , accompanied by acoustic guitar and delicate strings , make the song " seductive " .
NME magazine ranked " Secret " at number 30 in their list of the best songs of 1994 . Slant Magazine listed " Secret " as the 42nd " Best Singles of the 1990s " , stating that its " one of the most organic @-@ sounding singles of Madonna 's career , taking its sweet time to get where it 's going and not giving up too much along the way . The arrangement gets off on being withholding , and , at least for one glorious single , so does Madonna : When she sings , " You knew all along / What I never wanted to say , " she sounds positively rapturous . Scott Kearnan of The Boston Globe included the track at number 30 on his list of " Best Madonna Songs " , stating " its slinky R & B groove made ' Secret ' something special , even if it 's not remembered for an accompanying scandal or bawdy ' moment ' . We like to talk about her ability to produce controversy and headlines , but at the end of the day , here 's what Madonna makes best : pop music " . Louis Virtel of The Backlot listed the song at number 14 on his list of the " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " , calling it " meditative , moving " and " sexy as hell " . Rooksby concurred that " its a good track " but felt that the time could have been reduced from five minutes , which made it a little long . He also felt that the drums looping around the track made it a " bit monotonous " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States it debuted at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 issue dated October 8 , 1994 . It was the third highest debut of Madonna 's music career at that time , following " Erotica " at number 13 ( 1992 ) and " Rescue Me " at number 15 ( 1991 ) . According to journalist Liz Smith , " Secret " became the most requested song on US radios after it was sent for airplay , being spun on 152 radio stations and gaining around 1 @,@ 900 spins . Following the release of the commercial CD formats the next week , the song debuted on the Singles Sales chart at number 31 with 18 @,@ 000 units sold . Three weeks later it peaked on the chart at number three , staying for a total of 22 weeks ; 11 of those were spent within the top ten . It also peaked at number three on both the US Hot 100 Airplay and Mainstream Top 40 charts and at number two on the Adult Contemporary chart . On the Hot Dance Club Songs chart it peaked at number one for two weeks , aided by the remixes from Vasquez . At the Year @-@ end Hot 100 ranking for 1994 , " Secret " was placed at number 84 and for 1995 , it was ranked at number 71 . " Secret " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 5 , 1995 , for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Canada the song debuted at number 91 on the RPM Singles Chart the week of October 3 , 1994 , eventually peaking at number one for three consecutive weeks starting from November 14 , 1994 . On the RPM 1994 Year @-@ End Chart , the song finished at number 23 .
In the United Kingdom " Secret " debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart , staying on the chart for a total of ten weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold a total of 117 @,@ 957 copies in that region as of 2008 . " Secret " became her 35th consecutive top @-@ ten single since " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) , which remains an unequaled record in British chart history . On the French Singles Chart , " Secret " peaked at number two for two weeks , staying on the chart for a total of 30 weeks . It placed at number 26 on the year @-@ end chart and was eventually certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 125 @,@ 000 copies ; the song has sold a total of 255 @,@ 000 copies in France . The song also peaked at number one in Finland as well as Switzerland , charting on the Swiss Singles Chart for a total of 19 weeks . The song also placed within the top 10 on the charts in Italy , Spain , and Denmark , peaking at number three , number four , and number eight respectively . In Austria , the single missed the top 10 , peaking at number 11 , while in Ireland it peaked at number 16 on the Irish Singles Chart . In Sweden , the song peaked at number 12 and spent a total of 16 cumulative weeks on the chart .
" Secret " entered the ARIA Singles Chart at its peak of number five the week of October 23 , 1994 , eventually charting for a total of fourteen weeks . It later landed at number 46 position on the Australian singles year @-@ end chart . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified it gold for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 31 the week of November 6 , 1994 , eventually peaked at number five , remaining on the chart for a total of eight weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
According to O 'Brien , the general critical consensus about Bedtime Stories was " Madonna in retreat . Still smarting from criticism over the Sex book , she [ evolved ] into a softer , more gentle image . Yet despite the pastel tones of her new look , there was also a sense of grit . She combined this to startling effect with the music video for ' Secret ' . " Madonna knew that a lot was riding on her first visual after the Erotica era , and wanted to create an effect with it . The video was directed by Melodie McDaniel , who had previously gained acclaim as a photographer for album artwork and also as music video director for bands like The Cranberries and Porno for Pyros . However , Madonna was more interested in one of McDaniel 's earlier short films , where she portrayed baptism combining with voodoo rituals . She enlisted McDaniel and explained that she was " drawn to the rawness of [ McDaniel 's ] film " . Madonna wanted to tone down her image and according to McDaniel :
She was ready to go there ... Madonna had a blonde Jean Harlow look at the time . I wanted to combine that old classic Hollywood mix with the edginess of modern contemporary , but make it feel timeless . I was trying to think of something different , something real ... It was awesome I got this break , but I was freaked out . I was jumping from young artists to working with an icon ... I think she was drawn to the rawness of my work .
Before meeting with Madonna , McDaniel first listened to the song and found it inspiring . When asked by the singer about her references for the video , McDaniel presented her with pictures from her favorite 1970s photographer , Bill Burke , who took pictures of people considered as freaks or inbred . Another reference was the photography book , East 100 Street by Bruce Davidson , which showed pictures of people in Spanish Harlem . Madonna let the director live in her New York apartment to continue research and asked her to go through her book collections , including those by Helmut Newton and Richard Avedon . Madonna also started working with a stylist from McDaniel 's team called Brigitte Echols , for the fashion and wardrobes in the video . Echols had gone to a low @-@ rent mall called Crenshaw Swap Meet and bought a $ 180 gold necklace with the name " Madonna " in it , inside a jewelry box . Madonna liked it and together they decided on the wardrobe , including skirts and tops , vintage clothes from costume houses , La Perla bra , and two designs from then unknown Marc Jacobs . Echols described Madonna 's approach to style as " collaborative " .
= = = Filming and release = = =
The video was filmed during September 9 – 11 , 1994 at the Lenox Lounge and on location on Lenox Avenue in Harlem . McDaniel and her team scouted out low @-@ rent , speak @-@ easy locations and they did street @-@ casting , assembling off @-@ beat characters , from transvestites to card tricksters and edgy Harlem teenagers . However , when it came to filming there was a problem — McDaniel 's approach was to start the camera and let the cast improvise , but Madonna wanted direction . She would sit on the chair and when McDaniel said " Action " , she would still sit there saying impatiently , " What am I doing ? What am I doing ? Hello ? " In reality , McDaniel recalled that she was overawed by Madonna 's big entourage who had come to Harlem for the shoot , hence she held herself from speaking her mind about the singer 's look . When McDaniel explained to the singer that she wanted her to appear edgy like Jennifer Jason Leigh 's character in the 1990 drama film Last Exit to Brooklyn , the singer was annoyed . Madonna had her hair and makeup re @-@ done and it was the final look for the video .
Echols recalled that the first scenes shot were those of Madonna walking down Lenox Avenue . While filming , the singer noticed a black leather coat with fur trim , worn by Fatima , the assistant director . Madonna asked for the coat from Fatima and ended up wearing it in the video . Echols also noted that Madonna had a close relationship with the cinematographer , and knew from which angle her shots would be the best and which lights to be used . After the misunderstandings regarding looks , and the plot direction were cleared , the filming resumed and was finished within three days . The final scenes were with model Jason Olive in a Marlem house , with Madonna climbing steps and reaching him and their supposed child .
The video premiered on October 4 , 1994 , on MTV . It begins with showing the neighborhood of Harlem , with Madonna as a singer in a small jazz club . She simply sits in the club with her band and sings for her small , mostly black and Latino audience . Interspersed through out the video are scenes of people living in Harlem , doing their daily chores , including a supporting cast of transvestite prostitutes , a pimp , and a black gang member who shows off the scars on his body . During the intermediate verses , Madonna is shown writhing in the lap of an older , maternal woman , who symbolically baptizes her by splashing water on her forehead . Near the video 's end , Madonna walks through the neighborhood and climbs a set of stairs to have a reunion with her family , a young Latin man and their supposed son . The video ends with Madonna smiling towards the camera while sitting at the nightclub .
= = = Reception and aftermath = = =
The " Secret " music video was a hit on MTV , being played numerous times by the channel . It also generated discussions in academia regarding the supposed " secret " of the song . According to the book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández argues that the young son that is revealed at the end of the video is in actuality Madonna 's lover 's secret . Throughout the video , scenes of Madonna are interspersed with scenes of drag queens primping , and religious iconography such as rebirth and damnation . In his book From Hegel to Madonna , author Robert Miklitsch states that the music video for " Secret " is a departure from the various themes — repression and loss , anger and aggression — explored so vividly on Bedtime Stories . Miklitsch goes on to say that , although the video depicts images of cleansing rebirth , the fact that Madonna announced that she was pregnant in 1996 shows that , in retrospect , " Secret " may have been less about cleansing rebirth , and instead more about maternity as birth .
Rettenmund had a different interpretation of the video , calling it as a " subtly orchestrated story of the singer 's addiction to — and almost spiritual deliverance from — heroin " . He found contrast in Madonna 's white blonde character — with hyper @-@ glamor , heavy mascara , pierced nose and navel , a clingy blouse and vintage high heels — to the neighborhood of Harlem , where Madonna is portrayed as a " Billie Holiday @-@ esque singer in the jazz club " . At the end of the video , Madonna climbs up the stairs to her lover 's room , Rettenmund found references to the music videos for the singles " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) and " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) , both of which had the singer climbing the stairs but never reaching the destination , unlike " Secret " . Rettenmund also observed that " Secret " could serve as a follow @-@ up to the music video for " Borderline " with the events happening ten years and Madonna all grownup . He concluded by saying that in lieu of the singer 's 1994 interview with The Face magazine , where she expressed her desire to have a family , the video emphasized on Madonna 's interest in a partner and a child .
= = Live performances = =
On February 18 , 1995 , Madonna arrived in Europe to promote Bedtime Stories . During the same day , she performed " Secret " and " Take a Bow " on German TV show Wetten , dass .. ? , while she was also interviewed on the program . " Secret " was performed on Madonna 's 2001 Drowned World Tour , during the cowgirl section of the show . The performance was accompanied by a video montage of riverside baptism , whirling dervishes ceremonies and Buddhist prayers ; the footage was taken from McDaniel 's film which had inspired Madonna for the performance as well as enlisting her . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the performance " a gorgeous acoustic reading . " Writing for The Victoria Advocate , Steve Dollar praised the performance , saying that the song " has grown in depth " over time . During the New York City performance of " Secret " , she dedicated the song to its inhabitants . The performance of the song on August 26 , 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 .
In November 2008 , " Secret " was performed a cappella at the Houston stop of her Sticky & Sweet Tour as fan request . After the performance , Madonna said : " Alright Texas ! That was really good . I 'd forgotten that song " . During the Vancouver stop on her Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 , Madonna again performed an acoustic rendition of the song , dedicating it to a " special guest " in the audience , which was assumed by media to be her ex @-@ husband Sean Penn , who was in the audience . The singer admitted she had not practiced the performance , and according to Vancouver Sun , it " came across as charitably , unpracticed ( if well @-@ intentioned ) " .
= = Track listings and versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Valley of the Kings =
The Valley of the Kings ( Arabic : وادي الملوك Wādī al Mulūk ) , the Valley of the Gates of the Kings ( Arabic : وادي ابواب الملوك Wādī Abwāb al Mulūk ) , is a valley in Egypt where , for a period of nearly 500 years from the 16th to 11th century BC , tombs were constructed for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom ( the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt ) . The valley stands on the west bank of the Nile , opposite Thebes ( modern Luxor ) , within the heart of the Theban Necropolis . The wadi consists of two valleys , East Valley ( where the majority of the royal tombs are situated ) and West Valley . With the 2005 discovery of a new chamber ( KV63 ) , and the 2008 discovery of two further tomb entrances , the valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers ( ranging in size from KV54 , a simple pit , to KV5 , a complex tomb with over 120 chambers ) . It was the principal burial place of the major royal figures of the Egyptian New Kingdom , as well as a number of privileged nobles . The royal tombs are decorated with scenes from Egyptian mythology and give clues to the beliefs and funerary rituals of the period . Almost all of the tombs seem to have been opened and robbed in antiquity , but they still give an idea of the opulence and power of the Pharaohs . This area has been a focus of archaeological and egyptological exploration since the end of the eighteenth century , and its tombs and burials continue to stimulate research and interest . In modern times the valley has become famous for the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun ( with its rumours of the Curse of the Pharaohs ) , and is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world . In 1979 , it became a World Heritage Site , along with the rest of the Theban Necropolis . Exploration , excavation and conservation continues in the valley , and a new tourist centre has recently been opened .
= = Geology = =
The types of soil where the Valley of the Kings is located are an alternating sandwich of dense limestone and other sedimentary rock ( which form the cliffs in the valley and the nearby Deir el @-@ Bahri ) and soft layers of marl . The sedimentary rock was originally deposited between 35 – 56 million years ago during a time when the precursor to the Mediterranean Sea covered an area that extended much further inland than today . During the Pleistocene the valley was carved out of the plateau by steady rains . There is currently little year @-@ round rain in this part of Egypt , but there are occasional flash floods that hit the valley , dumping tons of debris into the open tombs .
The quality of the rock in the Valley is inconsistent , ranging from finely grained to coarse stone , the latter with the potential to be structurally unsound . The occasional layer of shale also caused construction and conservation difficulties , as this rock expands in the presence of water , forcing apart the stone surrounding it . It is thought that some tombs were altered in shape and size depending on the types of rock the builders encountered .
Builders took advantage of available geological features when constructing the tombs . Some tombs were quarried out of existing limestone clefts , others behind slopes of scree , or were at the edge of rock spurs created by ancient flood channels .
The problems of tomb construction can be seen with tombs of Ramesses III and his father Setnakhte . Setnakhte started to excavate KV11 but broke into the tomb of Amenmesse , so construction was abandoned and he instead usurped the tomb of Twosret , KV14 . When looking for a tomb , Ramesses III extended the part @-@ excavated tomb started by his father . The tomb of Ramesses II returned to an early style , with a bent axis , probably due to the quality of the rock being excavated ( following the Esna shale ) .
Between 1998 and 2002 the Amarna Royal Tombs Project investigated the valley floor using ground @-@ penetrating radar and found that , below the modern surface , the Valley 's cliffs descend beneath the scree in a series of abrupt , natural " shelves " , arranged one below the other , descending several metres down to the bedrock in the valley floor .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The area of the Theban hills is subject to infrequent violent thunder storms , causing flash floods in the valley . Recent studies have shown that there are at least 7 active flood stream beds , leading down into the central area of the valley . This central area appears to have been flooded at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty and buried several tombs under metres of debris . The tombs KV63 , KV62 and KV55 are dug into the actual wadi bedrock rather than the debris , showing that the then level of the valley was 5 m below its present level . After this event later dynasties leveled the floor of the valley , making the floods deposit their load further down the valley , and the buried tombs were forgotten and only discovered in the early 20th century . This was the area that was the subject of the Amarna Royal Tombs Project ground scanning radar investigation , which showed several anomalies , one of which was proved to be KV63 .
= = History = =
The Theban Hills are dominated by the peak of al @-@ Qurn , known to the Ancient Egyptians as ta dehent , or ' The Peak ' . It has a pyramid shaped appearance , and it is probable that this echoed the pyramids of the Old Kingdom , more than a thousand years prior to the first royal burials carved here . Its isolated position also resulted in reduced access , and special tomb police ( the Medjay ) were able to guard the necropolis .
While the iconic pyramid complexes of the Giza plateau have come to symbolize ancient Egypt , the majority of tombs were cut into rock . Most pyramids and mastabas contain sections which are cut into ground level , and there are full rock @-@ cut tombs in Egypt that date back to the Old Kingdom .
After the defeat of the Hyksos and the reunification of Egypt under Ahmose I , the Theban rulers began to construct elaborate tombs that would reflect their newfound power . The tombs of Ahmose and his son Amenhotep I ( their exact location remains unknown ) were probably in the Seventeenth Dynasty necropolis of Dra ' Abu el @-@ Naga ' . The first royal tombs in the valley were those of Amenhotep I ( although this identification is also disputed ) , and Thutmose I , whose advisor Ineni notes in his tomb that he advised his king to place his tomb in the desolate valley ( the identity of this actual tomb is unclear , but it is probably KV20 or KV38 ) .
The Valley was used for primary burials from approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC , and contains at least 63 tombs , beginning with Thutmose I ( or possibly earlier , during the reign of Amenhotep I ) , and ending with Ramesses X or XI , although non @-@ Royal burials continued in usurped tombs .
Despite the name , the Valley of the Kings also contains the tombs of favorite nobles as well as the wives and children of both nobles and pharaohs , meaning that only about 20 of the tombs actually contain the burials of kings ; the burials of nobles and the royal family , together with unmarked pits and embalming caches make up the rest . Around the time of Ramesses I ( ca . 1301 BC ) construction commenced in the separate Valley of the Queens .
= = = Royal Necropolis = = =
The official name for the site in ancient times was The Great and Majestic Necropolis of the Millions of Years of the Pharaoh , Life , Strength , Health in The West of Thebes ( see below for the hieroglyphic spelling ) , or more usually , Ta @-@ sekhet @-@ ma 'at ( the Great Field ) .
At the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty , only the kings were buried within the valley in large tombs ; when a non @-@ royal was buried , it was in a small rock cut chamber , close to the tomb of their master . Amenhotep III 's tomb was constructed in the Western Valley , and while his son Akhenaten moved his tomb 's construction to Amarna , it is thought that the unfinished WV25 may have originally been intended for him . With the return to religious orthodoxy at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty , Tutankhamun , Ay and then Horemheb returned to the royal necropolis .
The Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties saw an increase in the number of burials ( both here and in the Valley of the Queens ) , with Ramesses II and later Ramesses III constructing a massive tomb that was used for the burial of his sons ( KV5 and KV3 respectively ) . There are some kings that are not buried within the valley or whose tomb has not been located : Thutmose II may have been buried in Dra ' Abu el @-@ Naga ' ( although his mummy was in the Deir el @-@ Bahri tomb cache ) , Smenkhkare 's burial has never been located , and Ramesses VIII seems to have been buried elsewhere .
In the Pyramid Age the tomb of the king was associated with a mortuary temple located close to the pyramid . As the tomb of the king was hidden , this mortuary temple was located away from the burial , closer to the cultivation facing towards Thebes . These mortuary temples became places visited during the various festivals held in the Theban necropolis , most notably the Beautiful festival of the valley , where the sacred barques of Amun @-@ Re , his consort Mut and son Khonsu left the temple at Karnak in order to visit the funerary temples of deceased kings on the West Bank and their shrines in the Theban Necropolis .
The tombs were constructed and decorated by the workers of the village of Deir el @-@ Medina , located in a small wadi between this valley and the Valley of the Queens , facing Thebes . The workers journeyed to the tombs via routes over the Theban hills . The daily lives of these workers are quite well known , recorded in tombs and official documents . Amongst the events document is perhaps the first recorded worker 's strike , detailed in the Turin strike papyrus .
= = Exploration of the valley = =
The area has been a major area of modern Egyptological exploration for the last two centuries . Before this the area was a site for tourism in antiquity ( especially during Roman times ) . This area illustrates the changes in the study of ancient Egypt , starting as antiquity hunting , and ending as scientific excavation of the whole Theban Necropolis . Despite the exploration and investigation noted below , only eleven of the tombs have actually been completely recorded .
Many of the tombs have graffiti written by these ancient tourists . Jules Baillet located over 2100 Greek and Latin graffiti , along with a smaller number in Phoenician , Cypriot , Lycian , Coptic , and other languages . The majority of the ancient graffiti are found in KV9 , which contains just under a thousand of them . The earliest positively dated graffiti dates to 278 B.C.
In 1799 , members of Napoleon 's expedition to Egypt ( especially Dominique Vivant ) drew maps and plans of the known tombs , and for the first time noted the Western Valley ( where Prosper Jollois and Édouard de Villiers du Terrage located the tomb of Amenhotep III , WV22 ) . The Description de l 'Égypte contains two volumes ( out a total of 24 ) on the area around Thebes .
European exploration continued in the area around Thebes during the nineteenth century , boosted by Champollion 's translation of hieroglyphs early in the century . Early in the century , the area was visited by Belzoni , working for Henry Salt , who discovered several tombs , including those of Ay in the West Valley ( WV23 ) in 1816 and Seti I ( KV17 ) the next year . At the end of his visits , Belzoni declared that all of the tombs had been found and nothing of note remained to be found . Working at the same time ( and a great rival of Belzoni and Salt ) was Bernardino Drovetti , the French Consul @-@ General .
When Gaston Maspero was reappointed to head the Egyptian Antiquities Service , the nature of the exploration of the valley changed again . Maspero appointed English archaeologist Howard Carter as the Chief Inspector of Upper Egypt and the young man discovered several new tombs and explored several others , clearing KV42 and KV20 .
Around the start of the 20th century , the American Theodore M. Davis had the excavation permit in the valley , and his team ( led mostly by Edward R. Ayrton ) discovered several royal and non @-@ royal tombs ( including KV43 , KV46 and KV57 ) . In 1907 they discovered the possible Amarna Period cache in KV55 . After finding what they thought was all that remained of the burial of Tutankhamun ( items recovered from KV54 and KV58 ) , it was announced that the valley was completely explored and no further burials were to be found , in Davis 's 1912 publication , The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou ; the book closes with the comment , " I fear that the Valley of Kings is now exhausted . "
After Davis 's death early in 1915 Lord Carnarvon acquired the concession to excavate the valley and he employed Carter to explore it . After a systematic search they discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun ( KV62 ) in November 1922 .
Various expeditions have continued to explore the valley , adding greatly to the knowledge of the area . In 2001 the Theban Mapping Project designed new signs for the tombs , providing information and plans of the open tombs .
= = Tomb development = =
Location
The earliest tombs were located in cliffs at the top of scree slopes , under storm @-@ fed waterfalls ( for example KV34 and KV43 ) . As these locations were soon used , burials then descended to the valley floor , gradually moving back up the slopes as the valley bottom filled up with debris . This explains the location of the tombs KV62 and KV63 buried in the valley floor .
Architecture
The usual tomb plan consisted of a long inclined rock @-@ cut corridor , descending through one or more halls ( possibly mirroring the descending path of the sun @-@ god into the underworld ) , to the burial chamber . In the earlier tombs the corridors turn through 90 degrees at least once ( such as KV43 , the tomb of Thutmose IV ) , and the earliest had cartouche @-@ shaped burial chambers ( for example , KV43 , the tomb of Thutmose IV ) . This layout is known as ' Bent Axis ' , and after the burial the upper corridors were meant to be filled with rubble , and the entrance to the tomb hidden . After the Amarna Period , the layout gradually straightened , with an intermediate ' Jogged Axis ' ( the tomb of Horemheb , KV57 is typical of this , and is one of the tombs that is sometimes open to the public ) , to the generally ' Straight Axis ' of the late Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasty tombs ( Ramesses III 's and Ramesses IX 's tombs , KV11 and KV6 respectively ) . As the tomb 's axes straightened , the slope also lessened , and almost disappeared in the late Twentieth Dynasty . Another feature that is common to most tombs is the ' well ' , which may have originated as an actual barrier intended to stop flood waters entering the lower parts of the tombs . It later seems to have developed a ' magical ' purpose as a symbolic shaft . In the later Twentieth Dynasty , the well itself was sometimes not excavated , but the well room was still present .
Decoration
The majority of the royal tombs were decorated with religious texts and images . The early tombs were decorated with scenes from Amduat ( ' That Which is in the Underworld ' ) , which describes the journey of the sun @-@ god through the twelve hours of the night . From the time of Horemheb , tombs were decorated with the Book of Gates , which shows the sun @-@ god passing through the twelve gates that divide the night time , and ensure the tomb owner 's own safe passage through the night . These earliest tombs were generally sparsely decorated , and those of a non @-@ royal nature were totally undecorated .
Late in the Nineteenth Dynasty the Book of Caverns , which divided the underworld into massive caverns containing deities and the deceased waiting for the sun to pass through and restore them to life , was placed in the upper parts of tombs ; a complete version appears in the tomb of Ramesses VI . The burial of Ramesses III saw the Book of the Earth , where the underworld is divided into 4 sections , climaxing in the sun disc being pulled from the earth by Naunet .
The ceilings of the burial chambers were decorated ( from the burial of Seti I onwards ) with what become formalised as the Book of the Heavens , which again describes the sun 's journey through the twelve hours of night . Again from Seti I 's time , the Litany of Re , a lengthy hymn to the sun god began to appear .
Tomb equipment
Each burial was provided with equipment that would enable a continued existence in the afterlife in comfort . Also present in the tombs were ritual magical items , such as Shabtis and divine figurines . Some equipment was that which the king may have used in their lifetime ( Tutankhamun 's sandals for example ) , and some was specially constructed for the burial .
= = = Tomb numbering = = =
The modern abbreviation " KV " stands for " Kings ' Valley " , and the tombs are numbered in the order of ' discovery ' from Ramesses VII ( KV1 ) to KV63 ( which was discovered in 2005 ) , although many of the tombs have been open since antiquity , and KV5 was only rediscovered in the 1990s ( after being dismissed as unimportant by previous investigators ) . The West Valley tombs often have the " WV " prefix but follow the same numbering system . A number of the tombs are unoccupied , the owners of others remain unknown , and others are merely pits used for storage . Most of the open tombs in the Valley of the Kings are located in the East Valley , and this is where most tourists and facilities can be found .
= = = Eighteenth Dynasty = = =
The Eighteenth Dynasty tombs within the valley vary a good deal in decoration , style and location . At first there seems to have been no fixed plan ; indeed the tomb of Hatshepsut is of a unique shape , twisting and turning down over 200 metres from the entrance so that the burial chamber is 97 metres below the surface . The tombs gradually became more regular and formalised , and the tombs of Thutmose III and Thutmose IV , KV34 and KV43 are good examples of Eighteenth Dynasty tombs , both with their bent axis , and simple decoration .
Perhaps the most imposing tomb of this period is that of Amenhotep III , WV22 located in the West Valley . It has been re @-@ investigated in the 1990s ( by a team from Waseda University , Japan ) but is not open to the public .
At the same time , powerful and influential nobles started to be buried with the royal family ; the most famous of these tombs is the joint tomb of Yuya and Tjuyu , KV46 . They were possibly the parents of Queen Tiy , and until the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun , this was the best preserved tomb to be found in the Valley .
= = = = Amarna Period = = = =
The return of royal burials to Thebes after the end of Amarna period marks a change to the layout of royal burials , with the intermediate ' jogged axis ' gradually giving way to the ' straight axis ' of later dynasties . In the Western valley , there is a tomb commencement that is thought to have been started for Akhenaten , but it is no more than a gateway and a series of steps . Close by to this tomb is the tomb of Ay , Tutankhamun 's successor . It is likely that this tomb was started for Tutankhamun ( its decoration is of a similar style ) but later usurped for Ay 's burial . This would mean that KV62 may have been Ay 's original tomb , which would explain the smaller size and unusual layout for a royal tomb .
The other Amarna period tombs are located in a smaller , central area in the centre of the East Valley , with a possible mummy cache ( KV55 ) that may contain the burials of several Amarna Period royals — Tiy and Smenkhkare or Akhenaten .
Close to this is the burial of Tutankhamun , which is perhaps the most famous discovery of modern Western archaeology and was made here by Howard Carter on November 4 , 1922 , with clearance and conservation work continuing until 1932 . This was the first royal tomb to be discovered that was still largely intact ( although tomb robbers had entered it ) , and was , until the excavation of KV63 on 10 March 2005 , considered the last major discovery in the valley . The opulence of his grave goods notwithstanding , Tutankhamun was a rather minor king and other burials probably had more numerous treasures .
In the same central area as KV62 and KV63 , is ' KV64 ' , a radar anomaly believed to be a tomb or chamber announced on 28 July 2006 . It is not an official designation , and indeed the actual existence of a tomb at all is dismissed by the Supreme Council of Antiquities .
The nearby tomb of Horemheb , ( KV57 ) is rarely open for visitors , but it has many unique features , and is extensively decorated . The decoration shows a transition from the pre @-@ Amarna tombs to those of the 19th dynasty tombs that followed .
= = = Nineteenth Dynasty = = =
The Nineteenth Dynasty saw a further standardisation of tomb layout and decoration . The tomb of the first king of the dynasty Ramesses I was hurriedly finished due to the death of the king and is little more than a truncated descending corridor and a burial chamber ; however , KV16 has vibrant decoration , and still contains the sarcophagus of the king . Its central location means that it is one of the frequently visited tombs . It shows the development of the tomb entrance and passage and of decoration .
His son and successor , Seti I 's tomb , KV17 ( also known as Belzoni 's tomb , the tomb of Apis , or the tomb of Psammis , son of Necho ) is usually thought to be the finest tomb in the valley , with extensive relief work and paintings . When it was rediscovered by Belzoni in 1817 , he referred to it as " .. a fortunate day .. "
The son of Seti , Ramesses the Great constructed a massive tomb , KV7 , but it is in a ruinous state , and it is currently undergoing excavation and conservation by a Franco @-@ Egyptian team led by Christian Leblanc . It is a vast size , being about the same length , and a larger area , of the tomb of his father .
At the same time , and just opposite his own tomb , Ramesses enlarged the earlier small tomb of an unknown Eighteenth Dynasty noble ( KV5 ) for his numerous sons . With 120 known rooms and excavation work still underway , it is probably the largest tomb in the valley . Originally opened ( and robbed ) in antiquity , it is a low @-@ lying structure that has been particularly prone to the flash floods that sometimes hit the area , which washed in tonnes of debris and material over the centuries , ultimately concealing its vast size . It is not currently open to the public .
Ramesses II 's son and eventual successor , Merenptah 's tomb has been open since antiquity ; it extends 160 metres , ending in a burial chamber that once contained a set of four nested sarcophagi . Well decorated , it is typically open to the public most years .
The last kings of the dynasty also constructed tombs in the valley , all of which follow the same general pattern of layout and decoration , notable amongst these is the tomb of Siptah , which is well decorated , especially the ceiling decoration .
= = = Twentieth Dynasty = = =
The first ruler of the dynasty , Setnakhte , actually had two tombs constructed for himself ; he started to excavate the eventual tomb of his son , Ramesses III , but broke into another tomb and abandoned it in order to usurp and complete the tomb of the Nineteenth Dynasty female pharaoh Twosret . This tomb therefore has two burial chambers , the later extensions making the tomb one of the largest of the Royal tombs , at over 150 metres .
The tomb of Ramesses III ( known Bruce 's Tomb or The Harper 's Tomb due to its decoration ) is one of the largest tombs in the valley and is open to the public ; it is located close to the central ' rest – area ' and its location and superb decoration usually makes this one of the tombs visited by tourists .
The successors and offspring of Ramesses III constructed tombs that had straight axes and were decorated in much the same manner as each other ; notable amongst these is KV2 , the tomb of Ramesses IV , which has been open since antiquity , containing a large amount of hieratic graffiti . The tomb is mostly intact and is decorated with scenes from several religious texts . The joint tomb of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI , KV9 ( also known as the Tomb of Memnon or La Tombe de la Métempsychose ) , is decorated with many sunk @-@ relief carvings , depicting illustrated scenes from religious texts . Open since antiquity , it contains over a thousand graffiti in ancient Greek , Latin and Coptic . The spoil from the excavation and later clearance of this tomb , together with later construction of workers huts , covered the earlier burial of KV62 and seems to have been what protected that tomb from earlier discovery and looting .
The tomb of Ramesses IX , KV6 , has been open since antiquity , as can be seen by the graffiti left on its walls by Roman and Coptic visitors . Located in the central part of the valley , it stands between and slightly above KV5 and KV55 . The tomb extends a total distance of 105 metres into the hillside , including extensive side chambers that were neither decorated nor finished . The hasty and incomplete nature of the rock @-@ cutting and decorations ( it is only decorated for a little over half its length ) within the tomb indicate that the tomb was not completed by the time of Ramesses ' death , with the completed hall of pillars serving as the burial chamber .
Another notable tomb from this dynasty is KV19 , the tomb of Mentuherkhepshef ( son of Ramesses IX ) . The tomb is small and is simply a converted , unfinished corridor , but the decoration is extensive and the tomb has been newly restored and open for visitors .
= = = Twenty @-@ first Dynasty and the decline of the necropolis = = =
By the end of the New Kingdom , Egypt had entered a long period of political and economic decline . The priests at Thebes grew in power and effectively administered Upper Egypt , while kings ruling from Tanis controlled Lower Egypt . Some attempt at using the open tombs was made at the start of the Twenty @-@ first Dynasty , with the High Priest of Amun , Pinedjem I , adding his cartouche to KV4 . The Valley began to be heavily plundered , so during the Twenty @-@ first Dynasty the priests of Amun opened most of the tombs and moved the mummies into three tombs in order to better protect them , even removing most of their treasure in order to further protect the bodies from robbers . Most of these were later moved to a single cache near Deir el @-@ Bari ( known as TT320 ) ; located in the cliffs overlooking Hatshepsut 's famous temple , this mass reburial contained a large number of royal mummies . They were found in a great state of disorder , many placed in other 's coffins , and several are still unidentified . Other mummies were moved to the tomb of Amenhotep II , where over a dozen mummies , many of them royal , were later relocated .
During the later Third Intermediate Period and later periods , intrusive burials were introduced into many of the open tombs . In Coptic times , some of the tombs were used as churches , stables and even houses .
= = = Minor tombs in the Valley of the Kings = = =
The majority of the 65 numbered tombs in the Valley of the Kings can be considered as being minor tombs , either because at present they have yielded little information or because the results of their investigation was only poorly recorded by their explorers , while some have received very little attention or were only cursorily noted . Most of these tombs are small , often only consisting of a single burial chamber accessed by means of a shaft or a staircase with a corridor or a series of corridors leading to the chamber , but some are larger , multiple chambered tombs . These minor tombs served various purposes : some were intended for burials of lesser royalty or for private burials , some contained animal burials and others apparently never received a primary burial . In many cases these tombs also served secondary functions and later intrusive material has been found related to these secondary activities . While some of these tombs have been open since antiquity , the majority were discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries during the height of exploration in the valley .
= = = Tomb robbers = = =
Almost all of the tombs have been ransacked . Several papyri have been found that describe the trials of tomb robbers ; these date mostly from the late Twentieth Dynasty . One of these ( Papyrus Mayer B ) describes the robbery of the tomb of Ramesses VI and was probably written in Year 9 of Ramesses IX :
The foreigner Nesamun took us up and showed us the tomb of King Ramesses VI ... And I spent four days breaking into it , we being present all five . We opened the tomb and entered it . ... We found a cauldron of bronze , three wash bowls of bronze ...
The valley also seems to have suffered an official plundering during the virtual civil war , which started in the reign of Ramesses XI . The tombs were opened , all the valuables removed , and the mummies collected into two large caches . One in the tomb of Amenhotep II , contained sixteen , and others were hidden within Amenhotep I 's tomb . A few years later most of them were moved to the Deir el @-@ Bahri cache , contained no less than forty royal mummies and their coffins . Only those tombs whose locations were lost ( KV62 , KV63 and KV46 , although both KV62 and KV46 were robbed soon after their actual closure ) were undisturbed in this period .
= = Tourism = =
Most of the tombs are not open to the public ( 18 of the tombs can be opened , but they are rarely open at the same time ) , and officials occasionally close those that are open for restoration work . The number of visitors to KV62 has led to a separate charge for entry into the tomb . The West Valley has only one open tomb — that of Ay — and a separate ticket is needed to visit this tomb . The tour guides are no longer allowed to lecture inside the tombs and visitors are expected to proceed quietly and in single file through the tombs . This is to minimize time in the tombs and prevent the crowds from damaging the surfaces of the decoration . Photography is no longer allowed in the tombs .
In 1997 , 58 tourists and four Egyptians were massacred at nearby Deir el @-@ Bahri by Islamist militants from Al @-@ Gama 'a al @-@ Islamiyya . This led to an overall drop in tourism in the area .
On most days of the week an average of four to five thousand tourists visit the main valley . On the days that the Nile Cruises arrive , the number can rise to over nine thousand . These levels are expected to rise to 25 @,@ 000 by 2015 . The West Valley is much less visited , as there is only one tomb that is open to the public .
= Plymouth , Massachusetts =
Plymouth / ˈplɪməθ / ( historically known as Plimouth and Plimoth ) is a town in Plymouth County , Massachusetts , United States . Plymouth holds a place of great prominence in American history , folklore , and culture , and is known as " America 's Hometown . " Plymouth was the site of the colony founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims , passengers of the famous ship the Mayflower . Plymouth is where New England was first established . It is the oldest municipality in New England and one of the oldest in the United States . The town has served as the location of several prominent events , one of the more notable being the First Thanksgiving feast . Plymouth served as the capital of Plymouth Colony from its founding in 1620 until the colony 's merger with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691 . Plymouth is named after the English city of the same name .
Plymouth is the largest municipality in Massachusetts by area . The population is 58 @,@ 271 , according to the 2014 Demographics by Cubit . U.S. Census . Plymouth is one of two county seats of Plymouth County , the other being Brockton .
Plymouth is located approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of Boston in a region of Massachusetts known as the South Shore . Throughout the 19th century , the town thrived as a center of ropemaking , fishing , and shipping , and once held the world 's largest ropemaking company , the Plymouth Cordage Company . It continues to be an active port , but today the major industry of Plymouth is tourism . Plymouth is served by Plymouth Municipal Airport , and contains Pilgrim Hall Museum , the oldest continually operating museum in the United States .
As one of the country 's first settlements , Plymouth is well known in the United States for its historical value . The events surrounding the history of Plymouth have become part of the ethos of the United States , particularly that relating to Plymouth Rock , the Pilgrims , and the First Thanksgiving . The town itself is a popular tourist spot during the Thanksgiving holiday . Plymouth is home to the Old Colony Club , one of the oldest Gentlemen 's clubs in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial era = = =
Prior to the arrival of the Pilgrims , the location of Plymouth was a village of 2 @,@ 000 Wampanoag Native Americans called Patuxet . This region that became Plymouth was visited twice by European explorers prior to the establishment of Plymouth Colony . In 1605 , Samuel de Champlain sailed to Plymouth Harbor , calling it Port St. Louis . Captain John Smith , a leader of the colony at Jamestown , Virginia , explored parts of Cape Cod Bay ; he is credited with naming the region " New Plimouth . "
Two plagues afflicted coastal New England in 1614 and 1617 , possibly transmitted from British and French fishermen to natives on the shore ( although no concrete evidence exists to prove such a connection ) . The plague killed between 90 % and 95 % of the local Wampanoag inhabitants . The near disappearance of the tribe from the site left their cornfields and cleared areas vacant for the Pilgrims to occupy ; it also meant that the Indians were in no condition to resist the arrival of the colonists .
= = = Colonial era = = =
Plymouth has played a very important role in American colonial history . It was the final landing site of the first voyage of the Mayflower , and the location of the original settlement of the Plymouth Colony . Plymouth was established in December 1620 by English separatist Puritans who had broken away from the Church of England , believing that the Church had not completed the work of the Protestant Reformation . Today , these settlers are much better known as " Pilgrims " , a term coined by William Bradford .
The Mayflower first anchored in what became the harbor of Provincetown , Massachusetts on November 11 , 1620 . The ship was headed for the mouth of the Hudson River near Manhattan , which was part of the Colony of Virginia at the time , but it eventually reached New England .
The Pilgrim settlers realized that they did not have a patent to settle in the region , so they signed the Mayflower Compact prior to disembarking . The Pilgrims explored various parts of Cape Cod , and eventually sought a suitable location for a permanent settlement to the westward in Cape Cod Bay . The Pilgrims eventually came across the sheltered waters of Plymouth Harbor on December 17 . The appealing protected bay led to a site in the present @-@ day Harbor District being chosen for the new settlement after three days of surveying .
The settlers officially disembarked on December 21 , 1620 . It is traditionally said that the Pilgrims first set foot in America at the site of Plymouth Rock , though no historical evidence can prove this claim . The settlers named their settlement " Plimouth " ( also historically known as " Plimoth " , an archaic English spelling of the name ) after the major port city in Devon , England from which the Mayflower ultimately sailed . ( Plymouth , Devon , United Kingdom was named after its location at mouth of the River Plym . )
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= Brooke Street Pier =
The Brooke Street Pier is a floating pontoon building at Sullivans Cove in the waterfront area of the city of Hobart , Tasmania , Australia . It was constructed in 2014 – 15 at a cost of A $ 13 million . It weighs 5 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 216 long tons ) and was Australia 's largest floating building upon completion . It is connected to the Hobart shore at Franklin Wharf , near the base of Brooke Street . Primarily a ferry terminal , the architect has described it as a " tourism transport hub " .
= = History = =
A pier at Brooke Street has existed since the 1820s . The earliest renovation of it on record occurred in 1879 , after which the dimensions were 147 ft × 50 ft ( 45 m × 15 m ) . At the time , the pier was also known as Monarch Pier . Unlike the larger piers at the northern end of Franklin Wharf , Brooke Street Pier and the other piers in the vicinity did not have the capability for large volumes of cargo which would require overhead cranes .
In the 1960s , these piers were replaced with small freestanding jetties and were used for tourist cruise vessels . One of the larger companies providing these services is Navigators ( originally Roche Bros ) which has been operating from Brooke Street Pier since 1951 .
The number of ferry passenger in Hobart increased from 90 @,@ 000 in 2010 to over 300 @,@ 000 in 2014 . The old pier was unable to withstand this increase in traffic . One ferry operator suggested that the pier was " about to fall in the river " .
The Government of Tasmania twice called for expressions of interest from the private sector in redeveloping Brooke Street Pier . The first was in 2007 – the successful respondent was a consortium named Hunter Developments , which included Federal Hotels , Navigators and Simon Currant . Their proposal included multiple wharves , including a hotel . The design was considered out of character for the Sullivans Cove area and in January 2009 Hunter Developments announced the cancellation of the hotel proposal .
The second attempt came in 2010 . A development application was lodged with the Hobart City Council in April 2012 . In June 2012 , the state and federal governments agreed to contribute A $ 5 million to the redevelopment , and project commencement was announced in December 2013 .
= = Construction = =
Construction started in April 2014 at Incat , a ferry manufacturer based at Prince of Wales Bay . In November 2014 the partially completed structure , then weighing 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 937 long tons ) , was towed 8 km ( 5 mi ) down the river to be positioned at its final location . It is anchored to the sea @-@ bed by cables . The structure is 80 m ( 262 ft ) long by 20 m ( 66 ft ) wide and is four levels tall . One concrete basement level sits 4 m ( 13 ft ) below the water 's surface and includes services such as kitchen facilities , storage , toilets and hydronic heating and cooling systems . The three above @-@ water levels are enclosed in a semi @-@ translucent polycarbonate cladding injected with nanogel , creating a diaphanous skin and keeping the structure as light as possible . This cladding contains LED lights , which gives the pier a glowing effect in the evening .
Environmental considerations taken into account when designing the building include the polycarbonate cladding , used for natural light and passive heating ; and a hydronic heating and cooling system using the constant temperature of the sea water below the pontoon . As a floating structure , it will not be affected by rises in the sea level . The gabled roof design is intended to fit in with the other buildings in Sullivans Cove including PW1 , Elizabeth Street Pier and the Mac02 Cruise Terminal – which themselves are based on the historic use of the area as a freight port .
= = Facilities = =
The pier is primarily a ferry terminal – key tenants are Navigators ( operator of the MONA ferry ) and Peppermint Bay Cruises . There are also a public space and a market area for other tourism operators and suppliers of Tasmanian produce , such as seafood , dairy , wine and whisky . Outside of ferry operating hours , the terminal level can be used as an event space for up to 1 @,@ 200 people .
The largest permanent tenant is a restaurant , The Glass House , run by Islington Hotel 's David Meredith , and featuring Ikuei Arakane as head chef . It also hosts a cafe ( " Adrift " ) , and an espresso bar ( " Bright Eyes " , run by the owners of Pilgrim Coffee ) . Trade stallholders selling Tasmanian products include Valhalla Icecream , Huon Aquaculture , TasmanianMarket , Grandvewe Cheeses , Moorilla Estate and McHenry Distillery . The pier also offers free wifi for patrons visiting the terminal .
= Chough =
Two species of chough ( pronunciation : / ˈtʃʌf / " CHUFF " ) constitute the genus Pyrrhocorax of the Corvidae ( crow ) family of birds . These are the red @-@ billed chough ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ) , and the Alpine or yellow @-@ billed chough ( P. graculus ) . The white @-@ winged chough of Australia , despite its name , is a member of the family Corcoracidae and only distantly related .
The choughs have black plumage and brightly coloured legs , feet , and bills , and are resident in the mountains of southern Eurasia and North Africa . They have long broad wings and perform spectacular aerobatics . Both species pair for life and display fidelity to their breeding sites , which are usually caves or crevices in a cliff face . They build a lined stick nest and lay three to five eggs . They feed , usually in flocks , on short grazed grassland , taking mainly invertebrate prey , supplemented by vegetable material or food from human habitation , especially in winter .
Changes in agricultural practices , which have led to local population declines and range fragmentation , are the main threats to this genus , although neither species is threatened globally .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first member of the genus to be described was the red @-@ billed chough , named as Upupa pyrrhocorax by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 . His genus Upupa contained species that had a long curved bill and a short blunt tongue . These included the northern bald ibis and the hoopoe , birds now known to be completely unrelated to the choughs .
The Alpine chough was described as Corvus graculus by Linnaeus in the 1766 edition of the Systema Naturae . Although Corvus is the crow genus to which the choughs ' relatives belong , they were considered sufficiently distinctive to be moved to the new genus , Pyrrhocorax , by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica , The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek purrhos ( πύρρος , ‘ flame @-@ coloured ’ ) and korax ( κόραξ , ‘ Raven , crow ’ ) . " Chough " was originally an alternative onomatopoeic name for the jackdaw , Corvus monedula , based on its call . The similar red @-@ billed chough , formerly particularly common in Cornwall , became known initially as " Cornish chough " and then just " chough " , the name transferring from one species to the other .
The fossil record from the Pleistocene of Europe includes a form similar to the Alpine chough , and sometimes categorised as an extinct subspecies of that bird , and a prehistoric form of the red @-@ billed chough , P. p. primigenius . There are eight generally recognised extant subspecies of red @-@ billed chough , and two of Alpine , although all differ only slightly from the nominate forms . The greater subspecies diversity in the red @-@ billed species arises from an early divergence of the Asian and geographically isolated Ethiopian races from the western forms .
The closest relative of the choughs as indicated by a study of molecular phylogeny is the ratchet @-@ tailed treepie ( Temnurus temnurus ) and they form a clade that is sister to the remaining living members of the corvidae . The genus Pyrrhocorax species differ from Corvus in that they have brightly coloured bills and feet , smooth , not scaled tarsi and very short , dense nasal feathers . Choughs have uniformly black plumage , lacking any paler areas as seen in some of their relatives . The two Pyrrhocorax are the main hosts of two specialist chough fleas , Frontopsylla frontalis and F. laetus , not normally found on other corvids .
The Australian white @-@ winged chough , Corcorax melanorhamphos , despite its similar shape and habits , is only distantly related to the true choughs , and is an example of convergent evolution .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Choughs breed in mountains , from Morocco and Spain eastwards through southern Europe and the Alps , across Central Asia and the Himalayas to western China . The Alpine chough is also found in Corsica and Crete , and the red @-@ billed chough has populations in Ireland , the UK , the Isle of Man , and two areas of the Ethiopian Highlands . Both species are non @-@ migratory residents throughout their range , only occasionally wandering to neighbouring countries .
These birds are mountain specialists , although red @-@ billed choughs also use coastal sea cliffs in Ireland , Great Britain , and Brittany , feeding on adjacent short grazed grassland or machair ; the small population on La Palma , one of the Canary Islands , is also coastal . The red @-@ billed chough more typically breeds in mountains above 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) in Europe , 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in North Africa and 2 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) in the Himalayas . In that mountain range it reaches 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) in the summer , and has been recorded at 7 @,@ 950 metres ( 26 @,@ 080 ft ) altitude on Mount Everest . The Alpine chough breeds above 1 @,@ 260 m ( 4 @,@ 130 ft ) in Europe , 2 @,@ 880 m ( 9 @,@ 450 ft ) in Morocco , and 3 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) in the Himalayas . It has nested at 6 @,@ 500 m ( 21 @,@ 300 ft ) , higher than any other bird species , and it has been observed following mountaineers ascending Mount Everest at an altitude of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) .
Where the two species occur in the same mountains , the Alpine species tends to breed at a higher elevation than its relative , since it is better adapted for a diet at high altitudes .
= = Description = =
The choughs are medium @-@ sized corvids ; the red @-@ billed chough is 39 – 40 centimetres ( 15 – 16 in ) in length with a 73 – 90 centimetres ( 29 – 35 in ) wingspan , and the Alpine chough averages slightly smaller at 37 – 39 ( 14 @.@ 5 – 15 @.@ 5 in ) length with a 75 – 85 cm ( 30 – 33 in ) wingspan . These birds have black plumage similar to that of many Corvus crows , but they are readily distinguished from members of that genus by their brightly coloured bills and legs . The Alpine chough has a yellow bill and the red @-@ billed chough has a long , curved , red bill ; both species have red legs as adults . The sexes are similar , but the juvenile of each species has a duller bill and legs than the adult and its plumage lacks the glossiness seen in older birds . Other physical distinctions are summarised in the table below .
The two choughs are distinguishable from each other by their bill colour , and in flight the long broad wings and short tail of the red @-@ billed give it a silhouette quite different from its slightly smaller yellow @-@ billed relative . Both species fly with loose deep wing beats , and frequently use their manoeuvrability to perform acrobatic displays , soaring in the updraughts at cliff faces then diving and rolling with fanned tail and folded wings .
The red @-@ billed chough 's loud , ringing chee @-@ ow call is similar in character to that of other corvids , particularly the jackdaw , although it is clearer and louder than the call of that species . In contrast , the Alpine chough has rippling preep and whistled sweeeooo calls quite unlike the crows . Small subspecies of both choughs have higher frequency calls than larger races , as predicted by the inverse relationship between body size and frequency .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Choughs are monogamous , and show high partner and site fidelity . Both species build a bulky nest of roots , sticks and plant stems lined with grass , fine twiglets or hair . It is constructed on a ledge , in a cave or similar fissure in a cliff face , or in man @-@ made locations like abandoned buildings , quarries or dams . Red @-@ billed will also sometimes use occupied buildings such as Mongolian monasteries . The choughs are not colonial , although in suitable habitat several pairs may nest in close proximity .
Both species lay 3 – 5 normally whitish eggs blotched with brown or grey , which are incubated by the female alone . The chicks hatch after two to three weeks . Red @-@ billed chough chicks are almost naked , but the chicks of the higher altitude Alpine chough hatch with a dense covering of natal down . The chicks are fed by both parents and fledge in 29 – 31 days after hatching for Alpine chough , and 31 – 41 days for red @-@ billed .
The Alpine chough lays its eggs about one month later than its relative , although breeding success and reproductive behaviour are similar . The similarities between the two species presumably arose because of the same strong environmental constraints on breeding behaviour . The first @-@ year survival rate of the juvenile red @-@ billed chough is 72 @.@ 5 percent , and for the Alpine it is 77 % . The annual adult survival rate is 83 – 92 % for Alpine , but is unknown for red @-@ billed .
= = = Feeding = = =
In the summer , both choughs feed mainly on invertebrates such as beetles , snails , grasshoppers , caterpillars , and fly larvae . Ants are a favoured food of the red @-@ billed chough . Prey items are taken from short grazed pasture , or in the case of coastal populations of red @-@ billed chough , areas where plant growth is hindered by exposure to coastal salt spray or poor soils . The chough 's bill may be used to pick insects off the surface , or to dig for grubs and other invertebrates . The red @-@ billed chough typically excavates to 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) in the thin soils of its feeding areas , but it may dig to 10 – 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in suitable conditions .
Plant matter is also eaten , and red @-@ billed chough will take fallen grain where the opportunity arises ; it has been reported as damaging barley crops by breaking off the ripening heads to extract the corn . Alpine choughs rely more on fruit and berries at times of year when animal prey is limited , and will readily supplement their winter diet with food provided by tourist activities in mountain regions , including ski resorts , refuse dumps and picnic areas . Both Pyrrhocorax species feed in flocks on open areas , often some distance from the breeding cliffs , particularly in winter . Feeding trips may cover 20 km ( 12 mi ) distance and 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in altitude . In the Alps , the development of skiing above 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) has enabled more Alpine choughs to remain at high levels in winter .
Where their ranges overlap , the two chough species may feed together in the summer , although there is only limited competition for food . An Italian study showed that the vegetable part of the winter diet for the red @-@ billed chough was almost exclusively Gagea bulbs , whilst the Alpine chough took berries and hips . In June , red @-@ billed choughs fed mainly on caterpillars whereas Alpine choughs ate cranefly pupae . Later in the summer , the Alpine chough consumed large numbers of grasshoppers , while the red @-@ billed chough added cranefly pupae , fly larvae and beetles to its diet . In the eastern Himalayas in November , Alpine choughs occur mainly in Juniper forests where they feed on juniper berries , differing ecologically from the red @-@ billed choughs in the same region and at the same time of year , which dig for food in the soil of the villages ' terraced pastures .
= = = Natural threats = = =
Predators of the choughs include the peregrine falcon , golden eagle and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , while the common raven will take nestlings . In northern Spain , red @-@ billed choughs preferentially nest near lesser kestrel colonies ; the falcon , which eats only insects , provides a degree of protection against larger predators , and the chough benefits in terms of a higher breeding success . The red @-@ billed chough is occasionally parasitised by the great spotted cuckoo , a brood parasite for which the Eurasian magpie is the primary host .
The choughs host bird fleas , including two Frontopsylla species which are Pyrrhocorax specialist . Other parasites recorded on choughs include a cestode Choanotaenia pirinica , and various species of chewing lice in the genera Brueelia , Menacanthus and Philopterus . Blood parasites such as Plasmodium have been found in red @-@ billed choughs , but this is uncommon , and apparently does little harm . Parasitism levels are much lower than in some other passerine groups .
= = Status = =
Both Pyrrhocorax species have extensive geographical ranges and large populations ; neither is thought to approach the thresholds for the global population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and they are therefore evaluated as being of Least Concern . However , some populations , particularly on islands such as Corsica and La Palma are small and isolated .
Both choughs occupied more extensive ranges in the past , reaching to more southerly and lower altitude areas than at present , with the Alpine chough breeding in Europe as far south as southern Italy , and both the decline and range fragmentation continue . Red @-@ billed choughs have lost ground in most of Europe , and Alpine choughs have lost many breeding sites in the east of the continent . In the Canary Islands , the red @-@ billed chough is now extinct on two of the islands on which it formerly bred , and the Alpine was lost from the archipelago altogether .
The causes of the decline include the fragmentation and loss of open grasslands to scrub or human activities such as the construction of ski resorts , and a longer @-@ term threat comes from global warming which would cause the species ' preferred Alpine climate zone to shift to higher , more restricted areas , or locally to disappear entirely .
The red @-@ billed chough , which breeds at lower levels , has been more affected by human activity , and the declines away from its main Alpine breeding areas have seen it categorised as " vulnerable " in Europe . Only in Spain is it still common , and it has recently expanded its range in that country by nesting in old buildings in areas close to its traditional mountain breeding sites .
= = In culture = =
Further information : Red @-@ billed chough
Although these are mainly mountain species with limited interactions with humans , the red @-@ billed chough has a coastal population in the far west of its range , and has cultural connections particularly with Cornwall , where it appears on the Cornish Coat of Arms . A legend from that county says that King Arthur did not die but was transformed into a red @-@ billed chough , and hence killing this bird was unlucky .
The red @-@ billed chough was formerly reputed to be a habitual thief of small objects from houses , including burning wood or lighted candles , which it would use to set fire to haystacks or thatched roofs .
As a high altitude species with limited contact with humans until the development of mountain tourism activities , the Alpine chough has little cultural significance . It was , however , featured together with its wild mountain habitat in Olivier Messiaen ’ s Catalogue d 'oiseaux ( " Bird catalogue " ) , a piano piece written in 1956 – 58 . Le chocard des alpes ( " The Alpine Chough " ) is the opening piece of Book 1 of the work .
A group of choughs may be referred to fancifully or jocularly as a chattering or clattering . ( See also : List of collective nouns )
= Bohor reedbuck =
The bohor reedbuck ( Redunca redunca ) is an antelope native to central Africa . The animal is placed under the genus Redunca and in the family Bovidae . It was first described by German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas in 1767 . The bohor reedbuck has five subspecies . The head @-@ and @-@ body length of this medium @-@ sized antelope is typically between 100 – 135 cm ( 39 – 53 in ) . Males reach approximately 75 – 89 cm ( 30 – 35 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 69 – 76 cm ( 27 – 30 in ) . Males typically weigh 43 – 65 kg ( 95 – 143 lb ) and females 35 – 45 kg ( 77 – 99 lb ) . This sturdily built antelope has a yellow to grayish brown coat . Only the males possess horns which measure about 25 – 35 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) long .
A herbivore , the bohor reedbuck prefers grasses and tender reed shoots with high protein and low fiber content . This reedbuck is dependent on water , though green pastures can fulfill its water requirement . The social structure of the bohor reedbuck is highly flexible . Large aggregations are observed during the dry season , when hundreds of bohor reedbuck assemble near a river . Males become sexually mature at the age of three to four years , while females can conceive at just one year of age , reproducing every nine to fourteen months . Though there is no fixed breeding season , mating peaks in the rainy season . The gestation period is seven and a half months long , after which a single calf is born . The calves are weaned at eight to nine months of age .
The bohor reedbuck inhabits moist grasslands and swamplands as well as woodlands . The bohor reedbuck is native to Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of Congo , Ethiopia , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Kenya , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Nigeria , Rwanda , Senegal , Sudan , Tanzania and Togo . The animal is possibly extinct in Ivory Coast and Uganda . Reckless hunting and loss of habitat as a result of human settlement have led to significant decline in the numbers of the bohor reedbuck , although this antelope tends to survive longer in such over @-@ exploited areas as compared to its relatives . The total populations of the bohor reedbuck are estimated to be above 100 @,@ 000 . Larger populations occur in eastern and central Africa than in western Africa . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) rates the bohor reedbuck as of Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the bohor reedbuck is Redunca redunca . The animal is placed under the genus Redunca and in the family Bovidae . It was first described by German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas in 1767 . The three species of Redunca , including the bohor reedbuck , are the least derived members of the tribe Reduncini ( except the genus Pelea ) . The order of size in the genus Redunca is an evidence supporting the descent of the reduncines from a small ancestor .
Five subspecies of the bohor reedbuck have been recognized :
R. r. bohor Rüppell , 1842 : Also known as the Abyssinian bohor reedbuck . It occurs in southwestern , western and central Ethiopia , and Blue Nile ( Sudan ) .
R. r. cottoni ( W. Rothschild , 1902 ) : It occurs in the Sudds ( Southern Sudan ) , northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo , and probably in northern Uganda . R. r. donaldsoni is a synonym .
R. r. nigeriensis ( Blaine , 1913 ) : This subspecies occurs in Nigeria , northern Cameroon , southern Chad and Central African Republic .
R. r. redunca ( Pallas , 1767 ) : Its range extends from Senegal east to Togo . It inhabits the northern savannas of Africa . The relationship of this subspecies to R. r. nigeriensis is not clear .
R. r. wardi ( Thomas , 1900 ) : Found in Uganda , eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and eastern Africa . R. r. ugandae and R. r. tohi are synonyms .
= = Physical description = =
The bohor reedbuck is a medium @-@ sized antelope . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 100 – 135 cm ( 39 – 53 in ) . Males reach approximately 75 – 89 cm ( 30 – 35 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 69 – 76 cm ( 27 – 30 in ) . Males typically weigh 43 – 65 kg ( 95 – 143 lb ) and females 35 – 45 kg ( 77 – 99 lb ) . The bushy tail is 18 – 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . This reedbuck is sexually dimorphic , with males 10 % to 20 % larger than females and showing more prominent markings . Of the subspecies , R. r. cottoni is the largest , whereas R. r. redunca is the smallest .
This sturdily built antelope has a yellow to grayish brown coat . Generally , the bohor reedbuck is yellower than other reedbucks . The large and diffuse sebaceous glands present on the coat make the coat greasy and give it a strong odour . Juveniles are darker than the adults as well as long @-@ haired . While R. r. bohor appears yellowish gray , R. r. wardi is richly tinted . The undersides are white in color . A few distinct markings can be observed — such as a dark stripe on the front of each foreleg ; white markings under the tail ; and a pale ring of hair around the eyes and along the lips , lower jaw , and upper throat . However , R. r. redunca lacks dark stripes on its forelegs . The males have thicker necks . Its large , oval @-@ shaped ears distinguish it from other antelopes . There is a round bare spot below each ear . Apart from sebaceous glands , bohor reedbuck have a pair of inguinal glands and vestigial foot glands , and four nipples . A bohor reedbuck can survive for at least ten years . The tracks of the bohor reedbuck are slightly smaller than those of the southern reedbuck .
As a prominent sign of sexual dimorphism , only males possess a pair of short , stout horns , that extend backward from the forehead and hook slightly forward . The horns measure about 25 – 35 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) . However , some Senegalese individuals have longer and wide @-@ spreading horns . In comparison to the other reedbucks , the bohor reedbuck has the shortest and most hooked horns . The longest horns are observed in R. r. cottoni , which are hooked less than normal and may curve inwards . In contrast to R. r. cottoni , R. r. bohor has short and stout horns , with hooks pointing forward . The length of the horns of an individual of a certain region seems to be related to the population density in that region to some extent . While short horns are observed in individuals of eastern Africa , where populations are dispersed , longer and wide @-@ spreading horns are found on animals in the Nile valley , where populations are concentrated .
= = = Ticks and parasites = = =
The bohor reedbuck is host to several parasites . The most notable helminths found in the bohor reedbuck are Carmyerius papillatus ( in the rumen ) , Stilesia globipunctata ( in the small intestine ) , Trichuris globulosa ( in the caecum ) , Setaria species ( in the abdominal cavity ) , Dictyocaulus species ( in the lungs ) and Taenia cysts ( in the muscles ) . Other parasites include Schistosoma bovis , Cooperia rotundispiculum , Haemonchus contortus , species of Oesophagostomum , Amphistoma and Stilesia . The common ticks found on the bohor reedbuck are Amblyomma species and Rhipicephalus evertsi .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Bohor reedbuck are active throughout the day , seeking cover during the daytime and grazing in the night . A large proportion of the whole day is spent on feeding and vigilance . They can easily camouflage in grasses and reeds , and hide themselves rather than running from danger . When threatened , they usually remain motionless or retreat slowly into cover for defense , but if the threat is close , they flee , whistling shrilly to alert the others . It hides from predators rather than forming herds in defense . Many predators , including lions , leopards , spotted hyenas , African wild dogs and Nile crocodiles , prey on the reedbuck .
If shade is available , females remain solitary ; otherwise they , along with their offspring , congregate to form herds of ten animals . Female home ranges span over 15 – 40 hectares ( 37 – 99 acres ; 0 @.@ 058 – 0 @.@ 154 sq mi ) , while the larger territories of males cover 25 – 60 hectares ( 62 – 148 acres ; 0 @.@ 097 – 0 @.@ 232 sq mi ) . These home ranges keep overlapping . As the daughters grow up , they distance themselves from their mothers ' home ranges . Territorial males are much tolerant ; they may even associate with up to 19 bachelor males in the absence of females . As many as five females may be found in a male 's territory . Territorial bulls drive out their sons when they start developing horns ( when they are about a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half old ) . These young males form groups of two to three individuals on the borders of territories , till they themselves mature in their fourth year . Large aggregations are observed during the dry season , when hundreds of bohor reedbuck assemble near a river .
Two prominent forms of display among these animals is whistling and bounding . Instead of scent @-@ marking its territory , the reedbuck will give a shrill whistle to make the boundaries of its territory be known . As it whistles , it expels air through its nose with such a force that the whole of its body vibrates . These whistles , usually one to three in number , are followed by a few stotting bounds . This behaviour is also used to raise alarm in herds . In this , the reedbuck raises its neck , exposing the white patch on its throat , but keeping the tail down , and leaps in a way similar to the impala 's jumps , landing on its forelegs . This is accompanied by the popping of the inguinal glands in the legs . Fights begin with both opponents holding their horns low , in a combat stance ; followed by the locking of horns and pushing one another . These fights can even lead to deaths .
= = = Diet = = =
A herbivore , the bohor reedbuck prefers grasses and tender reed shoots with high protein and low fiber content . This reedbuck is dependent on water , though green pastures can fulfill its water requirement . A study of the bohor reedbuck 's diet in Rwenzori Mountains National Park ( Uganda ) revealed that , throughout the year , the most preferred species was Sporobolus consimilis . Other grasses the animals fed on included Hyparrhenia filipendula , Heteropogon contortus and Themeda triandra , all of which are species commonly found in heavily grazed grasslands . Bohor reedbuck preferred Cynodon dactylon and Cenchrus ciliaris in the wet season , and switched to Sporobolus pyramidalis and Panicum repens in the dry season . Though they rarely feed on dicots , these can include Capparis and Sida species . On regularly burnt pastures , the bohor reedbuck feeds on Imperata species , while in places close by water sources , it eats Leersia and newly sprouted Vossia species ( like topi and puku ) .
Primarily a nocturnal grazer , the bohor reedbuck may also feed at daytime . A study showed that feeding peaked at dawn and late afternoon . In the night , two feeding peaks were observed once again : at dusk and midnight . They traverse a long way from their daytime refuges while grazing . Seasonal differences in the amount of time spent while grazing in a particular area is possibly related to the availability and quality of grasses there . The bohor reedbuck often grazes in association with other grazers such as hartebeest , topi , puku and kob . In Kenyan farmlands , the reedbuck may feed on growing wheat and cereals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Males become sexually mature at the age of three to four years , while females can conceive at just one year of age , reproducing every nine to fourteen months . Though there is no fixed breeding season , mating peaks in the rainy season . Fights for dominance take place in some particular " assembly fields " , where up to 40 males may assemble in an area of 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ; 0 @.@ 0039 sq mi ) . Some parts of these grounds are the main attractions - marked with dung and urine . The reason behind the attractiveness of these few spots for sexually active males is the oestrogen in the females ' urine .
Courtship begins with the dominant male approaching the female , who then assumes a low @-@ head posture and urinates . Unresponsive females run away on being pursued by a male . A male keen on sniffing the female 's vulva keeps flicking his tongue . As they continue their " mating march " , the male licks the female 's rump and persistently attempts mounting her . On mounting , the males tries to clasp her flanks tightly . If she stands firmly , it is a sign that she is ready to mate . Copulation is marked by a single ejaculation , after which both animals stand motionless or a while , and then resume grazing .
The gestation period is seven and a half months long , after which a single calf is born . The mothers keep their offspring concealed for as long as eight weeks . The mother keeps within a distance of 20 – 30 m ( 66 – 98 ft ) of its calf . Nursing , usually two to four minutes long , involves licking the whole body of the calf and suckling . The infant is suckled usually once in the day and one to two times at night . The female 's previous calf usually resists separation . At the age of two months , the calf begins grazing alongside its mother , and seeks protection from her if alarmed . Though after four months the calf is no more licked , it may still be groomed by its mother . The calves are weaned at eight to nine months of age .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The bohor reedbuck inhabits moist grasslands and swamplands as well as woodlands . It is found in two kinds of habitat in northern Cameroon : the seasonally flooded grasslands rich in grasses like Vetiveria nigritana and Echinochloa pyramidalis ( in the Sahelo @-@ Sudan region ) and Isoberlina woodlands ( in the Sudano @-@ Guinean region ) . Often found on grasslands susceptible to floods and droughts , the bohor reedbuck can adapt remarkably well to radical seasonal changes and calamities . It is not so widespread as the bushbuck due to its habitat requirements . In some margins of its range , the bohor reedbuck shares its habitat with the mountain reedbuck . The ranges of the bohor reedbuck and southern reedbuck extensively overlap in Tanzania .
Endemic to Africa , the bohor reedbuck is native to Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of Congo , Ethiopia , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Kenya , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Nigeria , Rwanda , Senegal , Sudan , Tanzania and Togo . The animal is possibly extinct in Ivory Coast and Uganda . Formerly widespread in western , central and eastern Africa , its present range extends from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia in the east . Among the three reedbuck species , bohor reedbuck is the most widespread in Tanzania . Its status in Burundi , Eritrea , Ghana and Togo is uncertain , while it is rare in Niger and Nigeria .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Reckless hunting and loss of habitat as a result of human settlement have led to significant decline in the numbers of the bohor reedbuck , although this antelope tends to survive longer in such over @-@ exploited areas as compared to its relatives . Natural calamities , like drought , are also major threats . While populations have declined in northern Cameroon due to degradation of floodplains through the construction of upstream dams , their habitat has been destroyed in Chad and Tanzania due to expansion of agriculture and settlement . Several deaths occur due to roadkill and drowning as well . During the dry season , bohor reedbuck are hunted with dogs and nets in Uganda . Reedbuck with the largest horns are prized by hunters .
The total populations of the bohor reedbuck are estimated to be above 100 @,@ 000 . Though the populations are decreasing , it is not sufficiently low to meet the Near Threatened criterion . Thus , the IUCN rates the bohor reedbuck as of Least Concern . Around three @-@ fourth of the populations survive in protected areas . Populations of the reedbuck are either declining or uncertain in Boucle du Baoulé National Park ( Mali ) ; Comoé National Park ( Ivory Coast ) ; Mole and Digya National Parks ( Ghana ) . Numbers in the Akagera National Park , where its last @-@ known populations in Rwanda exist , have seen a steep fall .
Though populations have substantially decreased in western Africa , bohor reedbuck still exist in Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park ( Senegal ) ; Corubal River ( Guinea @-@ Bissau ) ; Kiang West National Park ( Gambia ) ; Arly @-@ Singou and Nazinga Game Ranch ( Burkina Faso ) . Larger numbers occur in eastern and central Africa , mostly in protected areas such as Bouba Ndjida ( Cameroon ) ; Manovo @-@ Gounda St. Floris National Park ( Central African Republic ) ; Bale Mountains National Park ( Ethiopia ) ; Murchison Falls National Park and Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve ( Uganda ) ; Maasai Mara ( Kenya ) ; Serengeti National Park , Moyowosi @-@ Kigosi and Selous Game Reserve ( Tanzania ) .
= Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath =
ʿAbd al @-@ Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn al @-@ Ashʿath ( Arabic : عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن الأشعث ) , commonly known as Ibn al @-@ Ashʿath after his grandfather , was a distinguished Arab nobleman and general under the early Umayyad Caliphate , most notable for leading a failed rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east , al @-@ Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , in 700 – 703 .
The scion of a distinguished family of the Kindaite tribal nobility , he played a minor role in the Second Fitna ( 680 – 692 ) and then served as governor of Rayy . After the appointment of al @-@ Hajjaj as governor of Iraq and the eastern provinces of the Caliphate in 694 , relations between the haughty and overbearing al @-@ Hajjaj and the Iraqi nobility quickly became strained . Nevertheless , in 699 or 700 , al @-@ Hajjaj appointed Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath as commander of a huge Iraqi army , the so @-@ called " Peacock Army " , to subdue the troublesome principality of Zabulistan , whose ruler , the Zunbīl , vigorously resisted Arab expansion . During the campaign , al @-@ Hajjaj 's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and the army to rebel . After patching up an agreement with the Zunbīl , the army started on its march back to Iraq . On the way , a mutiny against al @-@ Hajjaj developed into a full @-@ fledged anti @-@ Umayyad rebellion .
Al @-@ Hajjaj initially retreated before the rebels ' superior numbers , but quickly defeated and drove them out of Basra . Nevertheless , the rebels seized Kufa , where supporters started flocking . The revolt gained widespread support among those who were discontented with the Umayyad regime , especially the religious scholars known as qurrāʾ ( " Quran readers " ) . Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik tried to negotiate terms , including the dismissal of al @-@ Hajjaj , but the hardliners among the rebel leadership pressured Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath into rejecting the Caliph 's terms . In the subsequent Battle of Dayr al @-@ Jamajim , the rebel army was decisively defeated by al @-@ Hajjaj 's Syrian troops . Al @-@ Hajjaj pursued the survivors , who under Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath fled to the east . Most of the rebels were captured by the governor of Khurasan , while Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath himself fled to Zabulistan . His fate is unclear , as some accounts hold that , after long pressure from al @-@ Hajjaj to surrender him , the Zunbīl executed him , while most sources claim that he committed suicide to avoid being handed over to his enemies .
The suppression of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's revolt signalled the end of the power of the tribal nobility of Iraq , which henceforth came under the direct control of the Umayyad regime 's staunchly loyal Syrian troops . Later revolts , under Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab and Zayd ibn Ali , also failed , and it was not until the success of the Abbasid Revolution that the Syrian dominance of Iraq was broken .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and early career = = =
Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath was a descendant of a noble family from the Kinda tribe in the Hadramawt . His grandfather Ma '
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= = = No fire zone = = =
The Joint Search and Rescue Command ( JSARC ) was under the direction of the director of aerospace rescue , Col. Cecil Muirhead , who could restrict airspace activity for the use of search and rescue forces . He also commanded all the dedicated assets needed to assist with SAR . Muirhead ordered 24 @-@ hour forward air control ( FAC ) coverage around Hambleton 's position to watch over him and soften up the North Vietnamese positions around him . To protect the downed airmen and the search and rescue forces , Muirhead also ordered the 7th Air Force to establish a standard 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) no @-@ fire zone around Hambleton . It prohibited friendly artillery , naval gunfire , or aircraft from engaging any target in the zone without JSARC approval . Three North Vietnamese divisions were attacking and the 3rd ARVN could not reply for several hours with artillery or request tactical air strikes in the area .
= = = More aircraft lost = = =
On April 3 , air search and rescue forces attempted a first light rescue which can successfully achieve surprise with minimal force . A search and rescue crew took off from the 37th AARS based at Nakhon Phanom , Thailand . It consisted of two HH @-@ 53 rescue helicopters , Jolly Green 65 and 67 , and two A @-@ 1 Skyraiders , Sandy 07 and 08 . Sandy 05 and 06 joined them on the scene . The area was covered in a solid overcast , preventing visual control of air strikes by the on @-@ scene OV @-@ 10A FAC , Nail 25 . Capt. Rocky Smith and Capt. Rick Atchison coordinated the work of several F @-@ 4s who were directed to drop CBU @-@ 42 anti @-@ personnel cluster bombs around Hambleton to help protect his position . When Nail 25 ran low on fuel , it was replaced by an OV @-@ 10 ( Nail 38 ) from the 23rd TASS flown by Capt. William J. Henderson ( Nail 38 Alpha ) and 1st Lt. Mark Clark ( Nail 38 Bravo , and grandson of World War II General Mark Clark ) .
The NVA had a listening post in the area and overheard the American radio traffic . They were very familiar with American SAR tactics and on the second day they began to use the downed flyer as bait . They positioned a number of anti @-@ aircraft and surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles in the area near Hambleton . One pilot reported that " SAM calls were driving us into the small arms threat . Ground fire was accurate and well disciplined ... The NVA were very definitely monitoring and jamming our communications . "
Henderson obtained LORAN fixes on Hambleton 's position . Coast Guard Lt. Commander Jay Crowe , an exchange pilot on assignment to the 37th ARRS at Da Nang , was piloting Jolly Green 65 . The helicopter broke through the clouds and rapidly dropped into the area where Hambleton was hidden . The aircraft was immediately struck by a wall of North Vietnamese gunfire . Their rounds tore through the aircraft , destroying the instrument panel . Crowe struggled to get the aircraft out of the fire zone , and with his instruments shot up , he had to rely on external visual cues to fly the aircraft . He nursed the helicopter south and was able to get to the Phu Bai airfield . Jolly Green 66 flown by Lt. Colonel Bill Harris followed , only to break through the low ceiling to face ten North Vietnamese tanks and a withering onslaught of ground fire . He fought the controls to bring his rescue helicopter within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of Hambleton , his gunners firing the airship 's three GAU @-@ 2 / A 7 @.@ 62 mm ( .308 in ) six @-@ barreled miniguns , engaging the North Vietnamese on every side . A pilot flying support , looking for targets to engage , asked , " Where 's the enemy fire coming from ? " Harris replied , " From EVERYWHERE ! " Somehow Harris managed to get his badly damaged aircraft to gain altitude , then limp back to safety .
Forced to fly in and out of cloud cover at perilously low altitudes , FAC Nail 38 , piloted by Henderson was hit by North Vietnamese fire and shot down . Henderson landed on the north side of the Song Meiu Giang , about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from Hambleton . He hid in a bamboo patch until local villagers came looking for him and cut it down . He was taken north and became a POW . Clark parachuted to the ground safely on the south side of river and eluded capture . Later that same day , another UH @-@ 1H slick , unrelated to the rescue operation , was shot down in the same area carrying a crew of four .
After pinpointing Hambleton 's location , the Air Force bombarded the area around him for the next three days . On April 4 , a flight of ten Douglas A @-@ 1 Skyraiders , half the total available in all of South Vietnam , attempted to pave the way for a SAR team , and it was badly shot up . Eight of the ten aircraft were damaged , two severely . The damage significantly affected the availability of the Skyraiders.At dusk , Major Jimmy D. Kempton flying F @-@ 4D 66 @-@ 0265 with the 390th TFS ( Danang Gunfighters ) and a wingman entered from the coast under a descending 500 foot ceiling and dropped BLU 52 SAR ordnance on four sides of Hambleton 's location , the last of SAR ordnance on April 4 . ( Log book and citation of the Distinguished Flying Cross )
On April 5 , bad weather prevented any SAR activity .
On April 6 at 3 : 15 p.m. , a third attempt was made to pick Hambleton and now Clark up . Four Douglas A @-@ 1 Skyraiders ( Sandys 01 , 02 , 05 , and 06 ) prepared the area around the survivors with extensive bombing and strafing . They were assisted by two HH53C helicopters ( Jolly Green 67 and Jolly Green 60 ) from the 37th Air Rescue Squadron . During the day American fighters flew 52 sorties and four B @-@ 52 bombers bombed the area around Cam Lo .
During April 6 , 80 SAMs were launched by the NVA in the area around Hambleton . It was estimated that Hambleton and Clark were in the midst of five or six NVA battalions . The NVA air defense seriously challenged American air superiority and blunted the success of close air support in the area .
Capt. Peter Chapman volunteered to pilot Jolly Green 67 , despite the fact that he was " short " , due to return home very soon . Capt. Boli in Sandy 01 decided they would pick up Bat 21 Bravo ( Hambleton ) first and Nail 38 Bravo ( Clark ) immediately after . At 5 : 10 p.m. , Sandy 03 joined the group with a full load of white phosphorus that could be used to lay down a smoke screen . Sandy 01 called in additional strikes on targets around Hambleton 's position and re @-@ checked the area . North Vietnamese response was limited . Aware that it could be a trap , he nonetheless gave the go @-@ ahead . As Jolly Green 67 crossed the Song Meiu Giang with Jolly Green 60 high and above guarding their approach , Jolly Green 67 began taking fire from all sides . As it approached Hambleton 's position , they called for him to pop his smoke and reveal his position . The aircraft was pummeled with automatic weapons and anti @-@ aircraft fire from all quarters . Hambleton hesitated , and the Jolly Green tried to pull away . Despite the best efforts of the remaining aircraft , Jolly Green 67 was critically damaged .
Jolly Green 67 flew east at first , further into territory held by the North Vietnamese , before it turned southeast for a few kilometers , when a fire broke out in the left engine . Pieces of the tail rotor struck the main rotor , and the aircraft rolled and crashed on its left side , burning ferociously . No rescue beepers were heard . The entire crew was listed as MIA and presumed killed : Capt. Peter Hayden Chapman II ( pilot ) , Capt. John Henry Call III ( co @-@ pilot ) , TSgt . William Roy Pearson , TSgt . Allen J. Avery ( para @-@ rescuemen ) , TSgt . Roy D. Prater ( Crew Chief ) , and Sgt. James Harold Alley ( combat photographer ) . The fire consuming the helicopter was so hot it melted parts of the aircraft and continued to burn for three more days .
Hambleton 's and Clark 's spirits sank when they realized that six men died while attempting to rescue them . After a stern sermon from the new on scene commander Nail 32 Capt. John Van Etten , Hambleton decided , " Hell , I 'm going to get out of this , regardless . " He camouflaged his hole , hiding there for seven nights and six days . He left the hole twice to scavenge for food and was almost caught the second time when he was spotted by a boy and his dog . NVA soldiers searching for him passed within 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) of his hole twice .
The SAR task force mission leader , Capt. Fred Boli in Sandy 01 , called the rescue off for the time being because it was too dangerous . The remaining aircraft exited to the south across the Song Meiu Giang . The area was just too hot . Hambleton and Clark would have to spend another night behind the front lines . The North Vietnamese , alerted by the American 's intense efforts to find the navigator , increased their efforts to find Hambleton .
= = = NVA strength prevents air rescue = = =
All of the SAR teams were experienced in conducting rescues into what they described as " hot LZs " , but the airmen were shocked by the quantity and intensity of the ground and anti @-@ aircraft fire they had faced since the rescue attempt began . This included not only small arms fire and the previously used 23mm , 37mm and 57mm towed guns , but the 85mm and 100mm towed guns , along with the self @-@ propelled , radar @-@ guided 57mm AAA gun . Most surprising to the Americans were the large presence of SA @-@ 2 SAMs , and for the first time the use of the Soviet SA @-@ 7 Grail shoulder @-@ fired , heat @-@ seeking SAM .
Helicopter Squadron commander Lt. Col. Bill Harris was very upset . He concluded that the air rescue could not be attempted at that time due to the heavy concentration of North Vietnamese forces in the immediate area around Clark and Hambleton . He called Col. Muirhead and told him that they had to find another way . Hambleton was told to sit tight while they worked up an alternative plan . Hambleton had two survival radios , a first aid kit , two kinds of flares , a knife and a .38 caliber revolver , a compass and a map , an empty water bottle , and no food . On the morning of April 7 , 1st Lt. Bruce C. Walker accompanied by naval artillery spotter Marine Lt. Larry F. Potts were flying USAF OV10A ( Covey 282 ) from 20th Tactical Air Support Squadron . Potts was directing naval gunfire from the destroyer USS Buchanan ( DDG @-@ 14 ) against Soviet @-@ supplied North Vietnamese tanks to protect Hambleton . At 11 : 05 a.m. , an O @-@ 1 Bird Dog pilot observed a SAM launch and Covey 282 was shot down 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Highway 1 and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Highway 9 . Radio contact was established with both Potts and Walker , and both reported that they were uninjured , but each man was too close to North Vietnamese forces to attempt a rescue .
Clark hid on the south side of the Song Meiu Giang , while Walker was about 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Hambleton , who was on the north side of the river about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the town of Cam Lo . Clark evaded capture for a number of days and was in contact with SAR personnel when he warned them away due to the proximity of NVA forces . In January 1992 , members of the Joint Task Force for Full Accounting examined war artifacts in the Hanoi military museum and found Bruce Walker 's ID card . The disposition and location of Potts , Walker 's backseat spotter , are unknown . It was Potts ' 25th birthday . Potts was wounded and captured alive , but later died in Quang Binh prison .
= = Ground rescue = =
After five days and multiple attempts to rescue Hambleton , five aircraft had been shot down and another 16 seriously damaged , 10 service members had been killed or were missing in action , two were POWs , and two were behind front lines also waiting to be rescued . On April 8 , Gen. Creighton Abrams was briefed on the high losses in the several failed attempts to rescue Hambleton and Clark . He ordered that no further air CSAR would be attempted , but that given Hambleton 's Top Secret clearance and knowledge of missiles and counter @-@ measure technology , that every effort should be made to bring him out .
USMC Col. Al Gray suggested a covert , land @-@ based rescue operation. and Lt. Col. Andy Anderson , Commander of the Joint Personnel Recovery Center ( JPRC , MACVSOG @-@ 80 ) ordered a ground rescue . In Saigon , Navy SEAL Lt. Thomas R. Norris , one of just three SEAL officers and nine enlisted men remaining in Vietnam , had just completed an assignment in the Mekong Delta . He was waiting for orders when the call came in for a commando operation to get Hambleton out . Norris was immediately dispatched to lead an operation to rescue Hambleton . He recruited five Vietnamese Sea Commando frogmen from the Lien Doc Nguoi Nhia ( LDNN ) , Naval Advisory Detachment ( NAD ) in Da Nang .
ARVN Brigadier General Vu Van Giai gave Anderson a Ranger platoon of about 20 men and three M @-@ 48 tanks that they used to set up a forward operating base along Highway QL @-@ 9 within observation range of the strategic Cam Lo Bridge . But Giai thought that the mission was insane and refused to take responsibility for the mission once they crossed the Song Meiu Giang . Anderson , who spoke Vietnamese , obtained additional intelligence from the headquarters of the 1st Armor Brigade near Dong Ha .
= = = Ad hoc code used = = =
The U.S. rescuers knew that the North Vietnamese were monitoring radio communications and understood English . Clark and Hambleton were several miles apart . A forward air controller told Clark , who was from Idaho , to " Get to the Snake , make like Esther Williams and float to Boston . " In other words , get to the river and swim east .
Hambleton had a much more difficult task--to bypass North Vietnamese @-@ occupied villages and gun emplacements . His rescuers learned that he was one of the best golfers in the Air Force and that he retained a detailed memory of the golf courses he had played . Improvising a code using a series of specific golf @-@ course holes to guide him through the mine fields sown to protect him and to get him to the Song Meiu Giang , they radioed him , " You 're going to play 18 holes and you 're going to get in the Swanee and make like Esther Williams and Charlie the Tuna . The round starts on No. 1 at Tucson National . "
Hambleton initially replied , " What have you been smoking ? " But he broke the code . " It took me a half @-@ hour to figure out they were giving me distance and direction , " Hambleton explained . " No. 1 at Tucson National is 408 yards running southeast . They wanted me to move southeast 400 yards . The ' course ' would lead me to water . "
Using the golf @-@ course code , he was directed towards the Song Meiu Giang . To save time , Hambleton passed through the abandoned village that concealed the guns that shot down his would @-@ be rescuers . Although the village had been bombed , he was confronted by a North Vietnamese soldier . Hambleton killed him using a knife in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . At one point , he was given directions to a " refreshment stand " where he would have to " tap his own keg " . Physically exhausted , hungry and dehydrated , Hambleton found a banana plantation where he could tap the tree for drinking water . He got lost briefly , and then fell off a cliff , breaking his arm .
The U.S. command in Saigon ordered special high @-@ altitude B @-@ 52 bombing raids on nearby targets to divert the Vietnamese from searching for the two men , who were several miles apart .
= = = Commandos cross lines = = =
Anderson now planned to rescue Hambleton and Clark . Norris and Anderson called in air strikes in an attempt to weaken the NVA 's resistance , but the NVA answered with mortar rounds and B @-@ 40 rockets that struck the team ’ s position . Lt. Col. Anderson , the senior American commander , and Lt. Tho Ngoc Vu , the senior Vietnamese commando , and all of the Vietnamese officers were hurt and had to be evacuated . One commando was killed . Norris was left with five Vietnamese commandos who spoke little English .
On April 9 , Hambleton 's eighth day of evading NVA forces all around him , FAC Harold Icke on Bilk 11 kept in constant contact with Hambleton . Icke directed Sandy 01 to drop a Madden survival pack containing food , water , ammunition and extra radios to Hambleton , but it fell 50 metres ( 160 ft ) away , slightly above him , and he was too weak to climb up to it . Icke and the pilots of two A @-@ 1 Skyraiders were shocked to see Hambleton come out his hiding place and stand in the open on a sandbar in the river , waving a white flag at them above . Icke knew Hambleton 's mental and physical health were precarious . Unknown to him , Hambleton was considerably weakened , having lost 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) in the 10 days since his jet had been shot down .
OV @-@ 10 pilot Clark ( Nail 38 Bravo ) was closest to the team ' s position and would be rescued first . Clark was relayed instructions to get in the water and float downstream where Norris and his team would intercept him . The rescuer 's initial plan was to swim upriver and meet Clark , but Norris tested the current and decided it was too strong . They would have to insert along the riverbank , a much more hazardous route . Anderson , Norris , and five Vietnamese commandos set up an overwatch position near the Mieu Giang River , which ran near the positions of both downed airmen . Anderson ordered Norris to take his team no more than 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) forward and wait for the survivors to come to them , but after departing , Norris ignored the order and turned off his radio . Traveling twice that distance upriver , he avoided frequent North Vietnamese patrols , truck , and columns of tanks .
Clark was seriously weakened by five days hiding from NVA forces with little to eat . Following the instructions of the FAC controller overhead , he floated down the cold river and at about 2 @-@ 3 : 00 a.m. , just as Norris was about to leave cover to pull Clark to shore , a six @-@ man NVA patrol walked between them . Norris refrained from opening fire , recognizing this would compromise the covert mission and that they were outgunned . When the patrol was gone , so was Clark . Norris radioed Clark and instructed him to get out of the river on the south bank . On his own initiative , Norris left his team and on his own searched the river for Clark for several hours before finally finding Clark hiding behind a sampan on the riverbank . Norris was able to re @-@ link up with the rest of his team and safely deliver Clark to Anderson at the forward operating base . Clark was transported to the last outpost on the Cua Viet River at Dong Ha by an ARVN M113 armored personnel carrier and then flown to Da Nang .
On April 11 , Hambleton ( Bat 21 Bravo ) was too weak to move any farther . Norris was well aware of the overwhelming North Vietnamese presence , but decided to proceed upriver again . He could only follow parts of Hambleton 's weak transmissions but knew he would have to go to him . North Vietnamese tanks were spotted at the Cam Lo bridge , and air strikes were carried out to destroy them before the team launched their second rescue mission . The NVA fixed the location of the outpost and poured mortar and artillery fire on the forward ARVN outpost , killing two of the five remaining ARVN Seals . The wounded were evacuated the next morning .
Norris was left with only three Vietnamese commandos who spoke little English . During their search for Hambleton on the night of April 12 , they headed upriver more than 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) , slipping forward into a massive NVA force . During the night , upon seeing the massive number of North Vietnamese forces , two of the commandos declined to press the mission further , saying they " refused to follow an American just to rescue an American " . Norris convinced them to stay by persuading them that the only way they would get back to safety was to stay with the team . They cautiously searched the river shore for two more hours without success and reluctantly returned to their forward operating base to rest and hope they would be more successful the next night . Icke fixed Hambleton 's position during the day so Norris could find him that night .
On the night of April 12 , Norris didn 't dare take the two ARVN soldiers who had faltered the night before . He was prepared to go alone when Petty Officer Third Class Nguyen Van Kiet volunteered to go with him . They worked their way slowly upriver until they came upon an abandoned , destroyed village . They found clothing and an abandoned sampan , which they used to disguise themselves as fishermen . They rowed quietly up river , but even in the pitch dark and dense fog they could see large numbers of North Vietnamese soldiers and tanks on the shoreline . Stopping to check his map at one point , Norris suddenly realized that two NVA soldiers were sitting about 10 metres ( 33 ft ) away . Fortunately , they were asleep . Traveling upriver in the sampam , they broke out of the heavy fog and found themselves under the Cam Lo bridge . They had passed Hambleton ’ s position more than 30 minutes ago . Turning around , they worked their way south before putting ashore and began to search for Hambleton . They finally found him sitting in a clump of bushes , alive but partly delirious and extremely weakened , having eaten only four small ears of corn in 12 days and having lost 45 pounds ( 20 kg ) since his plane was shot down . He weighed only 128 pounds ( 58 kg ) . Sunrise was coming , and although Norris thought it best to wait until dark to return downriver , Hambleton needed to be evacuated immediately . Despite the risk , they hid Hambleton in the bottom of the sampan , covered him with bamboo , and started downriver .
= = = Daylight evacuation = = =
Their sampan was soon spotted by North Vietnamese troops , some of whom fired at them , but Norris and Nguyen could not afford to return fire . They paddled furiously , using the current and dense foliage along the far side of the river to their advantage , and trying to out @-@ distance the soldiers . However , when they rounded a bend in the river , the NVA fired on them with a heavy caliber machine gun . They pulled the sampan to the bank and turned it over to provide some cover . Icke in Bilk 11 overhead called in air support and five U.S. Navy A @-@ 4 Skyhawks led by Lt. Denny Sapp from the carrier Hancock killed a number of North Vietnamese troops and provided cover for his final escape . Two A @-@ 1 Skyraiders also assisted , dropping both explosives and MK47 smoke bombs , providing a smokescreen . Returning to the river , the three men were soon able to receive support from South Vietnamese forces . Landing on the river bank , they were met by some ARVN soldiers . Hambleton was unable to walk and they carried him back to their bunker . There , an M113 armored personnel carrier carried Hambleton , Norris and Nguyen back to Brigade Headquarters in Dong Ha .
News reporters were very aware of the intense rescue efforts to bring Hambleton home . When the rescue team and Hambleton arrived at Dong Ha , a reporter commented to Norris , “ It must have been tough out there . I bet you wouldn ’ t do that again . ” Norris replied , “ An American was down in enemy territory . Of course I ’ d do it again . "
From Dong Ha Hambleton was transported via US Army 571st Dustoff helicopter , Lt. Ken Warner Aircraft Commander ( Dustoff 502 ) to 95th Evacuation Hospital , Da Nang . He was shortly afterward evacuated to the hospital at Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines where he recuperated for a month .
Norris began to plan for the rescue of Walker , still more than a kilometer behind front lines . Walker managed to evade capture for almost 11 days when on the night of April 18 , without FAC coverage , he moved on his own accord and ran into a local villager who alerted the North Vietnamese . They began tracking him and the next morning the FAC saw NVA very near Walker 's position . Walker radioed the FAC that rescue should not be attempted because NVA forces were closing in and he was under fire . Bilk 36 , a OV @-@ 10A flown by FAC 1st Lt. Mickey Fain , reported that Walker was surrounded by more than 20 NVA soldiers and shortly afterward saw his body lying in the grass . Walker 's body was never recovered .
= = Rescue cost = =
There were no rules to apply to determine when a search and rescue was no longer cost effective .
= = = SAR priority = = =
The Air Force remained fully committed to finding and bringing back every downed air man , regardless of the cost . Air crew 's morale depended on it . Search and rescue was based on the premise that it was necessary " to secure the safety of pilots as valuable military assets and to enhance their effectiveness by boosting morale . " On June 2 , 1972 , General John Vogt , commander of the 7th Air Force , sent in a huge task force of 119 aircraft to rescue Capt. Roger Locher , a F @-@ 4 weapons officer who during Operation Linebacker had been shot down only 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) from Hanoi . When he was picked up by a HH @-@ 53 from the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron , he was within 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the heavily defended Yên Bái Air Base and had eluded capture while covering 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) in North Vietnamese territory for 23 days .
I had to decide whether we should risk the loss of maybe a dozen airplanes and crews just to get one man out . Finally I said to myself , Goddamn it , the one thing that keeps our boys motivated is the certain belief that if they go down , we will do absolutely everything we can to get them out . If that is ever in doubt , morale would tumble . That was my major consideration . So I took it on myself . I didn 't ask anybody for permission . I just said , " Go do it ! "
There were also political overtones to Hambleton 's rescue . " U.S. personnel held as prisoners of war constituted a serious political liability to the U.S. government . "
As many as 90 sorties a day were called in to suppress North Vietnamese forces around Hambleton . In contrast , prior to the Easter Offensive , the number of daily sorties was about 10 , and during the action , peaked at about 300 . During the multi @-@ day effort to rescue the men , the Americans hit the North Vietnamese with over 800 air strikes in direct support of the rescue . Search and rescue took priority over almost all strike targets .
= = = No @-@ fire zone enforced = = =
To protect the downed airmen and the search and rescue forces , Col. Cecil Muirhead ordered the 7th Air Force to establish a standard 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) no @-@ fire zone around Hambleton shortly after he went down . It remained in effect until 10 : 00 p.m. , and while in force it prohibited friendly artillery , naval gunfire , or aircraft from engaging any target within without JSARC approval . The no @-@ fire zone encompassed nearly the entire combat zone of the ARVN 3rd Division including the crucial Cam Lo Bridge . As a result , the South Vietnamese Army in the area was severely hampered in its efforts to stem the NVA offensive against Dong Ha and Quang Tri City . During this six @-@ hour period , thousands of NVA troops pushed into the region , designated Military Region 1 .
When it was seen that NVA forces were pouring through the gap unimpeded , the no @-@ fire zone was reduced at 10 : 00 p.m. that night , but not before the action generated considerable debate . One ranking adviser commented , " When viewed in relation to all the events of the day , a worse decision could not have been made . " The 3rd ARVN had lost most of its artillery in the first two days of the offensive , and in fact had surrendered two of their batteries intact to the NVA . Hambleton commented after the war , " If the taxpayers and my neighbors knew what it cost to pull me out of there , they 'd probably shoot me . "
Maj. David A. Brookbank , a U.S. Air Force liaison with the 3rd Division , reported , " The operation cost the 3rd ARVN dearly . " He concluded that the restriction gave the North Vietnamese " an opportunity unprecedented in the annals of warfare to advance at will . " He stated , " It seems logical to assume that many South Vietnamese troops died because air and artillery support were not available . " He warned his superiors that the 3rd Division 's officers resented the fact that the 7th Air Force would put thousands of South Vietnamese soldiers ' lives at risk to rescue one of their own .
American response to the NVA operation virtually ground to a halt as air resources were diverted to support the recovery , and for a few days defense of the northern border area was second in priority to rescuing Hambleton .
= = = Casualties = = =
As a direct result of the rescue operation , five aircraft were lost , 11 people were killed , and two were captured . Additional aircraft were seriously damaged . Hambleton wrote from an Air Force hospital after he was rescued . " I had to stand by and watch six young men die trying to save my life . It was a hell of a price to pay for one life . I 'm very sorry . " His rescue was , according to Stars and Stripes , " the biggest U.S. air rescue effort of the war . "
During the entire Vietnam War , search and rescue forces saved 3 @,@ 883 lives at the cost of 71 rescuers and 45 aircraft .
= = Aftermath = =
The rescue of Bat 21 was a watershed event for the military and led them to find a new approach to high @-@ threat search and rescue . They recognized that , if a SAR mission was predestined to fail , it should not be attempted , and other options , such as special operations , diversionary tactics and other creative approaches tailored to the situation , had to be considered . Recognizing the need for an aircraft that could deliver better close air support , the Air Force accepted the Navy 's A @-@ 7 Corsair . The military also improved the night capability of helicopters and area denial munitions .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
John Van Etten ( Nail32 ) received the Distinguished Flying Cross for his part in this rescue . Hambleton received the Silver Star , the Distinguished Flying Cross , the Air Medal , the Meritorious Service Medal ( United States ) and a Purple Heart for his actions during this mission . For their heroic actions in rescuing Hambleton behind front lines , Lt. Thomas R. Norris was recommended for and received the Medal of Honor , although he initially declined to submit the paperwork .
Norris readily supported the nomination of Petty Officer Third Class Nguyen Van Kiet for the Navy Cross , the highest award that the navy can give to a foreign national . Nguyen was the only South Vietnamese Naval member awarded the Navy Cross during the Vietnam War , and one of only two South Vietnamese to receive the award .
Navy investigators reviewed the action , interviewed participants , and recommended Norris for the Medal of Honor . He received it from President Gerald Ford in a White House ceremony on March 6 , 1976 attended by Michael Thornton , another Navy SEAL who had saved Norris ' life on October 31 , 1972 .
Hundreds of individuals from dozens of units from the Air Force , Army , Navy , Marines and Coast Guard assisted in Hambleton 's rescue , and participants in the operation received a total of 234 individual medals .
In 1975 , Clark 's and Hambleton 's rescue was declassified .
= = = POW release and recovery of the dead = = =
Astorga and Henderson were released in March 1973 after the war ended . The remains of the rest of the crew of Bat 21 , Hambleton 's EB @-@ 66E Destroyer — Bolte , Gatwood , Giannangeli , Levis , and Serex have not been recovered to date . Gatwood left behind a 13 @-@ week @-@ old son he had never seen , Robin F. Gatwood III . The remains of Kulland , Frink and Paschall were recovered and returned to the United States in 1995 , where they were buried at Arlington National Cemetery . The bodies of Potts and Walker have not been recovered to date .
The remains of the crew members of HH @-@ 53C Jolly Roger 67 — Chapman , Call , Avery , Prater , and Pearson , and Alley — were returned to the United States on October 1 , 1997 . The six were honored on November 19 , 1997 in a full military funeral at Arlington National Cemetery and a headstone commemorating all six airmen was placed at the site . Hambleton was unable to attend due to poor health , but a letter from him was read . He wrote , " They deserve all the accolades that we , the living , can bestow upon them . Again , I thank them , I honor them , and I will always hold great faith in my heart with them . " Clark was present . He told the families of the downed fliers that " Each of you played a distinct role and forming the character of these men who so willingly paid a very dear price to help me get out of the jungles of Vietnam . You have my deepest sympathy — you and these six brave men . "
Prater 's remains were buried with full military honors on June 19 , 2010 by his family . Alley had two weeks remaining on his tour of duty before returning home . He was buried with full military honors in Florida . Avery 's remains were buried with full military honors on April 6 , 2012 . Advancements in DNA testing allowed the Department of Defense POW / Missing Personnel Office to officially identify his remains and release them to his family for service at his final resting place .
= = In popular culture = =
Fifteen years after the rescue , the USAF held a symposium at Nellis AFB and invited all those directly involved . John Van Etten , whose call sign was Nail 32 , had never met Gene Hambleton in person . When he stepped on stage and put out his hand to Gene , he said , " Hello , Gene , I 'm John Van Etten , " and Gene replied , " No , you 're not .... you are Nail 32 , I would recognize that voice anywhere ! "
Two books were written about the search and rescue operation to bring Hambleton out alive : the first was Bat @-@ 21 ( 1985 ) by William C. Anderson , and the second , published after considerable classified information was released , The Rescue of Bat 21 ( 1999 ) by Darrel D. Whitcomb .
The Lt. Thomas R. Norris building at Naval Special Warfare Group Two in Little Creek , Virginia was named for Norris .
The film Bat * 21 , starring Gene Hackman as Hambleton , was a dramatized depiction of Hambleton 's rescue , based on some of the actual events ; Anderson assisted in the screenwriting of the film .
His rescue was featured in the Vietnam episode of the television series Navy Seals : Untold Stories in 2001 .
= French battleship Iéna =
Iéna was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy . The ship 's keel was laid in 1898 and she was completed four years later . Her design was derived from the preceding Charlemagne @-@ class battleships with a heavier secondary battery and thicker armour . She retained the tumblehome characteristic of all large French warships of this period that caused stability issues . Upon completion Iena was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and remained there for the duration of her career . She participated in the annual fleet manoeuvers and made many visits to French ports in the Mediterranean .
While docked for repairs , Iéna was gutted on 12 March 1907 by a magazine explosion caused by the decomposition of well @-@ aged " Powder B " propellant . While it was possible to repair her , the ship was not thought worth the time or expense . Her hulk was used as a gunnery target before it was sold for scrap in 1912 .
= = Design = =
Iéna was designed at the request of the Board of Construction ( French : Conseil des travaux ) to follow the Charlemagne class ships whose seakeeping qualities were not entirely satisfactory . But Constructor Thibaudier just modified the Charlemagne 's design with a heavier secondary battery and thicker armour , distributed in a slightly different manner . This increased her displacement by 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ) in comparison to the older ships and she retained the pronounced tumblehome that was the cause of the stability problems .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Iéna was longer than her predecessors , at 122 @.@ 35 metres ( 401 ft 5 in ) overall . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 83 metres ( 68 ft
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4 in ) and , at deep load , a draught of 7 @.@ 45 metres ( 24 ft 5 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 45 metres ( 27 @.@ 7 ft ) aft . She was only slightly heavier than the Charlemagne class and displaced 11 @,@ 688 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 503 long tons ) normally , and 12 @,@ 105 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 910 long tons ) at full load , 700 metric tons more than the earlier ships .
Iéna was fitted with large bilge keels , but was reported to roll considerably and pitch heavily , although this is contradicted by the ship 's captain 's report of November 1905 : " From the sea @-@ keeping point of view the Iéna is an excellent ship . Pitching and rolling movements are gentle and the ship rides the waves well . "
= = = Propulsion = = =
Iéna used three vertical triple expansion steam engines built by Les Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée , one engine per shaft . Each shaft drove a three @-@ bladed propeller that was 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 ft 9 in ) in diameter on the wing shafts and 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 14 ft 5 in ) in diameter on the center shaft . The engines were powered by twenty Belleville water @-@ tube boilers at a working pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) . The engines were rated at a total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and produced 16 @,@ 590 ihp ( 12 @,@ 370 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials . Iena reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 11 knots ( 33 @.@ 54 km / h ; 20 @.@ 84 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 165 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 147 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's 80 @-@ volt electrical power was provided by 600 @-@ ampere and 1200 @-@ ampere dynamos .
= = = Armament = = =
Like the Charlemagne class which preceded her , Iéna carried her main armament of four 305 mm ( 12 in ) , 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The guns fired 340 @-@ kilogram ( 750 lb ) projectiles at the rate of 1 round per minute at a muzzle velocity of 780 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . This gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) at the maximum elevation of 15 ° . The magazines stored 180 shells per gun , enough for three hours of fighting .
The ship 's secondary armament consisted of eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns , which were mounted in individual casemates . The guns fired 164 @.@ 7 mm ( 6 @.@ 48 in ) , 52 @-@ kilogram ( 115 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 865 m / s ( 2 @,@ 840 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 9 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . A total of 1606 rounds were carried , enough for three hours of fighting at the practical 1 – 2 rounds per minute per gun . Iéna also carried eight 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the shelter deck . These guns fired a 12 @-@ kilogram ( 26 lb ) projectile at 710 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) , which could be trained up to 20 ° for a maximum range of 9 @,@ 500 metres ( 10 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was six rounds per minute , but only three rounds per minute could be sustained . 2074 shells were carried to ensure three hours of fire . The guns were 6 @.@ 26 metres ( 20 ft 6 in ) above the waterline .
Iena 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of 16 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts and on the superstructure . They fired a 1 @.@ 49 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) projectile at 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was fifteen rounds per minute , but only seven rounds per minute sustained . 15 @,@ 000 shells were kept in the magazines . Admiral Marquis criticized the arrangements for the 47 mm guns in a 1903 report :
The number of ready @-@ use rounds is insufficient and the hoists are desperately slow . The 47 mm guns , much more so than the large and medium @-@ calibre guns , will have to fight at night ; yet these are the only guns without a fire @-@ control system designed for night operations . This is a deficiency which needs to be corrected as soon as possible .
Iena mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Two tubes were submerged and the other two were above the waterline . Twelve Modèle 1889 torpedoes were carried , of which four were training models .
= = = Armour = = =
Iéna had a complete waterline armour belt of Harvey armour that was 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) high and tapered from the maximum thickness of 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) that covered 84 metres ( 275 ft 7 in ) amidships to 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) at the ship 's ends . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . The upper armour belt was in two strakes , the lower 120 mm thick and the upper 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Their combined height was 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) amidships . The maximum thickness of the armoured deck was 80 mm and the fore and aft armoured transverse bulkheads were 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) thick . The main turret armour ranged from 278 – 318 mm ( 10 @.@ 9 – 12 @.@ 5 in ) in thickness with a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) roof and the ammunition shafts were protected by 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armour . The casemates for the 164 mm guns were 90 mm thick and their ammunition tubes had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of armour .
The conning tower face had 298 mm ( 11 @.@ 7 in ) of armour and its sides were 250 mm thick . Its roof was protected by two layers of armour , each 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The communications tube was protected by 200 mm of armour .
= = History = =
Iéna was laid down at Brest on 15 January 1898 after being authorized on 3 April 1897 . She was launched on 1 September 1898 , but did not enter service until 14 April 1902 . Iéna was assigned to the Second Division of the Mediterranean Squadron and sailed for Toulon five days later . En route , the ship suffered from a number of problems with her rudder and had to be docked for repairs once she arrived at her destination . After the completion of the repairs the ship began a series of port visits in France and French North Africa which would be repeated for most of her career . Iena participated in the fleet review off Naples in April – May 1904 on the occasion of the visit of the President of France with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy . Afterwards , the Mediterranean Squadron cruised the Levant , calling in Beirut , Suda Bay , Smyrna , Mytilene , Salonika and Piraeus . In April 1906 , she was dispatched to provide assistance to Naples after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius .
= = = Loss = = =
On 4 March 1907 Iéna was moved into dry dock No. 2 in the Missiessy Basin at Toulon to undergo maintenance of her hull as well as inspection of her rudder shaft . Eight days later , beginning at 1 : 35 a.m. and continuing until 2 : 45 , a series of explosions began in the port No. 5 100 @-@ millimetre magazine of the Iéna which devastated the ship and the surrounding area . Because the ship was in a dry dock it was initially impossible to flood the magazines . The commanding officer of the battleship Patrie , which was moored nearby , fired a shell into the gate of the dry dock in an attempt to flood it , but the shell ricocheted without holing the gate . The dock was finally flooded when Ensign de Vaisseau Roux ( who was killed shortly afterward by fragments from the ship ) managed to open the sluice gates . The French battleship Suffren , moored in the No. 1 dock beside the Iéna , almost capsized under the strength of the blasts .
The origin of the first explosion was traced to Powder B , a nitrocellulose @-@ based propellant used in the ammunition , which tended to become unstable with age , and self @-@ ignite . It was estimated that 80 % of the contents of the ship 's magazines were the suspect powder at the time of the accident . The explosion and loss of 120 lives , including two civilians killed by fragments in the suburb of Le Pont Du Las , triggered a major scandal , dubbed " the gunpowder scandal " ( French : l 'affaire des poudres ) . As a result , Gaston Thomson , the Navy Minister , was forced to resign . A similar accident later caused the loss of the French battleship Liberté in 1911 .
= = = Disposal = = =
The multiple explosions gutted the superstructure between the mainmast and the rear funnel and collapsed the superstructure surrounding the mainmast . The ship 's side between Frames 74 and 84 was ripped open down to the lower edge of the armour belt and all the machinery in this area was destroyed . After it was estimated that it would take seven million francs and two years to fully repair the Iéna it was decided to decommission the ship and use her as a target ship . All useful equipment was removed and she was towed to a mooring off the Île des Porquerolles where she was used as a target to test the effectiveness of the latest design of armour @-@ piercing shells beginning on 9 August 1909 . After the completion of numerous tests , and with the Iéna close to foundering , she was towed to deeper water . While under tow Iéna capsized and sank on 2 December 1909 . The rights to the wreck were sold and she was subsequently broken up and salvaged between 1912 and 1927 .
= Smooth toadfish =
The smooth toadfish ( Tetractenos glaber ) is a species of fish in the pufferfish family Tetraodontidae . It is native to shallow coastal and estuarine waters of southeastern Australia , where it is widespread and abundant . French naturalist Christophe @-@ Paulin de La Poix de Fréminville described the species in 1813 , though early records confused it with its close relative , the common toadfish ( T. hamiltonii ) . The two are the only members of the genus Tetractenos after going through several taxonomic changes since discovery .
Up to 16 cm ( 6 1 ⁄ 4 in ) long with distinctive leopard @-@ like dark markings on its upperparts , it has a rounded front and tapers to a narrow tail at the back . Unlike most of its relatives , it does not have prominent spines on its body . Like other pufferfish , it can inflate itself with water or air . It forages for its preferred foods — molluscs and crustaceans — in sand and mud of the bottom sediment . Often an unwanted catch by anglers , the smooth toadfish is highly poisonous because of the tetrodotoxin present in its body , and eating it may result in death .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalist Christophe @-@ Paulin de La Poix de Fréminville described the smooth toadfish in 1813 as Tetrodon glaber , based on a specimen collected in Adventure Bay in southeastern Tasmania by Claude Riche . This holotype was then catalogued in the collection of French naturalist Alexandre Brongniart , but was subsequently lost ; upon his death , Brongniart 's collection was bequeathed to the Paris Museum and the specimen did not appear there nor at any other institution . The specific name glaber is from the Latin adjective glăber , meaning " bald " . Fréminville 's description was overlooked by many subsequent authorities , resulting in the confusion of this species with the closely related common toadfish ( Tetractenos hamiltoni ) ; it is unclear with many records which species was being referred to , though those from Victoria and Tasmania belong to this species . This issue in the scientific literature was not fully resolved until 1983 .
French naturalist Auguste Duméril erected a new genus in publishing the species as Aphanacanthe reticulatus in 1855 from a description authored by his countryman Gabriel Bibron , who had died suddenly , Later Latinised to Aphanacanthus , it was linked to a presumed type species Tetrodon reticulatus , from a manuscript by Bibron . In 1959 , Yseult Le Danois equated this species name to Tetractenos hamiltoni , but New Zealand zoologist Graham Hardy later reviewed the specimens labelled as T. hamiltoni and found that they should be assigned to T. glaber . The genus name Aphanacanthe — not Aphanacanthus , as the original spelling takes priority — would have taken precedence over the current genus name Tetractenos . However , it is a nomen nudum as it does not provide enough detail or information to diagnose or properly describe the species , since Duméril had only written a ( French ) translation of the genus name — αφανης qui nе parait pas , ἃκανθα , épine ( " with no thorns " ) .
British ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan described Spheroides liosomus in 1909 from specimens collected in Melbourne , Hobart , Flinders Island and Port Phillip . He noted its lack of spines compared with specimens of Tetrodon hamiltonii , and hence argued that it was a distinct and separate species . Australian biologist Gilbert Whitley equated Regan 's description with Fréminville 's original naming and gave it the combination Spheroides glaber in 1955 , and later Gastrophysus glaber in 1964 .
The smooth toadfish was assigned to the genera Tetrodon ( now Tetraodon ) and Sphaeroides , both of which became wastebasket taxa . The smooth toadfish was assigned to several other genera after it became clear that it fell outside a more restricted definition of Tetr ( a ) odon , including Torquigener . Recognising that the smooth and common toadfish were distinct enough from other species to warrant their own genus and that no valid genus name existed , Hardy reassigned the two species to the new genus Tetractenos in 1983 .
Common names include smooth toadfish , smooth toado , slimey toadfish or smooth blowie . Along with related toadfish species , the smooth toadfish is known in Australia as a " toadie " . Gaguni is a Tharawal name for toadfish in the Sydney region , the word recorded by William Dawes as ca @-@ gone in his 1791 diaries of the Sydney language .
= = Description = =
With a total adult length of anywhere from 3 to 16 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 8 – 6 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , the smooth toadfish has an elongate body with a rounded back and flattened belly . The body narrows posteriorly to the slender tail , and its fins are all elongate and rounded . The dorsal fin has 9 to 11 rays . The pectoral fin has 15 to 18 rays , the first of which is very short . It arises well below the level of the eye . The anal fin has 7 – 9 rays and caudal fin has 11 . The smooth toadfish has a small mouth with thin lips at its apex and a tiny chin . The round eyes are adnate ( unable to rotate ) , their upper border is level with the profile of the back and the lower border is well above the mouth . In a slightly depressed area just in front of the eyes are two small nipple @-@ shaped structures ( papillae ) that are the nasal organs . The openings face to the rear of the fish and are closed by flaps attached to the walls closest to the fish 's midline . The first pharyngobranchial gill arch is elongated and narrow with many tiny teeth . The smooth toadfish has tiny spines that are entirely within the skin layer ; these run along its back from the nasal organs almost to the dorsal fin , and along its sides from the eye to the pectoral fine , and along its underparts from behind its mouth to its vent . The skin is smooth even when the fish is fully inflated . It swallows water or air via a flap in its throat to swell itself up .
The base colour of the upperparts is pale tan to yellow @-@ green , heavily marked with irregular brown spots in a reticulated pattern , and several broad dark brown bands , including ones between the eyes , between the pectoral fins and at the level of the dorsal fin . Reminiscent of a leopard 's spots , the reticulated pattern continues on the upper lateral side along the body of the fish , becoming silver @-@ white on the lower lateral parts . The chin and belly are white . The fins have a faint yellow @-@ orange tinge , more noticeably in the tail fin . Fieldwork in Sydney waters found females to be larger and heavier than males . Smooth toadfish grow steadily larger as they grow older , with one 16 cm ( 6 1 ⁄ 4 in ) long individual calculated to be 13 years old from examination of its otoliths . Their gonads develop when they reach a total length of about 7 – 8 cm ( 2 3 ⁄ 4 – 3 1 ⁄ 8 in ) . The smooth toadfish can be distinguished from the otherwise similar common toadfish by its lack of spines and its larger- and bolder @-@ patterned markings on its upperparts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The smooth toadfish is found along Australia 's eastern and southeast coast , from Moreton Bay in southeastern Queensland to Port Lincoln in South Australia as well as Kangaroo Island and Tasmania . It is one of the most abundant fishes in the muddy areas of Port Philip Bay . It generally lives in shallow water less than 3 m ( 10 ft ) deep , often over mudflats in estuaries . In areas of seagrass beds , smooth toadfish are more commonly found in sand areas bordering on the seagrass patches . They are more commonly found in seagrass patches in water less than 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) deep rather than deeper water of 3 @.@ 5 – 6 m ( 11 – 20 ft ) . A South Australian field study on wrack and associated fauna found that the smooth toadfish was associated with larger volumes and aggregations containing green algae .
Although its movements are poorly known , tagging patterns indicate that the smooth toadfish spends most of its life cycle and reproduces in estuaries . It can venture well into freshwater past brackish areas . In 1964 a school of toadfish were found in the Lang Lang River at the South Gippsland Highway — 34 km ( 21 mi ) from Western Port Bay and well beyond tidal areas .
= = = Conservation = = =
Its large range , abundance and stable population mean the smooth toadfish is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . Although no decline in numbers has been recorded , the effects of disappearance of its habitat — mangroves and seagrass beds — is unknown .
= = Breeding = =
The breeding habits of estuary @-@ dwelling pufferfish have been little researched in general . Fieldwork in the Hawkesbury River and tributaries north of Sydney found that the smooth toadfish breeds between April and July , building up fat stores in its liver from February to April beforehand .
= = Feeding = =
The smooth toadfish has strong jaws that readily crush shellfish and crustaceans . It feeds predominantly on benthic ( bottom @-@ dwelling ) organisms in the substrate of the bodies of water in which it forages . Its diet includes molluscs such as black mussels , pipis , white sunset shells ( Soletellina alba ) and oysters ( Crassostrea ) , crustaceans such as semaphore crabs and shrimp , and brown algae . The proportions of crustaceans to molluscs can vary widely depending on the abundance of food items ; hence in a 1999 field study , the soldier crab ( Mictyris longicarpus ) predominated in Cowan Creek while the black mussel did so in nearby Berowra Creek . Field experiments showed it was a consumer of oysters and the gastropod Bembicium auratum , and had a major impact on their numbers .
Because it is a common estuarine fish , it has been used in studies of heavy metal contamination in coastal waters . Fish tested around Sydney showed uptake was highest in the gonads , then muscle , gills and liver . It is unclear why metal concentrations were lower in toadfish livers ( compared with studies of contamination in other fish ) but their liver cells may be more effective at removing these elements . Lead , cadmium and nickel levels corresponded with those in the sediment from which the fish were taken , suggesting dietary intake . The gonads of male fish had twenty times as much arsenic as those of females , while the gills of female fish contained thirty times as much lead as those of males . Raised levels of arsenic , cobalt , cadmium and lead in gills suggested the fish absorbed these from the surrounding water . An experiment exposing smooth toadfish to radioactive cadmium and selenium in either food or water found that cadmium in food was taken up in and excreted by the liver , while cadmium in water was taken up in the gut lining and excreted in liver , gills and kidney , indicating the fish were consuming a lot of water . Selenium was taken up in the gills , kidneys and liver regardless of whether it was in food or water . Fieldwork in Sydney waterways showed that higher arsenic , lead , cadmium and cobalt corresponded with decreased lipid levels in liver and gonadal tissue , and raised cobalt and nickel correspond to increased protein levels in muscle , liver and gonadal tissue . Raised lead levels were consistent with smaller egg size . A study of asymmetry of fish bones in smooth toadfish in various parts of Sydney and Hawkesbury River estuaries showed a relationship between exposure to organochlorine pesticides but not heavy metals , indicating the finding may correlate to stress from organic toxicity .
= = Toxicity = =
Notorious for taking bait from fish hooks , the smooth toadfish is an unwanted catch for anglers as its flesh is highly poisonous and unfit for human consumption . Its lack of spines makes it easier to handle than other toadfish when it inflates itself after being caught . Its toxicity had been reported by local aborigines in Sydney to William Dawes in the late 18th century . A man named John Buff was fatally poisoned after catching and eating toadfish in Duck River in 1821 near Parramatta ; his case and subsequent coroner 's inquest were published in the Sydney Gazette . The smooth toadfish was responsible for the deaths of the wife and two children of Captain Bell of New Town near Hobart in a widely publicised case in March 1831 . Colonial surgeon James Scott wrote ,
" The melancholy and dreadful effect produced by eating it was lately instanced in the neighbourhood of Hobart town ... The poison is of a powerful sedative nature , producing stupor , loss of speech , deglutition , vision and the power of the voluntary muscles , and ultimately an entire deprivation of nervous power and death . "
An inquest into the deaths took place on 29 March 1831 . The family 's three servants , one of whom appeared to have been poisoned as well and was ill , were placed in custody separately to stop them communicating with each other while the investigation proceeded . The jury replicated the effects by feeding the fish to ( and poisoning ) two cats . The jury learnt that the servant , Speed , had caught the 20 or so fish and taken them home to eat . A neighbour called out to him not to eat the fish as they were " no good " , but he took it as a joke . The inquest concluded with a finding of accidental death , with some deliberation over whether Speed should have been charged with manslaughter or even murder after hearing the warning . Warnings about toadfish were subsequently issued .
Its toxicity is due to tetrodotoxin , which is concentrated particularly in the liver , ovaries , intestines and skin . Many species of pufferfish bear this toxin , obtaining it from tetrodotoxin @-@ containing bacteria in their diet . Eating the fish can have fatal consequences . The symptoms of poisoning , which are predominantly neurological , include ataxia , in addition to numbness and / or paraesthesia ( tingling ) around the mouth , lips , and limb extremities . Cases of pets being poisoned have occurred when the fish have been left where they can eat them .
= History of Lima =
The history of Lima , the capital of Peru , began with its foundation by Francisco Pizarro on January 18 , 1535 . The city was established on the valley of the Rímac River in an area populated by the Ichma polity . It became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and site of a Real Audiencia in 1543 . In the 17th century , the city prospered as the center of an extensive trade network despite damage from earthquakes and the threat of pirates . However , prosperity came to an end in the 18th century due to an economic downturn and the Bourbon Reforms .
The population of Lima played an ambivalent role in the 1821 – 1824 Peruvian War of Independence ; the city suffered exactions from Royalist and Patriot armies alike . After independence , Lima became the capital of the Republic of Peru . It enjoyed a short period of prosperity in the mid @-@ 19th century until the 1879 – 1883 War of the Pacific when it was occupied and looted by Chilean troops . After the war , the city went through a period of demographic expansion and urban renewal . Population growth accelerated in the 1940s spurred by immigration from the Andean regions of Peru . This gave rise to the proliferation of shanty towns as public services failed to keep up with the city expansion .
= = Foundation = =
In the pre @-@ Columbian era , the location of what is now the city of Lima was inhabited by several Amerindian groups . Prior to the arrival of the Inca Empire , the valleys of the Rímac and Lurín rivers were grouped under the Ichma polity . Their presence left a mark in the form of some 40 pyramids associated to the irrigation system of the valleys .
In 1532 , a group of Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated the Inca ruler Atahualpa and searched for a suitable place to establish his capital . His first choice was the city of Jauja , located amid the Andes , however this location was regarded as inconvenient for its high altitude and being far from the sea . Spanish scouts reported about a better site in the valley of the Rímac , which was close to the Pacific Ocean , had ample water and wood provisions , extensive fields and fair weather . Pizarro thus founded the city of Lima in Peru 's central coast on 18 January 1535 . Carlos Huerta writes in his Chronology of the conquest of the kingdoms of Peru - Cronología de la conquista de los Reinos del Perú :
Foundation of Lima . The city capital of Peru was founded on 18 January and was called Ciudad de los Reyes ( City of Kings ) in honor of the feast of the holy kings who was celebrated . Began in the church , the foundation and the plane of the city , where Pizarro put the first stone .
In August 1536 , the new city was besieged by the troops of Manco Inca , the leader of an Inca rebellion against Spanish rule . The Spaniards and their native allies , headed by Pizarro himself , defeated the rebels after heavy fighting in the city streets and its surroundings . On November 3 , 1536 , the Spanish Crown confirmed the founding and , on December 7 , 1537 , emperor Charles V granted a coat of arms to the city .
= = Colonial period = =
Over the next few years , Lima shared the turmoil caused by struggles between different factions of Spaniards . At the same time it gained prestige as it was designated capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and site of a Real Audiencia in 1543 . Latin America and Lima 's first university , the National University of San Marcos was established in 1551 and its first printing press in 1584 . Lima also became an important religious center , a Roman Catholic diocese was established in 1541 and converted to an archdiocese five years later . In 1609 , the city held celebrations for the beatification of Ignatius of Loyola .
Lima flourished during the 17th century as the center of an extensive trade network which integrated the Viceroyalty of Peru with the Americas , Europe and the Far East . Its merchants channeled Peruvian silver through the nearby port of Callao and exchanged it for imported goods at the trade fair of Portobelo in modern @-@ day Panama . This practice was sanctioned by law as all trade from the Viceroyalty was required to go through Callao on its way to and from overseas markets . The resulting economic prosperity of the city was reflected in its rapid growth , population expanded from about 25 @,@ 000 in 1619 to an estimated 80 @,@ 000 in 1687 .
However , Lima was not free from dangers . On October 20 and December 2 , 1687 , powerful earthquakes destroyed most of the city and its surroundings . The outbreaks of disease and food shortages which followed the disaster caused a reduction of the population to under 40 @,@ 000 by 1692 . A second threat was the presence of pirates and privateers in the Pacific Ocean . A Dutch naval expedition led by Jacques l 'Hermite attacked the port of Callao in 1624 but was repelled by Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba . In the 1680s , English buccaneers proliferated in the waters of the Pacific until they were routed by Lima merchants in 1690 . As a precautionary measure , Viceroy Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull built the Lima City Walls between 1684 and 1687 .
The 1687 earthquake marked a turning point in the history of Lima as it coincided with a recession in trade , a reduction of silver production and economic competition by other cities such as Buenos Aires . To add to these problems , on October 28 , 1746 , a powerful earthquake severely damaged the city and destroyed Callao , forcing a massive rebuilding effort under Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco . This disaster led to an intense devotion for an image of Christ called The Lord of the Miracles , which has been taken out in procession every October since 1746 .
During the late colonial period , under the rule of the House of Bourbon , the ideas of the Enlightenment on public health and social control shaped the development of Lima . New buildings undertaken during this period include a cockfighting coliseum and a bullring , the Plaza de toros de Acho , as well as the General Cemetery . The first two were built to regulate these popular activities by centralizing them at a single venue , while the cemetery put an end to the practice of burials at churches which was considered unhealthy by public authorities .
= = Independence = =
During the second half of the 18th century , Lima was adversely affected by the Bourbon Reforms as it lost its monopoly on overseas trade and the important mining region of Upper Peru was transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . This economic decline made the city 's elite dependent on royal and ecclesiastical appointment and thus , reluctant to advocate independence . In the 1810s , the city became a Royalist stronghold during the South American wars of independence led by a strong viceroy , José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa .
A combined expedition of Argentinian and Chilean patriots under General José de San Martín managed to land south of Lima on September 7 , 1820 but did not attack the city . Faced with a naval blockade and the action of guerrillas on land , Viceroy José de la Serna was forced to evacuate the city in July 1821 to save the Royalist army . Fearing a popular uprising and lacking any means to impose order , the city council invited San Martín to enter Lima and signed a Declaration of Independence at his request . However , the war was not over ; in the next two years the city changed hands several times and suffered exactions from both sides . By the time the war was decided , at the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9 , 1824 , Lima was considerably impoverished .
= = Republican period = =
After the war of independence , Lima became the capital of the Republic of Peru but economic stagnation and political turmoil brought its urban development to a halt . This hiatus ended in the 1850s , when increased public and private revenues from guano exports led to a rapid expansion of the city . In the next two decades , the State funded the construction of large size public buildings to replace colonial establishments ; these included the Central Market , the General Slaughterhouse , the Mental Asylum , the Penitentiary , and the Dos de Mayo Hospital . There were also improvements in communications ; a railroad line between Lima and Callao was completed in 1850 and an iron bridge across the Rímac River , the Balta Bridge , was opened in 1870 . The city walls were torn down in 1872 as further urban growth was expected . However , the export @-@ led economic expansion also widened the gap between rich and poor , fostering social unrest .
During the 1879 – 1883 War of the Pacific , Chilean troops occupied Lima after defeating Peruvian resistance in the battles of San Juan and Miraflores . The city suffered the depredations of the invaders , which looted public museums , libraries and educational institutions . At the same time , angry mobs attacked wealthy citizens and the Asian population ; sacking their properties and businesses .
After the war , the city underwent a process of urban renewal and expansion from the 1890s up to the 1920s . As downtown Lima had become overcrowded , the La Victoria residential area was established in 1896 as a working @-@ class neighborhood . During this period the urban layout was modified by the construction of big avenues which crisscrossed the city and connected it with neighboring towns such as Miraflores . In the 1920s and 1930s , several buildings of the historic centre were rebuilt including the Government Palace and the Municipal Palace .
On May 24 , 1940 , an earthquake hit the city , which at that time was mostly built out of adobe and quincha . In the 1940s , Lima started a period of rapid growth spurred by immigration from the Andean regions of Peru . Population , estimated at 0 @.@ 6 million in 1940 , reached 1.9M by 1960 and 4.8M by 1980 . At the start of this period , the urban area was confined to a triangular area bounded by the city 's historic center , Callao and Chorrillos ; in the following decades settlements spread to the north , beyond the Rímac River , to the east , along the Central Highway , and to the south . Immigrants , at first confined to slums in downtown Lima , led this expansion through large @-@ scale land invasions which gave rise to the proliferation of shanty towns , known as barriadas , renamed as pueblos jóvenes in the 1980s and latter called " Human Settlements " during the 1990s . Major public works were carried out throughout this period , mainly under the governments of Manuel A. Odría ( 1948 – 1956 ) and Juan Velasco Alvarado ( 1968 – 1975 ) . Brutalism dominated in the 1970s as exemplified in the massive headquarters built for Petroperú , the state @-@ owned petroleum company . According to the 1993 census , the city population had reached 6.4M ; 28 @.@ 4 % of the total population of Peru compared to just 9 @.@ 4 % in 1940 .
= Psychodrama =
Psychodrama is an action method , often used as a psychotherapy , in which clients use spontaneous dramatization , role playing and dramatic self @-@ presentation to investigate and gain insight into their lives . Developed by Jacob L. Moreno , M.D. ( 1889 – 1974 ) psychodrama includes elements of theater , often conducted on a stage , or a space that serves as a stage area , where props can be used . A psychodrama therapy group , under the direction of a licensed psychodramatist , reenacts real @-@ life , past situations ( or inner mental processes ) , acting them out in present time . Participants then have the opportunity to evaluate their behavior , reflect on how the past incident is getting played out in the present and more deeply understand particular situations in their lives . Psychodrama offers a creative way for an individual or group to explore and solve personal problems . It may be used in a variety of clinical and community @-@ based settings , and is most often utilized in a group setting , in which the members of the group serve as therapeutic agents for one another in the enacted drama . Psychodrama is not , however , a form of group therapy , and is instead an individual psychotherapy that is executed from within a group . There are " side @-@ benefits " that the other group members may experience , as they make relevant connections and insights to their own lives from the psychodrama of another . A psychodrama is best conducted and produced by a person trained in the method , called a psychodrama director .
In a session of psychodrama , one client of the group becomes the protagonist , and focuses on a particular , personal , emotionally problematic situation to enact on stage . A variety of scenes may be enacted , depicting , for example , memories of specific happenings in the client 's past , unfinished situations , inner dramas , fantasies , dreams , preparations for future risk @-@ taking situations , or unrehearsed expressions of mental states in the here and now . These scenes either approximate real @-@ life situations or are externalizations of inner mental processes . Other members of the group may become auxiliaries , and support the protagonist by playing other significant roles in the scene or may step in , as a " double " who plays the role of the protagonist .
A core tenet of psychodrama is Moreno 's theory of " spontaneity @-@ creativity " . Moreno believed that the best way for an individual to respond creatively to a situation is through spontaneity , that is , through a readiness to improvise and respond in the moment . By encouraging an individual to address a problem in a creative way , reacting spontaneously and based on impulse , they may begin to discover new solutions to problems in their lives and learn new roles they can inhabit within it . Moreno 's focus on spontaneous action within the psychodrama was developed in his Theatre of Spontaneity , which he directed in Vienna in the early 1920s . Disenchanted with the stagnancy he observed in conventional , scripted theatre , he found himself interested in the spontaneity required in improvisational work . He founded an improvisational troupe in the 1920s . This work in the theatre impacted the development of his psychodramatic theory .
= = Methods = =
In psychodrama , participants explore internal conflicts by acting out their emotions and interpersonal interactions on stage . A psychodrama session ( typically 90 minutes to 2 hours ) focuses principally on a single participant , known as the protagonist . Protagonists examine their relationships by interacting with the other actors and the leader , known as the director . This is done using specific techniques , including mirroring , doubling , soliloquy , and role reversal . The session is often broken up into three phases - the warm @-@ up , the action , and the post @-@ discussion .
During a typical psychodrama session , a number of clients gather together . One of these clients is chosen by the group as the protagonist , and the director calls on the other clients to assist the protagonist 's " performance , " either by portraying other characters , or by utilizing mirroring , doubling , or role reversal . The clients act out a number of scenes in order to allow the protagonist to work through certain scenarios . This is obviously beneficial for the protagonist , but also is helpful to the other group members , allowing them to assume the role of another person and apply that experience to their own life . The focus during the session is on the acting out of different scenarios , rather than simply talking through them . All of the different elements of the session ( stage , props , lighting , etc . ) are used to heighten the reality of the scene .
The three sections of a typical session are the warm @-@ up , the action , and the sharing . During the warm @-@ up , the actors are encouraged to enter into a state of mind where they can be present in and aware of the current moment and are free to be creative . This is done through the use of different ice @-@ breaker games and activities . Next , the action section of the psychodrama session is the time in which the actual scenes themselves take place . Finally , in the post @-@ discussion , the different actors are able to comment on the action , coming from their personal point of view , not as a critique , sharing their empathy and experiences with the protagonist of the scene .
The following are core psychodramatic techniques :
Mirroring : The protagonist is first asked to act out an experience . After this , the client steps out of the scene and watch as another actor steps into their role and portrays them in the scene .
Doubling : The job of the “ double ” is to make conscious any thoughts or feelings that another person is unable to express whether it is because of shyness , guilt , inhibition , politeness , fear , anger , etc … . In many cases the person is unaware of these thoughts or at least is unable to form the words to express how they are feeling . Therefore the “ Double ” attempts to make conscious and give form to the unconscious and / or under expressed material . The person being doubled has the full right to disown any of the “ Double ’ s ” statements and to correct them as necessary . In this way , doubling itself can never be wrong .
Role playing : The client portrays a person or object that is problematic to him or her .
Soliloquy : The client speaks his or her thoughts aloud in order to build self @-@ knowledge .
Role reversal : The client is asked to portray another person while a second actor portrays the client in the particular scene . This not only prompts the client to think as the other person , but also has some of the benefits of mirroring , as the client sees him- or herself as portrayed by the second actor .
= = Psychological applications = =
Psychodrama can be used in both non @-@ clinical and clinical arenas . In the non @-@ clinical field , psychodrama is used in business , education , and professional training . In the clinical field , psychodrama may be used to alleviate the effects of emotional trauma and PTSD . One specific application in clinical situations is for people suffering from dysfunctional attachments . For this reason , it is often utilized in the treatment of children who have suffered emotional trauma and abuse . Using role @-@ play and story telling , children may be able to express themselves emotionally and reveal truths about their experience they are not able to openly discuss with their therapist , and rehearse new ways of behavior . Moreno 's theory of child development offers further insight into psychodrama and children . Moreno suggested that child development is divided into
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to the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors . According to popular tradition preserved in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria , the ceremony took place at the Scheyern castle and was celebrated by Saint Adalbert . Gisela was accompanied to her new home by Bavarian knights , many of whom received land grants from her husband and settled in Hungary , helping to strengthen Stephen 's military position . Györffy writes that Stephen and his wife " presumably " settled in Nyitra after their marriage .
= = Reign ( 997 – 1038 ) = =
= = = Grand Prince ( 997 – 1000 ) = = =
Grand Prince Géza died in 997 . Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince . Initially , he only controlled the northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin ; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains . Stephen 's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of primogeniture , which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son . On the other hand , it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority , according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of the Árpád dynasty , which was Koppány at that time . Koppány , who held the title Duke of Somogy , had for many years administered the regions of Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton .
Koppány proposed to Géza 's widow , Sarolt , in accordance with the pagan custom of levirate marriage . He also announced his claim to the throne . Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized , in 972 , most of his supporters were pagans , opponents of the Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue . A charter of 1002 for the Pannonhalma Archabbey writes of a war between " the Germans and the Hungarians " when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány . Even so , Györffy says that Oszlar ( " Alan " ) , Besenyő ( " Pecheneg " ) , Kér and other place names , referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in Transdanubia around the supposed borders of Koppány 's duchy , suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors — who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza — fought in Stephen 's army .
Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Árpád dynasty , with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders . Koppány and his troops invaded the northern regions of Transdanubia , took many of Stephen 's forts and plundered his lands . Stephen , who according to the Illuminated Chronicle " was for the first time girded with his sword " , placed the brothers Hont and Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated Vecelin to lead the royal army . The latter was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza . Hont and Pázmány were , according to Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle , " knights of Swabian origin " who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen 's reign . On the other hand , Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were " Slovak " noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra .
Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen 's army . In the ensuing battle , Stephen won a decisive victory over his enemies . Koppány was killed on the battlefield . His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom , Győr , Gyulafehérvár ( Alba Iulia , Romania ) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch .
Stephen occupied Koppány 's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans . He also prescribed that Koppány 's former subjects were to pay tithes to the Pannonhalma Archabbey , according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing interpolations . The same document declares that " there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary " at that time . On the other hand , the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg stated that Stephen " established bishoprics in his kingdom " before being crowned king . If the latter report is valid , the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are the most probable candidates , according to historian Gábor Thoroczkay .
= = = Coronation ( 1000 – 1001 ) = = =
By ordering the display of one part of Koppány 's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár , the seat of his maternal uncle , Gyula the Younger , Stephen asserted his claim to reign all lands dominated by Hungarian lords . He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting the title of king . However , the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate .
Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown " with the favour and urging " of Emperor Otto III ( r . 996 – 1002 ) , implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor 's suzerainty before his coronation . On the other hand , all of Stephen 's legends emphasize that he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II ( r . 999 – 1003 ) . Kristó and other historians point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies , which implies that both reports are valid : Stephen " received the crown and consecration " from the Pope , but not without the Emperor 's consent . Around 75 years after the coronation , Pope Gregory VII ( r . 1075 – 1085 ) , who claimed suzerainty over Hungary , declared that Stephen had " offered and devotedly surrendered " Hungary " to Saint Peter " ( that is to the Holy See ) . In a contrasting report , Stephen 's Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to the Virgin Mary . Modern historians — including Pál Engel , and Miklós Molnár — write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty . For instance , none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors , which would have been the case if he had been their vassal . Furthermore , Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm " by the will of God " .
The exact date of Stephen 's coronation is unknown . According to later Hungarian tradition , he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium , which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001 . Details of Stephen 's coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony , which took place in Esztergom or Székesfehérvár followed the rite of the coronation of the German kings . Accordingly , Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony . Stephen 's portrait , preserved on his royal cloak from 1031 , shows that his crown , like the Holy Roman Emperor 's diadem , was a hoop crown decorated with gemstones .
Besides his crown , Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty . For instance , his first coins bear the inscription LANCEA REGIS ( " the king 's spear " ) and depict an arm holding a spear with flag . According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes , a spear had been given to Stephen 's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza 's right to " enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country " . Stephen is styled in various ways — Ungarorum rex ( " king of the Hungarians " ) , Pannoniorum rex ( " king of the Pannonians " ) or Hungarie rex ( " king of Hungary " ) — in his charters .
= = = Consolidation ( 1001 – c . 1009 ) = = =
Although Stephen 's power did not rely on his coronation , the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm " by the Grace of God " . All his legends testify that he established an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after his coronation . This act ensured that the Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire . The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom , named Domokos , has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002 . According to historian Gábor Thoroczkay , Stephen also established the Diocese of Kalocsa in 1001 . Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom . Associates of the late Adalbert of Prague , including Radla and Astrik , arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign . The presence of an unnamed " Archbishop of the Hungarians " at the synod of 1007 of Frankfurt and the consecration of an altar in Bamberg in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen 's prelates maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire .
The transformation of Hungary into a Christian state was one of Stephen 's principal concerns throughout his reign . Although the Hungarians ' conversion had already begun in his father 's reign , it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals . His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity . For example , his First Book of Laws from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing the observance of feast days and the confession before death . His other laws protected property rights and the interests of widows and orphans , or regulated the status of serfs .
If someone has such a hardened heart — God forbid it to any Christian — that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest , he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel . If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon the priest , and therefore he should die unconfessed , prayers and alms should be offered , but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests . Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor ; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown .
Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen 's suzerainty even after his coronation . The new King first turned against his own uncle , Gyula the Younger , whose realm " was most wide and rich " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002 or in 1003 . The contemporary Annals of Hildesheim adds that Stephen converted his uncle 's " country to the Christian faith by force " after its conquest . Accordingly , historians date the establishment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period . If the identification , proposed by Kristó , Györffy and other Hungarian historians , of Gyula with one Prokui — who was Stephen 's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg — is valid , Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to Boleslav the Brave , Duke of Poland ( r . 992 – 1025 ) .
[ Duke Boleslav the Brave 's ] territory included a certain burg , located near the border with the Hungarians . Its guardian was lord Prokui , an uncle of the Hungarian king . Both in the past and more recently , Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive . When he was unable to free her , his nephew arranged for her unconditional release , even though he was Prokui 's enemy . I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe . Because of this , God repeatedly granted him victory , not only in the burg mentioned above , but in others as well .
About a hundred years later , the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav , stating that the latter " defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube " . Györffy says that the chronicler 's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava — a tributary of the Danube — by the Poles in the 1010s . On the other hand , the Polish @-@ Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century . According to Steinhübel , the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030 . In contrast with the Slovak historian , Györffy writes that this late chronicle " in which one absurdity follows another " contradicts all facts known from 11th @-@ century sources .
The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen " led his army against Kean , Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified " following the occupation of Gyula 's country . According to a number of historians , including Zoltán Lenkey and Gábor Thoroczkay , Kean was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003 . Other historians , including Györffy , say that the chronicle 's report preserved the memory of Stephen 's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s .
Likewise , the identification of the " Black Hungarians " — who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the opponents of Stephen 's proselytizing policy — is uncertain . Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza ; while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia . Bruno of Querfurt 's report of the Black Hungarians ' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when " the first mission of Saint Peter " — a papal legate , Cardinal Azo — arrived in Hungary . The latter attended the meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on August 23 , 1009 .
The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009 . According to Thoroczkay , " it is very probable " that the bishopric 's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars — an ethnic group of Khazar origin — and their chieftain . The head of the Kabars — who was either Samuel Aba or his father — married Stephen 's unnamed younger sister on this occasion . The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy . The reports by Anonymus , Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár @-@ Kalán , Csák and other 13th @-@ century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in the process .
Stephen set up a territory @-@ based administrative system , establishing counties . Each county , headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán , was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress . Most fortresses were earthworks in this period , but the castles at Esztergom , Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone . Forts serving as county seats also became the nuclei of Church organization . The settlements developing around them , where markets were held on each Sunday , were important local economic centers .
= = = Wars with Poland and Bulgaria ( c . 1009 – 1018 ) = = =
Stephen 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Henry II , became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013 . Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century . Even when Henry II 's discontented brother , Bruno , sought refuge in Hungary in 1004 , Stephen preserved the peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers @-@ in @-@ law . Around 1009 , he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo , Doge of Venice ( r . 1008 – 1026 ) , a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor , Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) , which suggests that Hungary 's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful . On the other hand , the alliance between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014 until 1018 . The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava . Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania , the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen 's legends , also took place in this period , because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev ( r . 1015 – 1019 ) .
Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018 . Later in the same year , 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kiev , suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty . The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen . According to Leodvin , the first known Bishop of Bihar ( r. c . 1050 – c . 1060 ) , Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against " barbarians " in the Balkan Peninsula . The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took " Cesaries " which Györffy identifies as the present @-@ day town of Ohrid . Leodvin 's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018 . However , the exact date of his expedition is uncertain . Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians .
= = = Domestic policies ( 1018 – 1024 ) = = =
Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in " Cesaries " during his campaign in the Balkans , including Saint George and Saint Nicholas of Myra . He donated them to his new triple @-@ naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Székesfehérvár , where he also set up a cathedral chapter and his new capital . His decision was influenced by the opening , in 1018 or 1019 , of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital , Esztergom . The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary . Stephen often met the pilgrims , contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe . Abbot Odilo of Cluny , for example , wrote in a letter to Stephen that " those who have returned from the shrine of our Lord " testify to the king 's passion " towards the honour of our divine religion " . Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople , Jerusalem , Ravenna and Rome .
[ Almost ] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route , which was by sea , making their way through the country of King Stephen . He made the road safe for everyone , welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts . This action led many people , nobles and commoners , to go to Jerusalem .
In addition to pilgrims , merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe . Stephen 's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary , but were attacked by Hungarian border guards . The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace . Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in the 1020s . Stephen 's silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ( " King Stephen " ) and REGIA CIVITAS ( " royal city " ) were popular in contemporary Europe , as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden .
Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary . Gerard , a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026 , initially planned to continue his journey to the Holy Land , but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king . Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries — including the abbeys at Pécsvárad , Zalavár and Bakonybél — in this period .
The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen 's conflict with Ajtony , a chieftain in the region of the river Maros . Many historians date their clash to the end of the 1020s , although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier . The conflict arose when Ajtony , who " had taken his power from the Greeks " , according to Saint Gerard 's legend , levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river . The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony , who was killed in battle . His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up a new bishopric at Csanád ( Cenad , Romania ) , Ajtony 's former capital , which was renamed after the commander of the royal army . According to the Annales Posonienses , the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030 .
= = = Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire ( 1024 – 1031 ) = = =
Stephen 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Emperor Henry , died on 13 July 1024 . He was succeeded by a distant relative , Conrad II ( r . 1024 – 1039 ) , who adopted an offensive foreign policy . Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo — the husband of Stephen 's sister — from Venice in 1026 . He also persuaded the Bavarians to proclaim his own son , Henry , as their duke in 1027 , although Stephen 's son , Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother . Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors , Bishop Werner of Strasbourg , to Constantinople . In the autumn of 1027 , the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim , but Stephen , who had been informed of his actual purpose , refused to let him enter into his country . Conrad II 's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029 , causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries .
Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába . However , according to the Annals of Niederalteich , the emperor , suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungarian army , returned to Germany " without an army and without achieving anything , because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna " . Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031 .
At this same time , dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians , through the fault of the Bavarians . And , as a result , King [ Stephen ] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici ( that is , of the Bavarians ) . Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army . But King [ Stephen ] , whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor , relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord , which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm . Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests , he returned , after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom ; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun . His son , King Henry , however , still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert , bishop of Freising , received a legation of King [ Stephen ] which asked for peace ; and solely with the counsel of the princes of the realm , and without his father 's knowledge , he granted the favor of reconciliation .
= = = Last years ( 1031 – 1038 ) = = =
Stephen 's biographer , Hartvic , narrates that the King , whose children died one by one in infancy , " restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son " , Emeric . However , Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031 . After the death of his son , the elderly King could never " fully regain his former health " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Kristó writes that the picture , which has been preserved in Stephen 's legends , of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers , is connected with Stephen 's last years , following the death of his son .
Emeric 's death jeopardized his father 's achievements in establishing a Christian state , because Stephen 's cousin , Vazul — who had the strongest claim to succeed him — was suspected of an inclination towards paganism . According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin 's claim and nominated his sister 's son , the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir . The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded , and his three sons , Levente , Andrew and Béla , were expelled from Hungary . Stephen 's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king 's life by members of his court . According to Kristó , the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act . That Vazul 's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources , including the Illuminated Chronicle .
In the view of some historians , provisions in Stephen 's Second Book of Laws on the " conspiracy against the king and the kingdom " imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul 's unsuccessful plot against Stephen . However , this view has not been universally accepted . Györffy states that the law book was issued , not after 1031 , but around 1009 . Likewise , the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated : according to Györffy , it was issued during Stephen 's reign , but Berend , Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it " might be a later addition " .
Stephen died on 15 August 1038 . He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár . His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars , pagan uprisings and foreign invasions . The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus , a grandson of Vazul , ascended the throne .
= = Family = =
Stephen married Gisela , a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria , who was a nephew of Otto I , Holy Roman Emperor . Gisela 's mother was Gisela of Burgundy , a member of the Welf dynasty . Born around 985 , Gisela was younger than her husband , whom she survived . She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060 .
Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen " begot many sons " , only two of them , Otto and Emeric , are known by name . Otto , who was named after Otto III , seems to have been born before 1002 . He died as a child .
Emeric , who received the name of his maternal uncle , Emperor Henry II , was born around 1007 . His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage . According to Györffy , Emeric 's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II . His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul 's blinding and civil wars .
Be obedient to me , my son . You are a child , descendant of rich parents , living among soft pillows , who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts ; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away .
The following family tree presents Stephen 's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article .
* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . * * * Samuel Aba might have been the son of Stephen 's sister instead of her husband .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Founder of Hungary = = =
Stephen has always been considered one of the most important statesmen in the history of Hungary . His main achievement was the establishment of a Christian state that ensured that the Hungarians survived in the Carpathian Basin , in contrast to the Huns , Avars and other peoples who had previously controlled the same territory . As Bryan Cartledge emphasizes , Stephen also gave his kingdom " forty years of relative peace and sound but unspectacular rule " .
His successors , including those descended from Vazul , were eager to emphasize their devotion to Stephen 's achievements . Although Vazul 's son , Andrew I of Hungary , secured the throne due to a pagan uprising , he prohibited pagan rites and declared that his subjects should " live in all things according to the law which King St. Stephen had taught them " , according to the 14th @-@ century Illuminated Chronicle . In medieval Hungary , communities that claimed a privileged status or attempted to preserve their own " liberties " often declared that the origin of their special status was to be attributed to King Saint Stephen . An example is a 1347 letter from the people of Táp telling the king about their grievances against the Pannonhalma Archabbey and stating that the taxes levied upon them by the abbot contradicted " the liberty granted to them in the time of King Saint Stephen " .
= = = Holy King = = =
Stephen 's cult emerged after the long period of anarchy characterizing the rule of his immediate successors . However , there is no evidence that Stephen became an object of veneration before his canonization . For instance , the first member of the royal family to be named after him , Stephen II , was born in the early 12th century .
Stephen 's canonization was initiated by Vazul 's grandson , King Ladislaus I of Hungary , who had consolidated his authority by capturing and imprisoning his cousin , Solomon . According to Bishop Hartvic , the canonization was " decreed by apostolic letter , by order of the Roman see " , suggesting that the ceremony was permitted by Pope Gregory VII . The ceremony started at Stephen 's tomb , where on 15 August 1083 masses of believers began three days of fasting and praying . Legend tells that Stephen 's coffin could not be opened until King Ladislaus held Solomon in captivity at Visegrád . The opening of Stephen 's tomb was followed by the occurrence of healing miracles , according to Stephen 's legends . Historian Kristó attributes the healings either to mass psychosis or deception . Stephen 's legends also say that his " balsam @-@ scented " remains were elevated from the coffin , which was filled with " rose @-@ colored water " , on 20 August . On the same day , Stephen 's son , Emeric , and the bishop of Csanád , Gerard , were also canonized .
Having completed the office of Vespers the third day , everyone expected the favors of divine mercy through the merit of the blessed man ; suddenly with Christ visiting his masses , the signs of miracles poured forth from heaven throughout the whole of the holy house . Their multitude , which that night were too many to count , brings to mind the answer from the Gospel which the Savior of the world confided to John , who asked through messengers whether he was the one who was to come : the blind see , the lame walk , the deaf hear , the lepers are cleansed , the crippled are set straight , the paralyzed are cured ...
Stephen 's first legend , the so @-@ called Greater Legend , was written between 1077 and 1083 . It provided an idealized portrait of the king , one who dedicated himself and his kingdom to the Virgin Mary . However , Stephen 's Lesser Legend — composed around 1100 , under King Coloman — emphasized Stephen 's severity . A third legend , also composed during King Coloman 's reign by Bishop Hartvic , was based on the two existing legends . Sanctioned in 1201 by Pope Innocent III , Hartvic 's work served as Stephen 's official legend . Gábor Klaniczay wrote that Stephen 's legends " opened a new chapter in the legends of holy rulers as a genre " , suggesting that a monarch can achieve sainthood through actively using his royal powers . Stephen was the first triumphant miles Christi ( " Christ 's soldier " ) among the canonized monarchs . He was also a " confessor king " , one who had not suffered martyrdom , whose cult was sanctioned , in contrast with earlier holy monarchs .
Stephen 's cult spread beyond the borders of Hungary . Initially , he was primarily venerated in Scheyern and Bamberg , in Bavaria , but his relics were also taken to Aachen , Cologne , Montecassino and Namur . Upon the liberation of Buda from the Ottoman Turks , Pope Innocent XI expanded King Saint Stephen 's cult to the entire Roman Catholic Church in 1686 , and declared 2 September his feast day . As the feast of Saint Joachim was moved , in 1969 , from 16 August , the day immediately following the day of Stephen 's death , Stephen 's feast was moved to that date . Stephen is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary , and regarded as the protector of kings , masons , stonecutters , stonemasons and bricklayers , and also of children suffering from severe illnesses . His canonization was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in 2000 . In the calendar of the Hungarian Catholic Church , Stephen 's feast is observed on 20 August , the day on which his relics were translated . In addition , a separate feast day ( 30 May ) is dedicated to his " Holy Dexter " .
= = = Holy Dexter = = =
Stephen 's intact dexter , or right hand ( Hungarian : Szent Jobb ) , became the subject of a cult . A cleric named Mercurius stole it , but it was discovered on 30 May 1184 in Bihar County . The theft of sacred relics , or furta sacra , had by that time become a popular topic of saints ' biographies . Bishop Hartvic described the discovery of Stephen 's right hand in accordance with this tradition , referring to adventures and visions . An abbey erected in Bihar County ( now Sâniob , Romania ) was named after and dedicated to the veneration of the Holy Dexter .
Why is it , brothers , that his other limbs having become disjointed and , his flesh having been reduced to dust , wholly separated , only the right hand , its skin and sinews adhering to the bones , preserved the beauty of wholeness ? I surmise that the inscrutability of divine judgement sought to proclaim by the extraordinary nature of this fact nothing less than that the work of love and alms surpasses the measure of all other virtues . ... The right hand of the blessed man was deservedly exempt from putrefaction , because always reflourishing from the flower of kindness it was never empty from giving gifts to nourish the poor .
The Holy Dexter was kept for centuries in the Szentjobb Abbey , except during the Mongol invasion of 1241 and 1242 , when it was transferred to Ragusa ( now Dubrovnik , Croatia ) . The relic was then taken to Székesfehérvár around 1420 . Following the Ottoman occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary in the mid @-@ 16th century , it was guarded in many places , including Bosnia , Ragusa and Vienna . It was returned to Hungary in 1771 , when Queen Maria Theresa donated it to the cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda . It was kept in Buda Castle 's St. Sigismund Chapel between around 1900 and 1944 , in a cave near Salzburg in 1944 and 1945 , and again by the Sisters of Loreto in Buda , between 1945 and 1950 . Finally , since 1950 , the Holy Dexter has been in St. Stephen 's Basilica in Budapest . An annual procession celebrating the relic was instituted in 1938 , and continued until 1950 , when the procession was forbidden by the Communist government . It was resumed in 1988 .
= = = Admonitions = = =
According to Stephen 's Greater Legend , the king " himself compiled a book for his son on moral education " . This work , now known as Admonitions or De institutione morum , was preserved in manuscripts written in the Late Middle Ages . Although scholars debate whether it can actually be attributed to the king or a cleric , most of them agree that it was composed in the first decades of the 11th century .
The Admonitions argues that kingship is inseparably connected with the Catholic faith . Its author emphasized that a monarch is required to make donations to the Church and regularly consult his prelates , but is entitled to punish clergymen who do wrong . One of its basic ideas was that a sovereign has to cooperate with the " pillars of his rule " , meaning the prelates , aristocrats , ispáns and warriors .
My dearest son , if you desire to honor the royal crown , I advise , I counsel , I urge you above all things to maintain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God , and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession . Failing to do this , you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church . Indeed , in the royal palace , after the faith itself , the Church holds second place , first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members , the apostles and holy fathers , And though she always produced fresh offspring , nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient . However , dearest son , even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted ; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians lest a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness , indolence or neglect .
= = = In arts = = =
King St Stephen has been a popular theme in Hungarian poetry since the end of the 13th century . The earliest poems were religious hymns which portrayed the holy king as the apostle of the Hungarians . Secular poetry , especially poems written for his feast day , followed a similar pattern , emphasizing Stephen 's role as the first king of Hungary . Poets described Stephen as the symbol of national identity and independence and of the ability of the Hungarian nation to survive historical cataclysms during the Communist regime between 1949 and 1989 .
A popular hymn , still sung in the churches , was first recorded in the late 18th century . It hails King St. Stephen as " radiant star of Hungarians " . Ludwig van Beethoven composed his King Stephen Overture for the inauguration of the Hungarian theatre in Pest in 1812 . According to musician James M. Keller , " [ t ] he descending unisons that open the King Stephen Overture would seem to prefigure the opening of the Ninth Symphony ; ... [ a ] nd then a later theme , introduced by flutes and clarinets , seems almost to be a variation ... of the famous Ode " To Joy " melody of the Ninth Symphony 's finale " . Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel named his last complete opera from 1885 , István király ( " King Stephen " ) , after him . In 1938 , Zoltán Kodály wrote a choral piece titled Ének Szent István Királyhoz ( " Hymn to King Stephen " ) . In 1983 , Levente Szörényi and János Bródy composed a rock opera — István , a király ( " Stephen , the King " ) — about the early years of his reign . Seventeen years later , in 2000 , Szörényi composed a sequel called Veled , Uram ! ( " You , Sir " ) .
= Bembo =
Bembo is a 1929 serif typeface created by the British branch of the Monotype Corporation and most commonly used for body text . It is a member of the " old @-@ style " of serif fonts , with a regular or roman style based on a design cut around 1495 by Francesco Griffo for Venetian printer Aldus Manutius , sometimes generically called the " Aldine roman " . Bembo is named for Manutius 's first publication with it , a small 1496 book by the poet and cleric Pietro Bembo . The italic is based on work by Giovanni Antonio Tagliente , a calligrapher who worked as a printer the 1520s , after the time of Manutius and Griffo .
Monotype created Bembo during a period of renewed interest in the printing of the Italian Renaissance , under the influence of Monotype executive and printing historian Stanley Morison . It followed a previous more faithful revival of Manutius 's work , Poliphilus , whose reputation
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of its equipment brought in French typefaces which had been created by Garamond , Pierre Haultin and Robert Granjon under its influence . UCLA curators , who maintain a large collection of Manutius 's printing , have described this as a " wholesale change ... the press followed precedent ; popular in France , [ these ] types rapidly spread over western Europe " . Ultimately , old @-@ style fonts like all of these fell out of use with the arrival of the much more geometric Didone types of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . They returned to popularity later in the century , with the arrival of the Arts and Crafts movement .
In 1500 , Manutius released the first books printed using italic type , again designed by Griffo . This was originally not intended as a complementary design , as is used today , but rather as an alternative , more condensed typeface suitable for small volumes .
= = = Italic = = =
Bembo 's italic is not based directly on the work of Griffo , but on the work of calligrapher and handwriting teacher Giovanni Antonio Tagliente ( sometimes written Giovannantonio ) . He published a writing manual , The True Art of Excellent Writing , in Venice in 1524 , after the time of Manutius and Griffo , with engravings and some text set in an italic typeface presumably based on his calligraphy . ( Tagliente did not only publish on handwriting , but also self @-@ help guides on learning to read , arithmetic , embroidery and a book of model love letters . ) It too was imitated in France , with imitations appearing from 1528 onwards . Another influential italic type created around this time was that of Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi , also a calligrapher who became involved in printing . His almost upright italic design was also imitated in France and would also become influential to twentieth @-@ century font designs .
= = Monotype history = =
Monotype Bembo is one of the most famous revivals of the Aldine typeface of 1495 . It was created under the influence of Monotype executive and printing historian Stanley Morison by the design team at the Monotype factory in Salfords , Surrey , south of London .
Bembo 's development took place following a series of breakthroughs in printing technology which had occurred over the last fifty years without breaking from the use of metal type . Pantograph engraving had allowed punches to be precisely machined from large plan drawings . This gave a cleaner result than historic typefaces whose master punches had been hand @-@ carved out of steel at the exact size of the desired letter . It also allowed rapid development of a large range of sizes . In addition , hand printing had been superseded by the hot metal typesetting systems of the period , of which Monotype 's was one of the most popular ( in competition with that of Linotype 's ) . Both allowed metal type to be quickly cast under the control of a keyboard , eliminating the need to manually cast metal type and slot it into place into a printing press . With no need to keep type in stock , just the matrices used as moulds to cast the type , printers could use a wider range of fonts and there was increasing demand for varied typefaces . Artistically , meanwhile , the preference for using mechanical , geometric Didone fonts introduced in the eighteenth and nineteenth century was being displaced by a revival of interest in " old @-@ style " serif fonts developed before this , a change that has proved to be lasting . At the same time , hot metal typesetting had imposed new restrictions : in Monotype 's system ( while less restrictive than Linotype 's ) , in order to mechanically count the number of characters that could be fitted on a line , letters could only be certain widths , and care was needed to produce letters that looked harmonious in spite of this .
Morison was interested in the history of the 15th century Italian printing , and had discussed the topic with his correspondent , the Italian @-@ based German printer Giovanni Mardersteig , in correspondence with whom he wrote a series of letters discussing Bembo 's development . He described the Aldine roman as " inspired not by writing , but by engraving ; not script but sculpture . " The design was executed by the highly experienced drawing office team , led and trained by American engineer Frank Hinman Pierpont and Fritz Steltzer , both of whom Monotype had recruited from the German printing industry , but with a staff that was disproportionately female and in many cases recruited from the local area , before being machined into metal punches .
Monotype commissioned from the calligrapher Alfred Fairbank a nearly upright italic design based on the work of Arrighi , and considered using it as Bembo 's companion italic before deciding it was too eccentric for this purpose . Monotype created a more conventional design influenced by Tagliente 's typeface and sold Fairbank 's design as Bembo Condensed Italic . It was digitised as " Fairbank " in 2003 , and sold independently of Monotype 's Bembo digitisations . Morison wrote in his memoir that the Fairbank design " looked its best when given sole possession of the page " . Monotype 's publicity team described the italic as " fine , tranquil " in a 1931 showing , emphasising their desire to avoid a design that seemed too eccentric .
As was normal in metal type fonts of the period from Monotype and other companies , the font was drawn differently at different sizes by modifying Griffo 's original design , a quite large letter at an approximate size of 15 points . Jonathan Seybold and Charles Bigelow have cited Bembo as an example of how such modifications were made , with looser spacing and a more solid colour of impression at smaller sizes , and a finer , more graceful and tightly spaced design at large sizes .
= = Characteristics = =
Among Bembo 's more distinctive characteristics , the capital " Q " ' s tail starts from the glyph 's centre , the uppercase " J " has a slight hook and the sides of the " M " splay outwards slightly . Many lowercase letters show subtle , sinuous curves ; the termination of the arm of both the r and the e flare slightly upward and outward . The lowercase " c " and " e " push slightly forwards . Characters " h " , " m " , and " n " are not quite vertical on their right @-@ hand stems , with a subtle curve towards the left going down the stroke . In italic , the k has an elegantly curved stroke in the lower @-@ right and descenders on the p , q and y end with a flat horizontal stroke . In the 1950s , Monotype noted that its features included : " serifs fine slab , fine @-@ bracketed and in l.c. prolonged to right along baseline . " This meant that many of the serifs ( especially the horizontals , for example on the W ) are fine lines of quite uniform width , rather than forming an obvious curve leading into the main form of the letter . The ascenders reach above the cap height .
In metal type , Bembo includes two capital " R " s , one with a long , extended leg following Griffo , one with a more tucked @-@ in leg suitable for body text .
Bembo does not attempt to strictly copy all the features of Renaissance printing , instead blending them with a twentieth @-@ century sensibility and the expectations of contemporary design . An eccentricity of Griffo 's first De Aetna capitals was an asymmetrical M that does not seem to have a serif at top right . So odd it has been suggested it may have been the result of faulty casting of type , it was nonetheless often copied in French imitations by Garamond and his contemporaries . Monotype 's revival declined to follow this , although it was recreated for a British Museum exhibition catalogue . Monotype also did not copy the curving capital Y used by Manutius in the tradition of the Greek letter upsilon which had been used in some versions of Poliphilus and Blado , although not in the digitisation of Poliphilus . Nesbitt has described the capitals as " a composite design in the spirit of [ Griffo 's ] type " .
In the italic , the expansive ascenders of Tagliente 's type were shortened and the curl to the right replaced with more conventional serifs . Monotype also cut italic capitals sloped to match the lower @-@ case , whereas in the Renaissance italics were used with upright capital letters in the Roman inscriptional tradition . The bold ( Monotype 's invention , since Griffo and his contemporaries did not use bold type ) is extremely solid , providing a very clear contrast to the regular styles , and Monotype also added lining ( upper @-@ case height ) figures as well as the text figures ( at lower @-@ case height ) used in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries . Historian James Mosley suggests that the numerals of Bembo were based on those Monotype had already developed for the typeface Plantin .
= = Related fonts = =
= = = Poliphilus and Blado = = =
Monotype had already designed two other types inspired by the same period of Italian printing and calligraphy , the roman Poliphilus and italic Blado ( both 1923 ) . Made more eccentric and irregular than the sleek lines of Bembo to evoke the feel of antique printing , these remained in Monotype 's catalogue and have been digitised , but are much less known today . Bembo can therefore be seen as an iteration of a preexisting design concept towards mass market appeal , taking the basic idea of the Griffo design and ( unlike Poliphilus ) updating its appearance to match the more sophisticated printing possible by the 1920s . Bembo 's original working name was " Poliphilus Modernised " .
Poliphilus is named after the book Hypnerotomachia Poliphili , one of Manutius 's most famous books in the Latin alphabet , which was printed with the same roman as De Aetna but recut capitals ; it was made for a publisher who planned to create an English translation . Blado is named after the printer Antonio Blado , a colleague of Arrighi . Morison preferred Bembo 's roman and was somewhat dismissive of Poliphilus . He nevertheless noted that he felt the eccentricity of the Blado italic was more interesting than the smoothness of that on Bembo , as has Mosley more recently . Unlike Bembo , both in metal featured a Greek @-@ influenced Y with a curving head , as in the original .
= = = Centaur = = =
Monotype licensed and released the font Centaur around the same time as Bembo . It was drawn by the American book designer Bruce Rogers . Its roman is based on a slightly earlier period of Italian renaissance printing than Bembo , the work of Nicolas Jenson in Venice around 1470 ( the so @-@ called Venetian style ) . Like Bembo , its italic comes from the 1520s , being again loosely based on the work of Arrighi from around 1520 . Compared to Bembo it is somewhat lighter in structure , something particularly true in its digital facsimile . Penguin often used it for headings and titles of ' classic ' editions , particularly its capitals and italic ; its lower @-@ case does not so effectively harmonise with Bembo due to the different letter shapes .
= = = Titling fonts = = =
Monotype created several titling designs based on Renaissance printing that could be considered complementary to Bembo : Bembo Titling ( based directly on Bembo 's capitals , but more delicate to suit a larger text size ) and the more geometric Felix Titling in 1934 , inspired by humanist capitals drawn by Felice Feliciano in 1463 . In the hot metal type era Monotype also issued a titling version of Centaur , which was often used by Penguin ; Monotype 's digitisations of Centaur do not include it .
= = Timeline = =
= = = The Renaissance = = =
1496 Griffo 's roman
1501 Griffo 's italic ; development of italic type follows over the next fifty years .
1515 Death of Manutius .
1518 Death of Griffo .
1520s Tagliente publishes in Venice , Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi in Rome ( possibly also Venice ) . Both are former calligraphers who publish writing manuals .
1522 – 25 Tagliente publishes a writing manual The True Art of Excellent Writing , as does Arrighi , La Operina ... around the same time . Arrighi 's friend Gian Giorgio Trissino writes of Arrighi that " in calligraphy he has surpassed all other men of our age so [ he now does ] in print all that was formerly done with the pen , in his beautiful types he has gone beyond all other printers . " His contemporary Antonio Blado publishes in Rome in an italic apparently derived from Arrighi 's work .
1527 War in central Italy . Arrighi disappears from history ; he may have been killed in the Sack of Rome .
1528 Tagliente dies in Venice .
1535 Blado appointed printer to the papacy and remains in this role until his death in 1567 .
1530s – 1550s France becomes a centre of the typefounding industry under the influence of the work of Manutius and others . French typefaces replace old Italian designs at the Aldine Press in Venice . Tradition that italic capitals should slope like the lower case established .
= = = 20th Century = = =
1910s The italic calligraphy style of the Italian renaissance is revived by calligraphers including Edward Johnston and Alfred Fairbank .
1923 Monotype releases Blado , an italic based on the work of Arrighi and Antonio Blado , and Poliphilus , a roman based on the work of Griffo .
1926 Edward Johnston develops a font based on his italic calligraphy , but it remains obscure .
1926 Frederic Warde creates an italic based on the work of Arrighi . It is now almost always used as the companion italic of the font Centaur , but initially had an independent existence .
1928 – 29 Monotype develops and releases Bembo , based on the work of Griffo but much smoother in texture . After considering releasing an italic by Fairbank @-@ based the work of Arrighi , Monotype abandons the idea , making Bembo 's default italic on the Tagliente model .
1929 Monotype releases Centaur and the Warde italic as a matching set .
1960s Monotype releases Bembo for phototypesetting . Other companies also release versions .
= = Reception = =
Bembo has been very popular in book publishing , particularly in Britain . It was also recommended by HMSO in its style guide for outsourced printing jobs . Cambridge University Press 's history describes Bembo as one of its most commonly used typefaces ; Morison was closely connected to Cambridge and his personal archive ( as well as much of Monotype 's ) went to the university after his death .
Among reviews of typefaces , writing in the anthology Typographic Specimens : The Great Typefaces , Jeff Price commented that Bembo became noted for its ability to " provide a text that is extremely consistent in colour " , helping it to " remain one of the most popular book types since its release " . Modern font designer Nick Shinn has also commented , " Bembo has a sleek magnificence , born of high @-@ precision technology at the service of accomplished production skills , which honours the spirit of the original , and an exotic grace of line which humbles most new designs made more ostensibly for the new technology . "
= = Digitisations and derivatives = =
= = = Monotype digitisations = = =
Monotype has released two separate digitisations named Bembo and more recently Bembo Book , as well as the more slender caps @-@ only display font Bembo Titling and the alternate italic design Fairbank . Bembo Book is considered to be superior by being thicker and more suitable for body text , as well as for offering the alternate shorter R for better @-@ spaced body text .
Monotype 's original , early digitisation of Bembo was widely seen as unsuccessful . Two main problems have been cited with it : it was much lighter in type colour than the original metal type , perhaps through failure to anticipate the reduced ink spread on modern printing equipment . In addition , the digital Bembo was based on the 9 pt metal drawings , creating a font with different proportions to the metal type in the point sizes at which Bembo was most often used in books . This made the proportions of the digital font appear wrong , failing to match the subtlety of the metal type and phototype , which was released in three different optical sizes for different print sizes . Future Monotype executive Akira Kobayashi commented :
" I got into a slight panic . None of the letters looked like Bembo ! For a moment I froze in front of the computer , thinking about writing a letter of complaint to the company for sending us the wrong font . After a while I checked the Bembo Italic and I slowly began to realise that the fonts were Bembo . I calmed down enough to recall that the typeface was originally designed for metal type , and most of the specimens and texts I saw were set in metal type in text size . That was why the images of the characters did not overlap . I knew that a metal typeface was cut or designed separately for each size , but a film composition or digital face is a kind of compromise having proportions designed for reduction and enlargement . I was overwhelmed to see the huge gap . Then I looked into the types used in Western offset @-@ litho prints to see the digital Bembo types in use ... the types that were originally designed for hot @-@ metal often looked too light and feeble ... Bembo Book is more or less what I expected . "
While Bembo Book is considered the superior digitisation , the original continues to offer the advantages of two extra weights ( semi- and extra @-@ bold ) and infant styles with simplified a and g characters resembling handwriting ; its lighter appearance may also be of use on printing equipment with greater ink spread . Cross @-@ licensing has meant that it is sold by a range of vendors , often at very low prices . As an example of this , Fontsite obtained the rights to resell a derivative of the original digitisation , using the alternative name Borgia and Bergamo , upgrading it by additional OpenType features such as small capitals and historical alternate characters . Neither version includes digitisations of the larger size versions of Bembo , which had a more delicate and elegant design .
= = = Other Griffo @-@ inspired fonts = = =
A major professional competitor to Bembo is Agmena , created by Jovica Veljović and released by Linotype in 2014 . Intended as a unified serif design supporting Roman , Greek and a range of Cyrillic alphabets such as Serbian , it features a more calligraphic italic than Bembo with swash capitals and support for Greek ligatures .
A looser interpretation of the Griffo designs is Iowan Old Style , designed by John Downer and also released by Bitstream . With a larger x @-@ height ( taller lower @-@ case letters ) than the print @-@ oriented Bembo and influences of signpainting ( Downer 's former profession ) , it was intended to be particularly clear for reading at distance , in displays and in signage . It is a default font in Apple 's iBooks application .
Not explicitly influenced by Bembo but also influenced by Griffo is Minion by Slimbach . Released by Adobe , a 2008 survey ranked it as one of the most popular typefaces used in modern fine printing .
Besides designs with similar inspiration , a number of unofficial releases and digitisations of Bembo have been made in the phototypesetting and digital periods , reflecting the lack of effective intellectual property protection for typefaces . Several unofficial versions were released during the phototypesetting period under alternate names ; for example one unofficial phototypesetting version was named " Biretta " after the hat worn by Roman Catholic clergy , and another by Erhard Kaiser was created for the East German printing concern Typoart , outside the reach of Western intellectual property laws . In the digital period , Rubicon created a version named " Bentley " intended for small sizes and Bitstream made a version under the name of " Aldine 401 " . Its licensee ParaType later created a set of Cyrillic characters for this in 2008 . The name " Bembo " remains a Monotype trademark and may not be used to describe such clones .
= = = Free and open @-@ source fonts = = =
Two open @-@ source designs based on Bembo are Cardo and ET Book . The Cardo fonts , developed by David J. Perry for use in classical scholarship and also including Greek and Hebrew , are freely available under the SIL Open Font License . Unimpressed by the first Bembo digitisation , statistician and designer Edward Tufte commissioned an alternative digitisation for his books in a limited range of styles and languages , sometimes called ' ET Bembo ' . He released it publicly as an open @-@ source font named ' ET Book ' in September 2015 .
= = = Privately used fonts = = =
Heathrow and other British airports used a highly divergent adaptation of Bembo for many years . Designed by Shelley Winters and named BAA Bembo or BAA Sign , it was very bold with a high x @-@ height .
The National Gallery in London used Bembo , then its corporate font , as a plan for the carving of its name into its frontage .
The Yale face , developed by Matthew Carter as a corporate font for Yale University , is based on Griffo 's work ; Yale commissioned a custom font from Carter , a member of the university faculty , after being dissatisfied with digital versions of Bembo . Carter commented on the design that " John Gambell , the Yale University printer who initiated and ran the project , also liked the idea of an Aldine face ... Monotype Bembo had been used for University printing at an earlier time , so there was a useful precedent . " It is available exclusively to " Yale students , employees , and authorized contractors for use in Yale publications and communications . It may not be used for personal or business purposes , and it may not be distributed to non @-@ Yale personnel . "
In the pre @-@ digital period , IBM offered Aldine , a font inspired by Bembo , as a font for the IBM Composer . This was an ultra @-@ premium electric golfball typewriter system , intended for producing copy to be photographically enlarged for small @-@ scale printing projects , or for high @-@ quality office documents . Ultimately the system proved a transitional product , as it was displaced by cheaper phototypesetting , and then in the 1980s by word processors and general @-@ purpose computers .
= Action of 5 May 1794 =
The Action of 5 May 1794 was a minor naval engagement fought in the Indian Ocean during the French Revolutionary Wars . A British squadron had been blockading the French island of Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) since early in the year , and early on 5 May discovered two ships approaching their position . As the strange vessels came closer , they were recognised as the French frigate Duguay Trouin , which had been captured from the East India Company the year before , and a small brig . Making use of a favourable wind , the British squadron gave chase to the new arrivals , which fled . The chase was short , as Duguay Trouin was a poor sailor with many of the crew sick and unable to report for duty . The British frigate HMS Orpheus was the first to arrive , and soon completely disabled the French frigate , successfully raking the wallowing ship . After an hour and twenty minutes the French captain surrendered , Captain Henry Newcome of Orpheus taking over the captured ship and bringing his prize back to port in India .
= = Background = =
Britain joined the French Revolutionary Wars in February 1793 , but the news did not reach the Indian Ocean for four months . The immediate priority of the British squadron under Commodore William Cornwallis in British India was the capture of the French colonies in India , especially their main port of Pondicherry . Once the British had completed this operation at the end of August 1793 , the squadron returned to Europe . This left British commerce in Eastern waters badly exposed , and privateers and warships operating from Isle de France captured a number of merchant vessels , including the large East Indiaman Princess Royal , which three privateer corvettes seized on 27 September in the Sunda Strait .
Princess Royal was a well @-@ armed ship , carrying twenty @-@ six 12 @-@ pounder cannon and a number of smaller calibre guns on the maindeck . The French Navy immediately took her into service as the 34 @-@ gun frigate Duguay Trouin and attached her to the Isle de France squadron of the frigates Prudente and Cybèle , and the brig Vulcain under Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud . This force skirmished inconclusively with a squadron of East India Company ships in the Sunda Strait in January 1794 , before returning to Isle de France with the captured East Indiaman Pigot .
By the early spring of 1794 , three vessels had come out from Britain - 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Orpheus under Captain Henry Newcome , the 50 @-@ gun fifth rate HMS Centurion under Captain Samuel Osbourne , and the 44 @-@ gun HMS Resistance under Captain Edward Pakenham to replace Cornwallis 's squadron . These ships passed the French bases on Isle de France en route to India , and briefly blockaded the port with some success against French merchant vessels : Orpheus alone sent three officers and twenty men to India in captured merchant ships . The French too had ships at sea during this period , Duguay Trouin and Vulcain cruising together in the Indian Ocean during the spring before returning to Isle de France .
= = Battle = =
As the French vessels approached the island on 5 May they were sighted by lookouts on the British squadron . The British captains then waited for the French to get closer , launching a chase in the mid @-@ morning when they held the weather gage so that the wind was behind them . This allowed them to rapidly close with the French vessels whose efforts to escape were hampered by Duguay Trouin 's poor sailing qualities . At 11 : 45 , Orpheus was the first to reach the French frigate , firing on Duguay Trouin from long range . Within ten minutes the British ship had pulled closer to the former East Indiaman and although Duguay Trouin briefly returned fire , Orpheus was soon positioned across the starboard quarter of the French ship , allowing Newcome to pour raking fire into the Duguay Trouin without reply .
By 13 : 15 , Duguay Trouin was a battered wreck , with the hull significantly damaged , the bowsprit shot away and heavy casualties among the crew . With his ship unmanageable and Centurion and Resistance now 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) away and approaching rapidly , the French captain struck his colours and surrendered . The brig Vulcain had taken the opportunity to escape as Duguay Trouin and Orpheus fought and later reached Isle de France . Newcome lost one midshipman killed and one officer and eight men wounded in the exchange from a crew of 194 . Losses on Duguay Trouin were far more severe : the French ship recorded 21 men killed and 60 wounded from a nominal complement of 403 .
= = Aftermath = =
Newcome initially took his prize to Mahé in the Seychelles , where he demanded fresh supplies , particularly water , for his prisoners . The French governors of the islands refused , and Newcome stormed and seized the town , taking all of the supplies and military stores . The wounded and sick prisoners were disembarked , and the contents of a small French brig were turned over to the inhabitants to replace the seized supplies . Newcome then returned to India with his prize , but the ship was not subsequently purchased by the Royal Navy .
Historical reaction to the battle has focused on the significantly stronger British position in the encounter , with three large regular warships pitted against a hastily converted merchant vessel with a significant proportion of the crew suffering from illness . Duguay @-@ Trouin was also weakly built and weakly armed : early estimates that the Duguay Trouin 's main battery mounted twenty @-@ six 18 @-@ pounder long guns were revised to 12 @-@ pounders with eight smaller cannon on the upper deck . The British blockade of Isle de France continued throughout the year , with Centurion engaged in an inconclusive action against a French squadron in October . Although Isle de France remained in French hands throughout the conflict , the Indian Ocean was largely under British control by 1796 .
= Mash @-@ Up ( Glee ) =
" Mash @-@ Up " is the eighth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 21 , 2009 . It was written by series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Elodie Keene . The episode sees glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) attempt to create a wedding medley in the style of a mash @-@ up for his colleagues Emma ( Jayma Mays ) and Ken ( Patrick Gallagher ) . Students Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) find that they are no longer considered popular , while glee club members Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) become romantically involved , as do cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) and local news anchor Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) .
The episode features covers of five songs . Studio recordings of three of the songs were released as singles , available for digital download , and three are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . Neil Diamond was hesitant about licensing his song " Sweet Caroline " to the show , but was convinced by series music producer P.J. Bloom and ultimately enjoyed the performance given by Salling . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 24 million US viewers . Musical performances received mixed reviews from critics . The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez described " Mash @-@ Up " as a " turning point " for Glee , praising the episode for its character development .
= = Plot = =
Football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) and guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) ask glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) to create a mash @-@ up for their wedding , using " Thong Song " and " I Could Have Danced All Night " from My Fair Lady . Ken senses that Emma would rather be with Will instead of him , so he gives the football @-@ playing glee club members an ultimatum by scheduling an extra football practice on the same day as glee rehearsals .
Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) and Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) have slushies thrown in their faces by other students , who want to take them down now that their high social status as football quarterback and head cheerleader has slipped because of Quinn 's pregnancy and their membership in the glee club . Puck 's ( Mark Salling ) mother ( Gina Hecht ) encourages him to date a Jewish girl , and he decides to court Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . At first she excuses herself by saying she needs a strong male who can perform a solo . As a result , Puck sings " Sweet Caroline " as his first solo for the glee club , dedicating it to Rachel and sealing the relationship . The two ultimately break up as a result of Rachel 's feelings for Finn and Puck 's feelings for Quinn .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) falls in love with Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) , a television news anchor on the program where she has an opinion segment , and makes amends with Will . However , her relationship fails when she discovers that Rod is cheating on her and , returning to form , Sue removes Quinn from the cheerleading squad because of her pregnancy .
Although Finn has chosen to stay on the football team , all the other dual members instead quit to remain in the glee club . Ken reverses his ultimatum after a conversation with a dismayed Finn and cancels the extra practice , allowing the football players to again do both activities . Meanwhile , Will and Emma spend more time together while Will prepares the mash @-@ up , and soon realize they have strong feelings for one another . Will decides to remove himself from the equation and later tells Emma and Ken that he will not be able to create their mash @-@ up .
= = Production = =
" Mash @-@ Up " was written by series creator Ian Brennan and directed by Elodie Keene . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , athletes Lipoff ( Zack Lively ) , Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and Azimio ( James Earl , III ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Gallagher ) , and local news anchors Rod Remington ( Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Gina Hecht guest @-@ stars as Puck 's mother .
The episode features covers of " Bust a Move " by Young MC , Sisqó 's " Thong Song " , Neil Diamond 's " Sweet Caroline " , " I Could Have Danced All Night " from the musical My Fair Lady , and " What a Girl Wants " by Christina Aguilera . An instrumental version of " Sing , Sing , Sing ( With a Swing ) " by Louis Prima is used in the scene which sees Will teach Sue how to swing dance . Diamond had some reluctance over licensing " Sweet Caroline " to the show , and retracted clearance after the performance had already been recorded . Glee 's music supervisor P.J. Bloom was able to convince him to reverse his decision , and Diamond went on to also license his song " Hello Again " for use on the show at a later date . Following the episode 's broadcast , Diamond posted his approval on the social networking website Twitter , writing : " Hey , so who 's this guy Puck singing " Sweet Caroline " so good , so good , so good on # Glee ? Loved it ! ! "
Studio recordings of " Bust a Move " , " Thong Song " and " Sweet Caroline " were released as singles , available for digital download . " Bust a Move " charted at number 93 in the US and 78 in Canada , while " Sweet Caroline " charted at number 34 in the US , 22 in Canada and 37 in Australia . " Bust a Move " and " Sweet Caroline " are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , with a studio recording of " I Could Have Danced All Night " included as a bonus track on discs purchased from Target .
= = Reception = =
" Mash @-@ Up " was watched by 7 @.@ 24 million US viewers , and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . It was the nineteenth most watched show in Canada for the week , with 1 @.@ 52 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 053 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 601 million on E4 , and 452 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and one of the most @-@ watched shows on cable for the week .
Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the episode as " a turning point for Glee " , commenting that although there had previously been criticism of many of the characters for being " one note " , this episode demonstrated that was not the case , showing that Will has a playful side , Sue has feelings , and Puck is able to " emerge from his bonehead @-@ punk exterior " . Andrea Reiher of Zap2it was glad that Will 's wife Terri did not appear in the episode , commenting : " I like Jessalyn Gilsig but that character drives me outhouse @-@ rat crazy . " Eric Goldman for IGN rated the episode 8 @.@ 2 / 10 , writing that he wished Sue 's relationship with Rod could have lasted more than one episode , as : " it would have been amusing to see happy , in love Sue a bit longer , before her inevitable return to evil . "
Musical performances in " Mash @-@ Up " received mixed reviews . Joal Ryan for E ! Online criticized the show 's " overproduced soundtrack " , writing that Monteith was being edited to sound like Cher , and that when Morrison sang " The Thong Song " and " Bust a Move " , " he sounded like he was in a music video , not a suburban high school . " He enjoyed Michele 's " What a Girl Wants " , calling her singing " raw and lovely " . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak criticized the " Bust A Move " performance , writing that Morrison gave a " pale imitation " of the Young M.C. original . He was slightly more positive regarding the " Thong Song " performance , feeling that Morrison had " a slightly less overwrought vocal than Sisqó " , and observed that Salling did " more than a serviceable job " on " Sweet Caroline " . Fellow Entertainment Weekly writer Dan Snierson called Morrison 's performances " pretty impressive " , and MTV 's Aly Semigran also enjoyed them , writing : " We want more ! " . Goldman too was positive regarding Morrison 's performances , noting : " There is of course something completely dorky about seeing this guy perform these songs , but Morrison infuses Will with such enjoyment in what he 's doing , he completely sells it . "
Glee 's writers have also been praised for the episode 's comedic content ; one particular joke ( performed by Lynch as Sue ) was called an " instant classic " by television writer / producer Jane Espenson . According to Espenson :
" The beauty of the joke is that ... [ it ] WANTS you to get ahead of it , and then subverts your expectation . This is extremely hard to pull off because you have to make certain that the audience is going to get ahead of the joke , but you can 't be so obvious about it that you know they 're going to anticipate the switch @-@ up . This particular version is a thing of joy . I think a lot of what makes it work is the violence of the final image — you lose nothing of the force of the threat by not getting to any violence against the kitten . "
= The Unnatural ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Unnatural " is the 19th episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , which first aired on April 25 , 1999 , on the Fox network . Written and directed by lead actor David Duchovny , the episode is unconnected to the wider mythology of The X @-@ Files , and functions as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . " The Unnatural " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , and its first broadcast was watched by 16 @.@ 88 million people . The episode received positive reviews from critics , and was well @-@ liked by members of the cast and crew , including series creator Chris Carter and co @-@ star Gillian Anderson .
The series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer ; although the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Arthur Dales ( M. Emmet Walsh ) , the brother of a previously recurring retired FBI agent with the same name , tells Mulder the story of a black baseball player who played for the Roswell Grays in Roswell , New Mexico in 1947 under the pseudonym " Josh Exley " ( Jesse L. Martin ) . Exley was actually an alien with a love of baseball . Exley is later tracked down by the Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) and executed for betraying his people .
Among other things , the episode was inspired by the history of baseball in Roswell , as well as the infamous 1947 Roswell Incident . Jesse Martin was offered the lead guest role as Exley after Duchovny noticed him in a production of the musical Rent and an episode of Ally McBeal . Originally , Darren McGavin was cast as Arthur Dales , but after he suffered a stroke , he was replaced by Walsh . Many of the outdoor baseball scenes were filmed at Jay Littleton Ballfield , an all @-@ wood stadium located in Ontario , California . The episode has been critically examined for its use of literary motifs , its fairy tale @-@ like structure , and its themes concerning racism and alienation .
= = Plot = =
In 1947 , a mixed group of black and white men play baseball in Roswell , New Mexico . Suddenly , a group of Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ) members arrive on horseback , seeking one of the players : Josh Exley ( Jesse L. Martin ) , a talented black baseball player . Men from the team fight back against the KKK , and when the mask of the clan 's leader is taken off , the leader is revealed to actually be an alien .
In 1999 , FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) look through Roswell newspapers from the 1940s . Mulder spots an article showing a young Arthur Dales ( Frederic Lane ) — the original investigator of the X @-@ Files division who had previously appeared in the fifth season episode " Travelers " and the sixth season episode " Agua Mala " — Josh Exley , and the shape @-@ shifting Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) who has assisted the show 's antagonists throughout the series . Mulder seeks out Dales in Washington D.C. but finds that he still lives in Florida . Instead , Mulder meets Dales 's brother ( M. Emmet Walsh ) , who is also named Arthur .
In flashback , Dales tells Mulder about first meeting Exley in 1947 . Dales ( portrayed as a young man by Frederic Lane ) , a member of the Roswell Police Department , has been assigned to protect a hesitant Exley . Dales travels with Exley and his teammates on their bus , and one night sees that the sleeping Exley is reflected in a window as an alien . The next day , during a game , Exley is hit by a pitch and starts making utterances in a strange language before returning to his senses . Afterwards , Dales notices that a mysterious green ooze appeared where Exley 's bleeding head had rested .
Dales decides to investigate Exley 's hometown of Macon , Georgia , and discovers that a boy with Exley 's name had vanished about five years previously . That night at the hotel , Dales hears noises from Exley 's hotel room and breaks in , only to find Exley in his true form as an alien . Exley tells Dales that he was forbidden from intermingling with the human race but fell in love with the game of baseball and remained on Earth . Meanwhile , the Alien Bounty Hunter , who has been pursuing the renegade alien ever since he deserted his alien heritage , takes Exley 's form and murders a scientist who is investigating the green ooze that Dales found . After learning of the attack , Dales warns Exley that he is now wanted by the police , and Exley goes into hiding .
The narrative returns to the events at the start of the episode . The KKK leader is revealed as the Alien Bounty Hunter , who has arrived to assassinate Exley . The Bounty Hunter demands that Exley revert to his true form before he dies . Exley refuses and the Bounty Hunter then kills him . However , Exley miraculously bleeds red , human blood . Back in 1999 , Mulder invites Scully to hit baseballs with him on an empty field .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
" The Unnatural " was the first episode of the series that Duchovny wrote by himself . He had previously co @-@ developed the stories for the second season episodes " Colony " and " Anasazi " - both with series creator Chris Carter , and received teleplay credits for the third season episodes " Avatar " and " Talitha Cumi " . As The X @-@ Files entered its sixth season , Duchovny decided that it was an appropriate time to try writing a full episode . Before then , he had felt that he did not have the skills necessary ; he said , " I didn 't have the surety , the confidence in my mind , that I could write a teleplay ... It took me to the sixth year of the show to actually sit down and write one of my ideas . " In late 1998 , Duchovny met with series creator Carter and they agreed that Duchovny would write a late @-@ season installment for the series .
While both Duchovny and Carter had wanted to write an episode about baseball for several years , Duchovny first conceived the basic premise for " The Unnatural " during the home run race in 1998 between Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa when he read a newspaper report about Joe Bauman . Bauman was a baseball player who , despite hitting 72 home runs during the 1954 season — at the time , a record for a professional player — never made it to the Major Leagues . Duchovny immediately connected the story of Bauman , who played for the Roswell Rockets , with the 1947 Roswell Incident , saying " I just made the association ... What if this guy was an alien ? and I just started working on that idea . " Duchovny later said that " these happy chronological coincidences " facilitated the development of the story . Duchovny worked on his idea alone , later admitting that he was satisfied that he did not receive any help .
Duchovny decided to make the lead guest character black and set the story before the integration of the baseball leagues , inspired by Jackie Robinson , the first black player who was accepted into the Major Leagues in the 1940s . After Duchovny finished his first draft , Carter added additional plot points , such as the inclusion of the Alien Bounty Hunter and retired FBI agent Arthur Dales . The episode title is a play on the novel and movie The Natural . The tagline that appears in the opening credits for this episode is " In the Big Inning " , which serves as a pun on the phrase , " In the beginning " .
= = = Casting = = =
Jesse L. Martin was the first actor considered to play the part of Exley . Duchovny had first noticed Martin in a production of the musical Rent , and noticed him again during a guest appearance on the Fox legal comedy @-@ drama Ally McBeal . Watching the latter performance , Duchovny decided that Martin had the " right feel " for the lead role . Duchovny later noted that he had little involvement with the casting process since a majority of the characters in the episode were recurring .
Originally , Darren McGavin was set to reprise his role as Arthur Dales ; the character had previously appeared in the episodes " Travelers " and " Agua Mala " . Two days after filming began , McGavin suffered a stroke , forcing Duchovny and the producers to remove from the episode the few scenes he had shot , rewrite the script to explain his absence , and replace his character with M. Emmet Walsh . Because many of the scenes featuring a younger Dales had already been shot , Duchovny was forced to give Walsh 's character the same name as McGavin 's character ; this was justified in the episode as a quirk on behalf of the two brothers ' parents . The two scenes that were filmed with McGavin included the sequence in which Mulder asks Dales whether all great baseball players are aliens , and a scene in which Mulder asks Dales why he joined the FBI . McGavin , who eventually recovered , later allowed the scenes to be included on the sixth season DVD as bonus features . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later called it a " great sorrow that " the show had to replace Darren McGavin because the series ' producers were " huge fans " of his role in the 1972 film The Night Stalker and television series of the same name .
Actor Frederic Lane had previously appeared in " Travelers , " playing the younger version of McGavin 's character . Since McGavin was written out of the episode , Lane played the younger version of Walsh 's character . Los Angeles Dodgers radio announcer Vin Scully , whose name was the original inspiration for Dana Scully 's name , played the baseball announcer in this episode . The announcer was initially unable to appear owing to budgetary issues , but later agreed to record his part for free . Daniel Duchovny , David 's brother , appeared in this episode in a minor role as a bench jockey .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
" The Unnatural " was the first entry of the series to be directed by Duchovny . While Duchovny was working on plot points with Carter , the two agreed that the episode would serve as Duchovny 's directorial debut . As the episode did not heavily feature his character , since it is framed as a flashback , Duchovny was able to focus on pre @-@ production . This narratological method also gave Anderson a minor respite from her work . While Duchovny later expressed gratitude that " The Unnatural " enabled him to get a feel for directing , he also experienced severe anxiety during the production process because of the stress of both writing and directing . However , when the episode was finished , Duchovny was pleased , calling the results " great . " He later noted that his stress was largely uncalled for because the episode would have been made even " if [ he ] just showed up and drooled for 24 hours a day . "
The first five seasons of the series were mainly filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , but production of the show 's sixth season was based in Los Angeles , California . Jay Littleton Ballfield , an all @-@ wood stadium located in Ontario , California , was used as the setting for the Roswell Baseball Stadium . The show 's producers advertised in local newspapers and on local radio for fans to attend the game dressed in 1940s clothing . During filming , a raffle was held between takes , and signed copies of the The X @-@ Files movie , soundtrack , and film poster were given away . The scene featuring Mulder teaching Scully how to play baseball was filmed at Cheviot Hills Park in Los Angeles . The park was later used in the eighth season episode " Three Words " and the ninth season episode " Lord of the Flies " .
Costume designer Christine Peters crafted the episode 's baseball uniforms after visiting Sports Robe , a Hollywood costume house . Dena Green from the hair department gave extras haircuts so that they would be in the style of the 1940s . Car coordinator Kelly Padovich rented two 1947 model Flexible buses for the Roswell Greys on @-@ bus scenes , as well as various other 1930s- and 1940s @-@ era cars . Researcher Lee Smith worked with the Baseball Hall of Fame to ensure the accuracy of the statistics used in the episode . The props department developed from scratch the Peter Rosebud Bank that Dales shows Mulder ; it was one of the most expensive props of the season . The score by Mark Snow , the show 's composer , was recorded with musicians rather than synthesizers for the first time in the series ' history ; slide guitar player Nick Kirgo and harmonica performer Tommy Morgan assisted Snow with the music .
= = Themes = =
Near the beginning of the episode , Mulder uses one of William Blake 's " Proverbs of Hell " from his 18th century book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell in an argument with Scully : " The road to excess leads to the palace of wisdom . " Sharon R. Yang , in her essay " Weaving and Unweaving the Story , " writes that Mulder is using affluent literature to " justify his passionate dedication to questing for knowledge in arcane areas scorned by mainstream intellectual authority " . In addition , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , argue that the episode functions as a fairy tale , and that its conclusion is an example of a happy ending ; Exley bleeds red blood as he lays dying , granting the alien his wish to become human . In addition , the two mused that the meta nature of the episode is similar to the way fans of the series reacted to new episodes of The X @-@ Files .
Ideas of racism and segregation also permeate the episode . Sara Gwenllian @-@ Jones in her book Cult Television argues that , throughout the entry , " the blacks are equated with aliens , " turning them into a certain type of " other " that is " never allowed to fit in or feel safe " . Gwenllian @-@ Jones highlights the scene in which Dales , late one night on the team bus , wakes to see Exley 's sleeping body being reflected as an alien in a window as an example of the racial comparison . She points out that , despite coming to Earth , Exley has moved from one segregated society — that of the aliens — into another . She points out that Exley , after revealing his true form to Dales , says that " my people guard their privacy zealously . They don 't want our people to intermingle with your people " . This quote expresses a similar sentiment to the segregated mentality of the 1940s .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Unnatural " originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 25 , 1999 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky 1 on July 4 , 1999 . In the U.S. , the episode was watched by 16 @.@ 88 million viewers , and ranked as the 17th most @-@ watched episode of any series on network TV for the week ending April 25 . It earned a Nielsen household rating
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yte tuffs containing rare zircon @-@ hafnium silicates eudialyte or armstrongite , at Dubbo in New South Wales , Australia .
Hafnium reserves have been infamously estimated to last under 10 years by one source if the world population increases and demand grows . In reality , since hafnium occurs with zirconium , hafnium can always be a byproduct of zirconium extraction to the extent that the low demand requires .
= = Production = =
The heavy mineral sands ore deposits of the titanium ores ilmenite and rutile yield most of the mined zirconium , and therefore also most of the hafnium .
Zirconium is a good nuclear fuel @-@ rod cladding metal , with the desirable properties of a very low neutron capture cross @-@ section and good chemical stability at high temperatures . However , because of hafnium 's neutron @-@ absorbing properties , hafnium impurities in zirconium would cause it to be far less useful for nuclear @-@ reactor applications . Thus , a nearly complete separation of zirconium and hafnium is necessary for their use in nuclear power . The production of hafnium @-@ free zirconium is the main source for hafnium .
The chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are nearly identical , which makes the two difficult to separate . The methods first used — fractional crystallization of ammonium fluoride salts or the fractionated distillation of the chloride — have not proven suitable for an industrial @-@ scale production . After zirconium was chosen as material for nuclear reactor programs in the 1940s , a separation method had to be developed . Liquid @-@ liquid extraction processes with a wide variety of solvents were developed and are still used for the production of hafnium . About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced as a by @-@ product of zirconium refinement . The end product of the separation is hafnium ( IV ) chloride . The purified hafnium ( IV ) chloride is converted to the metal by reduction with magnesium or sodium , as in the Kroll process .
HfCl4 + 2 Mg ( 1100 ° C ) → 2 MgCl2 + Hf
Further purification is effected by a chemical transport reaction developed by Arkel and de Boer : In a closed vessel , hafnium reacts with iodine at temperatures of 500 ° C , forming hafnium ( IV ) iodide ; at a tungsten filament of 1700 ° C the reverse reaction happens , and the iodine and hafnium are set free . The hafnium forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament , and the iodine can react with additional hafnium , resulting in a steady turn over .
Hf + 2 I2 ( 500 ° C ) → HfI4
HfI4 ( 1700 ° C ) → Hf + 2 I2
= = Chemical compounds = =
Hafnium and zirconium form nearly identical series of chemical compounds . Hafnium tends to form inorganic compounds in the oxidation state of + 4 . Halogens react with it to form hafnium tetrahalides . At higher temperatures , hafnium reacts with oxygen , nitrogen , carbon , boron , sulfur , and silicon . Due to the lanthanide contraction of the elements in the sixth period , zirconium and hafnium have nearly identical ionic radii . The ionic radius of Zr4 + is 0 @.@ 79 angstrom and that of Hf4 + is 0 @.@ 78 angstrom .
Hafnium ( IV ) chloride and hafnium ( IV ) iodide have some applications in the production and purification of hafnium metal . They are volatile solids with polymeric structures . These tetrachlorides are precursors to various organohafnium compounds such as hafnocene dichloride and tetrabenzylhafnium .
The white hafnium oxide ( HfO2 ) , with a melting point of 2812 ° C and a boiling point of roughly 5100 ° C , is very similar to zirconia , but slightly more basic . Hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary compound known , with a melting point over 3890 ° C , and hafnium nitride is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides , with a melting point of 3310 ° C. This has led to proposals that hafnium or its carbides might be useful as construction materials that are subjected to very high temperatures . The mixed carbide tantalum hafnium carbide ( Ta
4HfC
5 ) possesses the highest melting point of any currently known compound , 4215 ° C. Recent supercomputer simulations suggest a hafnium alloy with a melting point of 4400 K.
= = History = =
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements , in 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev had implicitly predicted the existence of a heavier analog of titanium and zirconium . At the time of his formulation in 1871 , Mendeleev believed that the elements were ordered by their atomic masses and placed lanthanum ( element 57 ) in the spot below zirconium . The exact placement of the elements and the location of missing elements was done by determining the specific weight of the elements and comparing the chemical and physical properties .
The X @-@ ray spectroscopy done by Henry Moseley in 1914 showed a direct dependency between spectral line and effective nuclear charge . This led to the nuclear charge , or atomic number of an element , being used to ascertain its place within the periodic table . With this method , Moseley determined the number of lanthanides and showed the gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43 , 61 , 72 , and 75 .
The discovery of the gaps led to an extensive search for the missing elements . In 1914 , several people claimed the discovery after Henry Moseley predicted the gap in the periodic table for the then @-@ undiscovered element 72 . Georges Urbain asserted that he found element 72 in the rare earth elements in 1907 and published his results on celtium in 1911 . Neither the spectra nor the chemical behavior matched with the element found later , and therefore his claim was turned down after a long @-@ standing controversy . The controversy was partly because the chemists favored the chemical techniques which led to the discovery of celtium , while the physicists relied on the use of the new X @-@ ray spectroscopy method that proved that the substances discovered by Urbain did not contain element 72 . By early 1923 , several physicists and chemists such as Niels Bohr and Charles R. Bury suggested that element 72 should resemble zirconium and therefore was not part of the rare earth elements group . These suggestions were based on Bohr 's theories of the atom , the X @-@ ray spectroscopy of Mosley , and the chemical arguments of Friedrich Paneth .
Encouraged by these suggestions and by the reappearance in 1922 of Urbain 's claims that element 72 was a rare earth element discovered in 1911 , Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy were motivated to search for the new element in zirconium ores . Hafnium was discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen , Denmark , validating the original 1869 prediction of Mendeleev . It was ultimately found in zircon in Norway through X @-@ ray spectroscopy analysis . The place where the discovery took place led to the element being named for the Latin name for " Copenhagen " , Hafnia , the home town of Niels Bohr . Today , the Faculty of Science of the University of Copenhagen uses in its seal a stylized image of the hafnium atom .
Hafnium was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of the double ammonium or potassium fluorides by Valdemar Thal Jantzen and von Hevesey . Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated tungsten filament in 1924 . This process for differential purification of zirconium and hafnium is still in use today .
In 1923 , four predicted elements were still missing from the periodic table : 43 ( technetium ) and 61 ( promethium ) are radioactive elements and are only present in trace amounts in the environment , thus making elements 75 ( rhenium ) and 72 ( hafnium ) the last two unknown non @-@ radioactive elements . Since rhenium was discovered in 1925 , hafnium was the next @-@ to @-@ last element with stable isotopes to be discovered .
= = Applications = =
Several details contribute to the fact that there are only a few technical uses for hafnium : First , the close similarity between hafnium and zirconium makes it possible to use zirconium for most of the applications ; second , hafnium was first available as pure metal after the use in the nuclear industry for hafnium @-@ free zirconium in the late 1950s . Furthermore , the low abundance and difficult separation techniques necessary make it a scarce commodity .
Most of the hafnium produced is used in the production of control rods for nuclear reactors .
= = = Nuclear reactors = = =
The nuclei of several hafnium isotopes can each absorb multiple neutrons . This makes hafnium a good material for use in the control rods for nuclear reactors . Its neutron @-@ capture cross @-@ section is about 600 times that of zirconium . ( Other elements that are good neutron @-@ absorbers for control rods are cadmium and boron . ) Excellent mechanical properties and exceptional corrosion @-@ resistance properties allow its use in the harsh environment of pressurized water reactors . The German research reactor FRM II uses hafnium as a neutron absorber . It is also common in military reactors , particularity in US naval reactors , but seldom found in civilian ones , the first core of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station ( a conversion of a naval reactor ) being a notable exception .
= = = Alloys = = =
Hafnium is used in alloys with iron , titanium , niobium , tantalum , and other metals . An alloy used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles , for example the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules , is C103 which consists of 89 % niobium , 10 % hafnium and 1 % titanium .
Small additions of hafnium increase the adherence of protective oxide scales on nickel @-@ based alloys . It improves thereby the corrosion resistance especially under cyclic temperature conditions that tend to break oxide scales by inducing thermal stresses between the bulk material and the oxide layer .
= = = Microprocessors = = =
Hafnium @-@ based compounds are employed in gate insulators in the 45 nm generation of integrated circuits from Intel , IBM and others . Hafnium oxide @-@ based compounds are practical high @-@ k dielectrics , allowing reduction of the gate leakage current which improves performance at such scales .
= = = Isotope geochemistry = = =
Isotopes of hafnium and lutetium ( along with ytterbium ) are also utilized in isotope geochemistry and geochronological applications . It is often used as a tracer of isotopic evolution of Earth ’ s mantle through time . This is because 176Lu decays to 176Hf with a half @-@ life of approximately 37 billion years .
In most geologic materials , zircon is the dominant host of hafnium ( > 10 @,@ 000 ppm ) and is often the focus of hafnium studies in geology . Hafnium is readily substituted into the zircon crystal lattice , and is therefore very resistant to hafnium mobility and contamination . Zircon also has an extremely low Lu / Hf ratio , making any correction for initial lutetium minimal . Although the Lu / Hf system can be used to calculate a " model age " , i.e. the time at which it was derived from a given isotopic reservoir such as the depleted mantle , these " ages " do not carry the same geologic significance as do other geochronological techniques as the results often yield isotopic mixtures and thus provide an average age of the material from which it was derived .
Garnet is another mineral that contains appreciable amounts of hafnium to act as a geochronometer . Given the high and variable Lu / Hf ratios found in garnet make it useful for dating metamorphic events .
= = = Other uses = = =
Due to its heat resistance and its affinity to oxygen and nitrogen , hafnium is a good scavenger for oxygen and nitrogen in gas @-@ filled and incandescent lamps . Hafnium is also used as the electrode in plasma cutting because of its ability to shed electrons into air .
The high energy content of 178m2Hf was the concern of a DARPA @-@ funded program in the US . This program determined that the possibility of using a nuclear isomer of hafnium ( the above @-@ mentioned 178m2Hf ) to construct high @-@ yield weapons with X @-@ ray triggering mechanisms — an application of induced gamma emission — was infeasible because of its expense . See Hafnium controversy .
= = Precautions = =
Care needs to be taken when machining hafnium because it is pyrophoric — fine particles can spontaneously combust when exposed to air . Compounds that contain this metal are rarely encountered by most people . The pure metal is not considered toxic , but hafnium compounds should be handled as if they were toxic because the ionic forms of metals are normally at greatest risk for toxicity , and limited animal testing has been done for hafnium compounds .
People can be exposed to hafnium in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for exposure to hafnium and hafnium compounds in the workplace as TWA 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set the same recommended exposure limit ( REL ) . At levels of 50 mg / m3 , hafnium is immediately dangerous to life and health .
= Tropical Storm Beryl ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Storm Beryl was the third tropical storm of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Developing from a tropical disturbance on July 18 , it tracked generally northward , and strengthened to attain peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) under generally favorable conditions . After turning to the northeast , Beryl weakened over cooler waters . On July 21 it struck the island of Nantucket , and shortly thereafter it became extratropical . The extratropical remnants continued northeastward through Nova Scotia , and on July 22 it merged with an approaching cold front .
Beryl produced rough seas along the northeast United States coastline . In Massachusetts , its impact was limited to light rainfall and gusty winds , with no reported damage . Beryl later produced moderate rainfall and gusty winds across Atlantic Canada , resulting in some localized power outages though little damage . No deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
A cold front moved off the East Coast of the United States on July 16 and stalled off the coast of North Carolina . It gradually decayed into a surface low pressure trough , and developed into two disturbances ; one was centered 290 miles ( 490 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Cod and another was located 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The first low quickly organized into an unnamed tropical storm , and the other area initially remained broad and ill @-@ defined . However , by July 18 , the system became much better organized with improved banding features , and the area developed into Tropical Depression Two while located 220 miles ( 355 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Hatteras .
The depression moved slowly to the north @-@ northwest through a break in the subtropical ridge , and as convective banding features became more prominent the system intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl . Throughout much of its duration , the storm tracked through an environment with light vertical wind shear and well @-@ established upper @-@ level outflow . Shortly after becoming a tropical storm , the low @-@ level circulation of Beryl became exposed with limited deep convection , though deep convection re @-@ developed the following morning . Outflow continued to improve , and with warm sea surface temperatures Beryl gradually intensified to attain peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) early on July 20 while located about 120 miles ( 190 km ) east of Nags Head , North Carolina .
Beryl maintained peak winds for about 18 hours as it paralleled the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New Jersey coasts , during which an eye @-@ like feature developed in the center of the convection . Late on July 20 , it began a slow weakening trend after passing over cooler waters . Steering winds ahead of an approaching mid @-@ level trough caused Beryl to accelerate northeastward , and early on July 21 the center of the storm crossed the island of Nantucket . The convection diminished as it moved through progressively colder waters , and shortly after 1200 UTC on July 21 Beryl became an extratropical cyclone a short distance east of Cape Cod . Hours later , it made landfall in southwestern Nova Scotia , and on July 22 the extratropical remnants of Beryl merged with an approaching cold front over Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
Forecasters initially predicted Beryl to brush the Carolinas ; as such , a tropical storm watch was issued for the eastern coast of North Carolina from Cape Lookout northward to Currituck Beach Lighthouse . When a more northeastward track became apparent , a tropical storm watch was issued about 33 hours prior to moving ashore from Woods Hole to Plymouth , Massachusetts , including Cape Cod , Nantucket , and Martha 's Vineyard . About 22 hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center replaced the watch with a tropical storm warning for the same area , and also issued a tropical storm watch from Woods Hole , Massachusetts westward to New Haven , Connecticut and for the eastern portion of Long Island from east of Fire Island to Port Jefferson . In anticipation for the storm , the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency was activated as a trial run for the hurricane season . Local Red Cross chapters were opened , as well , with two volunteer teams placed on standby to assist . Across southeastern Massachusetts , police departments maintained extra staff in preparation for any potential problems from the storm . Many fishermen secured their boats , while some business owners boarded up windows to prevent storm damage .
Several days prior to the passage of Beryl through Atlantic Canada , the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued gale warnings for the coastal waters off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . In anticipation of heavy rainfall , the agency also issued heavy rainfall warnings for western Nova Scotia , including Halifax .
= = Impact = =
The storm caused high waves along the East Coast of the United States , with 19 @-@ foot seas ( 5 @.@ 97 m ) in the open ocean . Waves along the southern coast of Nantucket reached 10 feet ( 3 m ) in height as the storm approached the island , resulting in four people being rescued by lifeguards from rip currents . High surf also occurred along the southern coast of Massachusetts , prompting the closing of the ferry between Nantucket and Boston . Beryl produced a storm surge of 0 @.@ 9 feet ( .27 m ) on Nantucket . Winds across southeastern Massachusetts were fairly light , with no sustained tropical storm force winds and wind gusts peaking at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) ; unofficially gusts reached 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) . Beryl dropped moderate precipitation just offshore , though the maximum precipitation total in the United States was only 0 @.@ 97 inches ( 24 @.@ 6 mm ) on Nantucket . Rainfall along southeastern Massachusetts reached 0 @.@ 33 inches ( 8 @.@ 38 mm ) at Chatham . The only reported damage were some downed telephone poles and fallen tree branches . Overall impact was minor ; there were no reported power outages , deaths , injuries , or maritime emergencies in association with the storm .
The remnants of Beryl dropped moderate precipitation in Atlantic Canada , officially peaking at 2 @.@ 8 inches ( 71 mm ) in Scots Bay , Nova Scotia with an unofficially higher total of 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 88 mm ) ; in some locations 1 inch of rain fell in an hour . Additionally , a station in Fredericton , New Brunswick reported 1 @.@ 77 inches ( 45 mm ) in two hours . The rainfall caused some flooding , with some overflown streams flooding some streets . Moderate winds were reported along its path , which peaked at 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) in southern Nova Scotia . The winds downed some tree limbs and led to some power outages . Overall damage was minor .
= Weak interaction =
In particle physics , the weak interaction , the weak force or weak nuclear force , is one of the four known fundamental interactions of nature , alongside the strong interaction , electromagnetism , and gravitation . The weak interaction is responsible for radioactive decay , which plays an essential role in nuclear fission . The theory of the weak interaction is sometimes called quantum flavordynamics ( QFD ) , in analogy with the terms QCD and QED , but the term is rarely used because the weak force is best understood in terms of electro @-@ weak theory ( EWT ) .
In the Standard Model of particle physics , the weak interaction is caused by the emission or absorption of the force carriers , the W and Z bosons . All known fermions interact through the weak interaction . Fermions are particles that have half @-@ integer spin . Spin is one of the fundamental properties of particles . A fermion can be an elementary particle , such as the electron , or it can be a composite particle , such as the proton . The masses of W + , W − , and Z bosons are each far greater than that of interacting protons or neutrons , which is consistent with the short range of the weak force . The force is termed weak because its field strength over a given distance is typically several orders of magnitude less than that of the strong nuclear force and electromagnetic force .
During the quark epoch of the early universe , the electroweak force separated into the electromagnetic and weak forces . Important examples of the weak interaction include beta decay , and the fusion of hydrogen into deuterium that powers the Sun 's thermonuclear process . Most fermions will decay by a weak interaction over time . Such decay makes radiocarbon dating possible , as carbon @-@ 14 decays through the weak interaction to nitrogen @-@ 14 . It can also create radioluminescence , commonly used in tritium illumination , and in the related field of betavoltaics .
Quarks , which make up composite particles like neutrons and protons , come in six " flavours " – up , down , strange , charm , top and bottom – which give those composite particles their properties . The weak interaction is unique in that it allows for quarks to swap their flavour for another . The swapping of those properties is mediated by the force carrier bosons . For example , during beta minus decay , a down quark within a neutron is changed into an up quark , converting the neutron to a proton and resulting in the emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino . Also , the weak interaction is the only fundamental interaction that breaks parity @-@ symmetry , and similarly , the only one to break charge parity symmetry .
= = History = =
In 1933 , Enrico Fermi proposed the first theory of the weak interaction , known as Fermi 's interaction . He suggested that beta decay could be explained by a four @-@ fermion interaction , involving a contact force with no range .
However , it is better described as a non @-@ contact force field having a finite range , albeit very short . In 1968 , Sheldon Glashow , Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg unified the electromagnetic force and the weak interaction by showing them to be two aspects of a single force , now termed the electro @-@ weak force .
The existence of the W and Z bosons was not directly confirmed until 1983 .
= = Properties = =
The weak interaction is unique in a number of respects :
It is the only interaction capable of changing the flavor of quarks ( i.e. , of changing one type of quark into another ) .
It is the only interaction that violates P or parity @-@ symmetry . It is also the only one that violates CP symmetry .
It is propagated by force carrier particles that have significant masses , an unusual feature which is explained in the Standard Model by the Higgs mechanism .
Due to their large mass ( approximately 90 GeV / c2 ) these carrier particles , termed the W and Z bosons , are short @-@ lived with a lifetime of under 10 − 24 seconds . The weak interaction has a coupling constant ( an indicator of interaction strength ) of between 10 − 7 and 10 − 6 , compared to the strong interaction 's coupling constant of 1 and the electromagnetic coupling constant of about 10 − 2 ; consequently the weak interaction is weak in terms of strength . The weak interaction has a very short range ( around 10 − 17 to 10 − 16 m ) . At distances around 10 − 18 meters , the weak interaction has a strength of a similar magnitude to the electromagnetic force , but this starts to decrease exponentially with increasing distance . At distances of around 3 × 10 − 17 m , the weak interaction is 10 @,@ 000 times weaker than the electromagnetic .
The weak interaction affects all the fermions of the Standard Model , as well as the Higgs boson ; neutrinos interact through gravity and the weak interaction only , and neutrinos were the original reason for the name weak force . The weak interaction does not produce bound states ( nor does it involve binding energy ) – something that gravity does on an astronomical scale , that the electromagnetic force does at the atomic level , and that the strong nuclear force does inside nuclei .
Its most noticeable effect is due to its first unique feature : flavor changing . A neutron , for example , is heavier than a proton ( its sister nucleon ) , but it cannot decay into a proton without changing the flavor ( type ) of one of its two down quarks to an up quark . Neither the strong interaction nor electromagnetism permit flavour changing , so this proceeds by weak decay ; without weak decay , quark properties such as strangeness and charm ( associated with the quarks of the same name ) would also be conserved across all interactions . All mesons are unstable because of weak decay . In the process known as beta decay , a down quark in the neutron can change into an up quark by emitting a virtual W − boson which is then converted into an electron and an electron antineutrino . Another example is the electron capture , a common variant of radioactive decay , wherein a proton and an electron within an atom interact , and are changed to a neutron ( an up quark is changed to a down quark ) and an electron neutrino is emitted .
Due to the large mass of a boson , weak decay occurs more slowly . Hence , weak decay is much less likely to occur before either strong or electromagnetic decay , as they proceed more rapidly . For example , a neutral pion ( which decays electromagnetically ) has a life of about 10 − 16 seconds , while a charged pion ( which decays through the weak interaction ) lives about 10 − 8 seconds , a hundred million times longer . In contrast , a free neutron ( which also decays through the weak interaction ) lives about 15 minutes .
= = = Weak isospin and weak hypercharge = = =
All particles have a property called weak isospin ( T3 ) , which serves as a quantum number and governs how that particle behaves in the weak interaction . Weak isospin plays the same role in the weak interaction as does electric charge in electromagnetism , and color charge in the strong interaction . All fermions have a weak isospin value of either + 1 ⁄ 2 or − 1 ⁄ 2 . For example , the up quark has a T3 of + 1 ⁄ 2 and the down quark − 1 ⁄ 2 . A quark never decays through the weak interaction into a quark of the same T3 : quarks with a T3 of + 1 ⁄ 2 decay into quarks with a T3 of − 1 ⁄ 2 and vice versa .
In any given interaction , weak isospin is conserved : the sum of the weak isospin numbers of the particles entering the interaction equals the sum of the weak isospin numbers of the particles exiting that interaction . For example , a ( left @-@ handed ) π + , with a weak isospin of 1 normally decays into a ν
μ ( + 1 / 2 ) and a μ + ( as a right @-@ handed antiparticle , + 1 / 2 ) .
Following the development of the electroweak theory , another property , weak hypercharge , was developed . It is dependent on a particle 's electrical charge and weak isospin , and is defined as :
<formula>
where YW is the weak hypercharge of a given type of particle , Q is its electrical charge ( in elementary charge units ) and T3 is its weak isospin . Whereas some particles have a weak isospin of zero , all particles , except gluons , have non @-@ zero weak hypercharge . Weak hypercharge is the generator of the U ( 1 ) component of the electroweak gauge group .
= = Interaction types = =
There are two types of weak interaction ( called vertices ) . The first type is called the " charged @-@ current interaction " because it is mediated by particles that carry an electric charge ( the W + or W − bosons ) , and is responsible for the beta decay phenomenon . The second type is called the " neutral @-@ current interaction " because it is mediated by a neutral particle , the Z boson .
= = = Charged @-@ current interaction = = =
In one type of charged current interaction , a charged lepton ( such as an electron or a muon , having a charge of − 1 ) can absorb a W + boson ( a particle with a charge of + 1 ) and be thereby converted into a corresponding neutrino ( with a charge of 0 ) , where the type ( " flavour " ) of neutrino ( electron , muon or tau ) is the same as the type of lepton in the interaction , for example :
<formula>
Similarly , a down @-@ type quark ( d with a charge of − 1 ⁄ 3 ) can be converted into an up @-@ type quark ( u , with a charge of + 2 ⁄ 3 ) , by emitting a W − boson or by absorbing a W + boson . More precisely , the down @-@ type quark becomes a quantum superposition of up @-@ type quarks : that is to say , it has a possibility of becoming any one of the three up @-@ type quarks , with the probabilities given in the CKM matrix tables . Conversely , an up @-@ type quark can emit a W + boson , or absorb a W − boson , and thereby be converted into a down @-@ type quark , for example :
<formula>
The W boson is unstable so will rapidly decay , with a very short lifetime . For example :
<formula>
Decay of the W boson to other products can happen , with varying probabilities .
In the so @-@ called beta decay of a neutron ( see picture , above ) , a down quark within the neutron emits a virtual W − boson and is thereby converted into an up quark , converting the neutron into a proton . Because of the energy involved in the process ( i.e. , the mass difference between the down quark and the up quark ) , the W − boson can only be converted into an electron and an electron @-@ antineutrino . At the quark level , the process can be represented as :
<formula>
= = = Neutral @-@ current interaction = = =
In neutral current interactions , a quark or a lepton ( e.g. , an electron or a muon ) emits or absorbs a neutral Z boson . For example :
<formula>
Like the W boson , the Z boson also decays rapidly , for example :
<formula>
= = Electroweak theory = =
The Standard Model of particle physics describes the electromagnetic interaction and the weak interaction as two different aspects of a single electroweak interaction , the theory of which was developed around 1968 by Sheldon Glashow , Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg . They were awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work . The Higgs mechanism provides an explanation for the presence of three massive gauge bosons ( the three carriers of the weak interaction ) and the massless photon of the electromagnetic interaction .
According to the electroweak theory , at very high energies , the universe has four massless gauge boson fields similar to the photon and a complex scalar Higgs field doublet . However , at low energies , gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken down to the U ( 1 ) symmetry of electromagnetism ( one of the Higgs fields acquires a vacuum expectation value ) . This symmetry breaking would produce three massless bosons , but they become integrated by three photon @-@ like fields ( through the Higgs mechanism ) giving them mass . These three fields become the W + , W − and Z bosons of the weak interaction , while the fourth gauge field , which remains massless , is the photon of electromagnetism .
This theory has made a number of predictions , including a prediction of the masses of the Z and W bosons before their discovery . On 4 July 2012 , the CMS and the ATLAS experimental teams at the Large Hadron Collider independently announced that they had confirmed the formal discovery of a previously unknown boson of mass between 125 – 127 GeV / c2 , whose behaviour so far was " consistent with " a Higgs boson , while adding a cautious note that further data and analysis were needed before positively identifying the new boson as being a Higgs boson of some type . By 14 March 2013 , the Higgs boson was tentatively confirmed to exist .
= = Violation of symmetry = =
The laws of nature were long thought to remain the same under mirror reflection . The results of an experiment viewed via a mirror were expected to be identical to the results of a mirror @-@ reflected copy of the experimental apparatus . This so @-@ called law of parity conservation was known to be respected by classical gravitation , electromagnetism and the strong interaction ; it was assumed to be a universal law . However , in the mid @-@ 1950s Chen Ning Yang and Tsung @-@ Dao Lee suggested that the weak interaction might violate this law . Chien Shiung Wu and collaborators in 1957 discovered that the weak interaction violates parity , earning Yang and Lee the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics .
Although the weak interaction was once described by Fermi 's theory , the discovery of parity violation and renormalization theory suggested that a new approach was needed . In 1957 , Robert Marshak and George Sudarshan and , somewhat later , Richard Feynman and Murray Gell @-@ Mann proposed a V − A ( vector minus axial vector or left @-@ handed ) Lagrangian for weak interactions . In this theory , the weak interaction acts only on left @-@ handed particles ( and right @-@ handed antiparticles ) . Since the mirror reflection of a left @-@ handed particle is right @-@ handed , this explains the maximal violation of parity . Interestingly , the V − A theory was developed before the discovery of the Z boson , so it did not include the right @-@ handed fields that enter in the neutral current interaction .
However , this theory allowed a compound symmetry CP to be conserved . CP combines parity P ( switching left to right ) with charge conjugation C ( switching particles with antiparticles ) . Physicists were again surprised when in 1964 , James Cronin and Val Fitch provided clear evidence in kaon decays that CP symmetry could be broken too , winning them the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics . In 1973 , Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa showed that CP violation in the weak interaction required more than two generations of particles , effectively predicting the existence of a then unknown third generation . This discovery earned them half of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics . Unlike parity violation , CP violation occurs in only a small number of instances , but remains widely held as an answer to the difference between the amount of matter and antimatter in the universe ; it thus forms one of Andrei Sakharov 's three conditions for baryogenesis .
= = = General readers = = =
R. Oerter ( 2006 ) . The Theory of Almost Everything : The Standard Model , the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics . Plume . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 236678 @-@ 6 .
B.A. Schumm ( 2004 ) . Deep Down Things :
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Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics . Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 7971 @-@ X.
= = = Texts = = =
D.A. Bromley ( 2000 ) . Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions . Springer . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 67672 @-@ 4 .
G.D. Coughlan ; J.E. Dodd ; B.M. Gripaios ( 2006 ) . The Ideas of Particle Physics : An Introduction for Scientists ( 3rd ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 67775 @-@ 2 .
W. N. Cottingham ; D. A. Greenwood ( 2001 ) [ 1986 ] . An introduction to nuclear physics ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge University Press. p . 30 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 65733 @-@ 4 .
D.J. Griffiths ( 1987 ) . Introduction to Elementary Particles . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 60386 @-@ 4 .
G.L. Kane ( 1987 ) . Modern Elementary Particle Physics . Perseus Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 11749 @-@ 5 .
D.H. Perkins ( 2000 ) . Introduction to High Energy Physics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 62196 @-@ 8 .
= Arizona State Route 88 =
State Route 88 ( SR 88 ) is a 45 @.@ 67 mi ( 73 @.@ 50 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . It runs from U.S. Route 60 ( US 60 ) in Apache Junction through desert terrain to SR 188 near Roosevelt Dam . Following the Salt River for much of its length , the section east of Tortilla Flat is known as the Apache Trail and is part of the National Forest Scenic Byway system . The Apache Trail was built in the mid @-@ 1920s and the number 88 was assigned in 1927 . An eastern extension of SR 88 to Globe was redesignated as SR 188 in the late 1990s .
= = Route description = =
SR 88 begins at a diamond interchange with US 60 , the Superstition Freeway , in southern Apache Junction . The route follows Idaho Road northward through a residential area with four lanes . Following a junction with Old West Highway , SR 88 turns northeast onto Apache Trail and narrows to two lanes . The route exits the city limits of Apache Junction , entering desert terrain . Passing a ghost town known as Goldfield , Apache Trail enters Tonto National Forest just northwest of Lost Dutchman State Park . SR 88 nears Canyon Lake south of the Mormon Flat Dam and follows a part of the southern coast of Canyon Lake . Apache Trail heads away from the Salt River . It passes through the town of Tortilla Flat , becoming an unpaved dirt trail winding eastward through the Superstition Mountains . SR 88 again turns northeast and nears Apache Lake . The route follows the Salt River northeast to the Theodore Roosevelt Dam , near which the route is again paved . SR 88 intersects with SR 188 along the coast of Theodore Roosevelt Lake .
The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) , which is responsible for maintaining highways in the state , including SR 88 . As part of this role , ADOT periodically surveys traffic along its routes . These surveys are presented in the form of average annual daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles who use the route on any average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that around as few as 400 vehicles used the route daily near the Roosevelt Dam and as many as 16 @,@ 000 daily at the US 60 interchange in Apache Junction . The section east of Canyon Lake is part of the Apache Trail National Forest Scenic Byway system . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The Apache Trail connected the Old Spanish Trail where Apache Junction is today and Roosevelt Lake with an unpaved road as early as 1925 , following much of the modern route . By the next year , SR 66 followed the Apache Trail and the Old Spanish Trail was numbered as US 80 . The number 88 was given to the route by 1927 , but continued past its current terminus east to US 180 west of Globe . US 60 and US 89 became concurrent with US 80 at the western terminus by 1935 , and the US 70 designation was added to the road by 1939 . The section of the route from Apache Junction to Canyon Lake was paved in the late 1940s . By 1958 , the section east of Roosevelt Dam was paved . The extra designations at SR 88 's western terminus were removed by 1971 , leaving only the US 60 designation . In 1999 , the section east of Roosevelt Dam was renumbered as SR 188 , cutting SR 88 back to its current terminus .
= = Junction list = =
= The Great American Bash ( 2007 ) =
The Great American Bash ( 2007 ) was the fourth annual Great American Bash professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Ziddio and took place on July 22 , 2007 from the HP Pavilion in San Jose , California and featured talent from the Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW brands .
The main match on the Raw brand was John Cena versus Bobby Lashley for the WWE Championship , which Cena won by pinfall after executing an FU on Lashley from the second rope . The predominant match on the SmackDown ! brand was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between The Great Khali , Batista and Kane . Khali won the match and retained the title after pinning Kane . The primary match on the ECW brand was John Morrison versus CM Punk for the ECW Championship , which Morrison won by pinfall after hitting Punk with both of his knees . The featured matches on the undercard included Montel Vontavious Porter versus Matt Hardy for the WWE United States Championship and Randy Orton versus Dusty Rhodes in a Texas Bullrope match . This was Dusty Rhodes final match . The event had 229 @,@ 000 buys , up slightly on the 2006 figure of 227 @,@ 000 buys .
= = Background = =
The main feud heading into The Great American Bash on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Bobby Lashley over the WWE Championship . The feud began on the June 11 , 2007 edition of Raw , when Lashley was drafted to the Raw brand and stripped of his ECW Championship . Three weeks later , on the July 2 edition of Raw , a " Beat the Clock " tournament was held to determine Cena 's opponent for the WWE Championship at The Great American Bash . The tournament matches included : Randy Orton versus Jeff Hardy , King Booker versus Val Venis , Mr. Kennedy versus Super Crazy , and Lashley versus Shelton Benjamin . Lashley ended up winning the tournament by defeating Benjamin in less than 5 minutes and therefore becoming the number one contender to the WWE Championship .
The main feud on the SmackDown ! brand was between The Great Khali , Batista , and Kane , with the three battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . At the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view , Vengeance , then @-@ World Heavyweight Champion Edge defeated Batista in a " Last Chance " match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 6 edition of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long announced that Edge would be defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Kane at The Great American Bash . The next week on SmackDown ! , The Great Khali issued an open challenge for a match at The Great American Bash , which was accepted by Batista . Later that night , Edge legitimately injured his left pectoral muscle after Kane , who was disguised as a character , attacked Edge during his Mardi Gras celebration . On the July 20 edition of SmackDown ! , Edge was forced to vacate the World Heavyweight Championship due to his legit injury . Theodore Long then announced that there would be a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal later that night to determine a new World Heavyweight Champion . Khali ended up winning the Battle Royal by last eliminating Kane and Batista . That same night , Kane faced off against Batista to determine Khali 's opponent for The Great American Bash , which ended in a no @-@ contest after Khali interfered . Long finalized that both Kane and Batista would end up facing Khali for the championship at The Great American Bash .
The main feud on the ECW brand was between John Morrison and CM Punk with the two battling over the ECW Championship . At Vengeance , Morrison ( then known as Johnny Nitro ) defeated Punk to win the ECW Championship , which was vacant since then @-@ champion Lashley had been drafted to the Raw brand . Nitro was a replacement for Chris Benoit , who was absent due to " personal reasons . " On the June 26 edition of ECW , CM Punk defeated Elijah Burke in a two out of three falls match to once again become the number one contender to the ECW Championship .
= = Event = =
Before the event started , Chuck Palumbo defeated Chris Masters in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match of the event was between Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) and Matt Hardy for the WWE United States Championship . Hardy was in control early in the match but later MVP took control of the match and focused his attacks on Hardy 's head . MVP delivered a Playmaker to Hardy and pinned him to win the match and retain the United States Championship .
The second match was a Cruiserweight Open match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . Chavo Guerrero defended the title against Funaki , Jimmy Wang Yang , Shannon Moore and Jamie Noble . Hornswoggle , who wasn 't booked to be in the match , became a part of the match when he entered the ring as the bell rang . All the cruiserweights were out of the ring except Noble . Hornswoggle , who was under the ring for the match , entered- surprisingly and delivered a Tadpole Splash on Noble . Hornswoggle went on to pin Noble to get the victory and win the Cruiserweight Championship .
The third match was a Singapore Cane on a Pole match between Carlito and Sandman . The rules of the match were that the one who retrieved the cane from the pole was allowed to use the cane . Sandman retrieved the cane , but before he could use it , Carlito delivered a Backstabber and pinned him to win the match .
The fourth match was a Divas match between Candice Michelle and Melina for the WWE Women 's Championship . After a back and forth match , Candice executed a Candy Wrapper on Melina , and pinned her after to retain the title .
The fifth match was between Umaga and Jeff Hardy for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . Hardy started the match attacking Umaga with moves such as dropkicks , inverted mule kicks and a Whisper in the Wind . Hardy had a chance to make the cover , but instead attempted to perform a Swanton Bomb . Umaga avoided the move and charged Hardy in the corner . Umaga then executed a Samoan Spike and pinned Hardy after to win the match .
The sixth match was between John Morrison and CM Punk for the ECW World Championship . Punk was on the verge of winning the match until Morrison left the ring and took the belt . Morrison left the match , but Punk chased , tackled , and pushed him to the ring . Before Punk could attempt a slingshot maneuver , Morrison hit him with both of his knees . Morrison pinned Punk after to win the match and retain the ECW Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The seventh match was a Texas Bullrope match between Randy Orton and Dusty Rhodes . Rhodes started the match by hitting Orton with a series of elbows on Orton 's head . Orton , however , took the advantage after hitting Rhodes ' head several times with the cowbell , which was in the middle of the rope connecting the two men . After a final hit to the head , Orton pinned Rhodes to win the match . After the match , Orton attempted to punt Rhodes in the head , but Rhodes ' son , Cody , made the save .
The eighth match was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between then World Heavyweight Champion The Great Khali , Batista , and Kane . In the beginning , Khali dominated most of the match , applying a nerve hold on Kane and beating down Batista . Khali also gave both of them separate Chokelslams , which led to both of them leaving the ring . In the outside they both tried to give Khali their separate finishers , Kane tried for the Chokeslam and Batista for the Batista Bomb , but Khali countered them both . Batista and Kane double @-@ teamed Khali after trying to put him down . Kane and Batista sent Khali crashing through an announce table following a double @-@ team spinebuster and chokeslam . While Khali was on the floor , Batista and Kane fought inside the ring , and after dominating for some time after different moves like flying clotheslines from the top rope , Kane delivered his dreaded Chokeslam to Batista , but Batista kicked out at two and a half . Kane then went out to bring in a steel chair to put Batista away , but Batista countered the chair shot headed his way with a swift and strong Spinebuster , and then Batista gave Kane a massive Batista Bomb . As Batista went for the pinfall , Khali pulled Batista outside the ring and smashed his head into the steel ring steps with a strong Irish Whip on the outside , keeping him down as Khali then went inside the ring and executed a Khali Bomb , or also called the Punjabi Plunge to Kane , who was already down after Batista 's massive Spinebuster and devastating Batista Bomb . Following the Punjabi Plunge , Khali pinned the fallen Kane , who didn 't have enough left in him to kick out , to win the match and retain his World Title .
The main event was between John Cena and Bobby Lashley for the WWE Championship . In the beginning , Lashley performed a series of powerslams and spears to Cena . Cena also applied his STF , however , was unable to win through that . The match also saw Cena give Lashley a Five Knuckle Shuffle . Cena also performed the FU but couldn 't reach Lashley in time . Lashley also delivered a devastating Spear but Cena kicked out . After a back and forth match , Cena performed an FU from the second rope and pinned Lashley to retain his WWE Championship and after the match Cena and Lashley shook hands , this was Bobby Lashley 's final pay @-@ per @-@ view in WWE .
= = Aftermath = =
Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) and Matt Hardy continued their feud over the WWE United States Championship . Hardy defeated MVP in an arm wrestling contest on August 3 edition of SmackDown ! . On August 18 edition of Saturday Night 's Main Event , Evander Holyfield replaced MVP against Matt Hardy in a boxing match , which Holyfield won . On August 24 edition of SmackDown ! , the two had a basketball challenge which was no contest because they were attacked by Deuce ' n Domino . At SummerSlam , Stone Cold Steve Austin replaced Matt Hardy in a Beer Drinking Contest against MVP which was a no contest because Austin delivered a Stone Cold Stunner to MVP .
John Morrison and CM Punk continued to feud over the ECW Championship . On the July 31 edition of ECW , CM Punk defeated Elijah Burke and Tommy Dreamer in a Triple Threat match to earn a 15 Minutes of Fame match with Morrison the next week . On ECW the following week , Punk defeated Morrison in the 15 Minutes of Fame match he earned the previous week . As a result of winning , Punk became the number one contender to the ECW Championship at SummerSlam . At SummerSlam , Morrison defeated Punk to retain the ECW Championship .
On the July 27 edition of SmackDown ! , Khali had his Championship Celebration which was interrupted by Batista . After Khali fled from the ring , Batista announced that he had challenged Khali to a match for the World Heavyweight Championship match . At SummerSlam , the two faced each other for the World Heavyweight Championship in a match which Batista won by disqualification after Khali hit him with a chair . Since a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification , Khali retained the title .
On the July 23 edition of Raw , John Cena teamed with Candice Michelle in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match against Umaga , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . Cena and Candice went on to win the match . After the match , Randy Orton delivered an RKO to Cena . Orton was then made the number one contender to the WWE Championship . The two had a match at SummerSlam for the WWE Championship , which Cena won .
= = Results = =
= High Speed 1 =
High Speed 1 ( HS1 ) , legally the Channel Tunnel Rail Link ( CTRL ) , is a 109 @-@ kilometre ( 68 mi ) high @-@ speed railway between London and the United Kingdom end of the Channel Tunnel .
The line carries international passenger traffic between the United Kingdom and Continental Europe ; it also carries domestic passenger traffic to and from stations in Kent and east London and Berne gauge freight traffic . The line crosses the River Medway and under the River Thames , terminating at St Pancras railway station on the north side of central London . It cost £ 5 @.@ 8 billion to build and opened on 14 November 2007 . Trains reach speeds of up to 300 kilometres per hour ( 186 mph ) on section 1 and up to 230 kilometres per hour ( 143 mph ) on section 2 . Intermediate stations are at Stratford International in London and Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International in Kent .
International passenger services are provided by Eurostar , with journey times of London St Pancras to Paris Gare du Nord in 2 hours 15 minutes , and St Pancras to Brussels @-@ South in 1 hour 51 minutes . Eurostar uses a fleet of 27 Class 373 / 1 multi @-@ system trains capable of 300 kilometres per hour ( 186 mph ) and 320 kilometres per hour ( 199 mph ) Class 374 from November 2015 . Domestic high @-@ speed commuter services serving the intermediate stations and beyond began on 13 December 2009 . The fleet of 29 Class 395 passenger trains reach speeds of 225 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) . DB Cargo UK run freight services on High Speed 1 using adapted Class 92 locomotives , enabling flat wagons carrying continental @-@ size swap body containers to reach London for the first time .
The CTRL project saw new bridges and tunnels built , with a combined length nearly as long as the Channel Tunnel itself , and significant archaeological research undertaken . In 2002 , the CTRL project was awarded the Major Project Award at the British Construction Industry Awards . The line was transferred to government ownership in 2009 , with a 30 @-@ year concession for its operation being put up for sale in June 2010 . The concession was awarded to a consortium of Borealis Infrastructure ( part of Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement System ) and Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan in November 2010 , but does not include the freehold or rights to any of the associated land .
= = Early history = =
A high @-@ speed rail line , LGV Nord , has been in operation between the Channel Tunnel and the outskirts of Paris since the Tunnel 's opening in 1994 . This has enabled Eurostar rail services to travel at 300 km / h ( 186 mph ) for this part of their journey . A similar high @-@ speed line in Belgium , from the French border to Brussels , HSL 1 , opened in 1997 . In Britain , Eurostar trains had to run at a maximum of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) on existing tracks between London Waterloo and the Channel Tunnel . These tracks were shared with local traffic , limiting the number of services that could be run , and jeopardising reliability . The case for a high @-@ speed line similar to the continental part of the route was recognised by policymakers , and the construction of the line was authorised by Parliament with the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Act 1996 , which was amended by the Channel Tunnel Rail Link ( Supplementary Provisions ) Act 2008 .
An early plan conceived by British Rail in the early 1970s for a route passing through Tonbridge met considerable opposition on environmental and social grounds , especially from the Leigh Action Group and Surrey & Kent Action on Rail ( SKAR ) . A committee was set up to examine the proposal under Sir Alexander Cairncross ; but in due course environment minister Anthony Crosland announced that the project had been cancelled , together with the plan for the tunnel itself .
The next plan for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link involved a tunnel reaching London from the south @-@ east , and an underground terminus in the vicinity of Kings Cross station . A late change in the plans , principally driven by the then Deputy Prime Minister Michael Heseltine 's desire for urban regeneration in east London , led to a change of route , with the new line approaching London from the east . This opened the possibility of reusing the underused St Pancras station as the terminus , with access via the North London Line that crosses the throat of the station .
The idea of using the North London line proved illusory , and it was rejected in 1994 by the then Transport Secretary , John MacGregor , as too difficult to construct and environmentally damaging . The idea of using St Pancras station as the core of the new terminus was retained , albeit now linked by 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) of specially built tunnels to Dagenham via Stratford .
London and Continental Railways ( LCR ) was chosen by the UK government in 1996 to build the line and to reconstruct St Pancras station as its terminus , and to take over the British share of the Eurostar operation , Eurostar ( UK ) . The original LCR consortium members were National Express Group , Virgin Group , S. G. Warburg & Co , Bechtel and London Electric . While the project was under development by British Rail it was managed by Union Railways , which became a wholly owned subsidiary of LCR . On 14 November 2006 , LCR adopted High Speed 1 as the brand name for the completed railway . Official legislation , documentation and line @-@ side signage have continued to refer to " CTRL " .
= = The project = =
As the 1987 Channel Tunnel Act made government funding for a Channel tunnel rail link unlawful , construction did not take place as it was not financially viable . Construction was delayed until passage of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Act 1996 which provided construction powers that ran for the following 10 years . The chief executive of the time Rob Holden stated that it was the " largest land acquisition programme since the Second World War " .
The whole route was to have been built as a single project , but in 1998 serious financial difficulties arose , and extensive changes came with a British government rescue plan . To reduce risk , the line was split into two separate phases , to be managed by Union Railways ( South ) and Union Railways ( North ) . A recovery programme was agreed whereby LCR sold government @-@ backed bonds worth £ 1 @.@ 6 billion to pay for the construction of section 1 , with the future of section 2 still not settled .
The original intention had been for the new railway , once completed , to be run by Union Railways as a separate line from the rest of the British railway network . As part of the 1998 rescue it was agreed that , following completion , section 1 would be purchased by Railtrack with an option to purchase section 2 . In return , Railtrack was committed to operate the whole route as well as St Pancras railway station , which , unlike all other former British Rail stations , had been transferred to LCR / Union Railways in 1996 .
In 2001 , Railtrack announced that , due to its own financial problems , it would not undertake to purchase section 2 , triggering a second restructuring . The 2002 plan agreed that the two sections would have different owners ( Railtrack for section 1 , LCR for section 2 ) but with common Railtrack management . Following further financial problems at Railtrack , its interest was sold back to LCR , which then sold the operating rights for the completed line to Network Rail , Railtrack 's successor . Under this arrangement LCR became the sole owner of both sections of the CTRL and the St Pancras property , as per the original 1996 plan . Amendments were made in 2001 for the new station at Stratford International and connections to the West Coast Main Line .
As a consequence of the restructuring , in 2006 the LCR consortium consisted of engineering consultants and construction firms Arup , Bechtel , Halcrow and Systra ( which form Rail Link Engineering ( RLE ) ) ; transport operators National Express Group and SNCF ( which operates the Eurostar ( UK ) share of the Eurostar service with the National Railway Company of Belgium and British Airways ) ; electricity company EDF ; and UBS Investment Bank . On completion of section 1 by RLE , the line was handed over to Union Railways ( South ) , which then handed it over to London & Continental Stations and Property ( LCSP ) , the long @-@ term owners of the line . Once section 2 of the line had been completed it was handed over to Union Railways ( North ) , which handed it over to LCSP . The entire line , including St Pancras , is managed , operated and maintained by Network Rail ( CTRL ) .
In February 2006 there were rumours that a ' third party ' ( believed to be a consortium headed by banker Sir Adrian Montague ) had expressed an interest in buying out the present partners in the project . LCR shareholders rejected the proposal , and the government , which effectively could overrule shareholders ' decisions as a result of LCR 's reclassification as a state @-@ owned body , decided that discussions with shareholders would not take place imminently , effectively backing shareholders ' views on the proposed takeover .
By May 2009 LCR had become insolvent and the government received agreement to use state aid to purchase the line and also to open it up to competition to allow other services to use it apart from Eurostar . LCR 's hitherto wholly owned subsidiary , HS1 Ltd , thus became the property of the Secretary of State for Transport . On 12 October 2009 a proposal was announced to sell £ 16 billion of state assets including HS1 Ltd in the following two years to cut UK public debt . The government announced on 5 November 2010 that a concession to operate the line for 30 years had been sold for £ 2 @.@ 1 billion to a consortium of Canadian investors . Under the concession , HS1 Ltd has the rights to sell access to track and to the four international stations ( St Pancras , Stratford , Ebbsfleet and Ashford ) on a commercial basis , under the scrutiny of the Office of Rail Regulation . At the end of 30 years , ownership of the assets will revert to government .
= = Building cost = =
The cost of construction , £ 80 million per mile , was much higher than other projects in other countries ; the French high speed line from Paris to Strasbourg , completed in 2007 , cost £ 22 million per mile .
= = Route = =
The high @-@ speed railway operates as a " seven @-@ day railway " , with full availability on all days . The line is closed for 40 minutes in the middle of the day shortly after noon for a " white period " ( French : période blanche ) and " daylight inspection period " . Any heavy maintenance is performed overnight . As of 2008 track access charges were capped at approximate £ 71 @.@ 35 per minute . In 2008 the cost of running a train along the full length of the line between St Pancras and the Channel Tunnel was £ 2 @,@ 244 ; with lower costs of £ 2 @,@ 192 for a domestic service to Ashford International , or £ 1 @,@ 044 for St Pancras to Ebbsfleet International . A discounted rate of £ 4 @.@ 00 per kilometre was made available for night @-@ time @-@ only railfreight operation until 31 March 2015 .
= = = Section 1 = = =
Section 1 of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link , opened on 28 September 2003 , is a 74 @-@ kilometre ( 46 mi ) section of high @-@ speed track from the Channel Tunnel to Fawkham Junction in north Kent with a maximum speed of 300 kilometres per hour ( 186 mph ) . Its completion cut the London – Paris journey time by around 21 minutes , to 2 hours 35 minutes . The line includes the Medway Viaduct , a 1 @.@ 2 km ( ¾ mile ) bridge over the River Medway , and the North Downs Tunnel , a 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) long , 12 m ( 40 ft ) diameter tunnel . In safety testing on the section prior to opening , a new UK rail speed record of 334 @.@ 7 km / h ( 208 @.@ 0 mph ) was set . Much of the new line runs alongside the M2 and M20 motorways through Kent . After its completion , Eurostar trains continued to use suburban lines to enter London , arriving at Waterloo International .
There were several deaths of employees working on the CTRL over the construction period . One occurred on 28 March 2003 near Folkestone when a worker came into contact with the energised power supply . Another death occurred two months later , in May 2003 , when a scaffolder fell seven metres at Thurrock , Essex . Three companies were found guilty of breaching health and safety legislation by omitting to provide barriers , resulting in Deverson Direct Ltd being ordered to pay a fine of £ 50 @,@ 000 , J Murphy and Sons Ltd £ 25 @,@ 000 , and Hochtief Aktiengesellschaft £ 25 @,@ 000 . Two more deaths relate to a fire on board a train carrying wires , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) inside a tunnel under the Thames between Swanscombe , Kent , and Thurrock , Essex on 16 August 2005 . The train shunter died at the scene and the train driver later died in hospital . It has been suggested that a large amount of blame for accidents throughout the project lay with individual behaviour , becoming such a problem that an internal programme was launched to tackle behaviour problems during the construction .
Unlike most LGV stations in France , the through tracks for Ashford International station are off to one side rather than going through , partly due to Ashford International predating the line . High Speed 1 approaches Ashford International from the north in a cut @-@ and @-@ cover " box " ; the southbound line rises out of this cutting and crosses over the main tracks to enter the station . The main tracks then rise out of the cutting and over a flyover . On leaving Ashford , southbound Eurostars return to the high @-@ speed line by travelling under this flyover and joining from the outside . The international platforms at Ashford are supplied with both overhead 25 kV and 3rd rail 750 V , avoiding the need to switch power supplies .
= = = Section 2 = = =
Section 2 of the project opened on 14 November 2007 and is a 39 @.@ 4 km ( 24 @.@ 5 mi ) stretch of track from the newly built Ebbsfleet station in Kent to London St Pancras with a maximum speed of 230 kilometres per hour ( 143 mph ) . Completion of the section cut journey times by a further 20 minutes ( London – Paris in 2h 15 m ; London – Brussels in 1h 51 m ) . The route starts with a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) tunnel which dives under the Thames on the edge of Swanscombe , then runs alongside the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway as far as Dagenham , where it enters a 19 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) tunnel ( 51 ° 31 ′ 36 @.@ 9 ″ N 0 ° 8 ′ 13 @.@ 9 ″ E ) , much of which is directly under the North London Line , before emerging over the East Coast Main Line near St Pancras . The tunnels are divided into London East and London West sections , between which a 1 @-@ kilometre stretch runs close to the surface to serve Stratford International and the Temple Mills Depot .
The new depot at Temple Mills , to the north of Stratford , replaced the North Pole depot in the west of London . In testing , the first Eurostar train ran in St Pancras on 6 March 2007 . All CTRL connections are fully grade @-@ separated . This is achieved through use of viaducts , bridges , cuttings and in one case , the tunnel portal itself .
= = Stations = =
= = = Ashford International = = =
This station was rebuilt as Ashford International during the early 1990s for international services from mainland Europe ; this included the addition of two platforms to the north of station ( the original down island platform had been taken over by international services ) . Unlike normal LGV stations in France , the through tracks for Ashford International railway station are off to one side rather than going through . The number of services was reduced after the opening of the Ebbsfleet station . A high @-@ speed domestic service operated by Southeastern to London St Pancras began on 29 June 2009 .
= = = Ebbsfleet International = = =
Ebbsfleet International railway station in the borough of Dartford , Kent is 10 mi ( 16 km ) outside the eastern boundary of Greater London and opened to the public on 19 November 2007 . It is now Eurostar 's main station in Kent . Two of the platforms are designed for international passenger trains and four for high @-@ speed domestic services .
= = = St Pancras International = = =
The terminus for the high @-@ speed line in London is St Pancras railway station . During the 2000s , towards the end of the construction of the CTRL , the entire station complex was renovated , expanded and rebranded as St Pancras International , with a new security @-@ sealed terminal area for Eurostar trains to continental Europe . In addition , it retained traditional domestic connections to the north and south of England . The new extension doubled the length of the central platforms now used for Eurostar services ; new platforms have been provided for existing domestic East Midlands Trains and the Southeastern high @-@ speed services that run along High Speed 1 to Kent . New platforms on the Thameslink line across London were built beneath the western margins of the station , and the station at King 's Cross Thameslink was closed .
A complex junction has been built north of St Pancras with connections to the East Coast Main Line , North London Line ( for West Coast Main Line ) and Midland Main Line , allowing for a wide variety of potential destinations albeit on conventional rails . As part of the works , tunnels connecting the East Coast Main Line to the Thameslink route were also built in readiness for the forthcoming Thameslink Programme .
= = = Stratford International = = =
Stratford International railway station was not part of the original government plans for the CTRL . Despite its name , no international services call there . Completed in April 2006 , it opened on 30 November 2009 when the domestic preview Southeastern highspeed services started calling there . An extension of the Docklands Light Railway opened to Stratford International in August 2011 . It forms part of the complex of railway stations for the main site where the 2012 Summer Olympics were held .
Temple Mills Depot in Leyton is used for storage and servicing of Eurostar trains and off @-@ peak berthing of Class 395 Southeastern high @-@ speed trains .
= = Infrastructure = =
The railway is maintained from Singlewell Infrastructure Maintenance Depot . Access to the railway is protected by over one thousand Assa Abloy padlocks , with a hierarchical system of master keys .
= = = Track = = =
Both track and signalling technology ( TVM @-@ 430 + KVB ) are based on or identical to the standards used on the French LGV high @-@ speed lines . The areas around St Pancras and Gare du Nord use colour light and KVB signalling with the whole of the high @-@ speed route to Paris ( CTRL , Channel Tunnel , LGV Nord ) using TVM @-@ 430 . Traffic is controlled from the Ashford signalling centre . Signalling tests before opening were performed by the SNCF @-@ owned " Lucie " test car .
The track is 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge cleared to a larger modern European GC loading gauge enabling GC gauge freight as far as the yards at Barking . The line is electrified entirely using overhead lines with 25 kV AC railway electrification .
= = = Tunnels = = =
After local protests , early plans were modified to put more of the route into tunnels up until a point approximately 1 mile ( 2 km ) from St. Pancras . Previously the CTRL was planned to run on an elevated section alongside the North London Line on approach into the line 's terminus . The twin tunnels bored under London were driven from Stratford westwards towards St Pancras , eastwards towards Dagenham and from Dagenham westwards to connect with the tunnel from Stratford . The tunnel boring machines were 120 metres long and weighed 1 @,@ 100 tonnes . The depth of the tunnels varies from 24 metres to 50 metres .
The construction works were complex , and many contractors were involved in delivering them . The CTRL Section 2 construction works had caused considerable disruption around the Kings Cross area of London ; in their wake redevelopment was stimulated . The large redevelopment area includes the run @-@ down areas of post @-@ industrial and ex @-@ railway land close to King 's Cross and St Pancras , a conservation area with many listed buildings ; this was promoted as one of the benefits for building the CTRL . It has been postulated that this development was actually suppressed by the construction project , and some affected districts were said still to be in a poor state in 2005 .
= = = Connection line to Waterloo = = =
A 4 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) connecting line providing access for Waterloo railway station leaves High Speed 1 at Southfleet Junction using a grade @-@ separated junction ; the main CTRL tracks continue uninterrupted through to CTRL Section 2 underneath the southbound flyover . The connection joins the Chatham Main Line at Fawkham Junction with a flat crossing . The retention of Eurostar services to Waterloo after the line to St Pancras opened was ruled out on cost grounds . Waterloo International closed upon opening of the section two of the CTRL in November 2007 ; Eurostar now serves the refurbished St Pancras as its only London terminal , so this connecting line is no longer used in regular service , but can be used in emergencies by Class 395 passenger trains .
= = Services = =
High Speed 1 was built to allow eight trains per hour through to the Channel Tunnel . As of May 2014 , Eurostar runs two to three trains per hour in each direction between London and the Channel Tunnel . Southeastern runs in the high peak eight trains per hour between London and Ebbsfleet , two of these continuing to Ashford . During the 2012 Olympic Games , Southeastern provided the Olympic Javelin service with up to twelve trains per hour from Stratford into London .
= = = Freight = = =
The route was built with freight provision from the beginning . It has spurs leading to and from the freight terminal at Dollands Moor ( Folkestone ) and the freight depot at Barking ( Ripple Lane ) , north of the River Thames . Long passing loops to hold freight trains while passenger trains overtake them were built at Lenham Heath and Singlewell .
Freight trains operated by EWS first ran over CTRL Section 1 , on the consecutive evenings of 3 – 4 April 2004 . Five freight trains that would have run via the classic lines were diverted to run over the Channel Tunnel Rail Link instead : three southbound intermodal trains on 3 April 2004 and two northbound intermodal trains on 4 April 2004 .
= = Ownership = =
In November 2010 , the HS1 concession was awarded for a duration of thirty years to an investment consortium bringing together two Canadian public pension funds : Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement System ( through its subsidiary Borealis Infrastructure ) and Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan At the time , UK pension investors had generally limited interest for such long @-@ term , illiquid , ‘ infrastructure assets ’
= = Operators = =
The railway is operated on an open access basis . Trains are operated by several organisations all operating over the same track . HS1 Ltd. is the network manager for the line , stations , and other infrastructure .
= = = Network Rail ( High Speed ) Ltd = = =
HS1 Ltd is responsible for overall managing and running of the line — along with the international railway stations at St Pancras , Stratford , Ashford and Ebbsfleet — with responsibility for the infrastructure itself sub @-@ contracted to Network Rail ( High Speed ) Ltd ( formerly known as Network Rail ( CTRL ) acting as the controller and infrastructure manager . Network Rail ( CTRL ) Limited was created as a subsidiary of Network Rail on 26 September 2003 for £ 57 million to take over the assets of the CTRL renewal and maintenance operations . Network Rail ( High Speed ) operates engineering , track maintenance machines , rescue locomotives , and infrastructure- and test trains . Eurotunnel 's subsidiary Europorte 2 operates its Eurotunnel Class 0001 ( Krupp / MaK 6400 ) rescue locomotives on the line when required .
Various track recording trains run as necessary , including visits by the New Measurement Train . On the night of 4 / 5 May 2011 the SNCF TGV Iris 320 laboratory train took over , being hauled from Coquolles to St Pancras and back , towed by Eurotunnel Krupp locomotives numbers 4 and 5 . The Iris 320 runs for Network Rail ( High Speed ) are an extension of the 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) monitoring cycle already undertaken by SNCF International since December 2010 for Eurotunnel every two months .
= = = Eurostar = = =
The Eurostar service uses about 40 % of the capacity of High Speed 1 , which in November 2007 became the company 's route for all its services . Eurostar trains are for international traffic only , passing along the high @-@ speed line from London St Pancras railway station to the Channel Tunnel , with the majority terminating at either Paris Gare du Nord in France or Brussels @-@ South railway station in Belgium . Currently the trains operated by Eurostar are the only ones to make full use of the high speeds on the line ; a Eurostar train was used to set a new British rail speed record of 334 @.@ 7 km / h ( 208 mph ) on 30 July 2003 . Prior to the formation of Eurostar International Limited , the British component of the Eurostar grouping was owned by London and Continental Railways , which had also previously owned the High Speed 1 infrastructure .
The fastest regular @-@ service Eurostar journeys on record are 2 hours , 3 minutes and 39 seconds from Paris Gare du Nord to St Pancras , set on 4 September 2007 ; and 1 hour 43 minutes from Brussels South to St. Pancras , set on 19 September 2007 .
= = = Southeastern = = =
Domestic high @-@ speed services on High Speed 1 are operated by Southeastern . Having been in planning since 2004 , a preview service of the British Rail Class 395 trains , popularly known as Javelins , started in June 2009 , and regular services began on 13 December 2009 . The quickest journey time from Ashford to London St Pancras is 35 minutes , compared with 80 minutes for the service to London Charing Cross via Tonbridge . This service on Section 2 of the CTRL , known previously as CTRL @-@ DS , was a factor in London 's successful 2012 Olympic Bid , promising a seven @-@ minute journey time from the Olympic Park at Stratford to the London terminus at St Pancras . Although the Class 395 has a maximum speed of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) , for timetabling purposes a 10 % lower speed is assumed . These trains have faster acceleration than the Eurostar units .
= = = DB Cargo UK = = =
DB Cargo is a global freight operator with a large interest in freight over rail in Europe . While High Speed 1 was constructed with freight loops , no freight traffic had run upon the line since opening in 2003 . On 16 April 2009 DB Schenker signed an agreement with HS1 Ltd , the owner of High Speed 1 , for a partnership to develop TVM modifications for class 92 freight locomotives to run on the line . On 25 March 2011 for the first time a modified class 92 locomotive travelled from Dollands Moor to Singlewell using the TVM430 signalling system . A loaded container train ran for the first time on 27 May 2011 , to Novara in Italy . Following further trials with loaded wagons DB is to upgrade five Class 92 locomotives to allow them to run on High Speed 1 . From 11 November 2011 a weekly service using European @-@ sized swap body containers has run between London and Poland using High Speed 1 .
= = = Future operations = = =
At present , only Deutsche Bahn has applied for use of the line and in 2009 regulations were relaxed to allow its trains to use the Channel Tunnel . Other proposals are yet to be formalised .
= = = = Deutsche Bahn = = = =
In November 2007 , it was reported that Deutsche Bahn , Germany 's national train company , had applied to use the Channel Tunnel and High Speed 1 into London . This was denied by Deutsche Bahn , and the bi @-@ national Channel Tunnel Safety Authority confirmed that it had not received such an application . The plan was delayed by safety regulations as Deutsche Bahn 's fleet of ICE 3M high @-@ speed trains could not be divided in the tunnel in an emergency .
In December 2008 , it was reported that Deutsche Bahn ( DB ) was interested in buying the British share in Eurostar , which in practice means buying Eurostar ( U.K. ) Ltd . , the 100 % subsidiary of London and Continental Railways ( LCR ) , which the British government intends to break up and sell just as it does the other rail @-@ related subsidiary of L & CR , HS1 Ltd . The buyer of EUKL would become the owner of the 11 British " Three Capitals " Class 373 trainsets plus all seven " North of London " sets , and would also be responsible for the operations of Eurostar traffic within Britain once the management contract with ICRR expires in 2010 . Guillaume Pépy , the president of SNCF , who held a press conference the same day , described DB 's interest as " premature , presumptuous and arrogant " . SNCF claims to own 62 % of the shares of Eurostar Group Ltd . Hartmut Mehdorn , then CEO of Deutsche Bahn , confirmed DB 's interest but insisted in a letter to Pépy that DB had only informally requested information and not made any official requests to Britain 's Department for Transport .
In 2009 , Eurotunnel ( the owners of the Channel Tunnel ) announced that it was prepared to start relaxing the fire safety regulations , in order to permit other operators , such as Deutsche Bahn , to transport passengers via the Tunnel using other forms of rolling stock . Under the deregulation of European railway service , high @-@ speed lines were opened up to access by other operators on 1 January 2010 ; the Inter @-@ Governmental Commission on the Channel Tunnel ( IGC ) announced that it was considering relaxing the safety requirements concerning train splitting . LCR suggested that high @-@ speed rail services between London and Cologne could commence before the 2012 Olympics .
In March 2010 Eurotunnel , HS1 Ltd , DB and other interested train operators formed a working group to discuss changes to the safety rules , including allowing 200 @-@ metre trains . The Intergovernmental Commission currently requires trains to be 400 m long . Deutsche Bahn carried out evacuation trials in the tunnel on 17 October 2010 with two 200m @-@ long ICE3 trains , and displayed one of them at St Pancras station on 19 October . The current Velaro ICE3 sets do not meet the fire safety requirements for passenger services through the tunnel , but the Siemens Velaro D sets on order include the necessary additional fire @-@ proofing . In March 2011 , the European Rail Agency decided to allow trains with distributed traction to operate in the Channel Tunnel . DB is planning three services a day to Frankfurt ( 5h from London ) , Rotterdam ( 3h ) and Amsterdam ( 4h ) via Brussels from 2015 . This had originally planned to be 2013 , but has been delayed due to the availability of the Channel Tunnel version of the Siemens Velaro D trains , high rental costs of the French rail network and border controls in their stations . As of 2016 , nothing yet has come to fruition , but the High Speed One website continues to state that " HS1 Ltd are working with Deutsche Bahn on plans to incorporate three additional international return journeys , between Frankfurt and London via Cologne , Brussels and Lille . This will include connections from Amsterdam via Rotterdam to London . "
= = = = Veolia = = = =
In September 2008 , Air France @-@ KLM indicated a desire to take advantage of the change in the law and apply to run rail services , in cooperation with Veolia , from London to Paris and from Paris to Amsterdam , in competition with Eurostar and Thalys respectively , with the intention of purchasing or leasing the new AGV multiple units currently being tested . In October 2009 Air France withdrew its interest . This led to Veolia looking for new partners , with the announcement that it would begin working on new proposals in cooperation with Trenitalia to run services from Paris to Strasbourg , London and Brussels .
= = = = Renfe = = = =
Spanish railway operator RENFE has also shown an interest in running AVE services from Spain to London via Paris , Lyon , Barcelona , Madrid and Lisbon ( using the Madrid – Barcelona high @-@ speed rail line ) once its AVE network is connected to France via the Barcelona to Figueres and Perpignan to Figueres lines in 2012 .
= = = = Transmanche Metro = = = =
In February 2010 , local councillors from Kent and Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais announced they were in talks to establish a frequent local rail service between the regional stations along the route . Trains would leave Lille and stop at Calais , Ashford and Stratford before reaching London St. Pancras . Currently , Ashford and Calais have an infrequent service and Eurostar trains do not call at Stratford . The initiative is part of Calais ' branding as part of the UK in order to benefit from the 2012 London Olympics but is supported on both sides of the channel to bring in more commuters .
= Felix of Burgundy =
Felix of Burgundy , also known as Felix of Dunwich ( died 8 March 647 or 648 ) , was a saint and the first bishop of the East Angles . He is widely credited as the man who introduced Christianity to the kingdom of East Anglia . Almost all that is known about the saint originates from The Ecclesiastical History of the English People , completed by Bede in about 731 , and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Bede praised Felix for delivering " all the province of East Anglia from long @-@ standing unrighteousness and unhappiness " .
Felix , who originated from the Frankish kingdom of Burgundy , may have been a priest at one of the monasteries in Francia founded by the Irish missionary Columbanus : the existence of a Bishop of Châlons with the same name may not be a coincidence . Felix travelled from his homeland of Burgundy to Canterbury before being sent by Honorius to Sigeberht of East Anglia 's kingdom in about 630 , ( by sea to Babingley in Norfolk , according to local legend ) . On arrival in East Anglia , Sigeberht gave him a see at Dommoc ( possibly Walton , Suffolk or Dunwich in Suffolk ) . According to Bede , Felix helped Sigeberht to establish a school in his kingdom " where boys could be taught letters " . He died on 8 March 647 or 648 , having been bishop for seventeen years . His relics were translated from Dommoc to Soham Abbey and then to the abbey at Ramsey .
After his death , Felix was venerated as a saint : several English churches are dedicated to him . Felix 's feast date is 8 March .
= = Background and early life = =
Felix came from the Frankish kingdom of Burgundy , although his name prevents historians from conclusively identifying his nationality . According to Bede , he was ordained in Burgundy .
It is possible that Felix was associated with Irish missionary activity in Francia , which was centred in Burgundy and was particularly associated with Columbanus and Luxeuil Abbey . Columbanus had arrived in Francia in about 590 , after leaving Bangor along with twelve companions and going into voluntary exile . Upon Columbanus 's arrival , he was encouraged to stay , and in about 592 settled at Annegay , but was then forced to find an alternative site for a monastery at Luxeuil , when lay people and the sick continually sought the counsel of himself and his fellow monks .
The connection between the Wuffingas ruling dynasty and the abbess Burgundofara at Faremoutiers Abbey was an example of the associations that existed at the time between the Church in East Anglia and religious establishments in Francia . Such associations were partly due to the work of Columbanus and his disciples at Luxeuil : together with Eustasius , his successor , Columbanus inspired Burgundofara to found the abbey at Faremoutiers . It has been suggested that a connection between the disciples of Columbanus , ( who strongly influenced the Christians of Northern Burgundy ) and Felix , helps to explain how the Wuffingas dynasty established its links with Faremoutiers . Higham notes various suggestions for where Felix may have originated , including Luxeuil , Châlons or the area around Autun . Other historians have made connections between Felix and Dagobert I , who had contact with both King Sigeberht of East Anglia and Amandus , a disciple of Columbanus .
McLure and Collins note that there was a bishop named Felix who held the see of Châlons in 626 or 627 . They suggest the possibility that Felix may have become a political fugitive as a result of losing his see at Châlons after the death of Chlothar II in 629 .
= = Arrival in the kingdom of the East Angles = =
Felix is mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals that was compiled in the late ninth century . The annal for 633 in ' Manuscript A ' of the Chronicle , states that Felix " preached the faith of Christ to the East Angles " . Another version of the Chronicle , ' Manuscript F ' , written in the eleventh century in both Old English and Latin , elaborates upon the short statement contained in the Manuscript A annal :
" Here there came from the region of Burgundy a bishop who was called Felix , who preached the faith to the people of East Anglia ; called here by King Sigeberht ; he received a bishopric in Dommoc , in which he remained for seventeen years . "
Bede describes how the exertions of King Sigeberht of East Anglia " were nobly promoted by Bishop Felix , who , coming to Honorius , the archbishop , from the parts of Burgundy , where he had been born and , ordained , and having told him what he desired , was sent by him to preach the Word of life to the aforesaid nation of the Angles " . Later sources tend to differ from the version of events described by Bede and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . The Liber Eliensis , an English chronicle and history written at Ely Abbey in the 12th century , states that Felix came with Sigeberht from Francia and was then made Bishop of East Anglia . According to another version of the story , Felix travelled from Gaul and reached the hamlet of Babingley , via the River Babingley . He then made his way to Canterbury . He was ordained as a bishop in about 630 or 631 by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Honorius .
Felix 's arrival in East Anglia seems to have coincided with the start of a new period of order established by Sigeberht , that had followed the assassination of Eorpwald and the three years of apostasy that followed Eorpwald 's murder . Sigeberht had become a devout Christian before returning from exile in Francia to become king . His accession may have been decisive in bringing Felix to East Anglia . Peter Hunter challenges the assertion by mediaeval sources that spoke of Felix and Sigeberht travelling together from Francia to England , as in his view Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People implied that Felix went to East Anglia because of Honorius at Canterbury .
= = Bishop of the East Angles = =
Soon after his arrival at Sigeberht 's court , Felix established a church at Dommoc , his episcopal see , which is widely taken to mean Dunwich , on the Suffolk coast . Dunwich has since been almost totally destroyed by the effects of coastal erosion . Other historians have suggested as an alternative site for Felix 's see the coastal Walton , Suffolk near Felixstowe , where there was once a Roman fort . A church and priory were dedicated to him there by Roger Bigod in 1105 .
Bede related that Felix started a school , " where boys could be taught letters " , to provide Sigeberht with teachers . There is no evidence that Felix 's school was at Soham , as is maintained by later sources . Bede is unclear as to the origin of the teachers at the school that was established , who may have been from Kent itself or similar to those who were to be found in Kent . The Liber Eliensis mentioned that he also founded the abbey at Soham , in Cambridgeshire and a church at Reedham in Norfolk : " Indeed , one reads in an English source that St Felix was the original founder of the old monastery of Sehem and of the church at Redham " . According to Margaret Gallyon , the large size of the East Anglian diocese would have made the foundation of a second religious establishment at Soham " appear very probable " .
During his years as bishop , the East Anglian Church was made still stronger when Fursey arrived from Ireland and founded a monastery , at Cnobheresburg , probably located at Burgh Castle , in Norfolk .
= = Death and veneration = =
Felix died in 647 or 648 , after he had been bishop for seventeen years . After his death , which probably occurred during the reign of Anna of East Anglia , Thomas , a Fenman , became the second Bishop of the East Angles . Felix was buried at Dommoc , but his relics were at a later date removed to Soham , according to the twelfth century English historian William of Malmesbury . His shrine was desecrated by the Vikings when the church was destroyed . Some time later , " the body of the saint was looked for and found , and buried at Ramsey Abbey " . Ramsey was noted for its enthusiasm for collecting saints ' relics , and in an apparent attempt to out @-@ compete their rivals from the abbey at Ely , the Ramsey monks escaped by rowing their boats through thick Fenland fog , carrying with them the bishop 's precious remains .
Felix 's feast day is celebrated on 8 March . There are six churches dedicated to the saint , located in North Yorkshire and East Anglia . According to the mediaeval customary of Bury St Edmunds , known as the Liber Albus , Felix is said to have visited Babingley , in the north west of Norfolk , and ' maden ... ... the halige kirke ' – ' built the holy church ' .
The village of Felixkirk ( in Yorkshire ) and the town of Felixstowe may both have been named after the saint , though an alternative meaning for Felixstowe , " the stow of Filica " , has been suggested .
= = Fiction = =
Gray , Arthur ; Swain , E. G. ( 2010 ) . " The Palladium " . Ancient Haunts : The Stoneground Ghost Tales / Tedious Brief Tales of Granta . Landisville : Coachwhip Publications. pp. 198 – 205 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61646 @-@ 005 @-@ 1 .
= Shawnee on Delaware , Pennsylvania =
Shawnee on Delaware is an unincorporated community on the Delaware River , part of Smithfield Township in Monroe County , Pennsylvania . It is situated just south of the foothills of the Pocono Mountains , 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of the Shawnee Mountain Ski Area and about 75 miles ( 121 km ) west of New York City .
The first white settler , Nicholas Depuy , arrived from New Amsterdam in 1727 . His home was used as a fort during the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) . In 1904 , Worthington Hall , later known as the Shawnee Playhouse , was built in the village . Shawnee is also the home of the Shawnee Inn and Golf Resort , originally built as the Buckwood Inn with a course designed by A. W. Tillinghast in the early 20th century . The largest red cedar tree in the state is situated at Shawnee Presbyterian Church Cemetery , standing 36 feet ( 11 m ) high and 67 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) around the trunk .
= = History = =
Shawnee tribe refugees from Ohio settled in the area in 1692 . The first white settler was Nicholas Depuy , from New Amsterdam , New York , who arrived in 1727 and bought 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) of land from the local Minsi tribe of Lenape Indians . During the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) his home was used as a fort , and became known as Fort Depuy . The village was given its name by a surveyor sent by William Penn , who mistakenly thought the local Indians were Shawnee .
In 1736 , a ferry began to operate , traveling from Shawnee between Shawnee Island and Depuy Island , then across the Delaware River to New Jersey . By 1740 Aaron Depuy was operating a store , and in 1753 he built a stone and log church used by ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church . The cornerstone of this church remains , now part of the Shawnee Presbyterian Church . The farming community grew steadily , using the river to transport produce . A post office was built in 1843 , and a brick church was erected in 1853 on the foundation of the old stone and log church . Some of the original beams still remain , as well as the original sounding board . Judge J. Depue LeBar moved to Shawnee from Pahaquarry Township , New Jersey in about 1850 , and by the end of the decade he 'd opened a general store in the village . In 1888 the River School was built near Shawnee , made of stone and sporting a roof @-@ framing system with wood and iron truss members .
Charles Campbell Worthington was a successful businessman , owner of the Worthington Pump and Machinery Corporation . In the late 1890s Worthington began to spend an increasing amount of time at his country home in Shawnee on Delaware , and in 1900 he retired to live in Shawnee . In 1904 he built Worthington Hall , later known as the Shawnee Playhouse . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 , but the building was de @-@ listed in 1986 after being demolished following a fire caused by arson on June 24 , 1985 . The playhouse was rebuilt with help from the people of Shawnee on Delaware , the Seabees , the Hughes Foundation , the National Endowment for the Arts , The National Trust , a Community Development Block Grant , and others . Charles Campbell Worthington also established the Worthington Society , a society dedicated to ornithology which was directed by Charles W. Miller . The society caught over 300 pigeons on the grounds in less than three months .
= = Geography = =
The village is just south of the foothills of the Pocono Mountains , and is 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of the Shawnee Mountain Ski Area along a forested valley route . It is about 75 miles ( 121 km ) to the west of New York City , and lies 5 @.@ 9 miles ( 9 @.@ 5 km ) to the northeast of Stroudsburg , Pennsylvania . The village is separated from the main channel of the Delaware River by Depuy Island . Just downstream from this island is Swanee Island , now the location of the Shawnee Inn golf course . About 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) upstream from Shawnee is Tocks Island , the site of a proposed controversial dam project following flooding on the river in 1955 . The largest red cedar tree in the state is situated at Shawnee Presbyterian Church Cemetery , standing 36 feet ( 11 m ) high and 67 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) around the trunk , with a 36 feet ( 11 m ) crown .
= = Government = =
Although Shawnee on Delaware is an unincorporated community with no municipal or governmental structure of its own , it is subordinate to the local government of Smithfield Township and the county government of Monroe County , Pennsylvania . The Shawnee Preservation Society is a not @-@ for @-@ profit , voluntary organization , which functions under state law , dedicated to " preserving the quality of life in Shawnee @-@ On @-@ Delaware , Smithfield Township , and surrounding areas " .
= = Economy = =
Lime , produced by burning limestone , was used to neutralize acidity and improve the fertility of the soil in the Shawnee area . One of the local farmers built a lime kiln into a slope on his property ; the kiln on John Turn Farm is well @-@ preserved and is listed as a historic place . Hiram , son of Judge J. Depue LeBar , farmed about three hundreds across on Shawnee Island , which included land of the present day golf course . A barn , 110 feet ( 34 m ) long
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by 60 feet ( 18 m ) was built which could hold some hundred tons of grain when full , with room to store forty acres of wheat and twenty acres of oats . A stone mill was also built in the vicinity , the first flour mill in Smithfield Township , which would be ground and loaded onto boats and sold in Philadelphia .
Worthington built the Buckwood Inn , an exclusive resort , with an eighteen @-@ hole golf course designed by A. W. Tillinghast . This later became the Shawnee Country Club . The course was completed around 1910 . In 1913 , John McDermott won the Shawnee Open golf tournament at Shawnee @-@ on @-@ Delaware , ahead of top Englishmen Harry Vardon and Ted Ray . After trying unsuccessfully to keep the fairways in shape by grazing sheep on them , Worthington designed the gang mower with three moving wheels . He launched the Shawnee Mower Factory to manufacture it .
With the depression the inn 's business suffered , and the building was not properly maintained . Worthington 's family sold the inn in 1943 to Fred Waring , a famous choral master . Waring made the inn his base , and during the 1950s his radio programs featuring Fred Waring and his Pennsylvanians were broadcast from the Worthington Hall . During the 1940s and early 1950s , Waring and His Pennsylvanians produced a string of hits , selling millions of records . A few of his many choral hits include " Sleep , " " Battle Hymn of the Republic , " " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes , " " Button Up Your Overcoat , " " White Christmas , " " Give Me Your Tired , Your Poor " and " Dancing in the Dark . " Waring and some of his friends founded Words and Music Inc. in 1939 . In 1947 he moved the company to Shawnee and renamed it the Shawnee Press . The company became a major publisher of sacred and secular music . In 2009 it was acquired by the Hal Leonard Corporation .
Many of Waring 's celebrity friends visited the inn and played golf . Among them were Bob Hope , Art Carney , George Goebel , Arnold Palmer , Lucille Ball , Ed Sullivan , Eddie Fisher , Perry Como , President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Jackie Gleason . The golf architect Bill Diddle expanded the course to 27 holes . Waring sold the inn in 1974 to Philadelphia real estate developer Karl Hope who expanded the operation and made it less exclusive , introducing timesharing and adding skiing and water activities . Hope established the Shawnee Mountain Ski Area which contributes to the income received in the Shawnee area , employing Olympic Gold medalist Jean @-@ Claude Killy as director of ski operations .
= = Media = =
WCSD @-@ LP ( 104 @.@ 9 FM ) is a low @-@ power FM radio station broadcasting a variety music format . The Federal Communications Commission issued a construction permit for the station on February 14 , 2003 . The station was assigned the WCSD @-@ LP call sign on March 18 , 2003 . It received its license to cover on November 4 , 2004 . Licensed to Shawnee @-@ on @-@ Delaware , the station serves the Stroudsburg , Pennsylvania area and is currently owned by Shawnee Presbyterian Church .
= Ontario Highway 80 =
King 's Highway 80 , commonly referred to as Highway 80 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It travelled in an east – west direction south of Sarnia from Courtright to Strathburn . Beginning at the St. Clair Parkway near the shores of the St. Clair River , the route travelled 69 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 43 @.@ 2 mi ) , intersecting Highway 40 , Highway 21 and Highway 79 before ending at Highway 2 . In addition to the towns at either terminus , Highway 80 serviced the communities of Brigden , Glencoe and Alvinston . The entire route was and remains two lanes wide .
Highway 80 was first designated in 1937 , travelling east from Highway 79 in Alvinston to Highway 2 in Strathburn . Most of the original winding highway was bypassed in 1962 , and the route was extended west in 1963 to what was then Highway 40 , now the St. Clair Parkway . It remained this way for over 30 years before being decommissioned as a provincial highway entirely in the mass downloading of highways in 1997 . Today the route is known as County Road 80 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 80 was a two @-@ laned rural connector highway in Lambton and Middlesex Counties . The generally straight route followed Courtright Line and Dundonald Road , both concession roads created through statute labour during the 1800s .
Beginning near the shore of the St. Clair River , at the St. Clair Parkway , the former highway travels east , encountering Highway 40 approximately 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) inshore . Between there and the community of Kimball , the route veers several times to avoid natural obstacles . It bisects the Brigden Crown Game Preserve , a Carolinian bird sanctuary , before entering the village of Brigden at the eastern boundary of the preserve . Between Brigden and former Highway 21 at Oil City , the route crosses a flat agricultural area and encounters the historic Sarnia Plank Road .
East of Oil City , Highway 80 continues through a large swath of farmland , passing south of the communities of Glen Rae , Weidman and Inwood . Prior to crossing the Sydenham River and entering Middlesex County , the route encounters former Highway 79 south of the town of Alvinston . Within Middlesex County , the highway curves southeast onto Dundonald Road . It crosses both the CN and CP railways in the vicinity of Glencoe , which the route bisects . The final 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of the highway travels through farmland before entering the community of Strathburn , where the route ends at former Highway 2 ( Longwoods Road ) .
= = History = =
Highway 80 was first established as a provincial highway on August 11 , 1937 , when the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , predecessor to the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) , assumed the road between Alvinston and Strathburn , connecting Highway 2 and Highway 79 . In it original incarnation , Highway 80 met Highway 79 in Alvinston at the intersection of Nauvoo Road and Centre Street . From there it travelled east to River Street , where it jogged north to Sydenham Street . From there , the route crossed the Sydenham River and followed the Gardner Trail , Lobelia Street , Conservation Road and Calvert Drive to arrive at the more modern routing of the highway . The original length of Highway 80 was 13 @.@ 9 mi ( 22 @.@ 4 km ) .
However , this winding route proved to be too dangerous and difficult for the explosion of vehicle traffic that occurred after World War II . Alvinston was originally reliant on the Canada Southern Railroad , which was taken over by the Michigan Central Railway and that by New York Central . However , by 1960 the use of the rails had declined so much that service was stopped . The tracks were lifted two years later . In response , the DHO sought to improve the connection between Alvinston and Glencoe . Courtright Line , which ended at Cameron Road and did not cross the Sydenham River , was chosen as an ideal route to extend east . This new route opened in May 1962 .
In 1963 , Highway 80 was extended west to Highway 40 at Courtright , bringing it to its peak length of 69 @.@ 6 km ( 43 @.@ 2 mi ) . Prior to being renumbered , the DHO reconstructed the road , originally built through statute labour and improved slightly as a township road , and referred to it as Development Road 471 . There are conflicting dates as to when this extension became Highway 80 . The 1963 Annual report indicates both July 1 and August 12 as the assumption date . However , an annual average daily traffic log published in 1970 indicates that the extension was assumed on September 4 . The new extension was immediately paved , as it was a gravel road . The route remained unchanged for the next 34 years , until April 1 , 1997 , when it was transferred , or downloaded , to Lambton County and Middlesex County . The former highway is now known as County Road 80 throughout its length .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 80 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth =
The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth is an adventure module for the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . It was written by Gary Gygax and published by TSR in 1982 for the first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rules . The 64 @-@ page adventure bears the code " S4 " ( " S " for " special " ) and is set in the Greyhawk campaign setting . It is divided into two parts , a 32 @-@ page adventure , and a 32 @-@ page booklet of monsters and magic items . The plot involves the player characters investigating rumors of lost treasure . After traversing a wilderness and two levels of dungeons , the players face Drelzna , the vampiric daughter of long @-@ deceased archmage Iggwilv .
The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth was published in 1982 and is a revised and expanded version of The Lost Caverns of Tsojconth , a tournament adventure that Gygax wrote for 1976 WinterCon V gaming convention . Gygax expanded the tournament adventure by adding a wilderness area , with part of it based on earlier work by Rob Kuntz . Work on the adventure delayed the completion of The Temple of Elemental Evil , another Gygax adventure . The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth was included in the 1987 supermodule Realms of Horror , and updated for v3.5 in an online edition in 2007 . It was well received by critics , ranked the 22nd greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 . A White Dwarf reviewer gave the adventure 9 / 10 , noting its difficulty and rewards of powerful magic . It is part of a series along with S1 : Tomb of Horrors , S2 : White Plume Mountain , S3 : Expedition to the Barrier Peaks . It also has a loosely connected sequel : The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun .
= = Plot summary = =
The introduction , with instructions that the Dungeon Master read it aloud to the players , outlines that there is a treasure in the Yatil Mountains south of the Greyhawk realm of Perrenland . The player characters must investigate rumors of a lost treasure that scores of adventurers have perished attempting to find . The treasure is a remnant of the wealth amassed by the archmage Iggwilv , former ruler of Perrenland , prior to her presumed death at the hands of the demon Graz 'zt , whom she had " imprisoned and forced into servitude . " The players must first traverse a wilderness area with 20 numbered encounters before arriving at the caverns . The encounters have names such as " Border Patrol " ( encounter 1 ) and " Hill Giants " ( encounter 10 ) . After the wilderness are two lettered encounters : the " Gnome Vale " , which includes a map for their lair , and " The Craggy Dells " , where humans and orcs are capturing hippogriffs to sell .
Next , the player characters reach the caverns . They consist of the " Lesser Caverns " with 22 encounters , and the " Greater Caverns " with 20 encounters , each with its own map . The lesser caverns include encounters such as " Stinking Cave " ( encounter 5 ) which contains four trolls and " Underground Lake " ( encounter 14 ) . The greater caverns include encounters such as " Uneven @-@ Floored Cavern " ( encounter 5 ) where the player characters face an umber hulk and " Canyon of Centaurs " ( encounter 9 ) . The 20th and final encounter is titled " The Inner Sphere " . Here , a " woman sleeps on an alabaster slab . " She is " armored from toe to neck in gold chased plate mail . " The woman is actually Drelzna , a fighter / vampire and the daughter of Iggwilv . After defeating Drelzna , the players are rewarded with treasure , and the adventure ends .
= = Publication history = =
The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth is a revised and expanded version of The Lost Caverns of Tsojconth , a tournament adventure that Gygax wrote for WinterCon V , a gaming convention sponsored by the Metro Detroit Gamers ( MDG ) in 1976 . It is based in part on one of Rob Kuntz 's dungeon levels , as Kuntz helped Gygax revise the tournament version . This original version consisted of eight loose sheets , an outer folder , and a zip @-@ locked bag ; only several hundred copies were printed . In the May 1980 issue of Dragon , Gygax said " Rob Kuntz has the reworked Lost Caverns module which must be finalized " and that " We want to get it into print as soon as possible . " Lawrence Schick later suggested that " there 's evidence that Gary considered Tsojcanth part of a longer Greyhawk campaign , placing the adventure between T1 – T4 The Temple of Elemental Evil and WG4 The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun . ( By this reckoning , The Village of Hommlet , The Temple of Elemental Evil , and Tsojcanth are thus the " lost " WG1 through WG3 modules . ) So , Tsojcanth was published in the S series because it got completed out of order , but was too good to delay . "
In 1980 , Gygax began rewriting the adventure for first edition AD & D , expanding it to include outdoor encounters . The redevelopment of The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth was one of the major delays in the completion of The Temple of Elemental Evil . This version of the module was revised and expanded , and included two 32 @-@ page books , and an outer folder . In the November 1981 issue of Dragon , Gygax said that TSR needed a competition level module and that " the effort needed to finish the second hundred or so pages of Elemental Evil went into preparation of The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth . The scenario was initially done for a convention tournament , but the new product has an extensive outdoor adventure and a completely new series of encounters " . While in the middle of working on Temple of Elemental Evil , Gygax added a complete outdoor story arc to the original tournament story arc that leads to the caverns . The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth includes new spells , and many new monsters which were later featured in Monster Manual II .
The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun ( 1982 ) starts off from an event in The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth and features monsters from the Fiend Folio . In 1987 , The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth was revised and included in TSR 's " supermodule " Realms of Horror . In 2007 , it was updated to v3.5 and included as one of three parts in Iggwilv 's Legacy : The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth , an adventure available online from Wizards of the Coast .
Both versions of the module included monsters that were later included other Dungeons & Dragons products . The monsters introduced in the original un @-@ published version were updated for AD & D rules and included in the first edition Monster Manual . Monsters appearing in the published version included the demon princes Baphomet , Fraz @-@ Urb 'luu , Graz 'zt , and Kostchtchie , who later appeared in the original Monster Manual II . The published module 's cover features an illustration of a behir by Erol Otus .
All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . Lawrence Schick writes in the foreword that " S4 The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth marked the end of the S series — and rightly so , because despite being based on a gilded @-@ hole dungeon originally designed for a tournament in 1976 , its updated version really belonged more to the ' 80s campaign @-@ setting school of design than to the wild @-@ and @-@ woolly ' 70s . S1 through S3 were standalone modules that could be easily dropped into any DM 's campaign , but Tsojcanth is firmly based in Gary 's World of Greyhawk . "
= = Reception = =
The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth was favorably received by critics . Lawrence Schick , in his 1991 book Heroic Worlds , described the adventure as " A monster @-@ filled labyrinth in the classic mode : kill ' em , rob ' em , and leave . " It was ranked the 22nd @-@ greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . Dungeon 's editors felt that the " pedestrian character of the caverns echoes the adventure 's primordial nature " , while its complicated wilderness setting and large second booklet set it apart from other adventures of the time . The booklet introduced 30 new creatures , including the derro and the demon lords Baphomet and Graz 'zt . The reviewers felt that the adventure 's defining moment was when the players find Iggwilv 's " fabled treasure " : her vampire daughter Drelzna .
Jim Bambra reviewed the adventure for White Dwarf . He gave it 9 / 10 overall , with 9 / 10 for presentation , rules , playability , enjoyment , skill , and complexity . Bambra noted that the module ended a long time off for Gary Gygax , and was " very tough " and that good play was stressed in the introduction . Sub par play quickly ended the story , but the rewards of powerful magic and the satisfaction of completing a difficult task made it worthwhile . He also noted that the adventure came with a 32 @-@ page booklet with 30 new monsters and a small amount of new magic . Not all the new creatures are featured in the plot , but they can be used by the DM in other adventures . Also , magical diagrams are given an in @-@ depth treatment , including their creation and effectiveness .
James Jacobs credits Gary Gygax 's work on The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth for inspiration on Jacobs 's work on the " Demonomicon of Iggwilv " column in Dragon magazine .
= Flocke =
Flocke ( German pronunciation : [ ˈflɔkə ] ) is a female polar bear who was born in captivity at the Nuremberg Zoo in Nuremberg , Germany on 11 December 2007 . A few weeks after her birth , she was removed from her mother 's care after concerns were raised for her safety . Although the zoo had established a strict non @-@ interference policy with its animals , officials chose to raise the cub by hand . This decision came at a time when the zoo was receiving negative attention from the media after another female polar bear reportedly ate her newly born cubs .
Like Knut , a captive @-@ born and handraised polar bear at the Berlin Zoo , Flocke ( " flake " in German ) quickly became a media sensation . After she made her debut to the public on 8 April 2008 , her name was trademarked by the zoo and her image appeared on toys and in advertisements throughout the city . The zoo announced in May 2008 that United Nations Environment Program chief Achim Steiner would be Flocke 's official patron with the hope of using the bear as an ambassador to encourage awareness of climate change . In late 2008 , a Russian @-@ born male polar bear named Rasputin was introduced to Flocke 's enclosure in the hopes that she would gain valuable socializing skills with a member of her own species . In April 2010 , both bears were relocated to Marineland in southern France .
= = Infancy and controversy = =
Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo on 11 December 2007 to Vera ( born 2002 in Moscow ) and Felix ( born 2001 in Vienna ) . Felix also mated with Vera 's sister Vilma , who gave birth some weeks earlier in November to what officials thought were two cubs . Zookeepers , enforcing a strict non @-@ interference policy , were not able to determine exactly how many cubs were born . The zoo reportedly did not wish to create a media circus similar to the one that surrounded Knut , an orphaned polar bear at the Berlin Zoo who became an international celebrity the previous year . Days after the zoo reaffirmed its non @-@ interference policy , mass circulation daily Bild ran a story with a headline reading " Why Won 't Anyone Save the Cute Baby Knuts in Nuremberg Zoo ? "
At the beginning of January , zoo keepers noticed that Vilma appeared nervous ; she was seen agitatedly scratching at her feedbox , and there was no further sign of her cubs . It is believed that she devoured them . When asked for a reason , Nuremberg zoo director Dag Encke stated that they could have been ill , a circumstance under which polar bears in the wild often eat their young . The zoo quickly faced harsh criticism throughout Germany and from the worldwide media for appearing to allow the cubs ' death . The director of the German Animal Protection Society said the zoo had acted irresponsibly and that " it was the ethical responsibility of the management to give the polar bear cubs a chance of life . Using the argument ' That 's Nature ' as an excuse for intervening far too late is cynical and inappropriate . " Angry visitors gathered in front of the polar bear enclosure and shouted " Rabenmutter " ( literally , " raven mother , " meaning " evil mother " ) every time Vilma appeared .
Meanwhile , Vera was seen emerging from her den for the first time ; her single cub , helpless at only four weeks old , appeared to be in good health . A couple of days after the media backlash that followed Vilma 's missing cubs , Vera began displaying strange behavior such as carrying her then @-@ unnamed cub around the enclosure and repeatedly dropping it on the hard rock floor . Concerned for the cub 's safety , the Nuremberg Zoo made a controversial decision to remove her from her mother 's care and raise her by hand .
= = Fame = =
Less than a week after Vera 's cub was removed from the polar bear enclosure , the zoo dedicated a website to the cub . It provided frequent updates on her health and development , as well as exclusive photographs and videos . The website also showcased a competition in which fans could vote for the cub 's name . The official name was announced on 18 January 2008 by Ulrich Maly , mayor of Nuremberg , and broadcast live on television . Despite the overwhelming number of e @-@ mailed suggestions from across the world ( including " Stella " , " Knutschi " , " Sissi " and " Yuki Chan " ) , the zoo officially named her Flocke , German for " flake " , as in " snowflake " . " Flocke " , used widely by the media previous to her official naming , was the nickname originally given to her by zookeepers because of her white fur .
Flocke 's growth was carefully reported by the media during her first few months . Four zookeepers took turns bottle @-@ feeding the cub with 140 milliliters of artificial milk every four hours and news of her eyes opening for the first time made headlines a few days before she was officially named . At five weeks old , she was referred to by the publication Bild as " Mrs. Knut " , suggesting that the two German @-@ born polar bears might become mates when they mature . As she grew , Flocke 's diet was enriched with dog food , and boiled bones were supplied for her to chew on when she was three months old . She was soon taken to the zoo 's beginners ' pool to practice her swimming skills . The zoo had previously stated that they were seeking another orphaned polar or brown bear cub to raise alongside Flocke in order to improve her development .
On 8 April 2008 , Flocke made her first public appearance in the polar bear enclosure that had once been home to Vilma ; the adult polar bear had been relocated to another zoo . The four @-@ month @-@ old cub was greeted by more than 160 journalists and a half @-@ dozen international camera crews on the first day . During the first week , Flocke was displayed for short intervals with breaks at midday . Expecting a peak of 20 @,@ 000 visitors , the zoo built a viewing platform , capable of holding 500 people at a time , in front of the enclosure , but attendance by zoo patrons was initially lower than expected . The zoo uses a video transmission and recording system from Bosch Security Systems to transmit TV @-@ quality live images of the cub to a pair of 46 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) large @-@ format screens . This system , which includes one screen outside the enclosure , was implemented to help the zoo meet the demands of visitors wanting to catch a glimpse of Flocke .
Shortly after her debut , however , Flocke became the focus of controversy when prominent animal conservationist Jürgen Ortmüller , chairman of the Whale and Dolphin Protection Forum , hired a lawyer to stop Nuremberg Zoo 's exploitation of the polar bear cub . Claiming that Flocke 's public exposure would have damaging effects and that the zoo was only concerned about earning money , Ortmüller recruited high @-@ profile lawyer Rolf Bossi to challenge them in court .
= = Merchandising and branding = =
Soon after Flocke was rescued in January , the city secured branding rights to her name . An official logo was subsequently released by the zoo . Flocke became part of a major publicity campaign in Nuremberg when she was depicted along with the phrase " Knut war gestern " ( Knut is yesterday 's bear ) on posters for the city 's metropolitan region . These posters were displayed at numerous bus and train stops all over the city .
Dubbed " Flocke fever " by the press ( similar to the " Knutmania " from the previous year ) , the cub 's popularity soared in early 2008 . Her image has been used for games , diaries , soft toys , DVDs , postcards and other items . The first product released , a Flocke @-@ based board game that was released in February , was made by the Fuerth @-@ based firm Noris @-@ Spiele , a unit of Georg Reulein GmbH & Co . KG . The well @-@ known toy company Steiff began selling a variety of Flocke stuffed animals the following May . The income from the merchandise is currently going towards the zoo and to species survival programs .
= = Later publicity = =
In April 2008 , the zoo decreased human interaction with the cub , hoping that one day she could coexist with members of her species and not be dependent on humans . Becoming more independent from her keepers , Flocke was reported often playing happily on her own . She was given a plastic " dummy " , similar to a child 's teething ring , tied to the bars on the inside of her stable door to suckle on while resting . This suckling caused the cub 's nose to appear bent ; her muzzle remained in this shape for some time before returning to normal .
At the age of six months , it was reported that Flocke , whose diet at the time consisted mostly of a kilogram of beef , assorted vegetables and a liter of puppy milk a day , was at the correct weight for her development at 45 kilograms ( 99 lb ) . The zoo 's vet , Bernhard Neurohr , also remarked upon the bear 's sweet tooth , stating that " Flocke is very enthusiastic about grapes , melon , kiwi fruit and pears " , with a particular fondness for bananas .
United Nations Environment Program chief Achim Steiner became Flocke 's official patron in May 2008 . By assuming this role , Steiner acknowledged Nuremberg Zoo 's efforts towards local climate protection , stating " I am happy to have been asked to become ' godfather ' to Nuremberg 's polar bear cub Flocke . I sincerely hope that during her lifetime we will be able to implement a global green economy . "
In June 2008 , a new poster campaign featuring Flocke was announced ; its goal was strengthening public awareness of individuals ' ability to protect Earth 's climate . Sponsored by the Nuremberg Zoo in conjunction with the Nuremberg Metropolitan Region , the poster showed Flocke and the phrase " Klimaschutz beginnt vor Ort " ( " Climate Protection Begins At Home " ) . The zoo also published a pocket @-@ sized brochure featuring Flocke . Entitled " Little Guide to Climate Protection " , it taught visitors how to decrease their carbon dioxide emissions . The Nuremberg Zoo announced in September that it had reached its one millionth visitor for 2008 — two months earlier than last year . Although ticket sales for the year increased due to Flocke 's popularity , the numbers did not match high expectations . The same month it was announced that the cub , now weighing 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) , would no longer have lunchtime breaks in her stable , and would remain in the enclosure throughout the day .
= = Rasputin and move to France = =
In late November 2008 , Flocke 's mother Vera gave birth to two cubs , who were fathered by Flocke 's father , Felix . Although Vera was able to care for the new cubs without assistance from zoo keepers , Director Dag Encke initially stated that the cubs had a 50 percent chance of survival . Three weeks after their birth was reported , both cubs died of natural causes within one week of each other . Encke expressed regret after the second cub 's death , stating that " Vera nursed regularly and the young animal always slept well afterwards , so it seemed certain that it received enough milk . The reason that the young animal wasted away so quickly is not known . "
A male polar bear cub named Rasputin was relocated from Moscow to the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2008 for what was thought to be an extended stay before his permanent move to the Zoo Aquarium de Madrid . Originally meant to remain in Germany for only a year , the male bear — called " Raspi " by fans — shared Flocke 's enclosure . The zoo hoped that Rasputin , who unlike Flocke was raised by his mother , would teach their celebrity bear how to interact with those of her own species . According to a statement given by the city , the bears " get along famously " .
On 21 October 2009 , the city of Nuremberg announced that Flocke and Rasputin would move together to a newly constructed enclosure at Marineland , located in Antibes , France , at the beginning of 2010 . Due to the close relationship between the two adolescent bears , officials from the European Conservation Breeding Program ( Europäischen Erhaltungszucht @-@ Programms , or " EEP " ) decided that the two bears should remain together despite earlier plans for Rasputin to relocate to Madrid alone . The enclosure they are vacating in Nuremberg will be utilized by Flocke 's parents , Vera and Felix , in the hopes that they will produce more cubs . Despite last minute efforts by the animal right 's group PETA to halt the move based on concerns for Flocke and Rasputin 's well @-@ being , the two bears arrived safely in France on 22 April 2010 . On 26 November 2014 , Flocke gave birth to her own cub named Hope , fathered by Rasputin .
= Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
The Australian cricket team in England in 1948 was captained by Don Bradman , who was making his fourth and final tour of England . The team is famous for being the first Test match side to play an entire tour of England without losing a match . This feat earned them the nickname of The Invincibles , and they are regarded as one of the greatest cricket teams of all time . According to the Australian federal government the team " is one of Australia 's most cherished sporting legends " .
Including five Test matches , Australia played a total of 31 first @-@ class fixtures , plus three other games , two of the non @-@ first @-@ class matches being played in Scotland . They had a busy schedule , with 112 days of play scheduled in 144 days , meaning that they often played every day of the week except Sunday . Their record in the first @-@ class games was 23 won and 8 drawn ; in all matches , they won 25 and drew 9 ; many of the victories were by large margins . They won the Test series 4 – 0 with one draw .
The strength of the Australian team was based around its formidable batting line @-@ up , which included Bradman , Arthur Morris , vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett , Neil Harvey and Sid Barnes , and the hostile fast bowling of Ray Lindwall , Keith Miller and Bill Johnston .
Due to the popularity of Bradman , generally regarded as the greatest batsman of all time , and the fact that he had announced that it was his farewell international tour , the Australians were greeted with much fanfare across the country , and many records for match attendances were broken . The record for Test attendance at a match in England was broken three times , in the Second , Third and Fourth Tests , and stands to this day .
= = Touring party = =
= = Significance = =
The 1948 Australian team has great significance in cricket history as it is the only side to tour England unbeaten , earning the sobriquet The Invincibles . The tour was captain Donald Bradman 's last Test series , and the immediate postwar team was the most successful that Bradman appeared in . It has been claimed that English cricket suffered more heavily from the effects of World War II than the Australians . Even so , various commentators have rated the 1948 Australians as one of the best cricket teams ever , and it is often compared to other great outfits such as the 1902 Australian touring team , Warwick Armstrong 's Australian side of just after World War I , the West Indies team of the 1980s and the Australian team of the 1990s and 2000s . This was not a view shared by Jack Fingleton , Bradman 's batting rival from the 1930s , who wrote ' the 1948 Australian side to England , side that some critics , ignoring the apparent lack of strength in English cricket that season , dubbed the " best Australian team ever " – which was just moonshine . Yorkshire almost beat the Australians of 1948 ' , but his view is very much in the minority .
The high regard with which The Invincibles are held in the annals of Australian and world cricket is reflected in the various honours accorded to the players . Bradman , Lindwall and Miller were among the ten inaugural inductees into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 1996 . Hassett , Morris and Harvey were later inducted , so that 20 % of the inductees are from the 1948 team . Of these six , all except Hassett were selected in Australia 's Team of the Century , with Bradman as captain and Miller his deputy . Bradman , Lindwall , Miller and Harvey are among a group of only 14 Australians in a total of 60 players who have been inducted into the International Cricket Council 's Hall of Fame . In The Ten Greatest Test Teams by Tom Graveney with Norman Miller ten teams were compared by a computer and the 1948 Australians emerged second behind the 1984 West Indians . Graveney strongly disagreed with the result , writing ' there has not been a better team in my lifetime than Don Bradman 's Australian tourists of 1948 ' . The computer regarded Sam Loxton as a member of the team as he played more Tests in the series than Neil Harvey , if Harvey had been picked the Australians would have been the superior team .
= = Preparations = =
Since the resumption of cricket following World War II , Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten . In 1946 – 47 , they won the five @-@ Test series against England 3 – 0 , and followed this with a 4 – 0 series win over India in the following season . Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead @-@ up to the tour of England , and their captain Donald Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five @-@ month tour without defeat .
The committee that selected the touring party was Bradman , Jack Ryder and Chappie Dwyer . They held their final meeting on Wednesday 11 February and announced the team that day . The team was chosen with a dual emphasis on strong batting and fast bowling . This was in large part because England had agreed to make a new ball available after 55 six @-@ ball overs in the Tests ; a new ball was generally taken after every 200 runs , which usually takes more than 55 overs to accumulate , the rule change meant that a new ball was more frequently available . A new ball is more helpful to fast bowling , so this move favoured the team with the better pace attack , in this case Australia .
Australia had injury concerns to key players ahead of the tour . Chronic knee injuries had begun to hamper medium @-@ pacer Toshack , and he only made the trip after a 3 – 2 vote by a medical panel , despite being one of the first players chosen by the selectors on cricketing merit . Leading paceman Lindwall had been playing with an injured leg tendon . In addition , his foot drag during the delivery stride led to speculation about the legality of his bowling action . The injury was worked on ahead of the tour , while Bradman advised Lindwall on how to rectify any suspicion over his bowling action . The Australian captain advised his bowler to ensure that his foot was further behind the line than usual to avoid being no @-@ balled , and to operate below full speed until the umpires were satisfied . Bradman 's counsel was effective , as Lindwall did not have a no @-@ ball problem during the tour .
Bill Jeanes , who was secretary of the Australian Board of Control and had managed the previous Australian tour of England in 1938 , was offered the job of managing the 1948 team , but turned it down . Jeanes had become increasingly unpopular among the players because of an approach that cricket historian Gideon Haigh has called " increasingly officious and liverish " . He was replaced by Keith Johnson , the New South Wales delegate to the Australian Board of Control . Johnson had previously managed the Australian Services team — which included Keith Miller and Lindsay Hassett — in the Victory Tests that took place in 1945 at the conclusion of the Second World War in Europe .
= = = Warm @-@ up matches in Australia = = =
Before they sailed for England , Australia played three warm @-@ up matches . The first two were two @-@ day games against Tasmania in Hobart and at the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association Ground , Launceston ; the third was a three @-@ day match against Western Australia in Perth . In Hobart , Australia scored 538 / 5 declared with centuries by Barnes , Hassett and Harvey in reply to 122 . Using a mixture of pace and spin , they reduced Tasmania to 186 / 7 when time ran out . In Launceston , Australia won by an innings and 49 runs . Toshack took 5 / 24 as Tasmania fell for 123 . Australia then scored 288 before five bowlers shared the wickets as Tasmania fell for just 116 , Barnes taking 3 / 1 . Four days later , on Saturday 13 March , the Australians were at the WACA Ground where they found a tougher test from Western Australia . Western Australia scored 348 as Wally Langdon made 112 , while five bowlers took two wickets each . Australia replied with 442 / 7 declared , including 115 apiece by Morris and Bradman . Western Australia only had time to reach 62 / 3 and the game was drawn . The match attracted a total crowd of 30 @,@ 500 .
= = Voyage and stopover in Ceylon = =
The team set sail on board RMS Strathaird from Fremantle on Friday 19 March . En route to England , the Australians berthed in Colombo where they played a one @-@ day single @-@ innings match — not limited overs — against the Ceylon national team at the Colombo Cricket Club Ground . The local newspaper The Islander ran a headline of " Bradman Will Definitely Play " and this guaranteed a crowd of more than 20 @,@ 000 . Australia batted first and became suspicious about the pitch as the morning went on . At lunch , Ian Johnson demanded that the pitch be measured and it was found to be only 20 yards ( 18 m ) long . After that , the bowlers delivered from two yards behind the crease . Australia made 184 / 8 declared ( Barnes 49 , Miller 46 ) before a monsoon ended the match with Ceylon at 46 / 2 in reply .
The party docked at Tilbury on Friday 16 April to a resounding welcome . Bradman announced the delivery of 17 @,@ 000 food parcels as a gift to the British people from the State of Victoria . Great Britain was still in the throes of rationing and post @-@ war austerity .
= = Popularity = =
Despite Australia 's ruthless on @-@ field dominance and a succession of one @-@ sided victories , the touring team drew unprecedented levels of spectator and media interest . Bradman 's dominant cricketing stature was a key factor in his team 's popularity with the public , especially as it was known that it would be his last international campaign . A leading cricket writer of the time , R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow , said " we want him to do well . We feel we have a share in him . He is more than Australian . He is a world batsman . " The Australian journalist Andy Flanagan said that " cities , towns and hotels are beflagged , carpets set down , and dignitaries wait to extend an official welcome . He is the Prince of Cricketers . " Writing later , Haigh opined that " perhaps no touring cricketer ... has been as feted as Bradman in that northern summer " . Bradman received hundreds of personal letters every day , and one of his dinner speeches was broadcast live , causing the British Broadcasting Corporation to postpone the news bulletin . Of Bradman 's retirement , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said in the 1949 Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack : " ... a miracle has been removed from among us ... So must ancient Italy have felt when she heard of the death of Hannibal . "
As a team , the Australians were greeted by record crowds and gate receipts across the country , even when wet weather curtailed the matches . The record attendance for a Test match in England was broken three times , in the Second Test at Lord 's , the Third Test at Old Trafford , and the Fourth Test at Headingley . The 158 @,@ 000 spectators that watched the proceedings at Headingley remain a record for a Test on English soil .
Off the field , the Australians were inundated with requests for social functions , including appointments with government officials and members of the royal family , and they had to juggle a plethora of off @-@ field engagements , with 112 days of scheduled cricket in the space of 144 days . Three @-@ day matches were often held consecutively with only the traditional Sunday rest day , although their dominance ended several matches prematurely and earned them extra rest days .
Team manager Keith Johnson , the only administrator in the touring party , was flooded with phone calls and letters . Bradman later said he was worried that Johnson 's tireless work would cause health problems and that " it was the tribute to a bulldog determination to see the job through " . Wisden said " Indebtedness for the smooth running of the tour and general harmony of the team was due largely to the manager , Mr Keith Johnson , hard @-@ working and always genial ... Paying tribute to the loyalty of the players , Mr Johnson said there had not been a discordant note in the party throughout the tour . " Bradman said that " no side could have wished for a better manager " .
= = Bradman 's role = =
Bradman 's position as a selector gave him more power than previous Australian captains , who did not have an explicit vote in team selection . This was further magnified by Bradman being a member of the Board of Control while still an active player , a threefold combination that he alone has occupied in Australian cricket history . According to Haigh , he " was the dominant figure in Australian cricket " , and an " unimpeachable figure " . At the age of 40 , Bradman was by four years the oldest player on the team ; three quarters of his team were 32 or younger , and some viewed him as a father figure . Bradman wrote that this was the most personally fulfilling period of his playing days , as the divisiveness of the 1930s had passed . He wrote :
Knowing the personnel , I was confident that here at last was the great opportunity which I had longed for . A team of cricketers whose respect and loyalty were unquestioned , who would regard me in a fatherly sense and listen to my advice , follow my guidance and not question my handling of affairs ... there are no longer any fears that they will query the wisdom of what you do . The result is a sense of freedom to give full reign to your own creative ability and personal judgment .
However , some players expressed displeasure at Bradman 's ruthless obsession towards annihilating the opposition . Miller deliberately allowed himself to be bowled first ball for a duck in a protest against Australia 's world record of 721 runs in one day against Essex . He also deplored Bradman 's hard @-@ nosed attitude in fixtures nominally designated as " festival matches " . Feeling that Bradman was needlessly batting Australia far beyond impregnability , Miller played with reckless aggression , rather than a measured style in line with his captain 's aim of remaining undefeated . Bradman 's letters in later life , published posthumously , revealed his hostility towards Miller . Sid Barnes later criticised Bradman for his reluctance to allow Ron Hamence — one of the reserve batsmen — to partake in meaningful matchplay due to captain 's reluctance to risk Australia 's unbeaten run .
= = Roles and strategy = =
As matches often started the day after the previous fixture , sometimes amounting to six days of cricket a week — Sunday was always a rest day — Australia employed a rotation policy in order to allow the players to recuperate , except for the Tests and matches against Worcestershire , the Marylebone Cricket Club and the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , when they chose their strongest team . As a result , no member of the squad — Bradman included — played in more than 23 of the first @-@ class matches . Thus , the vice @-@ captain Hassett led the Australians in nine tour matches while Bradman was rested , and maintained the unbeaten run in all of them . Wisden opined that " in addition to his playing ability Hassett 's cheerfulness and leadership , which extended to off @-@ the @-@ field relaxation as well as in the more exacting part of the programme , combined to make him an ideal vice @-@ captain able to lift a considerable load off Bradman 's busy shoulders " .
Likewise , the batting was regularly rotated . The three openers Barnes , Morris and Brown took turns sitting out , while the middle @-@ order was changed frequently and the wicket @-@ keeping duties divided between Tallon and Saggers .
Australia 's bowling attack was led by Lindwall and Miller , who took the new ball in the Tests . Bradman used the pair in short and fiery bursts with the new ball . English cricket administrators had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs ; at the time , the norm was to allow a new ball for every 200 runs scored , something that usually took longer than 55 overs . The new regulation played directly into the hands of the Australians , as a new ball is ideal for fast bowling and the tourists had a vastly superior pace attack . Bradman thus wanted to preserve his two first @-@ choice pacemen for a vigorous attack on the English batsmen every 55 overs . As a result , Australia 's third fast bowler Bill Johnston bowled the most overs , and the left arm seamer Ernie Toshack also had a heavy workload until a knee injury ended his campaign .
The new ball rule also meant that spin bowling was less effective in the Tests , so Australia only used one full @-@ time spinner in the Tests , off spinner Johnson , until his omission in favour of leg spinner Ring . Together they took only eight wickets .
Things were different in the county matches . As Bradman wanted to keep Lindwall and Miller fresh for the Tests , he generally gave them a lighter workload against the weaker opposition in the county matches , and the three spinners Ring , Johnson and McCool did more of the work , especially as the 55 @-@ over rule did not apply outside the Tests . Ring did the second @-@ most bowling outside the Tests , despite not being in Bradman 's first @-@ choice team . Bradman even used Hamence , a reserve batsman , to open the bowling at times , in order to rest his bowlers , and in the second match against Yorkshire , decided to bat for an extended period instead of going for a win , so that his bowlers could recuperate .
= = Ashes Test matches = =
The five @-@ Test Ashes series was won convincingly by Australia 4 – 0 . England was captained by Norman Yardley and their batting was strong on paper , the first four in the order generally being Len Hutton , Cyril Washbrook , Bill Edrich and Denis Compton . They were supported by the likes of Joe Hardstaff junior , Tom Dollery , Charlie Barnett , Jack Crapp , John Dewes , Allan Watkins , Yardley and wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans . However , they found the fast bowling trio of Lindwall , Miller and Johnston — supported by the medium pace of Toshack — a real handful , especially with the 55 @-@ over new ball rule .
Lindwall and Miller were groundbreaking fast bowlers , with high pace and the ability to deliver menacing short @-@ pitched bowling at the upper body of the batsmen . Prior to World War II , pace bowlers were generally much slower and rarely bowled at the body . England were yet to develop similar bowlers , and as a result , Australia were able to pepper the upper body of the opposition without fear of retaliation . At one stage , the Australian short @-@ pitched barrage prompted the English selectors to drop leading batsman Hutton , something that provoked great controversy . Lindwall and Johnston dominated the home batsmen and took 27 wickets apiece , at averages of 19 @.@ 62 and 23 @.@ 33 respectively , while the injury @-@ prone Miller took 13 at 23 @.@ 15 . For England , the batsman emerging with most credit was Compton , who scored 562 runs at 62 @.@ 44 . Washbrook ( 356 runs at 50 @.@ 85 ) was the only other player to average beyond 45 .
In contrast , Australia 's batsmen had relatively little difficulty against the hosts
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Lennon present something concrete to show that he could financially support his daughter , but Lennon signed on as a Merchant Navy steward on a ship bound for the Mediterranean . He returned after a few months at sea and moved into the Stanley home . He auditioned for local theatre managers as an entertainer but had no success . Julia found out that she was pregnant ( with John ) in January 1940 , but as the war had started her husband continued to serve as a merchant seaman during World War II , sending money home regularly . The payments stopped after Alf deserted in 1943 .
= = = John = = =
Julia gave birth to John Winston Lennon on 9 October 1940 , in the second @-@ floor ward of the Oxford Street Maternity Hospital in Liverpool , during World War II . Her eldest sister , Mimi , phoned the hospital and was told that she had given birth to a boy . Mimi would later claim that she went straight to the hospital during the middle of an air raid and was forced to hide in doorways to avoid the shrapnel from falling bombs , but in actuality , there had been no attack on Liverpool that night . Alf was not present at their son 's birth , as he was at sea .
The infant Lennon started at his first school in November 1945 — Mosspits , on Mosspits Lane , Wavertree — so she found a part @-@ time job at a café near the school . After numerous criticisms from the Stanley family about their ( still @-@ married ) daughter ' living in sin ' with John Dykins , and considerable pressure from Mimi — who twice contacted Liverpool 's Social Services to complain about the infant Lennon sleeping in the same bed as Julia and Dykins — she reluctantly handed the care of Lennon over to Mimi and her husband , George Smith . In July 1946 , Alf visited Mimi 's house , ' Mendips ' at 251 Menlove Avenue , and took Lennon to Blackpool for a long holiday , but he was secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him . Julia and Dykins found out and followed them to Blackpool . Alf asked Julia to go with them both to New Zealand , but she refused . After a heated argument , Alf said their five @-@ year @-@ old child had to choose between his mother or him . He chose Alf ( twice ) so Julia walked away , but in the end her son ( crying ) followed her . Alf lost contact with the family until Beatlemania , when he and his son met again .
She took John back to her house and enrolled him in a local school , but after few weeks she handed him back to Mimi . Various reasons have been suggested for her decision , such as Dykins ' unwillingness to raise the young boy , Julia 's inability to cope with the responsibility , or a punishment forced on her by Mimi and her father for " living in sin " . Lennon blamed himself , saying later , " My mother ... couldn 't cope with me . " He then lived continuously at ' Mendips ' , in the smallest bedroom above the front door , with Mimi determined to give him a " proper upbringing " . Julia later bought Lennon his first guitar for £ 5 / 10- ( five pounds , ten shillings ) after Lennon had pestered her incessantly for weeks , but insisted it had to be delivered to her house , not her sister 's . As Lennon had difficulty learning chords , she taught him banjo and ukulele chords , which were simpler , and later taught Lennon how to play the piano accordion . Julia 's banjo was the first instrument that John learned to play ' sitting there with endless patience until I managed to work out all the chords . ' After Julia 's untimely death the instrument was never seen again and its whereabouts remains a mystery .
As Mimi refused to have a record player in her house , Lennon learned how to play his favourite songs by going to Julia 's house . She played Elvis records to Lennon and would dance around her kitchen with him . In 1957 , when The Quarrymen played at St. Barnabas Hall , Penny Lane , Julia turned up to watch . After each song she would clap and whistle louder than everyone else and was seen " swaying and dancing " throughout the whole concert . Lennon frequently visited her house during that period , detailing his anxieties and problems , where she gave him encouragement to continue with music over Mimi 's objection
= = = Victoria = = =
During 1942 – 1943 , Julia lived with her son at The Dairy Cottage ; 120a Allerton Road , Woolton . The cottage was owned by Mimi 's husband , and Mimi wanted Julia to live there because they would be closer to her house and also out of the Stanley house . As Alf was often away at sea , Julia started going out to dance halls . In 1942 , she met a Welsh soldier named ' Taffy ' Williams who was stationed in the barracks at Mossley Hill . Alf later blamed himself for this , as he had written letters telling her that because there was a war on , she should go out and enjoy herself . After an evening out , she would often give her young son a piece of chocolate or shortcrust pastry the next morning for breakfast . She became pregnant by Williams in late 1944 , though first claiming that she had been raped by an unknown soldier . Williams refused to live with Julia — who was still married to Alf — until she gave up John , which she refused to do . When Alf eventually came home in 1944 , he offered to look after his wife , their son , and the expected baby , but she rejected the idea .
Alf took John to his brother Sydney 's house , in the Liverpool suburb of Maghull , a few months before Julia came to term . Julia 's daughter , Victoria Elizabeth , born in the Elmswood Nursing Home on 19 June 1945 , was subsequently given up for adoption to a Norwegian Salvation Army Captain and his wife ( Peder and Margaret Pedersen ) after intense pressure from the Stanley family . John Lennon was informed by his Aunt Harriet of her existence in 1964 . John was so overcome by emotion , wanting to find his sister that he placed an ad in the paper , and hired detectives to look for her . They searched Norway for Victoria , and came up empty handed , and John never found her . He died never knowing her .
= = = John ' Bobby ' Dykins = = =
Julia started seeing Dykins a year after Victoria 's birth ( although they had known each other before ) when she was working in the café near Lennon 's primary school ; Mosspits . Dykins was a good @-@ looking , well @-@ dressed man who worked at the Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool as a wine steward . She later moved into a small flat in Gateacre with Dykins . He enjoyed luxuries , and had access to rationed goods like alcohol , chocolate , silk stockings and cigarettes , which was what initially attracted her . The Stanley sisters called him " Spiv " , because of his pencil @-@ thin moustache , margarine @-@ coated hair , and pork @-@ pie hat , and the young Lennon called him " Twitchy " because of a physical tic / nervous cough . Julia 's family and friends remembered that he also had a fiery temperament , which could result in his being violent when drunk . Lennon remembered seeing his mother during a visit to Mimi 's , when her face was bleeding after being hit by Dykins .
Paul McCartney later stated that Julia living in sin with Dykins while she was still married was a point of social ostracization for Lennon , as it was often used as a " cheap shot " against him . Although Julia never divorced Alf , she was considered to be the common @-@ law wife of Dykins . She wanted Lennon to live with them both , but he was passed between the Stanley sisters and often ran away to Mimi 's , where she would open the door to find Lennon standing there , " his face covered in tears " . Julia was accused by the family of being frivolous and unreliable — she never enjoyed household chores — and was once seen sweeping the kitchen floor with a pair of knickers on her head . Her cooking methods were also haphazard , as she would mix things " like a mad scientist " , and even put tea " or anything else that came to hand " in a stew . A favourite joke would be to wear a pair of spectacles that had no glass in them , and then to scratch her eye through the empty frame .
Dykins later managed several bars in Liverpool , which allowed Julia to stay at home and look after their two daughters ( Julia and Jackie ) and Lennon , who often visited and stayed overnight , at 1 Blomfield Road , Liverpool . Lennon and McCartney would rehearse in the bathroom of the house where the acoustics " sounded like a recording studio " . Dykins used to give Lennon weekly pocket money ( one shilling ) for doing odd jobs , on top of the five shillings that Mimi gave him . In December 1965 , Dykins was killed in a car crash at the bottom of Penny Lane , but Lennon was not told about his death for months afterwards , as it was " not [ Stanley ] family business " .
= = = Julia and Jackie = = =
Julia had two daughters with Dykins : Julia Baird ( née Dykins - b . 5 March 1947 ) and Jacqueline ( Jackie ) Dykins ( b . 26 October 1949 ) . As Jackie was born prematurely , her mother visited the hospital every day to see her . When Lennon was 11 years old , he started to visit the Dykins ' house , and often stayed overnight . Baird would give up her bed to him , then share her sister 's bed . Baird remembered that after Lennon had visited them , her mother would often play a record called , My Son John , To Me You Are So Wonderful , " by some old crooner , and sit and listen to it " . [ Baird probably meant " My Son John " — sung by David Whitfield — which was released in 1956 ] . After Julia 's death , the two girls ( aged eleven and eight ) were sent to stay in Edinburgh at Aunt Mater 's and were only told two months later by Norman Birch ( Lennon 's uncle ) that their mother had died . The commercial success of the Beatles allowed Lennon to buy a 4 @-@ bedroomed house in Gateacre Park Drive , Liverpool , for Baird and Jackie to live in with Lennon 's Aunt Harriet and Birch . They had previously been made legal guardians of the two girls ; Dykins ' parentage had been disregarded as he had never legally married Julia . After Lennon 's death and Harriet died , Lennon 's wife , Yoko Ono , wanted to sell the house — as it was still in Lennon 's name — but she later gave it to the Salvation Army on 2 November 1993 , even though Lennon had once written a letter , stating : " I always thought of the house he 's in [ Birch ] as my contribution towards looking after Julia [ Baird ] and Jackie . I would prefer the girls to use it . "
Baird and Jackie later met their half @-@ sister , Victoria / Ingrid , when they were present at the ceremony to place a Blue Heritage plaque on Mimi 's house to commemorate the fact that Lennon had lived there . Stanley Parkes ( Lennon 's cousin ) was on the ladder fixing the plaque to the wall and said , " I think I can see Ingrid " [ walking towards the house ] . Baird and her sister were surprised , as it meant that Parkes had seen Ingrid before , even though Baird and Jackie never had . When all three finally met for the first time Baird was shocked that Ingrid did not look anything like the Stanley family , as she had " pale blue eyes and fair hair " .
= = Death = =
Julia visited Mimi 's house nearly every day , where they would chat over tea and cakes in the morning room or stand in the garden when it was warm . On the evening of 15 July 1958 , Nigel Walley went to visit Lennon and found Julia and Mimi talking by the front gate . Lennon was not there , as he was at the Blomfield Road house . Walley accompanied Julia to the bus stop further north along Menlove Avenue , with her telling jokes along the way . At about 9 : 30 , Walley left her to walk up Vale Road and she crossed Menlove Avenue to the central reservation between two traffic lanes , which was lined with hedges that covered disused tram tracks . Five seconds later , Walley heard " a loud thud " , and turned to see her body " flying through the air " — which landed about 100 feet ( 30 m ) from where she had been hit . He ran back to get Mimi and they waited for the ambulance , with Mimi crying hysterically .
Julia was struck and killed by a Standard Vanguard car , driven by an off @-@ duty constable , PC Eric Clague , who was a learner @-@ driver . Clague was acquitted of all charges and given a short suspension from duty . When Mimi heard the verdict she was so incensed that she shouted " Murderer ! " at Clague . Clague later left the police force and became a postman .
Lennon could not bring himself to look at his mother 's corpse when he was taken to the Sefton General Hospital , and was so distraught that he put his head on Mimi 's lap throughout the funeral service . Lennon refused to talk to Walley for months afterwards , and Walley felt that Lennon somehow held him responsible . Julia was buried in Allerton Cemetery , in Liverpool . Her gravesite was for some time unmarked , but it was later identified as " CE ( Church of England ) 38 @-@ 805 " . The graveyard 's location is approx . 1 @.@ 19 miles east of 1 Blomfield Road . Baird said that the Stanley family hoped to finally put a headstone on her mother 's grave , which she hoped " will be a private affair for the family and not for the public " . A headstone was subsequently placed on Julia 's grave ( replacing a wooden cross ) , with the words " Mummy , John , Victoria , Julia , Jackie " inscribed .
= = Effect on Lennon = =
Her death traumatised the teenage Lennon and , for the next two years , he drank heavily and frequently got into fights , consumed by a " blind rage " . It contributed to the emotional difficulties that haunted him for much of his life , but also served to draw him closer to McCartney , who had also lost his mother at an early age . Julia 's memory inspired songs such as the 1968 Beatles song " Julia " , with its dreamlike imagery of " hair of floating sky glimmering " , recalling Lennon 's boyhood memories of his mother . Lennon remarked that the song " was sort of a combination of Yoko [ Ono ] and my mother blended into one " . " Mother " and " My Mummy 's Dead " were both written under the influence of Arthur Janov 's " Primal Scream " therapy , and released on his solo album John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band in 1970 . Lennon 's first son , Julian , born in 1963 , was named after her .
= = Portrayals on film = =
She was portrayed by Christine Kavanagh in In His Life : The John Lennon Story ( 2000 ) , and by Anne @-@ Marie Duff in Nowhere Boy ( 2009 ) .
= Hurricane Sergio ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Sergio was the third strongest Pacific hurricane in the month of November on record . The nineteenth named storm and eleventh hurricane of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season , Sergio developed from a tropical wave on November 13 about 460 miles ( 740 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico , and steadily intensified as it tracked southeastward . It reached peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on November 15 , and subsequently began to weaken due to increased wind shear as it turned to the north . Sergio later turned to the west , remaining well off the coast of Mexico , and dissipated on November 20 about 320 miles ( 515 km ) west @-@ northwest of it originally formed .
Sergio produced light rainfall along the coast of Mexico , though its effects were minimal . The formation of Sergio marked the 2006 season as the busiest in 12 years and the first season in which more than one tropical storm formed in November . Sergio , in addition to being the strongest hurricane after November 1 , was also the longest @-@ lived Pacific tropical cyclone in November , lasting a total of seven days .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on November 7 . An area of convection along the wave tracked westward to the south of Central America and Mexico , and became more concentrated on November 12 while located about 400 miles ( 645 km ) south of Acapulco . Later that day , Dvorak classification began on the disturbance , and the convection continued to organize . Early on November 13 , the National Hurricane Center indicated the possibility of the system developing into a tropical depression . Thunderstorm activity briefly decreased , though late on November 13 the system acquired enough circulation and organized convection for it to be designated Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One @-@ E while located about 460 miles ( 740 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Operationally , the depression was not upgraded until eleven hours later .
Initially , the tropical depression tracked to the northwest , and was forecast to peak as a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm while continuing on a northwest motion . Located within an area of weak wind shear , deep convection increased near the center , and banding features became more pronounced . Anticyclonic flow aloft and a moist troposphere allowed the depression to intensity into Tropical Storm Sergio on November 14 . Shortly after becoming a tropical storm , Sergio turned to the southeast , believed to be due to the flow associated with a mid- to upper @-@ level trough to its northeast . It steadily intensified , and Sergio attained hurricane status on November 15 while located about 420 miles ( 675 km ) southwest of Acapulco . With a small , distinct eye located in the center of the deep convection , Sergio rapidly intensified to attain peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) about 6 hours after becoming a hurricane .
Upon reaching peak strength , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted Hurricane Sergio to intensify further to reach winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Shortly after peaking , the hurricane turned to the north and gradually weakened as wind shear from an upper @-@ level trough to its northwest increased . By early on November 17 , the low @-@ cloud circulation became partially exposed on the west side of the deep convection , and it is estimated that Sergio weakened to a tropical storm later that day . A ridge to its north and northeast turned the storm to the northwest and later to the west as Sergio gradually weakened . Deep convection reformed near the center on November 18 , resulting in a slight increase in winds , though vertical shear quickly weakened it again . Later that day , the storm made its closest approach to land , about 225 miles ( 360 km ) southwest of Michoacán . Early on November 20 it degenerated into a tropical depression , and later that day Sergio dissipated about 360 miles ( 580 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico , or about 320 miles ( 515 km ) west @-@ northwest of where it originally formed . The remnants of Sergio continued westward for about a day before the minimal amount of convection diminished .
= = Impact and records = =
No tropical cyclone warnings or watches were issued in relation to Sergio . Several storm advisories indicated a slight threat to coastal regions of Mexico ; the National Hurricane Center assessed a 29 % probability of tropical storm @-@ force winds affecting Barra de Navidad in Jalisco . From November 16 and 17 , the outer rainbands of the hurricane dropped light precipitation along the Mexican coastline , peaking at 1 @.@ 97 inches ( 50 mm ) at Tierra Colorada in Guerrero .
Sergio contributed to November 2006 being the most active November since Pacific hurricane records began , based on using the accumulated cyclone energy index . This record later became tied with another season nine years later . After Rosa formed a few days before Sergio , November 2006 became the first since 1961 to have more than one storm in the month . The hurricane is currently the third strongest in the month , as well as the longest @-@ lasting .
= Roy of the Rovers =
Roy of the Rovers is a British comic strip about the life and times of a fictional footballer named Roy Race , who played for Melchester Rovers . The strip first appeared in the Tiger in 1954 , before giving its name to a weekly ( and later monthly ) comic magazine , published by IPC and Fleetway from 1976 until 1995 , in which it was the main feature .
The weekly strip ran until 1993 , following Roy 's playing career until its conclusion after he lost his left foot in a helicopter crash . When the monthly comic was launched later that year the focus switched to Roy 's son Rocky , who also played for Melchester . This publication was short @-@ lived , and folded after only 19 issues . The adventures of the Race family were subsequently featured in the monthly Match of the Day football magazine , in which father and son were reunited as manager and player respectively . These strips began in 1997 and continued until the magazine 's closure in May 2001 .
Football @-@ themed stories were a staple of British comics for boys from the 1950s onwards , and Roy of the Rovers was the most popular . To keep the strip exciting , Melchester was almost every year either competing for major honours or struggling against relegation to a lower division ; a normal , uneventful season of mid @-@ table mediocrity was unknown at Melchester Rovers . The strip followed the structure of the actual English football season , thus there were several months each year in summer when there was no league football . By far the most common summer storyline saw Melchester touring a fictional country in an exotic part of the world , often South America , where they would invariably be kidnapped and held to ransom . The average reader probably stayed with the comic regularly for only three or four years , therefore storylines were sometimes recycled ; during the first ten years of his playing career , Roy was kidnapped at least four times . Roy also made numerous appearances for England , depicted playing alongside actual players such as Malcolm Macdonald and Trevor Francis .
The stock media phrase " real ' Roy of the Rovers ' stuff " is often used by football writers , commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill , or surprising results that go against the odds , in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip 's trademark .
= = Publication history = =
Roy of the Rovers first appeared on 11 September 1954 , as a weekly feature in the comic magazine Tiger , debuting on the front page of the first issue . After 22 years of continued popularity , the strip was judged successful enough to sustain its own weekly comic , the eponymous Roy of the Rovers , launched on 25 September 1976 . The comic ran for 851 issues , until 20 March 1993 , and included other football strips and features . At the peak of the comic 's success about 450 @,@ 000 copies were sold each week . There were also hardback annuals and holiday specials featuring a mix of reprinted and original content , and for a brief period , starting in 1986 , Roy of the Rovers was serialised in the now defunct Today newspaper . These were all @-@ new strips , focusing largely on the relationship between Roy and his wife Penny , rather than the action on the pitch . Between 1988 and 1993 , a Best of Roy of the Rovers monthly comic was published , reprinting older stories .
Following the closure of the weekly title in 1993 , the strip appeared in a relaunched monthly publication in September that year , with grittier storylines intended to attract teen and young adult fans who had read the weekly comic in their youth . Between January 1994 and January 1995 , the monthly strips were mirrored by a weekly edition in Shoot magazine , which had in the late 1980s published a parody called Ray of the Rangers .
The comic strip was resurrected in July 1997 , printed as short ( usually two @-@ page ) features in the BBC 's monthly Match of the Day magazine . These strips ran until the magazine 's demise in May 2001 . By then the strip 's wholesome tone , often espousing the virtues of fair play and strong moral character , was beginning to seem old @-@ fashioned . The editor of Roy of the Rovers comic , Barrie Tomlinson , has commented that " everyone seemed to be growing up a bit more quickly , and they wanted stories that were more realistic " .
There has been no new material since 2001 , but reprints of the strip have appeared online and in print . The Roy of the Rovers website has archived all of the Match of the Day years ' material , in addition to excerpts from other classic strips . In October 2007 , Setanta bought the original strips , which they featured on their web site .
The present rights holder , Egmont , published a 64 @-@ page " collectors edition " of the comic strip in April 2009 , gathering together a number of 1980 's era Roy of the Rovers stories in addition to other backup strips from the comic . Two Best of Roy of the Rovers books , featuring successive runs of strips from the 1980s and 1970s , were published in June 2008 and 2009 respectively .
= = Plot = =
For more information on the fictional career of the Race family , see Melchester Rovers
The story followed Roy Race , a striker for the fictional football team Melchester Rovers , based in a town of the same name in an unspecified part of England , where Roy lived with his family . In the first episode , a teenaged Roy and his best friend , Blackie Gray , signed for the Rovers after being spotted playing for a youth club team . Eight months later , Roy and Blackie made their first @-@ team debuts against Elbury Wanderers in a game that ended in a 3 – 3 draw , with Roy scoring twice . He soon became a star , leading the team to either the Football League title or a cup almost every season . In January 1975 he was made player @-@ manager , a position he retained for most of the next 20 years . Although the strip followed the Rovers through nearly 40 seasons , Roy did not age at the same rate and appeared to be at most in his late thirties by the time the weekly comic ended . This unrealistic longevity was never remarked upon by the weekly comic , although the monthly comic attempted to address the anomaly by explaining that more than one Roy Race had played for Melchester over the years .
Roy won a number of trophies during his career with Rovers , including nine league titles , eight FA Cups , three League Cups , three European Cups , one UEFA Cup , and four Cup Winners ' Cups , and he also made several appearances for England . He married club secretary Penny Laine at the end of the 1975 – 76 season , with whom he had three children : Roy Jr . ( later known as Rocky ) , Melinda , and Diana . Penny left Roy in the early 1980s , in a high @-@ profile storyline that was covered on national television news . The following year Roy was shot in his office by a mystery gunman , in an incident clearly mirroring the shooting of J. R. Ewing in the hit television series Dallas the previous year . Roy lay in a coma for several weeks . The culprit was eventually revealed to be Elton Blake , an actor who had been cast as Roy in a television series about the Rovers , but who blamed him for his dismissal . In early 1983 Roy swapped Melchester Rovers for ambitious London side Walford Rovers after a fallout with the Melchester directors , but his stint away was short @-@ lived and he was back at his spiritual home by the end of the year . In July 1986 eight members of the Rovers team were killed during a club tour of the fictional middle @-@ eastern country of Basran , when terrorists accidentally crashed a bomb @-@ laden car into the team bus . Roy escaped with a dislocated shoulder . Author Mick Collins has commented that " Even as youngsters , we knew that this certainly bordered on bad taste , and probably overstepped the mark . "
The final incident of Roy 's playing career came in the closing pages of the last weekly issue , in March 1993 , when he lost control of his helicopter and crashed into a field . Thus the weekly strip ended its 39 @-@ year unbroken run on a downbeat and unresolved cliffhanger , as Roy was taken into hospital while fans , the media and his family awaited news on his condition . The mystery of whether or not Roy had survived his crash was unresolved until the first issue of the new Roy of the Rovers Monthly in September 1993 , in which readers discovered that the accident had resulted in the amputation of his famous left foot , ending his playing career and resulting in his move to Italy as the manager of Serie A side AC Monza ( a fictional top @-@ level Italian club , rather than the real club of the same name ) .
Reconciling the continuity of the monthly strip with the stories that preceded and followed it presented difficulties , forcing the story 's writers to alter its history in a number of ways , a technique known as retroactive continuity . Significantly , the strip rewrote various parts of Melchester 's history , and shortened Roy Sr. ' s recorded playing career to a more realistic level .
By the time the strip ended in March 1995 Melchester were in dire straits , on the verge of bankruptcy , and their long @-@ term future far from certain . When the strip returned in Match of the Day magazine in May 1997 , much of the monthly comic 's new continuity was ignored , although the basic thread of the club having struggled against relegation and being severely in debt was continued . It was revealed in the first strip that in the intervening years , while Rovers had managed to survive the threat of bankruptcy , a bribery scandal had caused a mass exodus of players and eventual relegation to Division One . Rocky , meanwhile , was playing for fierce local rivals Melborough , after a bitter falling @-@ out with his father over a car accident in Italy in which his mother , Penny , had been killed . Roy , who had quit football as a result , was blamed by some ( including his son ) for the accident , even though he had no memory of it , and the precise circumstances surrounding the event were never resolved .
Roy was persuaded to rejoin Melchester as manager and part @-@ owner , backed by the unscrupulous Vinter brothers , and he arrived just in time to save the club from relegation . The following season , Roy and Rocky resolved their differences . Rocky rejoined Melchester , and the club was promoted back into the Premier League at the end of the year . When the magazine closed in 2001 , Rovers were attempting to achieve a league placing that would secure them UEFA Champions League football , giving them financial security . Although this storyline was never resolved , there was nevertheless a certain sense of closure as , shortly beforehand , Roy Sr. had wrested full control of the club from the Vinters , thus completing his 44 @-@ year progression from player to owner .
= = Recurring characteristics = =
Over the years , the strip became famous for its employment of certain types of storyline and stylistic storytelling devices . For example , despite the fast @-@ paced nature of a football match , exposition would be provided by members of the crowd apparently commenting to one another . Fans made lengthy comments in the short time it took the ball to travel through the air ; as the ball was struck towards the goal a member of the crowd might be seen saying " Racey 's had a shot ! " , followed by another responding " The ' keeper won 't make it ! " . Nonetheless , loyal readers would usually suspend disbelief , a characteristic later parodied by Viz magazine 's Billy the Fish , a fish with a human head who plays in goal for Fulchester United .
In the interests of keeping the strip exciting , it seemed that no season for Melchester Rovers could ever consist of mid @-@ table obscurity . Almost every year , the club was either competing for the major honours at the top of the domestic and European game , or struggling against relegation to lower divisions . Often , such spells of good and bad fortune and form would directly succeed one another — a Rovers team that won the European Cup one year could find itself struggling to stay in Division One the next .
Storylines often centred on new signings who were unable to settle easily in the Melchester team , either because they refused to change their style of play and expected the Rovers to play around them , such as the uncomprisingly tough defender Duncan McKay , or had personal characteristics that made it difficult for the other players to accept them , such as ex @-@ circus ball juggler Sammy Spangler . As the average reader probably stayed with the comic for only three or four years , many storylines were recycled . For instance , during the first ten years of his playing career Roy was kidnapped at least five times .
When playing foreign teams , particularly in the European club competitions , the opposition would often cynically employ overt gamesmanship or downright dirty tactics . Continental sides were considered to be " sneaky " :
If they went ahead , they didn 't try to extend their lead , like proper footballers , but defended , like blackguards and cowards . It was , Roy always believed , something of a character defect , probably caused by the pencil @-@ thin moustaches they wore , in order to distinguish themselves as foreign .
The strip followed the structure of the football season , thus there were several months each year when the Rovers were not playing football , but the strip needed to depict something more exciting than the players going on holiday and then reporting for pre @-@ season training . As a result , the players tended to spend their summers involved in activities such as competing in charity cricket tournaments , but by far the most common summer storyline saw the Rovers go on tour to a fictional country in an exotic part of the world , normally South America , where they would invariably be kidnapped and held to ransom . " Melchester played more pre @-@ season games at gunpoint deep in the jungle than they ever did in more mundane settings . " The summer would often also see Roy fending off lucrative offers to leave Melchester , as in 1978 , when the Sheik of Basran , an oil @-@ rich Middle @-@ Eastern state , offered him £ 1 million to coach the national team .
Especially during the 1980s , real @-@ life personalities often made appearances . Former Division One stars Bob Wilson and Emlyn Hughes were brought out of retirement to play for Melchester in 1985 , along with longtime fans of the strip Martin Kemp and Steve Norman , of the pop group Spandau Ballet . Geoff Boycott served for several years as Melchester 's chairman , and Sir Alf Ramsey had briefly taken over as manager of Melchester in 1982 , while Roy lay in his coma . Players such as Malcolm Macdonald and Trevor Francis would sometimes line up alongside Roy in England matches , despite the fact that the clubs they played for in real life were never featured in the strip .
The concept of TV pundits and anchormen making appearances was a later development . When Roy announced his resignation as Rovers manager in 1992 , he did so live on Sky Sports in front of shocked presenters Richard Keys and Andy Gray .
= = Creators = =
= = = Writers = = =
Roy was created by the author Frank S. Pepper , who had created the similar strip , Danny of the Dazzlers , but he only wrote four instalments of Roy of the Rovers , because of his commitments to another of his characters , Captain Condor . His role was taken by the strip 's first artist Joe Colquhoun , who used the pen @-@ name " Stewart Colwyn " . He was replaced after four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years by Derek Birnage , the editor of Tiger , who had commissioned the strip . In 1960 , in an attempt to whip up publicity , it was announced that the footballer Bobby Charlton had taken over as writer , although in reality it was still written by Birnage ( who claimed that he did consult with Charlton occasionally for story ideas ) . The longest @-@ serving writer of the strip was Tom Tully , who began in 1969 on an intermittent basis and then continuously from 1974 until the end of the weekly comic in 1993 . Ian Rimmer became the main writer for the strip during the Match of the Day years , until the magazine 's closure in May 2001 .
= = = Artists = = =
After Joe Colquhoun departed , he was succeeded first by Paul Trevillion , then by Yvonne Hutton , who illustrated from 1967 to 1974 , before David Sque took over in 1975 . Despite reportedly not being a football fan , he was responsible for one of the strip 's more definitive looks in its early ' 80s period . He was replaced in 1986 by former 2000 AD artist Mike White , who gave Roy a more muscular look and the strip a more modern feel . Barrie Mitchell took over in 1992 , with a style quite similar to White 's . A number of artists worked on the monthly comic , such as David Jukes , Sean Longcroft and Garry Marshall , in contrast to the lengthy tenures of the weekly strip 's creative team . Tony Harding often illustrated Roy for the Roy of the Rovers annuals and also drew the Roy 's Action Replay strip that appeared in All Action Monthly in the late eighties ( Fleetway ) . Mitchell returned in 1997 as the sole artist of the Match of the Day strips for all four years .
Filmmakers Luke Dormehl and Tom Atkinson , released a documentary called " Roy " in 2008 , featuring interviews with some of the key members of the Roy of the Rovers creative team . The film was shown at The End of the Pier International Film Festival in 2009 , where it won the prize for Best Documentary Short .
= = Cultural impact = =
The phrase " Roy of the Rovers " has become a trope familiar to generations of British football fans and sports commentators , used to describe a memorable sporting achievement such as winning against the odds , or an unexpected comeback . The Guardian newspaper of 10 April 1995 , for instance , described future England captain Alan Shearer as " the classic working class sporting hero ... everything legend demands an English centre @-@ forward should be ... As a striker he comes closer to fitting the Roy of the Rovers fantasy than anyone else lately admired by English crowds " . Shearer was at that time the leading goal @-@ scorer for " unfashionable " Blackburn Rovers F.C. , who were on the verge of winning the Premiership title .
Comparisons have been drawn between the fictional Roy Race and the captain of England 's 1966 World Cup winning team , Bobby Moore , whose playing career spanned a similar time @-@ scale to that of Roy 's . Moore 's death in 1993 , just days after the last edition of the Roy of the Rovers comic was published , produced a " literature of tribute " , framed around themes " remarkably similar to those at the center of the Roy Race fiction and ideology ... there was a clear sense of mourning for the loss of an age " .
Reading Roy of the Rovers and reflecting on the response to the death of sporting heroes such as Bobby Moore , demonstrates how children 's popular cultural experiences , and the recollections of them in later life , traverse the boundaries of , and fuse , the fictional and the real ... The world of representation in the comic strip is mobilized as an everyday trope , tapping into modes of thinking within the reality of football discourse ; and in turn , football discourse draws upon the narratives , conventions , and myths of football fictions .
= = Spin @-@ offs and merchandise = =
Roy of the Rovers Annuals were produced every year from 1958 until 1994 , and again in 2000 . A number of tie @-@ in books were also published , including a handful of paperback prose storybooks in 1977 and 1993 , and two football quiz books in 1978 and 1979 . Roy of the Rovers never made the leap from page to screen , although he did make an appearance on the BBC comedy sports quiz They Think It 's All Over in 1999 , in the form of a cardboard cut @-@ out .
A Roy of the Rovers computer game was released , on the Commodore 64 , Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum in 1988 . It was split into two parts : the first an adventure game , in which – taking the role of Roy Race – the player had to find and rescue the kidnapped Melchester team , before then playing the second part , which consisted of a charity match to raise funds for the club . The fewer players recovered before the match began , then the smaller the team who could take part . In the extreme , Roy would be the only player for Melchester . The game received mixed reactions ; the Spectrum version received 7 / 10 from Your Sinclair , but only 3 / 10 from Sinclair User .
A number of official Melchester Rovers Subbuteo teams were produced in the 1980s and 1990s . There was also an officially licensed board game in the 1980s , which saw players take on the role of Roy Race and manage the club . The Old Fashioned Football Shirt Company now makes officially licensed replica shirts .
In 1990 , " Roy Race " and footballer Gary Lineker released a single , " Europe United " , described in the comic as " a hot rocking heavy metal rap " , which failed to chart in the UK Top 40 . The confectionery company McCowans produced a pineapple @-@ flavoured " Roy of the Rovers " chew bar in the 1990s .
= = Collected editions = =
On 29 February 2008 it was announced that Titan Books had acquired worldwide book publishing rights to a range of Egmont 's comic strips , including Roy of the Rovers . The first of their compilations of Roy 's playing days , The Best of Roy of the Rovers : The 1980s was released in May 2008 and included the " Relegation " and " Who Shot Roy " story arcs . The Bumper Book of Roy of the Rovers was published in October 2008 , and reprinted strips , articles , short stories and features taken from Roy annuals dated from 1957 to 1971 . Two further titles were released in 2009 , The Best of the 1970s and The Second Bumper Book , and a third Best of , focusing on the World Cup , was released in 2010 . All five of the titles were edited and compiled by David Leach .
The trade paperbacks :
The Best of Roy of the Rovers : The 1980s ( 208 pages , June 2008 , ISBN 1 @-@ 84576 @-@ 948 @-@ 1 )
The Best of Roy of the Rovers : The 1970s ( 208 pages , June 2009 , ISBN 1 @-@ 84856 @-@ 024 @-@ 9 )
Roy of the Rovers : World Cup Special ( 208 pages , June 2010 , ISBN 1 @-@ 84856 @-@ 671 @-@ 9 )
The hardcovers :
The Bumper Book of Roy of the Rovers ( 112 pages , October 2008 , ISBN 1 @-@ 84576 @-@ 958 @-@ 9 )
The Second Bumper Book of Roy of the Rovers ( 112 pages , October 2009 , ISBN 1 @-@ 84856 @-@ 443 @-@ 0 )
= The Bart Wants What It Wants =
" The Bart Wants What it Wants " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 17 , 2002 . In the episode , Bart befriends Rainier Wolfcastle 's daughter , Greta . While Greta falls in love with him , Bart only accompanies her because she owns a lot of entertaining things .
" The Bart Wants What it Wants " was written by John Frink and Don Payne while Michael Polcino served as director . Although the episode 's first draft was written by Frink and Payne , the idea for the episode was pitched by staff writer Matt Selman . Because the Simpsons visit Toronto in the episode , the Fox network wanted to promote it by having the city of Toronto declare February 17 " The Simpsons day " , and award the Simpsons family a key to the city . Because the city does not allow for @-@ profit companies to receive a key , the request was turned down .
" The Bart Wants What it Wants " also features guest stars Reese Witherspoon as Greta and Wolfgang Puck as himself . It also features references to Scrabble , Seinfeld and Whassup ? , an advertisement campaign for Budweiser beer . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 4 million viewers , finishing in 27th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its broadcast , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
At the beginning of the episode , the Simpsons are seen in their car being chased by Olympic administrators in a helicopter . It turns out that Homer has stolen the Olympic torch because the television broadcast of the Olympics preempts his favorite shows once again . When Marge finally gives the torch to the administrators , the sight of its flame causes them to crash ( The administrators survive the crash , but the Olympic flame is gone ) . On their way home , the family go to a private school @-@ held fair , where Bart meets Greta , Rainier Wolfcastle 's daughter . Greta develops a crush on the oblivious Bart , and the whole family begins enjoying the royal treatment her father , Rainier , provides them . However , Lisa discovers Bart not taking Greta seriously , after skipping her school dance to watch Principal Skinner bomb at an open mic comedy night . Upon Lisa 's advice , Bart breaks up with Greta , who does not take it well .
After losing her , Bart discovers that he actually wanted to be with Greta and goes to her house to ask her to come back to him . To his surprise , Greta has already started a new relationship with Milhouse . Greta goes to Canada with Milhouse during her father 's movie shooting , and Bart follows her to Toronto with his family . At the movie set , Bart confronts Milhouse and they get into a fight , crashing
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into sets and ruining props . They end up in front of Greta , demanding her to choose between them , and Greta turns both boys down due to loss of interest in the two . The episode ends with the boys reconciling and joining Canada 's basketball team .
= = Production = =
" The Bart Wants What It Wants " was directed by Michael Polcino and written by John Frink and Don Payne . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 17 , 2002 . Although the episode was written by Frink and Payne , the idea for the episode was conceived by staff writer Matt Selman , who pitched an episode in which Bart likes a girl because she has " awesome things " , while the girl likes him for his personality . Because the Simpsons visit Toronto in the episode , the Fox network decided to promote it as the episode 's main focus , even though Canada is not mentioned before the third act . To help promote the episode , Fox requested that the city of Toronto declare February 17 , 2002 , the day the episode first aired , to be " The Simpsons Day " and award the Simpson family a key to the city . However , the request was turned down because the city does not allow for @-@ profit companies to receive a key . According to executive producer and current showrunner Al Jean , Fox 's request " upset " Canada , and a " sternly worded " editorial in The Toronto Star criticized the network 's ways of promoting the episode . The newspaper also credited Canadian The Simpsons staff writers Joel H. Cohen and Tim Long for pitching the episode , but this was refuted in the episode 's DVD commentary . While " The Bart Wants What It Wants " features the Simpsons ' first travel to Canada , the family would return in two later episodes : season sixteen 's " Midnight Rx " , where Homer and Grampa visited Winnipeg so they could smuggle cheap medication ; and season 21 's " Boy Meets Curl " , where Marge and Homer travel to Vancouver , so they can participate in the 2010 Winter Olympics .
The beginning of the episode shows the Simpsons being chased by Olympic employees . The scene was included because the staff knew that the episode would air during the 2002 Winter Olympics . In order to avoid a lawsuit from the International Olympic Committee , the animators slightly altered the design of the Olympic rings , which can be seen on Olympic employees ' helicopters . At one point in the episode , the Simpsons visit the Springfield Preparatory School fair , where Lisa notices how much more developed the school is in comparison to Springfield Elementary School . Jealous , Springfield Elementary principal Skinner breaks in and steals some school equipment . Shocked , Lisa asks Skinner why he stole the equipment , to which he replies " welcome to Dick Cheney 's America " . Originally , he would say " welcome to George W. Bush 's America " , but because none of the series ' regular cast members could do an impression of him , and because the staff found it to be in bad taste , they decided to change it . When Lisa scolds Bart for being oblivious to Greta 's feelings , he replies " Hey , I didn 't lead her on . I always played it light and breezy . " The line was written by Frink and , according to Selman , it became very popular with the staff writers , having " stayed with [ them ] for years " . The song that plays while the Simpsons visit the Skydome in Toronto is " Take Off " by the fictional comedy duo Bob and Doug McKenzie , the chorus of which was sung by Geddy Lee , the lead vocalist and bassist of the Canadian rock band Rush . The episode features American actress Reese Witherspoon as Rainier Wolfcastle 's daughter , Greta . Jean stated that Witherspoon was " brilliant " , and noted that she was " very young @-@ looking " . The episode also features Austrian @-@ American celebrity chef Wolfgang Puck as himself .
= = Cultural references = =
When first meeting Greta , Milhouse greets her by saying Whassup ? . The scene is a reference to an advertisement campaign for the American Budweiser beer , in which several characters are seen calling each other and saying " Whassup ? " .
In Moe 's bar , Wolfcastle receives several questions from bar customers , prompting him to send in his " authorized look @-@ alike " to give answers . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Jean stated that the scene was written at a time when celebrity look @-@ alikes were making " excellent livings " .
At one point in the episode , Bart and Greta are seen playing Scrabble , a word game manufactured by Hasbro . The music cue that plays before and after Skinner 's comedy routine is based on the intro music from the American television sitcom Seinfeld .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Bart Wants What It Wants " received a 6 @.@ 1 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode finished in 27th place in the ratings for the week of February 11 @-@ 17 , 2002 , making it the third most watched program on the network . Later that year , the episode was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award in the Animation category , but it ultimately lost to the Futurama episode " Godfellas " . On August 24 , 2010 , " The Bart Wants What It Wants " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set . Al Jean , Matt Selman , Tim Long , John Frink , Don Payne , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Joel H. Cohen , Pamela Hayden , Michael Polcino , Steven Dean Moore and Bill Freiberger participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its broadcast , " The Bart Wants What It Wants " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star wrote , " Fortunately , the episode is on par with this season 's best , boasting a reasonably unscattered plotline and , where the main romantic storyline is concerned , a touch of the childlike sweetness Simpsons writers have brought to previous ' crush ' episodes . " Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com gave a positive review as well , describing it as a " strong character @-@ centric episode . " Although he enjoyed most episodes of the thirteenth season , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that " Half @-@ Decent Proposal " and " The Bart Wants What It Wants " " forces [ him ] to rethink that opinion . " He continued , " Like ' Proposal ' , ' Wants ' isn ’ t a bad program , but it feels stale and rehashed . " He particularly disliked a joke about poor mileage , which he stated was " identical " to a gag from an earlier episode . He concluded his review by writing that the episode is " mediocre [ ... ] at best . "
Nate Boss of Project @-@ Blu wrote that , while it featured Rainier Wolfcastle , which he considered to be " one of the funniest characters in Simpsons lore , " the episode " doesn 't tread ground that hasn 't been tread a few times before . " He continued , " Throw in Canada , and a few Mountie jokes , and bam , you have an episode . " 411Mania 's Ron Martin also found it to be unoriginal , describing the episode as a " yearly episode just with different tempters each time . " Hannah Sung , also of the Toronto Star , felt the episode was disappointing , writing that it " wasn 't entirely bad , but the payoff didn 't match the hype " . She said that the third act in the city of Toronto was a disappointment and " really just a sloppy amalgamation of every Canadian joke we 've ever been told by Americans that lose their punch after the millionth time . "
= Cryptograms ( album ) =
Cryptograms is the second album from Atlanta , Georgia @-@ based indie rock group Deerhunter , released through Kranky Records on January 29 , 2007 on CD and vinyl . Following the 2005 release of its first full @-@ length album Turn It Up Faggot , Deerhunter began recording material for its next record at Rare Book Room studio in New York . This initial recording session failed , due to the physical and mental state of lead singer Bradford Cox , as well as malfunctioning equipment in the studio . The band returned to Atlanta , only giving recording a second try after encouragement from members of the band Liars . The final version of Cryptograms was recorded in two separate day @-@ long sessions , months apart , resulting in two musically distinct parts — the first includes more ambient music while the second contains more pop music elements . Cox sang most of the record 's lyrics in a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness manner ; they include themes of death , companionship , and Cox 's experiences with his genetic disorder Marfan syndrome . Cryptograms was generally well received by critics , and several publications placed the album on their lists of the top albums of 2007 .
= = Recording = =
Deerhunter first attempted to record their second album in 2005 with folk musician Samara Lubelski at Rare Book Room studios in New York . This recording session failed , due in part to the physical and mental state of lead singer Bradford Cox , who had influenza and walking pneumonia at the time . The group was also working with malfunctioning equipment , including an out @-@ of @-@ tune piano and an uncalibrated tape recorder . Cox later described the results of these sessions as sounding like " if you listen to Loveless on mushrooms , and I mean that in not a complimentary way " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , Cox said that the music was " on a scratched CD @-@ R under my bed " , which " nobody will ever hear " . These tracks were later made available , in mixtape form , on the Deerhunter blog .
Following the failed session Deerhunter returned to Atlanta . The group became acquainted with punk band Liars , who encouraged them to give recording a second try . For their second attempt , Deerhunter returned to the same rural Georgia studio in which they had recorded their debut album Turn It Up Faggot . This time successful , the album was recorded in two parts : the first half was recorded over one day @-@ long session , completely filling the reel of tape the band had brought with them . The last song of this recording session , " Red Ink " , ends with the tape spinning off the reel . The second half , recorded months later over a single day in November , begins with the song " Spring Hall Convert " . During this recording session Cox had the flu , and his congestion caused his voice on the album 's pop tracks to sound " really weird [ … ] I always thought I would go back and redo them , but we never did . "
Cryptograms was followed four months later by a four @-@ track extended play , Fluorescent Grey , which was recorded while Cryptograms was being mixed . Cox indicated that each new track was worthy of being a single ; one music critic characterized the EP as being less " dreamy " than Cryptograms . When Cryptograms was released on vinyl as a double album , the Fluorescent Grey tracks took up the fourth side .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Cryptograms is more " subdued and introverted " musically , according to Cox , than Deerhunter 's first release Turn It Up Faggot . Cox has shown disdain for that record in interviews , saying it " sounds like 2002 — angry , post @-@ hardcore dance punk . We were really young and angry . " In contrast , Deerhunter 's new album is " not the punk attitude " characteristic of Turn It Up Faggot . While Cox does not consider Cryptograms a " reaction " to its predecessor , he noted in an interview with Stylus Magazine that the group 's new record " developed out of different circumstances , altogether . "
Deerhunter 's two recording sessions produced two halves of the album with distinct musical styles . The first half of the album is more ambient in style and includes four ambient instrumental tracks . With the song " Providence " , the band aimed to create a feeling of solitude . The idea for the song came about when , while in Providence , Rhode Island during a 2005 tour , Cox had an argument with other members of the band . Having left his bandmates to cool off , Cox " walked around Providence at dusk " feeling " totally alone " , while admiring his " meditative " surroundings . In the instrumental track " Red Ink " , Cox and drummer Moses Archuleta worked to create an atmosphere in which the listener is dreaming he or she is dead and the experience of death feels like reality .
The second part of the album , which begins with " Spring Hall Convert " , contains more elements of psychedelic and pop music . In an interview with L.A. Record , Archuleta remarked that the band often received letters from fans who had listened to their music while stoned . He noted the negative connotations that come with being called a " psychedelic " band , and considered the group to be " pretty clean … [ and ] sober " in contrast , adding , " That ’ s funny that that ’ s people ’ s idea of what we ’ re into . " " Spring Hall Convert " originates from a demo Cox first recorded in October 1998 when he was sixteen . On the Deerhunter blog , Cox wrote of two girls he knew from his school as one day being " bathed in this golden spring light in the hallway " . He described himself feeling as close to them as if they were his sisters . The same day he recorded " Spring Hall Convert " on a karaoke machine ; Cox wanted the song to reflect the " acid trip " he experienced seeing his friends in this light . He calls the song 's drum track characteristic of his " stonedness " at the time , adding that " Hydrocodone was [ also ] a factor . " The lyrics of the track reflect Cox 's experiences with his genetic disorder Marfan syndrome . As a teenager he underwent " extensive " surgeries for his chest , ribs , and back . The lyrics reflect the experience of someone moving in and out of consciousness during chemotherapy , while missing their friends and memories of a normal life . The original lyrics of the song written in 1998 were not changed when the track was re @-@ recorded for Cryptograms .
In " Octet " , Cox sings " I was the corpse that spiraled out into phantom hallways " . The imagery of this song was inspired by the cover art of the Grove paperback edition of the Dennis Cooper novel Closer . In the album ’ s closing track , " Heatherwood " , Cox tells of the house he was born in , where he believes he will return to die . " Strange Lights " is a song about " companionship , and facing uncertainty with someone " . The song was written by guitarist Lockett Pundt , and is based on a dream he had in which himself , Cox , and a third person " walked into the sun together , knowing it was going to kill us " , as described by Cox . The idea for the song " Lake Somerset " came from a trip Cox took to the zoo while hung over , during which he saw a turtle eating carrots . " It was cool and adorable … It had this cute neck and was very small . It chewed slowly . " When video producer James Sumner approached the band to make a music video for " Lake Somerset " , Cox told Sumner he " wanted a video of a turtle eating a piece of pizza . " Several days later , Sumner posted his video to YouTube ; it consists of a man in a turtle suit eating pizza for four straight minutes . Cox has said that the band 's greatest achievement with Cryptograms was " evoking a feeling of someone who 's woken up after being strung out one too many nights … It 's the feeling of being lovesick and very spaced @-@ out . "
= = Reception = =
Cryptograms received positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 77 , based on 17 reviews , indicating " Generally Favorable Reviews " .
Pitchfork Media awarded the album the publication 's " Best New Music " accolade , and later placed it fourteenth on a list of the fifty best albums of 2007 . Pitchfork staff writer Marc Hogan wrote that Cryptograms " is alternately murky ... ethereal , amorphous and incisive " , calling the second half of the album " vastly more accessible " than the first . Mike Diver of Drowned in Sound found the album 's two halves " absolutely coherent ; the sequencing allows the listener space to breathe at the most opportune moments , and its leaps from ambiance into adrenaline @-@ soaked enthusiasm ... are worthy of celebration . " Tiny Mix Tapes 's Paul Haney enjoyed the " psych @-@ crazed pop " found in the second half of Cryptograms , citing " Spring Hall Convert " , " Heatherwood " , and " Strange Lights " as exemplary tracks . Nick Sylvester of The Phoenix considered the first half of the album to be irregular in style and quality , but found that this gave the transition between its two halves " a black @-@ and @-@ white @-@ to @-@ Technicolor moment ( or TV to HDTV , if you prefer ) : " Spring Hall Convert " combines Deerhunter 's come @-@ up and come @-@ down into the most uplifting rock song I 've heard in a while , an explosion of gritty Velvet downstrums and swirling vocal harmonies . "
The first half of Cryptograms was called " the problem child " by Kevin Elliott of Stylus Magazine , characterizing this child as having been " medicated at a young age to subdue constant anxiety and the fear of death , overly mired in thoughts of regret and anguish , overwhelmed with ideas and insight . " Mike Schiller of PopMatters found that because the second half of Cryptograms " fixate [ s ] on examples of Deerhunter 's songcraft , which is actually somewhat average " , the use of delay effects " mask [ s ] whatever deficiencies in musicianship Deerhunter might choose to hide " . He believes the potential seen in the first half of the album is lost in the second . Allmusic writer Marisa Brown felt the band 's ambient music is used to the extent that it becomes " commonplace , despite its avant @-@ garde leanings . " The writer found that when Deerhunter " aims for the provocative and the esoteric " , the band often " overreach [ es ] and end [ s ] up hitting something much more ordinary , predictably " experimental " … in a genre that 's supposed to be anything but . " Dom Sinacola of Cokemachineglow stated that all of Cryptograms " sounds , as a whole , too coherently cold " , the tracks " Providence " and " Heatherwood " being exceptions .
The album placed high on lists of the best albums of 2007 of several publications , earning spots in the top twenty with Tiny Mix Tapes , The Phoenix , and Drowned in Sound . An article by Pitchfork Media gave musicians the opportunity to publicize their favorite records from 2007 . Cryptograms received praise from Ed Droste of Grizzly Bear , ranking the album as his third favorite of 2007 . Klaxons 's James Righton and Black Lips 's Cole Alexander placed the album on their own top tens as well .
= = Track listing = =
Music written by Moses Archuleta , Bradford Cox , Josh Fauver , Colin Mee and Lockett Pundt , except where noted . Lyrics by Bradford Cox .
" Intro " – 2 : 50
" Cryptograms " – 4 : 17
" White Ink " – 4 : 59
" Lake Somerset " – 3 : 49
" Providence " – 4 : 08
" Octet " – 7 : 50
" Red Ink " – 3 : 40
" Spring Hall Convert " – 4 : 29
" Strange Lights " – 3 : 38 ( music by Lockett Pundt )
" Hazel St. " – 3 : 48
" Tape Hiss Orchid " – 1 : 12
" Heatherwood " – 3 : 37
= = Personnel = =
Deerhunter
Moses Archuleta — synth / pads , drums , electronics , treatments
Bradford Cox — vocals , electronics , tapes , drum , acoustic slide guitar , bell set , accordion , electric guitar
Josh Fauver — tremolo bass , bass guitar , reverse guitar , vocals
Colin Mee — guitar , tapes , electric guitar
Lockett Pundt — synth bells , guitar , acoustic slide guitar , hammond organ , vocals
Production
Susan Archie — layout design
Chris Bishop — production , engineering
Jennifer Munson — mastering
L. Somerset — author
Nicolas Vernhes — mixing
= Fred VanVleet =
Fred VanVleet ( born February 25 , 1994 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . At Auburn High School in Rockford , Illinois , he was an All @-@ State player who was mostly recruited by mid @-@ major basketball programs . In college , he has contributed to a resurgence of Wichita State Shockers basketball that included a final four run in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament by the 2012 – 13 Shocker team as a freshman and an undefeated regular season by the 2013 – 14 team as a sophomore . By his sophomore year , he was on midseason watchlists for most major awards . He was named as a 2014 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by a variety of media outlets . As a junior for the 2014 – 15 Shockers , he was an All @-@ Missouri Valley Conference first team selection and received All @-@ American honorable mention recognition from the Associated Press . He is the Wichita State career assists leader . He was named Missouri Valley Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year as both a sophomore and a senior .
= = High school career = =
VanVleet played for Auburn High School in Rockford , Illinois , where he was an All @-@ State first team selection by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times ( Class 4A ) , Associated Press ( Class 4A ) , and Chicago Tribune as a senior in 2012 . In 2012 , VanVleet helped lead Auburn to a 22 @-@ game winning streak which resulted in the school 's first Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) final four since 1975 . He led the Knights to a 3rd @-@ place finish in the IHSA state tournament .
Van Vleet remained loyal to his local Rockford Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) club team rather than accept offers to more high profile teams in Chicago . Van Vleet did not feel it would make a difference in his recruiting : " As long as you 're leading whoever you 're playing with , the coaches are going to see that . If they see you competing and winning with guys maybe I shouldn 't be winning with , that 's maybe even an advantage for me . " He received basketball scholarship offers from Colorado State , Northern Illinois , Southern Illinois , Drake , Detroit and Kent State . His stepfather felt that he was being overlooked by many Chicago metropolitan area schools because of his decision not to join a Chicago AAU team . He cut his list down to Kent State , Northern Illinois and Wichita State . When he accepted an offer to play for Wichita State , he became the only member of the national class of 2012 Rivals.com top 150 to attend a Missouri Valley Conference school .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
As a freshman , VanVleet contributed double digit scoring twice ( versus Gonzaga and Ohio State ) in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament from off the bench as the 2012 – 13 Shockers team reached the final four . Against Gonzaga , his 13 points included basket with 1 : 28 remaining that helped the Shockers secure only the fifth sweet sixteen appearance by a number 9 seed since the tournament went to 64 teams in 1985 . His 12 points against Ohio State included a late basket that helped the Shockers become the fifth team with a seeding higher than eight to make it to the final four since 1979 when seeding began .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
He broke out as a sophomore , as expected . On January 8 , he posted 10 assists against Illinois State . On January 23 , 2014 , he was selected to the 23 @-@ man Oscar Robertson Award midseason watchlist by the United States Basketball Writers Association . On February 13 , he was named one of the 30 finalists for Naismith College Player of the Year . On February 17 , Vanvleet was selected as one of 23 finalists for the Bob Cousy Award . When the Rockford native returned to the Chicago metropolitan area on February 19 to lead Wichita State against Loyola , he went 6 @-@ for @-@ 6 from the field and 10 @-@ for @-@ 10 on his free throw attempts for a game @-@ high 22 points and added 8 rebounds and 6 assists to help Wichita State raise its record to 28 – 0 . On February 28 , he was named one of the 10 semi @-@ finalists for the Naismith Award .
VanVleet helped lead the 2013 – 14 team to the first 31 – 0 regular season in NCAA Division I men 's basketball history . As a result , he was named to the Missouri Valley Conference All @-@ Conference first team and selected as the Missouri Valley Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . He was also selected to the 2014 Missouri Valley Conference Most @-@ Improved Team . Following the 2014 Missouri Valley Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , VanVleet was a 2014 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American second team selection by Sports Illustrated and Bleacher Report , third @-@ team selection by the Sporting News and the NABC . He earned honorable mention recognition from the Associated Press . On March 11 VanVleet was named to the all @-@ District VI ( IA , MO , KS , OK , NE , ND , SD ) team by the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . VanVleet was listed on the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 16 first team on March 12 . VanVleet was named as one of six finalists for the Cousy Award ( along with Kyle Anderson , Aaron Craft , Tyler Ennis , Shabazz Napier and Marcus Paige ) . Following his sophomore season , he delivered the commencement address at his high school alma mater and became a highly demanded public speaker .
= = = Junior year = = =
VanVleet was Preseason All @-@ American first team selection by USA Today , Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook , Bleacher Report , CBSSports.com , Sports Illustrated , and Associated Press . He was a second team selection by Athlon Sports , SB Nation , and NBCSports.com. In its preseason top 100 player ranking , VanVleet was listed at number 5 by ESPN . VanVleet was named to the 36 @-@ man Bob Cousy Award Preseason Watch List . He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate and a Oscar Robertson Trophy Watch List selection . VanVleet was also included in the early December Naismith Award top 50 watch list .
On November 14 VanVleet tallied 7 steals in the opener against New Mexico State , which tied a school record . On December 3 , against # 25 Utah VanVleet , helped Wichita State recover from a 9 @-@ point deficit in the final 2 : 45 of regulation with 8 points ( including two three @-@ point shots in the final 1 : 15 ) and an assist on a three @-@ point shot , but with 7 seconds remaining in overtime and Wichita trailing by one , he missed the front end of a one and one . In his return visit to Chicago and the Gentile Center to play Loyola on January 11 , he again was perfect from the field with a 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 performance and added a career @-@ high tying 10 assists ( as well as 6 rebounds and 3 steals ) for his first career double @-@ double . VanVleet , however , snapped his perfect streak of 20 free throws made in his home state with a 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 performance . In the rematch against Loyola on January 28 , VanVleet posted a career @-@ high 27 points . On February 7 , VanVleet posted the first triple double for Wichita State Shockers men 's basketball in 43 years with a 10 @-@ point 10 @-@ rebound 11 @-@ assist 4 @-@ steal performance against Missouri State . On February 16 , VanVleet was Missouri Valley Conference Co @-@ Player of the Week ( with Seth Tuttle ) . On February 26 , VanVleet broke the all @-@ time Wichita State career assist record against Evansville with 431 assists , surpassing Warren Armstrong who had 429 and Toure Murry who had 430 . VanVleet was one of 17 finalists for the Cousy Award . The Shockers defeated Northern Iowa on February 28 to win the Missouri Valley Conference regular season title . In the opening game of the 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament for the Shockers , VanVleet matched a career high with 27 points against Indiana . He finished the tournament with 17 @-@ point and 25 @-@ point performances against # 2 @-@ seeded Kansas and # 3 @-@ seeded Notre Dame , respectively .
VanVleet was named an All @-@ MVC first team selection following the regular season . He was also recognized by the Associated Press as an honorable mention selection for its All @-@ America team .
= = = Senior year = = =
VanVleet was a selection to the 20 @-@ man Bob Cousy Award preseason watchlist , and the 30 @-@ man Lute Olson Award preseason watchlist . He was a second team selection to the Sporting News , Sports Illustrated and Athlon Sports preseason All @-@ American teams . He was a third team selection to the CBS Sports , USA Today and NBC Sports preseason All @-@ American teams . Lindy 's Sports did not name an All @-@ America team , but did rank all college basketball players by position and presented a top 25 list at each position . It included VanVleet as its second best point guard . In preseason top 100 player rankings Van Vleet was ranked 14 by ESPN and 17 by NBC Sports . He made the initial 50 @-@ man John R. Wooden Award watch list on November 17 . On December 2 , VanVleet earned recognition on the 50 @-@ man Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist and 33 @-@ man Robertson Trophy watchlists .
VanVleet , who was dealing with hamstring issues , rolled his right ankle and saw only 3 minutes of action in the season opener against the Charleston Southern Buccaneers on November 13 . Although he played in the next game against Tulsa , he aggravated his hamstring in the game and was expected to miss the next few games . Without a healthy VanVleet , Witchita State fell to two games below .500 for the first time since the 2008 – 09 Shockers team and endured their first three @-@ game losing streak since VanVleet was coming off the bench as a freshman for the 2012 – 13 Shockers as well as the worst start to a season ( 2 – 4 ) since the 2007 – 08 team . VanVleet returned to the lineup on December 5 against St. Louis to stop the losing streak . His 13 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 0 assists and 4 @.@ 0 rebounds averages in wins on December 9 over UNLV and on December 12 win over # 25 Utah earned him Missouri Valley Player of the Week honors on December 14 . He again earned Player of the Week honors on January 11 when he led the Shockers to victories over conference co @-@ leading Evansville on January 6 and Southern Illinois on January 9 with 11 @.@ 0 points , 8 @.@ 5 rebounds , 7 @.@ 5 assists and 2 @.@ 5 steals averages . His 12 rebounds against Southern Illinois was a career high . VanVleet was named to the January 25 20 @-@ man Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason watch list . On January 31 , VanVleet made all 15 of his free throw attempts on his way to a career high 32 points against Evansville . The following day , he earned his third MVC Player of the Week honor . On February 3 in the 1500th victory in Wichita State Shockers men 's basketball history and in head coach Gregg Marshall 's school record @-@ setting 221st victory , VanVleet notched a double @-@ double with 12 points and a career high @-@ tying 11 assists against Southern Illinois . He was named to the 35 @-@ man midseason watchlist for the Naismith Trophy on February 11 . VanVleet was included in the Wooden Award Late season Top 20 Watch List on February 12 . In the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , VanVleet led the team to victories over Vanderbilt and Arizona . Against Vanderbilt in the First Four round , he and fellow senior Ron Baker led an 11 – 0 run to break a 30 – 30 tie on March 15 . The pair scored all 11 points in the run and tied with a game @-@ high 14 points . On March 17 , VanVleet and Baker led 11 @-@ seed Wichita State to a victory over 6 @-@ seed and AP Poll 17th @-@ ranked Arizona . VanVleet posted a game @-@ high 16 points , 5 steals and 4 rebounds .
Following the regular season , VanVleet was named to the Missouri Valley Conference all @-@ league first team ( for the third consecutive season ) and the MVC Larry Bird Trophy Player of the Year for the second time in three years . VanVleet was also an AP All @-@ America honorable mention .
= = Professional career = =
VanVleet was not selected in the 2016 NBA draft after declining two offers to agree to play in the NBA Development League at $ 20 @,@ 000 for two years by teams interested in drafting him in the second round . VanVleet signed to play in the 2016 NBA Summer League with the Toronto Raptors with the expectation that he will be in the Raptors ' training camp . His summer league contract had a guarantee of three game appearances . On July 18 , he signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Raptors . At the time of his signing , the Raptors had 14 players entering training camp on guaranteed contracts , including point guards Kyle Lowry , Cory Joseph , and Delon Wright .
= = National team career = =
VanVleet was among the 22 players selected to try out for the 12 @-@ man Team USA at the 2015 Pan American Games . He was among the 16 finalists for the team , but he did not make the final 12 @-@ man team .
= = Personal = =
VanVleet is the son of Fred Manning , who was shot dead in 1999 . Manning had played basketball at Guilford High School in Rockford . VanVleet 's mother is named Susan . VanVleet has a brother named Darnell . VanVleet 's stepfather is Joe Danforth .
He is a sociology major at Wichita State .
= Nature =
Nature , in the broadest sense , is the natural , physical , or material world or universe . " Nature " can refer to the phenomena of the physical world , and also to life in general . The study of nature is a large part of science . Although humans are part of nature , human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena .
The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura , or " essential qualities , innate disposition " , and in ancient times , literally meant " birth " . Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis ( φύσις ) , which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants , animals , and other features of the world develop of their own accord . The concept of nature as a whole , the physical universe , is one of several expansions of the original notion ; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre @-@ Socratic philosophers , and has steadily gained currency ever since . This usage continued during the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries .
Within the various uses of the word today , " nature " often refers to geology and wildlife . Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals , and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects – the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord , such as the weather and geology of the Earth . It is often taken to mean the " natural environment " or wilderness – wild animals , rocks , forest , and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention , or which persist despite human intervention . For example , manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature , unless qualified as , for example , " human nature " or " the whole of nature " . This more traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial , with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind . Depending on the particular context , the term " natural " might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural .
= = Earth = =
Earth is the only planet known to support life , and its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research . Within the solar system , it is third closest to the sun ; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall . Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions , two relatively narrow temperate zones , and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region . Precipitation varies widely with location , from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre . 71 percent of the Earth 's surface is covered by salt @-@ water oceans . The remainder consists of continents and islands , with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere .
Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions . The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates . The interior remains active , with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron @-@ filled core that generates a magnetic field . This iron core is composed of a solid inner phase , and a fluid outer phase . Convective motion in the core generates electric currents through dynamo action , and these , in turn , generate the geomagnetic field .
The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life @-@ forms , which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions . Despite the wide regional variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors , the long @-@ term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods , and variations of a degree or two of average global temperature have historically had major effects on the ecological balance , and on the actual geography of the Earth .
= = = Geology = = =
Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth . The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition , structure , physical properties , dynamics , and history of Earth materials , and the processes by which they are formed , moved , and changed . The field is a major academic discipline , and is also important for mineral and hydrocarbon extraction , knowledge about and mitigation of natural hazards , some Geotechnical engineering fields , and understanding past climates and environments .
= = = = Geological evolution = = = =
The geology of an area evolves through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and deformational processes change their shapes and locations .
Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock . Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock , or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows , blanket the surface . Igneous intrusions such as batholiths , laccoliths , dikes , and sills , push upwards into the overlying rock , and crystallize as they intrude .
After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited , the rock units can be deformed and / or metamorphosed . Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening , horizontal extension , or side @-@ to @-@ side ( strike @-@ slip ) motion . These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries , divergent boundaries , and transform boundaries , respectively , between tectonic plates .
= = = Historical perspective = = =
Earth is estimated to have formed 4 @.@ 54 billion years ago from the solar nebula , along with the Sun and other planets . The moon formed roughly 20 million years later . Initially molten , the outer layer of the Earth cooled , resulting in the solid crust . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets , produced the oceans and other water sources . The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self @-@ replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago .
Continents formed , then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years , occasionally combining to make a supercontinent . Roughly 750 million years ago , the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia which broke apart about 540 million years ago , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart about 180 million years ago .
During the Neoproterozoic era covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets . This hypothesis has been termed the " Snowball Earth " , and it is of particular interest as it precedes the Cambrian explosion in which multicellular life forms began to proliferate about 530 – 540 million years ago .
Since the Cambrian explosion there have been five distinctly identifiable mass extinctions . The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago , when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles , but spared small animals such as mammals . Over the past 66 million years , mammalian life diversified .
Several million years ago , a species of small African ape gained the ability to stand upright . The subsequent advent of human life , and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form , affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate . By comparison , the Great Oxygenation Event , produced by the proliferation of algae during the Siderian period , required about
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with Grosser Kurfürst off to starboard . On the morning of the 31st , the three ships encountered a pair of sailing vessels off Folkestone . Grosser Kurfürst turned to port to avoid the boats while König Wilhelm sought to pass the two boats , but there was not enough distance between her and Grosser Kurfürst . She therefore turned hard to port to avoid Grosser Kurfürst , but the action was not taken quickly enough , and König Wilhelm found herself pointed directly at Grosser Kurfürst . König Wilhelm 's ram bow tore a hole in Grosser Kurfürst .
A failure to adequately seal the watertight bulkheads aboard Grosser Kurfürst caused the ship to sink rapidly , in the span of about eight minutes . Out of a crew of 500 men , 269 died in the accident . König Wilhelm was also badly damaged in the collision , with severe flooding forward . König Wilhelm 's captain initially planned on beaching the ship to prevent it from sinking , but determined that the ship 's pumps could hold the flooding to an acceptable level . The ship made for Portsmouth , where temporary repairs could be effected to allow the ship to return to Germany . In the aftermath of the collision , the German navy held a court martial for Rear Admiral Batsch , the squadron commander , and Captains Monts and Kuehne , the commanders of the two ships , along with Lieutenant Clausa , the first officer aboard Grosser Kurfürst , to investigate the sinking . The damage to König Wilhelm necessitated a lengthy period of repairs from 1878 to 1882 . The work was carried out at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , and also included reboilering and replacement of the ship 's ram . Torpedo nets were fitted to the ship from 1885 to 1897 .
= = = Later service = = =
By 1893 , König Wilhelm had been assigned as the flagship for the II Division of the German fleet ; the four Sachsen @-@ class armored corvettes composed the I Squadron . The ship flew the flag of Admiral Otto von Diederichs , and was based in Wilhelmshaven . On 20 February 1894 , a special ceremony was held on board the ship to commemorate the 25th anniversary of her commissioning . Kaiser Wilhelm II attended the ceremony , as did Ludwig von Henk , who had by that time retired as a Vizeadmiral . In April 1894 , the II Division conducted a training cruise to prepare for the annual summer maneuvers . During the cruise , König Wilhelm ran aground on a mud bank off the Frisian coast . Deutschland and Friedrich der Grosse quickly pulled the ship free with minimal damage . The ships then proceeded to Scotland via Oslo and Bergen . The division returned to Kiel at the end of May to replenish its stocks of coal and provisions for the summer exercises . During the 1894 maneuvers , von Diederich 's II Division acted as the opposing force in the Baltic , simulating a Russian fleet attacking Germany 's Baltic coast . Following the conclusion of maneuvers in September , Admiral Diederichs left the squadron and was replaced by Admiral Karl Barandon .
In 1895 , König Wilhelm went into drydock at the Blohm and Voss shipyard in Hamburg for an extensive reconstruction into an armored cruiser . The vessel 's armament was increased , the ship rig was removed , and new fighting masts were installed in place of the old masts . The ship 's crew was dramatically increased , to 38 officers and 1 @,@ 120 enlisted men . Work lasted through 1896 , and the ship was returned to the fleet in her new guise on 25 January 1897 . On 26 June , she represented Germany at the Fleet Review for Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . She served with the fleet until 1904 , when she was removed from active duty . Starting on 3 May 1904 , she became a harbor ship . She was then used barracks ship and training vessel for naval cadets , based in Kiel , starting on 1 October 1907 . Two years later , König Wilhelm was moved to the Naval Academy at Mürwik , where she continued in these duties . Starting in 1910 , the old corvette Charlotte served as a support vessel for the ship . The light cruiser Medusa replaced Charlotte as König Wilhelm 's auxiliary vessel in 1917 . König Wilhelm served through World War I , until 1921 , after Germany 's defeat . On 4 January 1921 , the ship was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap in Rönnebeck .
= William Murray , 1st Earl of Mansfield =
William Murray , 1st Earl of Mansfield , SL , PC ( 2 March 1705 – 20 March 1793 ) was a British barrister , politician and judge noted for his reform of English law . Born to Scottish nobility , he was educated in Perth , Scotland , before moving to London at the age of 13 to take up a place at Westminster School . He was accepted into Christ Church , Oxford , in May 1723 , and graduated four years later . Returning to London from Oxford , he was called to the Bar by Lincoln 's Inn on 23 November 1730 , and quickly gained a reputation as an excellent barrister .
He became involved in politics in 1742 , beginning with his election as a Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge , and appointment as Solicitor General . In the absence of a strong Attorney General , he became the main spokesman for the government in the House of Commons , and was noted for his " great powers of eloquence " and described as " beyond comparison the best speaker " in the House of Commons . With the promotion of Sir Dudley Ryder to Lord Chief Justice in 1754 , he became Attorney General , and when Ryder unexpectedly died several months later , he took his place as Chief Justice .
The most powerful British jurist of the century , his decisions reflected the Age of Enlightenment and moved England on the path to abolishing slavery and the slave trade . He advanced commercial law in ways that helped establish the nation as the world leader in industry , finance and trade . He modernised both English law and the English courts system ; he sped up the system for submitting motions and reformed the way judgments were given to reduce time and expense for the parties . For his work in Carter v Boehm and Pillans v Van Mierop , he has been called the founder of English commercial law . He is perhaps best known for his judgment in Somersett 's Case ( 1772 ) , where he held that slavery had no basis in common law and had never been established by positive law ( legislation ) in England , and therefore was not binding law ( although this did not end slave trafficking altogether ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Murray was born on 2 March 1705 , at Scone Palace in Perthshire , Scotland , the fourth son of the 5th Viscount of Stormont and his wife , Margaret , née Scott , and one of eleven children . Both his parents were strong supporters of the Jacobite cause , and his older brother James followed " The Old Pretender " into exile . The Jacobite sympathies of Murray 's family were glossed over by contemporaries , who claimed that he had been educated at Lichfield Grammar School with many other members of the English judiciary . This was incorrect , as Murray was educated at Perth Grammar School , where he was taught Latin , English grammar , and essay writing skills . He later said that this gave him a great advantage at university , as those students educated in England had been taught Greek and Latin , but not how to write properly in English . While at Perth Grammar School , it became apparent that Murray was particularly intelligent , and in 1718 , his father and older brother James decided to send him to Westminster School , as James knew the Dean , Francis Atterbury . The distance from Perth to London was around 400 miles ( 640 km ) , and the journey took Murray 54 days . Murray flourished at Westminster and was made a King 's Scholar on 21 May 1719 .
After an examination in May 1723 , Murray was accepted into Christ Church , Oxford , having scored higher in the examination than any other King 's Scholar that year . He was admitted as a commoner on 15 June 1723 , and matriculated on 18 June ; the records say that he came from Bath rather than Perth , because the person recording the names of the new students was unable to understand his Scottish accent . His older brother James was a barrister in Scotland , and his family decided that a career as a barrister was best for Murray . The Scottish Bar at the time was overcrowded , which made it difficult for a young barrister to build a reputation , yet qualifying for the English Bar was extremely expensive . Thanks to the patronage of Thomas Foley , 1st Baron Foley , who gave Murray £ 200 a year to live on , Murray could afford to study at the bar , and became a member of Lincoln 's Inn on 23 April 1724 .
After George I died on 11 June 1727 , Murray entered and won a competition to write a Latin poem titled " The Death of the King " . His actions were seen as a show of support for the House of Hanover and the political status quo , something odd considering the strong Jacobite sympathies of his family . He probably did this because , having no private income , he wished to secure patronage to help him advance politically . Another entrant was William Pitt , who was a constant rival to Murray until Pitt 's death in 1778 . There is very little information about Murray 's time at Oxford ; it is known that he studied ancient and modern history , became fluent in French and gained a good understanding of Roman Law . He also became fluent in Latin , translating Cicero 's works into English and then back into Latin . He gained his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1727 , and travelled to London to train as a barrister .
= = Family life = =
Murray married Elizabeth Finch . They did not have children and took on care of their niece , Lady Elizabeth Murray ( b . 1760 ) , after her mother died . When Mansfield 's nephew Captain Sir John Lindsay returned to Britain in 1765 following the Seven Years ' War and his assignment in the West Indies , he brought his natural daughter Elizabeth . Of half African descent , she was born into slavery in 1761 , the daughter of Maria Bell , an enslaved woman . Lindsay asked Murray to take on her care and education , and she was baptized Dido Elizabeth Belle in 1766 in London .
= = At the English bar = =
Murray 's first contact when he moved to London was William Hamilton , a Scottish @-@ born barrister who was said to be the first Scot to practise at the English Bar , and one of the few people who was qualified to act as a barrister in both England and Scotland . Hamilton had been one of Murray 's sponsors when he joined Lincoln 's Inn in 1724 , and when Murray came to London , Hamilton helped find him a set of chambers at No. 1 Old Square . At this time , there was no formal legal education , and the only requirement for a person to be called to the Bar was for him to have eaten five dinners a term at Lincoln 's Inn , and to have read the first sentence of a paper prepared for him by the steward . Thus , most of Murray 's practical training came from reading the papers in Hamilton 's chambers and listening to Lord Raymond speak in court , along with tutoring by Thomas Denison on how to write special pleadings . Murray also studied various texts , including the French Ordinance de la Marine ( a predecessor to the Napoleonic Commercial Code ) , the works of Bracton and Littleton and " crabbed and uncouth compositions " on municipal law .
Murray was called to the Bar on 23 November 1730 , taking a set of chambers at 5 King 's Bench Walk . He was introduced to Alexander Pope around this time , and through his friendship met members of the aristocracy , some of whom later became his clients , including Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough . Pope also taught him oratory , which helped him enormously in court . His first two cases were in the English Court of Sessions in 1733 , where he was led by Charles Talbot and opposed by Philip Yorke . The support of Talbot and Yorke allowed him to gain a respectable practice in the Court of Chancery .
The 1707 Acts of Union had merged the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into one national entity , but they retained separate legal systems . However , the House of Lords became the highest court of appeal in both English and Scottish law , and as a result , from 1707 Scottish cases on appeal from the Court of Session were sent there . To deal with these cases , a barrister had to be familiar with both Scottish and English law , and Murray found his niche , acting in Scottish cases in the House of Lords as early as 1733 . His work in Moncrieff v Moncrieff in 1734 established Murray as a brilliant young barrister praised for his performance by Lords Cowper and Parker . After Moncrieff , Murray was involved in almost every case in the House of Lords , whether it had been appealed from a Scottish court or not .
In 1737 , Murray acted as Counsel for the City of Edinburgh in the aftermath of the death of Captain John Porteous . In Edinburgh , it was traditional for criminals sentenced to death to be allowed to visit a church near the city jail the Sunday before the execution . Two criminals named Wilson and Robertson took this as an opportunity to escape , and although Wilson did not make it out of the church , Robertson escaped completely . Wilson had been a smuggler who supplied his fellow citizens with goods , and because of this and the unpopularity of the city guard , public opinion was firmly on his side . Porteous was the captain of the Edinburgh city guard , and angry with Wilson 's attempt to escape and aware of the possibility of an attempt to free him . Porteous ordered a guard of 80 men to be placed around the gallows for Wilson 's execution . When a man attempted to cut Wilson 's body down after the execution , Porteous ordered his troops to fire on the crowd , and seven people were killed . Porteous was initially sentenced to death for murder , and when the execution was delayed , a mob of citizens rushed the city jail and lynched him .
As a result , a bill was proposed in the House of Commons that sought to punish the City of Edinburgh for the behaviour of its citizens by disenfranchising the city . Murray represented the City in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords , and eventually whittled down the bill so much that by the time it was voted on , it simply proposed to fine the city and disqualify the Provost . In exchange for his work , the citizens of Edinburgh gave him the Freedom of the City and a diamond , which is still in the possession of his family . Murray 's reputation continued to grow ; in 1738 , he was involved in 11 of the 16 cases heard in the House of Lords , and in 1739 and 1740 he acted as legal counsel in 30 cases there .
On 20 September 1738 , he married Lady Elizabeth Finch , the daughter of Daniel Finch , 2nd Earl of Nottingham , at Raby Castle in Durham . Her sister Mary was married to Thomas Watson @-@ Wentworth , 1st Marquess of Rockingham . Murray 's connection with the Marquess had a positive , significant influence on his future career . After a short holiday , Murray returned to his work as a barrister .
= = Member of Parliament = =
Murray had repeatedly refused to become a Member of Parliament , saying he had no interest in politics . In 1742 , however , the government of Sir Robert Walpole fell , and Murray 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Earl of Nottingham , became First Lord of the Admiralty in the new Cabinet . With this added political influence , Murray hoped to be appointed to a government office , and when Sir John Strange resigned as Solicitor General , Murray was made a Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge on 15 December 1742 and immediately succeeded Strange as Solicitor General .
Although the Solicitor General was the lowest legal appointment , a successful one could be appointed Attorney General , and by custom , the Attorney General was allowed to become Lord Chief Justice of the King 's Bench if a vacancy arose . Although many barristers were not good politicians , Murray became a successful Member of Parliament , and one noted for his oratorical skills and logical arguments .
In 1745 , Murray defended the actions of the government in hiring 16 @,@ 000 Hanoverian troops to help fight in the War of the Austrian Succession . His argument ( that it was the prerogative of the King to decide how a war should be fought , and he should not be second @-@ guessed by politicians with no experience of warfare ) defeated the motion to cease employing the Hanoverian troops by 231 votes to 181 . Murray became popular with both the government and George II as a result , and in the absence of a strong Attorney General , Murray spoke for the government in most matters . In 1747 , he helped Lord Hardwicke write and pass an act to abolish the old hereditary positions in Scotland . In 1751 he drafted the government response to an attempt by the King of Prussia to frustrate neutral shipping , which Lord Stowell called " the foundation of the modern law of neutrality " , and Montesquieu described it as a " résponse sans réplique " ( response without a reply ) .
The death of Frederick , the heir to the British throne on 20 March 1751 , caused constitutional chaos ; George II wished to appoint his favourite son Prince William , Duke of Cumberland , as Regent ( since the heir apparent , George III , was only a child ) , while the public favoured the child 's mother Princess Augusta . In an attempt to reach a compromise the government introduced a bill to Parliament declaring that Augusta was to be a regent along with a council of others , and that George would become the heir when he reached maturity . Murray made a speech supporting the government 's proposal , but despite this , Parliament was not convinced that a council was necessary .
On 6 March 1754 , the Prime Minister Henry Pelham died , and this necessitated a Cabinet reshuffle . The Attorney General , Sir Dudley Ryder , became Lord Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , and Murray became Attorney General in his place . A few months later the Master of the Rolls died , and Murray was asked to replace him ; he declined , however , as he " did not want to leave His Majesty 's service " . After Ryder died unexpectedly on 25 May 1756 , however , Murray could not turn down the opportunity , and immediately applied to replace him as Lord Chief Justice .
He was accepted , and although his appointment delighted Murray , the government was very concerned at the loss of a good Attorney General . In an attempt to persuade him to stay , the new Prime Minister , the Duke of Newcastle offered him the Duchy of Lancaster , in addition to the position of Attorney General , an extra £ 6 @,@ 000 a year , and a pension , and finally attempted to blackmail him by saying that if he accepted the office of Lord Chief Justice , the government would refuse to grant him a peerage . It was customary for all Lord Chief Justices to be given a peerage , and Murray responded by saying that in that situation he would refuse to become either Lord Chief Justice or Attorney General . Newcastle gave in , and promised to allow him to become Lord Chief Justice and to recommend him for a peerage .
This was seen as an excellent result by Murray , who had no interest in politics except as a stepping stone to become a member of the judiciary . Murray was not suited to politics , as he was far too calculating and independent of thought to accept any one party 's doctrine . His Scottish and Jacobite roots also allowed for endless insinuation and controversy — in 1753 he was accused by the Bishop of Gloucester of " having drunk the health of the Old Pretender on his knees " . Although the story was proven to be false , it embarrassed Murray , and was used to taunt him as late as 1770 . His rivalry with William Pitt highlighted his unsuitability for politics - unlike other politicians such as Philip Yorke and Edward Thurlow , he did not have the temperament to resist " the vehemence of Pitt 's invective " . It was widely felt that he could have become Prime Minister after the death of Henry Pelham , but it would have " set [ his genius ] in a false environment " , and he declined all opportunities to return to politics except as Lord Chief Justice .
= = Lord Chief Justice = =
Anyone wishing to become a judge was required to be a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , which Murray was not ; as such , he left Lincoln 's Inn to join Serjeant 's Inn . He qualified as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law on 8 November 1756 , and was sworn in as Lord Chief Justice at the house of the Lord Chancellor that evening . Immediately afterwards he was created Baron Mansfield .
On 19 November , he was sworn in as a Privy Counsellor . He suspended his duties temporarily on 5 April 1757 , when appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer , due to an old custom that the Lord Chief Justice took the position when it was empty . He only served until 8 April , and there is no evidence of his performing anything more than the standard day @-@ to @-@ day duties . He became a cabinet minister in 1757 , still serving as Lord Chief Justice , and stayed until 1765 .
= = = Reform = = =
Mansfield first sat in court on 11 November 1756 , and at the time had " a very low estimate of the Common Law of England which he was to administer " . The legal system had been put together in the period immediately after the Norman conquest of England , and was completely unsuited to the 18th century , when Britain was " the greatest manufacturing and commercial country in the world " . Mansfield immediately began to reform the way the law and courts worked . One of his first acts as Lord Chief Justice was to change the system for submitting motions . Every day the court was in session , all barristers were invited to submit motions , in order of their seniority as barristers . Because they were allowed to submit as many motions as they wanted , by the time junior barristers were allowed to submit their motions , it was normally the end of the day . This meant that almost all the work went to the senior barristers , who were so overworked that they often did not have time to prepare properly before going to court . In addition it meant that work for junior barristers was scarce , hindering their careers . Mansfield changed the system so that barristers were allowed to submit only one motion a day , and if not all barristers had been heard by the end of the day , they could continue where they left off the next morning .
At the time it was also traditional for all judgments to be reserved . Although in a small number of cases this was useful , in the majority of cases it simply made coming to court more expensive and wasted time . As soon as Mansfield became Lord Chief Justice , he changed the rules so that , unless the court had doubts over the evidence presented to them , a judgment was to be made immediately . This had a far @-@ reaching effect on the English courts . Judges from the Court of Appeal and High Court of Justice now give reserved judgments in only a minority of cases . His reforms led to the Court of King 's Bench becoming one of the most active courts , at the expense of the Court of Common Pleas , which was described as the " sleepy hollow " .
= = = Mercantile law changes = = =
In the eighteenth century , English merchant law was still based on the Lex mercatoria , a medieval series of customs and principles used to regulate trading . Other countries in Europe had reformed and modernised their law , resulting in English merchant law being about a century behind mercantile law of other European countries . A merchant was , by his very nature , international , and the inconsistencies between English law and the law of other nations made business difficult .
Mansfield made a great effort to bring English merchant law up to the same standards as that of other European nations , defining his position by saying that " the daily negotiations and property of merchants ought not to depend on subtleties and niceties , but upon rules easily learned and easily retained because they are dictates of common sense drawn from the truth of the case " . In most European countries , the principle was that a merchant was bound by his promises , not just his signed legal documents , while English lawyers maintained that a merchant could only be legally bound by documents that he signed . The European principle was based on the assumption of good faith on the part of the merchants , or uberrima fides , something completely lacking in English law . In Carter v Boehm [ 1766 ] 3 Burr 1905 Mansfield got a chance to reform the law relating to the assumption of good faith . Carter was the Governor of Fort Marlborough ( now Bengkulu ) , which was built by the British East India Company in Sumatra , Indonesia . He took out an insurance policy with Boehm against the fort 's being taken by a foreign enemy . A witness called Captain Tryon testified that Carter knew the fort was built to resist attacks from natives but not European enemies , and the French were likely to attack . The French did attack , and Boehm refused to fulfil the insurance claim .
Mansfield decided in favour of Boehm , saying that Carter had failed his duty of uberrima fides . In his judgment Mansfield said that :
Insurance is a contract based upon speculation . The special facts , upon which the contingent chance is to be computed , lie most commonly in the knowledge of the insured only ; the underwriter trusts to his representation and proceeds upon the confidence that he does not keep back any circumstance in his knowledge , to mislead the underwriter into a belief that the circumstance does not exist , and to induce him to estimate the risque as if it did not exist . Good faith forbids either party by concealing what he privately knows , to draw the other into a bargain from his ignorance of that fact , and his believing the contrary .
This was an attempt by Mansfield to introduce the assumption of good faith into English law , and although it failed for the most part ( as most areas of English commercial law no longer use uberrima fides ) , it is still used in insurance contracts . In insurance agreements , the insuree inevitably knows more about the risk involved than the insurer ; without the requirement for pre @-@ contractual " good faith , " the insuree would have no reason to tell the truth , and insurance companies would be loath to make contracts .
In the earlier case of Pillans & Rose v Van Mierop & Hopkins [ 1765 ] 3 Burr 1663 , Mansfield had tried to challenge the doctrine of Consideration . In English law , " Consideration " is a vital part of the contract ; without valid consideration , almost any contract is void . But , Mansfield argued in his judgment that it should only be treated as evidence of a contract , not as a vital element . Mansfield failed to make clear that he was referring only to consideration in commercial contracts , not general contracts , and as a result his judgment read that consideration was not required for any contract . His judgment has been much criticised by legal academics , and was effectively overruled by the House of Lords in Rann v Hughes [ 1778 ] 7 T. R. 350 .
Mansfield also enforced a previous judgement of the Court of King 's Bench made in 1645 , in which they allowed a special jury of merchants to sit in cases involving commercial law . He built up a special corps of these jurymen , some of whom , such as Edward Vaux , became noted experts on commercial law . " Lord Mansfield 's jurymen " acted as an effective liaison between the merchants and the courts . Mansfield was personally a supporter of free trade who was heavily influenced by Roman law and ancient Roman and Greek writers such as Cicero and Xenophon .
In 1783 , Mansfield heard the case of Gregson v. Gilbert , regarding the payment of an insurance claim for slaves killed when thrown overboard by the captain of a slave @-@ ship — an event now known as the Zong massacre . Mansfield , in summing up the jury 's verdict , said " The Case of Slaves was the same as if Horses had been thrown over board " , and endeavoured to uphold the notion that slaves were property which could be destroyed in situations of " absolute necessity " . But , new information was introduced in the case , and he ruled against the owners of the ship . In doing this , he achieved his aim of preventing maritime insurance law from becoming more complicated .
= = = Copyright law = = =
Mansfield made another notable judgment in Millar v Taylor [ 1769 ] KB , in relation to copyright law . Andrew Millar was a bookseller who in 1729 had purchased the publishing rights to James Thomson 's poem " The Seasons " . After the term of the exclusive rights granted under the Statute of Anne expired , Robert Taylor began publishing his own competing publication , which contained Thomson 's poem . Mansfield , sitting with three other judges , concluded that despite the Statute of Anne there was a perpetual common law copyright , and therefore that no works can ever be considered public domain . This was a massive victory for booksellers and publishers , as it meant that they could effectively make it impossible for new companies to compete , as in the absence of new texts , there was nothing they could print . Mansfield 's judgment was finally overruled by the House of Lords in Donaldson v Beckett in 1774 .
Mansfield 's judgment has been criticised as being unusually short @-@ sighted because he failed to see that while his decision was correct for that particular case , the precedent it would set would create an unfair monopoly for the booksellers and publishers . This was one of only a small number of cases in which Mansfield was overruled ; in his entire career only six of his judgments were overturned by a higher court . Mansfield 's judgement here has been seen as part of a wider agenda ; along with other legal figures such as Sir William Blackstone , he was personally in favour of a perpetual copyright .
= = = Junius = = =
In 1695 Parliament failed to renew the Licensing Acts , and as a result , the press were free to print material attacking the government . Although there were eight attempts to force a new Licensing Act through Parliament between 1697 and 1713 , none of them succeeded . Despite the freedom of the press from censorship by the government , the judiciary held a different view ; it regularly tried people for seditious libel if they printed material attacking the government . From 21 November 1768 , letters written by a man under the pseudonym of Junius were published in the Public Advertiser , a London newspaper run by Henry Sampson Woodfall . In them , Junius attacked many political leaders , including Lord Granby and Mansfield . As his letters were wildly popular , the circulation of the Public Advertiser doubled in just five months .
On 19 December 1769 , Junius wrote a letter attacking the King , and incensed at this , the government ordered several people to be arrested and tried for seditious libel , including Woodfall for publishing the letters , John Almon for selling them , and John Miller for republishing them . Almon 's case was heard at Westminster Hall by Mansfield and a jury on 2 June 1770 . He was found guilty , although it is unclear in what fashion he was punished , if at all . Woodfall was tried on 13 June 1770 , by Mansfield and a jury . While Mansfield believed that the language used was libellous , the jury disagreed , and held that he was " guilty of printing and publishing only " , and innocent of seditious libel . Miller was tried on 13 July 1770 , and after six hours of discussion , the jury found him innocent . As a result of these two trials , it became clear that no jury would convict a printer for printing these letters , leaving Junius free to continue publishing them .
On 14 November 1770 , a letter by Junius directed at Mansfield was published by the Public Advertiser and the London Evening Post , a newspaper run by John Miller . In it , Junius attacked Mansfield , first for being Scottish , then for being a lapsed Jacobite , and finally for attempting to suppress the freedom of the press . In a response to Junius ' letter dated 16 November 1770 , Mansfield made the following threat :
" Sir , if in future you indulge the ill @-@ founded asperity of your Pen , [ you ] may be called to answer for your Conduct , in a way that may cause you to regret that ever you was born , or , at least , that Nature has given you Abilities , which , if guided by Discretion , would have made you as much a Blessing , as you are now a Curse to Mankind . "
Although the Attorney General , William de Grey , advised that the publishers should again be prosecuted , Mansfield disagreed , saying that if they failed to respond to Junius , he would become bored and stop writing . Mansfield was evidently correct , because other than a letter printed on 5 October 1771 , Junius ceased to write at the beginning of 1772 .
= = = Somersett 's Case = = =
Mansfield is best known for his judgment in Somersett 's Case on the legality of keeping slaves in England . The English had been involved in the slave trade since 1553 , and by 1768 , ships registered in Liverpool , Bristol and London carried more than half the slaves shipped in the world . James Somersett was a slave owned by Charles Stewart , an American customs officer who sailed to Britain for business , landing on 10 November 1769 . A few days later Somersett attempted to escape . He was recaptured in November and imprisoned on the ship Ann and Mary , owned by Captain John Knowles and bound for the British colony of Jamaica . Stewart intended to sell him there . However , three people claiming to be Somersett 's godparents , John Marlow , Thomas Walkin and Elizabeth Cade , made an application before the Court of King 's Bench for a writ of habeas corpus , and Captain Knowles was ordered to produce Somersett before the Court of King 's Bench , which would determine whether his imprisonment was legal .
Mansfield ordered a hearing for 22 January 1772 . Following an adjournment , the case was not heard until 7 February 1772 . In the meantime , the case had attracted a great deal of attention in the press , and members of the public were forthcoming with donations to fund lawyers for both sides of the argument . An activist layman , Granville Sharp , who continually sought test cases against the legal justifications for slavery , was Somersett 's real backer . When the case was heard , no fewer than five advocates appeared for the slave , speaking at three separate hearings between February and May . These lawyers included William Davy SL , John Glynn SL , James Mansfield and Francis Hargrave , who was later to become a noted barrister based on his work in this case . Charles Stewart was represented by John Dunning and James Wallace .
On behalf of Somersett , it was argued that while colonial laws might permit slavery , neither the common law of England , nor any law made by Parliament recognised the existence of slavery , and slavery was therefore illegal . Moreover , English contract law did not allow for any person to enslave himself , nor could any contract be binding without the person 's consent . The arguments thus focused on legal details rather than humanitarian principles . A law passed in 1765 said that all lands , forts and slaves owned by the Africa Company were a property of the Crown , which could be interpreted to mean that the Crown accepted slavery . When the two lawyers for Charles Stewart put their case , they argued that a contract for the sale of a slave was recognised in England , and therefore the existence of slaves must be legally valid .
After the attorneys for both sides had given their arguments , Mansfield called a recess , saying that " [ the case ] required ... [ a ] consultation ... among the twelve Judges " . Finally , on 22 June 1772 Mansfield gave his judgment , which ruled that a master could not carry his slave out of England by force , and concluded :
The state of slavery is of such a nature , that it is incapable of being introduced on any reasons , moral or political ; but only positive law , which preserves its force long after the reasons , occasion , and time itself from whence it was created , is erased from memory : it 's so odious , that nothing can be suffered to support it , but positive law . Whatever inconveniences , therefore , may follow from a decision , I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law of England ; and therefore the black must be discharged .
This was not an end to slavery , as this only confirmed it was illegal in England and Wales , not in the rest of the British Empire . As a result of Mansfield 's decision , between 14 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 slaves were immediately freed in England , some of whom remained with their masters as paid employees . The decision was apparently not immediately followed ; Africans were still hunted and kidnapped in London , Liverpool and Bristol to be sold elsewhere . ( Such an incident was recounted by Olaudah Equiano in 1774 in his autobiography , An Interesting Narrative ( 1789 ) . )
Mansfield was so uncertain about how it would be applied that he specified in his 1793 will that his " mulatto " great @-@ niece Dido Elizabeth Belle was to be considered a free woman . ( She had been born into slavery as the illegitimate daughter of his nephew in the West Indies but lived with him and his wife for 30 years . ) In addition , advertisements from the 1770s show that slaves continued to be bought and sold in England . Mansfield referred to slaves in his judgment in a later case . Although slavery was not completely abolished in the British Empire until 1834 , Mansfield 's decision is considered to have been a significant step in recognising the illegality of slavery .
= = Lord Mansfield 's Rule = =
Lord Mansfield 's name is frequently mentioned in modern legal settings as the originator of " Lord Mansfield 's Rule " , in his own words : " ... the law of England is clear , that the declarations of a father or mother , cannot be admitted to bastardize the issue born after marriage . " This quote comes from Mansfield 's appellate decision in Goodright v. Moss . The primary legal question in the case was not this preexisting principle , which applies only to children " born after marriage " , but rather whether the child had been born before the marriage . The question was whether statements the child 's parents allegedly made before their deaths could be introduced as evidence that the child had been born before their marriage and was thus illegitimate . Mansfield ruled to admit the testimony against the child 's legitimacy and grant a new trial . The term " Lord Mansfield 's Rule " is often used in a slightly different sense to denote the principle still applied in several jurisdictions that marriage creates a conclusive presumption of a husband 's paternity of his wife 's child .
= = House of Lords = =
After the formation of the Fox @-@ North Coalition , Mansfield agreed to act as Speaker of the House of Lords , taking up his post in February 1783 . The main item of debate during the Coalition Ministry was the East India Bill , which provoked bitter arguments in both the House of Lords and House of Commons . In an attempt to speed up the process of passing the bill , Mansfield left his position as Speaker to debate directly on 15 December ; when this failed to help he returned to the Woolsack the next day . The failure of the bill caused the government to be immediately dismissed , and Mansfield left his position on 23 December 1783 .
Mansfield had been made Earl of Mansfield , in the County of Nottingham , on 31 October 1776 . He attended the Lords as Lord Speaker , and the last record of him attending ( other than his presence at the state opening of Parliament on 23 March 1784 ) was in December 1783 .
= = Retirement = =
Despite failing health , Mansfield refused to officially leave his post as Lord Chief Justice because George III was opposed to the appointment of Mansfield 's protégé Francis Buller to the position after Mansfield resigned . The government of the time instead suggested Lloyd Kenyon as a possible successor . Mansfield clung to office until 1788 , ( despite not sitting in court for two years ) in the hope that the government would fall before he was forced to retire . This was not to be , and on 3 June , he wrote a letter of resignation effective the next day .
Mansfield spent the remainder of his life at Kenwood House . Most of his time was spent maintaining the grounds . In the summer , he was visited by groups of barristers who informed him of the goings @-@ on at court . On 1 August 1792 he was made Earl of Mansfield , in the County of Middlesex . On 10 March 1793 , he complained of feeling sleepy , and although he recovered the next day , by 12 March , he was again complaining of a need for sleep . He went to bed early and remained asleep until 18 March , when he finally died . His body was buried in the North Transept of Westminster Abbey . Mansfield left a large amount of money after his death , including land worth £ 26 @,@ 000 . He gave £ 2 @,@ 000 to Francis Buller .
= = Legacy = =
English law saw significant changes during Mansfield 's career . As Lord Chief Justice , Mansfield had done much to reform the way the courts worked , making it easier for people to gain access to legal aid , and also making the process much less expensive . He was also noted for his insistence that equity should be applied by all courts , not just the Court of Chancery , a view that provoked much disagreement during his lifetime , but was eventually confirmed by Parliament in the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 , which allowed all courts to take cases of equity . He also established the principle that rather than blindly following precedent , judges should seek to find loopholes in rules that were no longer applicable , something that later received the support of Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr . , who said , " It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV . It is more revolting still if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since , and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past . " He made his judgements on the principle that " as the usages of society alter , the law must adapt itself to the various situations of mankind " , leading John Baker to describe him as " one of the boldest of judicial spirits " .
His most important contributions were to commercial , merchant and common law . Mansfield spent much time bringing the law of England on par with that of other countries , particularly in cases such as Pillans & Rose v Van Mierop & Hopkins [ 1765 ] 3 Burr 1663 , and Carter v Boehm [ 1766 ] 3 Burr 1905 . As a result of his work , he was described by a later judge as " the founder of the commercial law of this country " .
He was , however , criticised for his resistance to the freedom of the press and his refusal to go against the King , as well as for blatant nepotism — highlighted by his attempts to have Francis Buller made Lord Chief Justice after his retirement . He was also criticised as a politician for his support of a government antagonistic to the colonies ; in 1829 John Quincy Adams described him as " more responsible for the Revolution than any other man " . Scholars such as John Chipman Gray have questioned his reputation as a universally successful judge , saying that " the reputation of Lord Mansfield as a commercial lawyer should not blind us to the fact that he was not equally great in the law of real property " .
Opinion over Mansfield 's intention in his ruling in Somerset 's Case is mixed , with the current prevailing view being that he did not intend to free the slaves . The judgment was particularly narrow , as it ruled only that a master could not carry his slave out of England by force , not that slaves who came to England were emancipated . This is seen as particularly telling because this was the primary argument of Davy and Hargrave . If Murray had wanted to emancipate the slaves completely , there were various bits of judicial precedent he could have based his decision on , such as Smith v Gould or Shanley v Harvey , but he did not . Various comments he made before and during the case also suggest that complete emancipation was not his intent ; in a preliminary judgment he said that " the setting 14 @,@ 000 or 15 @,@ 000 men at once free loose by a solemn opinion , is much disagreeable in the effect it threatens ” , which one modern legal scholar interprets as indicative of his reluctance to make a decision for fear of economic consequences . Various comments he made to Thomas Hutchinson in private letters , along with his comments about the Somersett decision in R. v Inhabitants of Thames Ditton , also suggest that emancipation was not his goal .
Mansfield 's marriage to Lady Finch was barren . His title , which succeeds to this day , passed to his nephew , David Murray , 2nd Earl of Mansfield .
= = Honours = =
Mansfield is immortalised in St Stephen 's Hall , where he and other notable Parliamentarians look on at visitors to Parliament .
In 1801 a marble monument to him by John Flaxman was installed in Westminster Abbey ; it shows Murray flanked by the personifications of Wisdom and Justice , with an inscription that reads :
" ' Here Murray long enough his country ’ s pride is now no more than Tully or than Hyde ' . Foretold by Ar . Pope and fulfilled in the year 1793 when William Earl of Mansfield died full of years and of honours : of honours he declined many : those which he accepted were the following : he was appointed Solicitor General 1742 , Attorney General 1754 , Lord Chief Justice and Baron Mansfield 1756 , Earl of Mansfield 1776 . From the love which he bore to the place of his early education , he desired to be buried in this cathedral ( privately ) and would have forbidden that instance of human vanity , the erecting a monument to his memory , but a sum which with the interest has amounted to two thousand five hundred pounds was left for that purpose by A. Bailey Esqr. of Lyon ’ s Inn , which at least well meant mark of esteem he had no previous knowledge or suspicion of and had no power to prevent being executed . He was the fourth son of David , fifth Viscount Stormont , and married the Lady Elizabeth Finch , daughter to Daniel , Earl of Nottingham by whom he had no issue . Born at Scone 2nd March 1704 . Died at Kenwood 20th March 1793 . "
The town of Mansfield , Massachusetts is apparently named for him .
Due to his reputation as a barrister , Lincoln 's Inn offer a series of scholarship for the Bar Vocational Course named the Lord Mansfield Scholarship .
Mansfield has been portrayed as a character several times in television and film - in The Fight Against Slavery ( 1975 ) by John Richmond , The British ( 2012 ) by Timothy West , Belle ( 2013 ) by Tom Wilkinson and The Scandalous Lady W ( 2015 ) by David Calder .
= = Character = =
Mansfield was noted at the Bar , in Parliament , and while sitting as a judge , for his eloquence and skill as a speaker ; in particular Lord Chesterfield described him as " beyond comparison the best speaker " in the House of Commons . He was also a hard worker ; he would sometimes do court paperwork himself , as well as do his judicial duties , in an attempt to speed up the legal process .
He was summarised by Gareth Jones as " Conservative , urbane , silver @-@ tongued , energetic , cultivated and well read ; a highly imaginative lawyer who looked to reason and was not overawed by the legacy of the past " . Edmund Burke , a contemporary , said that " he had some superiors in force , some equals in persuasion ; but in insinuation he was without a rival . He excelled in the statement of a case . This , of itself , was worth the argument of any other man " . The comment by Samuel Johnson that " Much may be made of a [ Scotsman ] , if he be caught young " was directed at Mansfield , and Johnson also described him as " more than a mere lawyer " , while Edward Coke , who is considered one of the most important lawyers in the history of English law , was " only a lawyer " .
Unlike other barristers , Mansfield was noted for always keeping a cool head and being " prudent to the point of timidity " . He was criticised for being " moderate and dispassionate " , unlike more aggressive barristers such as Edward Coke ; when asked about this he replied that " I would not have made Sir Edward Coke 's speech to gain all Sir Edward Coke 's estates and all his reputation " . There are conflicting reports about his temperament and attitude as a judge ; William Pitt described him as " a very bad judge , proud , haughty to the Bar and hasty in his determinations " , and Charles Yorke said he was " offensive and unpopular " . Both opinions are suspect , however ; Pitt 's because he was a constant rival to Mansfield and Yorke 's because he was attempting to beat Mansfield to the position of Lord Chancellor at the time . Edward Foss said that " there has never been a judge more venerated by his contemporaries , nor whose memory is regarded with greater respect and affection " , and described him as " the great oracle of law " .
Mansfield has been called " the legal genius of his generation " , and compared favourably with Joseph Story , a judge of the Supreme Court of the United States noted for his brilliance . Other Americans such as Julian S. Waterman , the founder of the University of Arkansas School of Law , described him as " not only the greatest common law judge but the greatest judge in Anglo @-@ American legal history " , while Joseph Story himself said that Mansfield " broke down the narrow barrier of the common law , redeemed it from feudal selfishness and barbarity " and that " he was one of those great men raised up by Providence , at a fortunate moment , to effect a salutary revolution in the world " .
= Paul Reinhart =
Paul Gerard Reinhart ( born January 6 , 1960 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the Atlanta Flames , Calgary Flames and Vancouver Canucks in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was a first round selection by the Flames , 12th overall , at the 1979 NHL Entry Draft with whom he immediately broke into the NHL . He relocated with the franchise to Calgary in 1980 , playing a total of nine seasons with the Flames franchise until he was traded to Vancouver in 1988 . He was a two @-@ time all @-@ star and played with Team Canada on three occasions , winning bronze medals at the World Championships in 1982 and 1983 . Chronic back problems plagued him throughout his career and forced his retirement in 1990 . Settling in Vancouver following his playing career , Reinhart became a stock market financier and investor . He was briefly involved with the Vancouver Ravens of the National Lacrosse League in the early 2000s .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Reinhart began his junior career with his hometown Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League ( OMJHL ) in 1975 – 76 , scoring 39 points in 53 games . He had been a protected player of the Rangers — signed directly by the team without his having to go through the league 's draft — but when the OMJHL eliminated the rules allowing teams to protect midget @-@ aged players following the season , he was made eligible for the 1976 draft . The Peterborough Petes claimed him with the third overall selection in the June 1976 draft , despite the fact that Reinhart and his family made it known he would refuse to play for any team other than Kitchener . His agent , Alan Eagleson , threatened to take
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the team and league to court in a bid to force them to respect Reinhart 's wishes . The dispute was not settled until November when the Petes traded Reinhart to Kitchener as part of a three @-@ team trade that involved the Oshawa Generals . The league had to rescind a rule prohibiting teams from trading first round draft picks to allow the deal to pass and to avoid the threat of litigation by Eagleson .
On the ice , Reinhart scored a total of 104 points as a defenceman with the Rangers between 1975 and 1978 before breaking out offensively in the 1978 – 79 season after moving centre for the majority of the campaign . He scored 51 goals and 78 assists for 129 points in 66 games to finish fifth overall in OMJHL scoring . The team 's captain in his final year , Reinhart won numerous team honours during his four years in Kitchener including three awards for having the " best defensive ability " on the team .
= = = Professional = = =
The Atlanta Flames selected Reinhart with their first round selection , 12th overall , at the 1979 NHL Entry Draft . Though he had been set to join Team Canada for the 1980 Winter Olympics , the Flames convinced Reinhart to sign with the team and begin his professional career instead . Joining the Flames for the 1979 – 80 NHL season , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Reinhart became the youngest player to appear for the team at that point in franchise history . He appeared in 79 games for Atlanta , finishing as the team 's highest scoring defenceman . His total of 47 points was second to Ray Bourque for the overall lead amongst rookie defencemen .
Transferring to Calgary along with the franchise in 1980 – 81 , Reinhart improved to 67 points during the regular season and tied for the league lead in playoff assists with 14 . He was named to the Canadian entry for the 1981 Canada Cup tournament , but suffered an ankle injury and appeared in only two games . He remained an offensive catalyst for the team , scoring 61 points in 1981 – 82 and set a franchise record for points by a defenceman with 75 in 1982 – 83 . His career total of 250 points also set a Flames franchise record for a defenceman . He returned to Team Canada following both seasons to play in the World Championships . He won bronze medals with the team in both 1982 and 1983 , and was named Team Canada 's top defenceman in 1983 .
Reinhart suffered a serious injury midway through the 1983 – 84 season . Skating behind his net during a game against the Winnipeg Jets , his skate caught a rut and he twisted his back as he fell . He had to be carried off the ice on a stretcher , and was initially diagnosed with back spasms . He was later diagnosed as having suffered a herniated disc . He missed 51 games as a result of the injury , but scored a goal and an assist on his return , a 4 – 1 victory over the Hartford Whalers . Despite missing the majority of the season , Reinhart was the Flames ' offensive leader in the 1984 playoffs , leading the team and finishing first amongst all players who did not reach the finals with 17 points .
Though he turned down an offer to play with Team Canada at the 1984 Canada Cup due to his back , Reinhart remained healthy for the 1984 – 85 season , scoring a career high 23 goals to go with 67 points in 75 games . He also appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , playing in front of his home fans at the 1985 game in Calgary . Recurring back spasms again forced him to miss much of the 1985 – 86 season ; he was limited to 32 games . Reinhart remained healthy in 1986 – 87 , finishing fourth in the league amongst defencemen with 69 points . He scored his 100th career goal , playing at centre , while recording a hat trick in a 6 – 5 win over the Edmonton Oilers on November 24 , 1986 . His chronic back issues worsened in 1987 – 88 , as he played only 14 games for the Flames , scoring four points .
Between his back issues and the team 's desire to promote some of its younger defencemen to more prominent roles within the team , the Flames chose to trade Reinhart on September 6 , 1988 , along with Steve Bozek , to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for a third round selection at the 1989 NHL Entry Draft . Reinhart played the majority of two seasons in Vancouver , though he missed 29 games between 1988 and 1990 . He was named an All @-@ Star for the second time in his career in 1989 , and was an offensive leader for the Canucks . He scored 57 points in both 1988 – 89 and 1989 – 90 , and was named the recipient of the Babe Pratt Trophy as the Canucks ' top defenceman in both seasons . However , chronic back pain forced him out of the game following that season . Reinhart announced his retirement at the age of 29 .
= = Playing style = =
Though his position for the majority of his career was in defence , his offensive ability and speed meant that his teams occasionally played him at forward . At times , the Flames had him playing 30 minutes per game as he was often used at centre while also taking regular shifts at defence . He claimed in 1982 to prefer playing forward , but realized that the organization needed him on defence to act as a quarterback for the team 's offence . Bob Johnson , his coach for the majority of his time in Calgary , said that Reinhart was the type of player that could be a " cornerstone " for a franchise .
= = Personal = =
Reinhart and his wife Theresa have three children , all of whom play hockey . Their eldest son , Maxwell , made his NHL debut with the Flames in 2013 . His middle son , Griffin Reinhart was drafted 4th overall in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Islanders , and currently plays for the Edmonton Oilers . His youngest son , Sam , was selected 2nd overall in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft by the Buffalo Sabres , where he currently plays . Paul and his wife spent their summers in Calgary during his playing days , where he often played with the team 's summer charity softball team , but settled in West Vancouver following the end of his NHL career .
Flames ' co @-@ owner Doc Seaman introduced Reinhart to investing and finance while he was playing with the team . He also owned a restaurant in Calgary . He now makes his living investing in start @-@ up companies . Reinhart 's investments have focused on resource exploration and medical companies and in 2011 joined the management of Vancouver @-@ based Bearing Resources Ltd . He was involved with the Vancouver Ravens franchise in the National Lacrosse League for a time , but walked away from the franchise in 2003 after claiming losses in excess of $ 1 million . In 2014 , Reinhart partnered with another former Vancouver Canuck , Bret Hedican , investing over $ 1 million in a sports team management start @-@ up , RosterBot , based in Vancouver .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg =
Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg ( 10 November 1547 – 21 May 1601 ) was Archbishop @-@ Elector of Cologne . After pursuing an ecclesiastical career , he won a close election in the Cathedral chapter of Cologne over Ernst of Bavaria . After his election , he fell in love with and later married Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben , a Protestant Canoness at the Abbey of Gerresheim . His conversion to Calvinism and announcement of religious parity in the Electorate triggered the Cologne War .
On 19 December 1582 , a proclamation in his name established parity for Catholics and Calvinists in the Electorate of Cologne , causing a scandal in the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire , and after his marriage in February 1583 , he sought to convert the Electorate into a dynastic dignity . For the next six years , his supporters fought those of the Catholic cathedral chapter for the right to hold the electorship and the archdiocese in the so @-@ called Cologne War or Seneschal War . After brutal fighting , plundering of villages , cities , and abbeys throughout the Electorate , Gebhard surrendered his claim on the electorate and retired to Strasbourg . He died there in 1601 and was buried in the Cathedral .
Gebhard 's conversion and marriage was the first major test of the principle of ecclesiastical reservation established in the Peace of Augsburg , 1555 . His loss of the Electorate strengthened the Catholic counter reformation in the northern German states , gave the Jesuits a stronghold in Cologne , and expanded the Wittelsbach family influence in imperial politics .
= = Family and early career = =
Gebhard was born in the Fürstenburg fortress of Heiligenberg , the second son of William , known as the younger , ( 6 March 1518 – 17 January 1566 ) , Freiherr and Seneschal of Waldburg and an Imperial Councilor , and his wife , Johanna v. Fürstenberg ( 1529 – 1589 ) . His family was an old Swabian house and he was descended from the Jacobin line of the House : Jakob I Truchseß von Waldburg , also known as the Golden Knight ( for his blond hair ) . The family owned extensive properties that bordered on the Abbey of Kempten and various Habsburg territories in present @-@ day southwestern Bavaria ; In 1429 and 1463 , the three surviving sons of Johann II , Jakob , Everhard , and George , and their surviving sister Ursula , concluded a covenant of inheritance to protect the family property . In the future , they would occupy and own the property as one ; the inheritance of the daughters could not exceed 4000 gulden . They guaranteed each other the right of first refusal on potential property sales .
Gebhard 's grandfather had been a commander for the Swabian League army in 1531 ; a cousin of his grandfather , Jörg Truchsess von Waldburg , also known as Bauernjörg , had been a commander of the imperial army in the Peasant Wars ( 1525 ) . His uncle , Otto ( 1514 – 73 ) , was the bishop of Augsburg , later a Cardinal , and founded University of Dillingen in Augsburg . His younger brother , Karl ( 1548 – 1593 ) , trained for a military career ; a second younger brother , Ferdinand , died at the siege at ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch in 1585 .
As a younger son , Gebhard was prepared early for an ecclesiastical career . He received a broad , Humanist education , learned several languages , including Latin , Italian , French , and German , and studied history and theology . After studying at the universities of Dillingen , Ingolstadt , Perugia , Louvain and elsewhere , he began his ecclesiastical career in 1560 at Augsburg , serving as prebendary in the Cathedral church . His life at Augsburg caused some scandal ; Uncle Otto , the archbishop , petitioned the Duke of Bavaria to remonstrate with Gebhard about his conduct , which apparently led to some improvement in his behavior . In 1561 , he became a deacon at the cathedral in Cologne ( 1561 – 77 ) , a canon of St. Gereon in Köln ( 1562 – 67 ) , a canon in Strassburg ( 1567 ) , in Ellwangen ( 1567 – 83 ) , and in Würzburg ( 1569 – 70 ) . In 1571 , he became deacon of the Strassburg Cathedral , a position he held until his death in 1601 . In 1576 , by papal nomination , he became provost of the Cathedral in Augsburg . He would have drawn a stipend from all these positions .
In December 1577 , he was chosen elector of Cologne after a contest with Ernst of Bavaria , the youngest brother of the ruling Duke . He won the election by two votes . Although it was not required of him , Gebhard agreed to be ordained a priest , which his predecessor had not done .
The initial years of his office were relatively uneventful . Gebhard continued some of the work of his predecessor , Salentin , chiefly in the reconstruction of the Arnsberg castle in Westphalia .
= = Archbishop goes to war = =
Gebhard is chiefly noted for his conversion to the reformed doctrines , and for his marriage with the reportedly beautiful Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben , a canoness of Gerresheim . After living in concubinage with Agnes for two years , he decided , perhaps by the persuasion of her brothers , to marry her , doubtless intending at the same time to resign his see . Other counsels , however , prevailed .
Encouraged by Protestant supporters , including several in the Cathedral chapter , he declared he would retain the electorate , and in December 1582 , he formally announced his conversion to the reformed faith and the parity of Calvinism with Catholicism in the Electorate and archdiocese of Cologne . The marriage with Agnes was celebrated on 4 February 1583 , and afterward Gebhard remained in possession of the see . This affair created a stir in the Holy Roman Empire .
The clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the religious Peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by his friends , and in another way by his foes ; the former held that he could retain his office , the latter insisted that he resign . The conversion of the ecclesiastic see to one ruled by a Calvinist prince challenged the principle of ecclesiastical reservation . Hermann von Wied , a previous prince @-@ elector and archbishop had also converted to Protestantism , but had resigned from his office ; Gebhard 's predecessor , Salentin von Isenburg @-@ Grenzau , had resigned from the office upon his marriage , necessary to perpetuate his house . Unlike his predecessors , Gebhard proclaimed the Reformation , in the style of Calvinism , from the cathedral , angering Cologne 's Catholic leadership and alienating the Cathedral chapter . He placed the evangelical confession on parity with the Catholic one ; furthermore , Gebhard adhered not to the teachings of Martin Luther , but to those of John Calvin , a form of religious observation not approved of in the Augsburg conventions of 1555 .
Anticipating events , Gebhard had collected some troops and had taken measures to convert his subjects to Protestantism . In April 1583 , he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory XIII ; the unsuccessful candidate of 1577 , Ernest , who was also bishop of Liège , Freising and Hildesheim , was chosen as the new elector . Initially , Gebhard was supported by Adolf von Neuenar and his own brother , Karl , who commanded most of his troops . Although he sought assistance from several of the Lutheran princes of Germany , especially Augustus I , elector of Saxony , these princes were not enthusiastic to support Gebhard 's cause ; his association with the Calvinists was not to their liking . Henry of Navarre , later Henry IV of France , tried to form a coalition to aid Gebhard , but the only assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir , who took command of Gebhard 's troops in the spring of 1583 . Later that summer , after fruitlessly marching the troops up and down the Rhine , a process of intimidation , he disbanded his army to administer the Palatinate of the Rhine for his ten @-@ year @-@ old nephew , the new Elector Palatine , Frederick IV .
Ernest had the support of the previous Elector , now Salentin IX of Isenburg @-@ Grenzau , Frederick , Duke of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , and , probably most important , several thousand Spanish troops hired by the pope . While representatives from the Cathedral chapter , the seven imperial electors , the emperor , and the pope tried to resolve differences around the negotiating table , first in Frankfurt am Main , and then in Muhlhausen in Westphalia , the armies of both sides rampaged throughout the southern portion of the Electorate , called the Oberstift , plundering abbeys and convents , burning villages and small cities , and destroying crops , bridges , and roads . None of the combatants were prepared to commit their troops in a fixed battle ; it was far more lucrative , and safer as well , to use them in a show of force , intimidating the peasantry , besieging walled towns and small cities , and limiting trade and the sale of food @-@ stuffs in the marketplaces .
By the end of March , Salentin , Frederick , and the few thousand Spanish troops drove Gebhard from Bonn , then from Bad Godesberg ; he and his wife took refuge into Vest Recklinghausen , a fiefdom of the electorate . There , he and Agnes encouraged a spurt of iconoclasm by their troops , alienating many heretofore supporters , including Hermann von Hatzfeld , seneschal of Balve . Ferdinand , the brother of the rival archbishop , drove Gebhard and Agnes into the Netherlands ; they escaped with approximately 1000 cavalry and some infantry . Initially , they sought refuge in Delft , with William I of Orange . Living in the Netherlands , they became acquainted with Elizabeth 's envoy , Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester , and entered into lengthy negotiations with Elizabeth 's Court to obtain support for his cause ; these efforts failed to garner assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any other quarter .
By 1588 , Gebhard 's joint pain ( Gelenkenschmerz ) prevented him from riding a horse ; the climate of Cologne , damp and cold , made his condition worse , so he relinquished his claim on the Electorate to the protection of Adolf von Neuenahr and Martin Schenck , which they pursued until their deaths later that year . In the summer 1588 , Gebhard established his residence at Strassburg , where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral since 1574 and had maintained it concurrently with his position in Cologne .
= = = Consequences of Gebhard 's conversion and marriage = = =
Gebhard 's conversion and marriage were exceptionally costly , in terms of lives and property , and historians have made no actual estimate of its actual cost , although 19th century historians tend to criticize him for acting rashly . Perhaps its greater cost , however , lay in the impact his actions had on Protestantism and Catholicism in the northern territories of the German states . Although fighting continued until 1589 , by early 1588 , Ernst controlled most of the Electorate . Gebhard 's defeat was a serious blow to Protestantism in northern Germany , and marks a critical stage in the history of the Reformation . Bavarian Jesuits went to the Electoral territories to bring the population back to Catholicism , a process rife with violence and coercion . Gebhard also opened the doors for Spanish incursions into the Rhineland ; blocked from water access to the rebellious Dutch , Spanish military commanders sought a land route to the Dutch Provinces and by providing troop support for Ernst , they established valuable bridgeheads in the Rhine valley . Finally , the Cologne War marks the beginning of the " internationalization " of the German religious question , which was not resolved until 1650 , after the disasters of the Thirty Years Wars .
= = Later years = =
In 1589 , Gebhard and his wife moved to Strasbourg , where he had held a prebendary position in the Cathedral chapter since 1574 , and had maintained concurrently with his position in Cologne . Before his arrival some trouble had arisen in the chapter when three excommunicated canons , refugees from the Cologne strife , persisted in retaining their offices after they had accepted the reformed doctrines . He joined this party , which was strongly supported in the city , and took part in a double election to the bishopric in 1592 . Despite some opposition , he retained his office until his death in 1601 .
Shortly after his marriage in 1583 , Gebhard had written his Testament in which he left his estate to his brother , Karl , and a life @-@ time annuity to Agnes , and charging Karl with her safety and protection . Karl died on 18 June 1593 , and was buried in the Strasbourg cathedral ; Gebhard wrote a codicil leaving Agnes to the care and protection of the Duke of Württemberg . He spent his last years diseased and crippled , and he died on 21 May 1601 . With great pomp and ceremony was buried in a grave with Karl on 8 June 1601 .
= = Historical assessments = =
Historians have not been kind to Gebhard . E.A. Benians , in the Cambridge Modern History , was perhaps the most generous : " Few men personally insignificant have made more stir in the world . " Walter Goetz described him in less complimentary terms : he " was impelled by no great idea , nor could he claim through virile activity the title to any high striving ambition " and was " wanting in both depth and tenacity " . Goetz was not particularly kind to Ernst either : Ernst was not Gebhard 's superior ; the victory that placed him in the Electorate belonged to his brothers ' influence and to that of the Curia ( papacy ) , not to his own striving ambition ; Ernst was , fundamentally , riding on the Counter Reformation tide that lifted all boats . Philip Motley described Gebhard thus : despite his swearing an oath to renounce his See if he should marry , " the love of Truchsess for Agnes Mansfeld had created disaster , not only for himself but for all of Germany . " Like Goetz , he describes both Gebhard and Ernst as cut from the same cloth : " two pauper Archbishops without men or means of their own were pushed back and forth , like puppets , by the highwaymen " on either side , while murder and robbery , in the name of Catholicism and Protestantism , were the " for a time the only motive or result of the contest . "
= = Family = =
Genealogy
Sibling connections
Friedrich ( 4 August 1546 – 22 December 1570 ) , Imperial Legal Chambers President . Married in 1568 to Johanna , Countess of Helfenstein @-@ Gundelfingen ( 1540 – 1572 ) , daughter of George II , Count of Helfenstein von and zu Gundelfingen , and Marie de Bowert de Gomignies .
Karl ( 7 August 1548 – † 18 June 1593 ) , Freiherr and Truchseß von Waldburg in Trauchburg ( 1580 ) , Imperial Legal Chambers President , buried in Strassburg , Münster ; married in Sigmaringen on 6 May 1572 to Countess Eleonore von Hohenzollern ( 15 February 1551 – after 1605 ) , daughter of Charles I , Count of Hohenzollern , and Anna Mark @-@ countess of Baden @-@ Durlach .
Christoph ( 24 August 1551 – 28 February 1612 ) , Freiherr and Truchseß von Waldburg in Friedberg und Scheer ( 1580 ) . Married in 1577 to Countess Anna Maria von Fürstenberg @-@ Heiligenberg ( 3 February 1562 – December 1611 ) .
Anna , died 5 October 1607 ; 1m : 1565 Heinrich IV Count of Lupfen , Landgrave of Stühlingen ( 6 October 1543 – 26 December 1582 ) , no issue , and upon his death his line became extinct ; 2m : 10 February 1592 to Peter Freiherr von Mörsperg ( before 1555 – 1594 ) .
Sibylle , born before 1548 – died 5 August 1585 .
Margarete , died 30 May 1612 ; m . 1570 Georg Leo Freiherr Staufen ( died 23 April 1602 ) .
Ferdinand , Deacon in Cologne ( 1575 – 83 ) , in Straßburg ( 1578 – 85 ) , canon of St. Gereon in Cologne ( 1578 – 82 ) , Deacon in Würzburg ( 1582 – 85 ) , born 1554 , † Siege of ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch , 19 – 20 January 1585
Eleonore , died 29 August 1609 ; married in 1573 Melchior Hannibal Freiherr von Wolkenstein 1537 – 1596 .
= Thornback guitarfish =
The thornback guitarfish ( Platyrhinoidis triseriata ) is a species of ray in the family Platyrhinidae , and the only member of its genus . Despite its name and appearance , it is more closely related to stingrays than to true guitarfishes of the family Rhinobatidae . This species ranges from Tomales Bay to the Gulf of California , generally in inshore waters no deeper than 6 m ( 20 ft ) . It can be found on or buried in sand or mud , or in and near kelp beds . Reaching 91 cm ( 36 in ) in length , the thornback guitarfish has a heart @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc and a long , robust tail bearing two posteriorly positioned dorsal fins and a well @-@ developed caudal fin . The most distinctive traits of this plain @-@ colored ray are the three parallel rows of large , hooked thorns that start from the middle of the back and run onto the tail .
Encountered singly or in groups , the thornback guitarfish feeds on small , benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . It is aplacental viviparous , with the developing young drawing sustenance from a yolk sac . Females give birth to 1 – 15 pups annually in late summer , following a roughly year @-@ long gestation period . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the thornback guitarfish under Least Concern because the majority of its range lies within United States waters , where it is common since it has no commercial value and is not heavily fished commercially or recreationally . The status of this species in Mexican waters is inadequately known but may be more precarious .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The thornback guitarfish was scientifically described by American ichthyologists David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert in an 1880 issue of the scientific journal Proceedings of the United States National Museum . They assigned it to the genus Platyrhina , and named it triseriata from the Latin tres ( " three " ) and series ( " row " ) , in reference to the three rows of thorns on its back . One year later in the same journal , Samuel Garman placed this species in a newly created genus , Platyrhinoidis . The type specimen is an adult male caught off Santa Barbara on February 8 , 1880 . Other common names for this species include banjo shark ( not to be confused with the Australian banjo sharks , Trygonorrhina ) , California thornback , guitarfish , round skate , shovelnose , thornback , and thornback ray .
Based on morphology , John McEachran and Neil Aschliman determined in a 2004 phylogenetic study that Platyrhinoidis and Platyrhina together form the most basal clade of the order Myliobatiformes , and are thus the sister group to all other members of the order ( encompassing stingrays and their relatives ) . This finding affirmed that the thornback guitarfish is not closely related to the true guitarfishes of the family Rhinobatidae , a possibility that had long been considered by taxonomists .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the thornback guitarfish is heart @-@ shaped , slightly longer than it is wide , and thick towards the front . The snout is short and broad , with a blunt tip protruding slightly from the disc . The eyes are small and widely spaced ; the spiracles are larger than the eyes and lie closely behind . The wide nostrils are preceded by moderately large , broad flaps of skin . The mouth is wide and gently arched ; there are a pair of creases running from the mouth corners to the nostrils , enclosing a roughly trapezoidal area . The lower lip is inscribed by a deep furrow that wraps around the mouth corners . The small teeth have low crowns that may be sharp to blunt , and are arranged in 68 – 82 rows in the upper jaw and 64 – 78 rows in the lower jaw . The five pairs of gill slits are small and located beneath the disc .
The pelvic fins have curved outer margins and angular rear tips ; males have long claspers . The tail is robust and much longer than the disc , with lateral skin folds running along either side . The two dorsal fins are similar in size and shape , being longer than tall with rounded posterior margins . The first dorsal fin lies closer to the caudal fin than the pelvic fins . The caudal fin is well @-@ developed and almost elliptical , without a distinct lower lobe . The skin is entirely covered by tiny dermal denticles ; additionally there are large recurved thorns in two or three rows along the leading margin of the disc , in small groups on the snout tip , around the eyes , and on the " shoulders " , and most distinctively in three rows running from the middle of the back to the second dorsal fin . This species is plain olive to grayish brown above and off @-@ white below . The snout and disc margins are barely translucent . It grows up to 91 cm ( 36 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to the northeastern Pacific Ocean , the thornback guitarfish is found from Tomales Bay to Magdalena Bay , with additional isolated populations in the Gulf of California . It is reportedly very abundant in some coastal waters off California and Baja California , such as in Elkhorn Slough , and uncommon north of Monterey and in the Gulf of California . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , this species is typically found close to shore in less than 6 m ( 20 ft ) of water , though it has been recorded from as deep as 137 m ( 449 ft ) . It inhabits coastal habitats with muddy or sandy bottoms , including bays , sloughs , beaches , and lagoons , and can also be found in kelp beds and adjacent areas .
= = Biology and ecology = =
During the day , the thornback guitarfish spends much time partially buried in sediment . It may be encountered singly , in small groups , or in large aggregations that form seasonally in particular bays and sloughs . The diet of this ray consists of polychaete worms , crustaceans ( including crabs , shrimps , and isopods ) , squids , and small bony fishes ( including anchovies , sardines , gobies , sculpins , and surfperches ) . It can detect prey with its electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini , which are most sensitive to electric fields with a frequency of 5 – 15 Hz . In turn , the thornback guitarfish is preyed upon by sharks and the northern elephant seal ( Mirounga angustirostris ) . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworm Echinobothrium californiense and the nematode Proleptus acutus . Thornback guitarfish mate in late summer , and females give birth the following year at around the same time , peaking in August . It is aplacental viviparous , with developing embryos sustained until birth by yolk . Females bear litters of 1 – 15 pups every year ; the newborn rays measure about 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . Males and females reach sexual maturity at 37 and 48 cm ( 15 and 19 in ) long respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless and docile , the thornback guitarfish can be readily approached underwater , and fares well in public aquariums . Off the United States , this ray is common and faces no substantial threats : it is only occasionally caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers , and has no economic value . As most of its range lies within US waters , the species has been assessed as Least Concern overall by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . However , in Mexican waters the thornback guitarfish population is small and fragmented , and the degree to which it is affected by fishing is uncertain . There , the IUCN has listed it locally under Data Deficient while noting its susceptibility to inshore lagoon fisheries and shrimp trawlers , and the urgent need for additional information to ensure its long @-@ term regional survival .
= Ypsilanti Heritage Festival =
The Ypsilanti Heritage Festival is a festival in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Held each year on a late @-@ August weekend , the festival sprawls across Frog Island Park , Riverside Park , Depot Town , and downtown Ypsilanti . The festival includes events such as a parade , vintage base ball , a bed race , a hot dog eating contest , a rubber duck race , and a spoof of the Woodward Dream Cruise called the " Nightmare Cruise " .
= = History = =
The festival was first held on Saturday , July 15 , 1978 , " from noon ' til nightfall " . The sidewalks and streets in Depot Town had just been re @-@ paved , and the Depot Town Association held a " Sidewalk Celebration " . The poster advertised a noon sidewalk promenade led by the Honorable George Goodman " Hizzoner " the mayor of Ypsilanti and exciting ribbon cutting ceremonies , dedications and plain or fancy walkin ' . The Sidewalk Celebration was such a success that a decision was made to repeat the event , to be known as the " Ypsilanti Yesteryear Heritage Festival " .
According to other reports , a motivating factor was the desire to establish a historic district in Ypsilanti , to prevent the city from replacing historic buildings on North Huron Street and in Depot Town with new construction . A group of Ypsilantians applied to the state for funding to publish a guidebook to the city 's historic homes , and were told that no money was available for that purpose , but that there was funding available to stage a festival . A $ 15 @,@ 000 grant from the state helped to fund the 1979 Ypsilanti Yesteryear Heritage Festival .
In 1979 , the festival drew 50 @,@ 000 attendees , continued to grow quickly in subsequent years , and the name was soon shortened to the present name . By the mid @-@ 1980s the festival was attracting attention from non @-@ local newspapers — a June 1985 edition of the Toledo Blade referred to it as an " Old time circus , arts and crafts , and historic home tour " — and later that decade the festival was drawing more than 250 @,@ 000 attendees a year , though attendance subsequently declined , and in recent years the festival has drawn about 100 @,@ 000 attendees .
= = Activities = =
The Ypsilanti Heritage Festival includes and has included a wide variety of activities and events .
The Ypsilanti Historic Home Tour , held annually during the Ypsilanti Heritage Festival , began , like the festival proper , in 1979 . A beer garden and gambling tent anchored the center of the festival from 1979 through 2010 . In 2011 the gambling was eliminated for financial reasons , while the beer garden continued with an expanded food and drink selection ; however , in January , 2012 , new festival director Andrew Clock announced that " the casino will be back , set up right next to the beer tent , where it belongs . " A bed race through downtown Ypsilanti was added as an annual event beginning in 2009 .
The Ypsilanti Heritage Festival Parade began in 1979 , and has been held every year . In 2007 , the parade attracted wider attention when parade organizers approved the inclusion of a group protesting a proposed city income tax and subsequently revoked the permission . Festival coordinators explained that their rule was to exclude groups marching to represent controversial or political issues , and that the initial approval was an error .
Because the Ypsilanti Heritage Festival has often been the same weekend as the Woodward Dream Cruise , festival coordinators " decided it would be a blast to have something that was the direct opposite of the Dream Cruise " , and the Nightmare Cruise , a spoof of the Woodward Dream Cruise , was born in 2005 . The only rules are that " [ t ] he car has to be legally driveable , and fluid leaks should be at a minimum . "
Other events have included a pole vault competition sanctioned by USA Track & Field , live theater , antique cars and fire engines , vintage base ball sponsored by Greenfield Village , " Precious Pets " and " Beautiful Babies " contests , a rubber duck race , a living history encampment , a high wire performance by one of The Flying Wallendas , and a circus .
= = = " The Game That Never Was " = = =
In 1973 , Carolyn King , with support from the Ypsilanti City Council , became one of the first girls in the country to play Little League Baseball . When they found out that she was playing , Little League International officials pulled the Ypsilanti American Little League 's charter , and the 1973 All @-@ Star game between the rival Ypsilanti American and National Little Leagues was never played . Thirty @-@ seven years later , with most of the participants aged 48 to 50 , the game , billed as " The Game That Never Was " , was held in Frog Island Park as part of the 2010 festival . The American League All @-@ Stars won .
= Chelsea ( song ) =
" Chelsea " is the debut song recorded by American pop rock band Stefy . It was released as the lead single from their debut album , The Orange Album ( 2006 ) . It was sent to mainstream radio in June 2006 and was made available as a CD single and digital download by Wind @-@ up Records on July 18 . The song features a melody that is similar to The Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " .
" Chelsea " was written by Jimmy Harry , Greg Kurstin and Stefy Rae , while production was handled by Harry . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , who favorably compared it to the works of Gwen Stefani and Blondie , but found it to be a " weak " debut single . The song was moderately successful after its release , peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play , and playing a prominent role in the video game 2006 FIFA World Cup ( 2006 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Chelsea " was written and produced during recording sessions in Los Angeles , California at 320 Studios and Bombshelter Studios . Sessions for Stefy 's debut album , The Orange Album , began when lead singer Stefy Rae was " look [ ing ] for [ a ] sense of uniqueness " in the music industry . Rae stated that she was inspired to write " Chelsea " after another woman stole her boyfriend .
The single was written by Stefy lead singer Stefy Rae , Greg Kurstin , and Jimmy Harry , while production was handled solely by Harry . The track was released in 2006 as a CD single and digital download by Wind @-@ up Records . The CD single version of " Chelsea " came with B @-@ side track " Cover Up " . The single was later issued to mainstream radio in June 2006 , where it received modest success and significant airplay , charting on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play for nine consecutive weeks .
= = Composition and reception = =
Musically , " Chelsea " is a bubblegum pop and new wave track , referencing the music of the 1980s and 1990s . Chris Carle , writing for IGN , described the single as an " ode to jealousy " that started " with [ a ] Eurhythmics @-@ style synth before launching into a snarling , almost @-@ tough chorus . " Marcus Duke for the Daily Express also noted the " sly sampling " of Eurhythmics , and stated " Stefy Rae has definitely been influenced by Gwen Stefani . " Francis Petruziello of Domain Cleveland Entertainment wrote an album review of The Orange Album and stated " ' Chelsea ' kicks off [ the ] album with the pixie @-@ like vocals of Stefy Rae singing about a boyfriend leaving her for another woman . "
" Chelsea " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Chris Carle of IGN praised the song for being a " standout track " and a " great blend of playful and painful " . Similarly , Marcus Dunk of the Daily Express wrote that " Chelsea " was a highlight for Stefy . Francis Petruziello , writing for Domain Cleveland Entertainment , enjoyed the " danceable " qualities of the song . A reviewer of Billboard enjoyed the single , comparing it to Gwen Stefani and Blondie 's work , but considered it " hardly a proper intro " on The Orange Album , however , the reviewer praised it for being a " delectably bubble gum " song . A critic from CMJ New Music Monthly was displeased with " Chelsea " , stating that it 's a " pale imitation of [ a ] classic decade @-@ of @-@ decadence act " , referencing the song 's sampling of " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Chelsea " was moderately successful . Due to strong airplay on mainstream radio , the single managed to peak at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play ; it remained on the charts for nine weeks before departing the chart on October 7 , 2006 . It also peaked at number eighteen on the Billboard Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart , where it lasted for four weeks . In Europe , the single also fared moderately well . In the United Kingdom , the track debuted and peaked at number eighty @-@ two on the Official Charts Company . In Ireland , " Chelsea " debuted and peaked at number ninety @-@ six .
= = Music video = =
The official music video for " Chelsea " was first released on September 1 , 2006 via YouTube , before being made available for purchase on September 13 . The video was directed by Nigel Dick and features a guest appearance by Adam West as the judge of a court case . The video begins with Rae arriving at the scene of the case , surrounded by West and a group of female jurors who clap along to the song 's melody . Presumably , Rae is trying to convict her ex @-@ boyfriend of cheating on her . Various scenes include Rae performing at a school 's gymnasium and picking a fight with a female antagonist named Chelsea . The video concludes with Rae winning the court case and walking away from the scene .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from The Orange Album liner notes
Recording
Recorded at 3 : 20 Studios and Bombshelter Studios , Los Angeles
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Seychelles women 's national football team =
The Seychelles women 's national football team is the national team of the Seychelles . It does not officially exist and has not played in a FIFA recognised match . The national team has played in two eighty @-@ minute long games in 2005 in a tournament hosted by Mauritius , with the Seychelles losing both matches . An official under @-@ 17 national team exists and had regular training sessions in 2006 . The sport faces several development problems inside the country including a lack of popularity for the sport , and few female players and teams . Women have gained football leadership positions in the country with one coaching a men 's team and another umpiring international matches . There are other development issues for the sport that are ones facing the whole of Africa .
= = Background and development = =
The Seychelles Football Federation was founded in 1979 , and became a FIFA affiliate in 1986 . Women 's football is represented in the federation by specific mandate and currently they employee one full @-@ time employee to look after the women 's game .
Football is the third most popular women 's sport in the country . In 2006 there were overall 185 registered female players ( 100 adult players and 85 youth players ) . There are also a few women 's club , eight senior women 's club as of 2009 and a national competition takes place yearly . Girl 's football was not played in school based competitions in 2006 , but started in 2009 . The first woman 's football tournament occurred in the late 1990s , with the first tournaments being seven @-@ a @-@ side football before an eleven @-@ a @-@ side tournament started . The Patron 's Cup , the major women 's competition in the country that is the final for the national league , was won by Olympia Coast in 2001 , 2002 , 2003 and 2005 . The cup was won by Dolphins in 2004 . The competition and some of the teams underwent a name change with United Sisters becoming the Lioness and the Patron 's Cup becoming the Federation Cup . In 2007 , 2009 and 2011 , the Lioness won the Federation Cup . In 2002 , Cynthia Sanders became the first woman from the country to attain an assistant referee international license . Rights to broadcast the 2011 Women 's World Cup in the country were bought by the African Union of Broadcasting and Supersport International . In 2011 , Sanders became the first woman from the country to referee an international match when she officiated a match between Malawi and Zimbabwe in Harare , Zimbabwe . In 2012 , the country had their first woman sign a contract for and coach a men 's team .
Early development of the women 's game at the time colonial powers brought football to the African continent was limited , as colonial powers in the region tended to make concepts of patriarchy and women 's participation in sports was limited as a result . The lack of later development of the national teams on a wider international level is symptomatic of most of African teams and a result of several factors , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . When quality female football players are developed , they tend to leave for greater opportunities abroad . Continent wide , funding is also an issue , with most development money coming from FIFA , not the national football association . Future success for women 's football in Africa is dependent on improved facilities and access by women to these facilities . Attempting to commercialise the game and make it commercially viable is not the solution , as demonstrated by the current existence of many youth and women 's football camps held throughout the continent .
= = The team = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team including the Seychelles who did play in a single FIFA sanctioned match between 1950 and June 2012 . In 2006 , the country did not have an official FIFA recognised senior a team , a situation unchanged by 2009 . In 2005 , they competed in a three nation tournament hosted by Mauritius , where all games were 80 minutes in length . They lost to Mauritius 1 – 4 . They lost to Réunion 0 – 9 . Overall , they finished last , scoring only one goal in the competition . In 2005 , Zambia was supposed to host a regional COSAFA women 's football tournament , with ten teams agreeing to send teams including South Africa , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , Malawi , Seychelles , Mauritius , Madagascar , Zambia , Botswana , Namibia , Lesotho and Swaziland . Seychelles did not record a match in the event . The country did not have a team competing in the 2010 African Women 's Championships. or at the 2011 All Africa Games . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA .
The country has an official under @-@ 17 team , the Seychelle women 's national under @-@ 17 football team . In 2006 , they had two training sessions a week but had yet to record an official FIFA recognised match .
= 1933 Trinidad hurricane =
The 1933 Trinidad hurricane was one of three North Atlantic tropical cyclones on record to produce hurricane @-@ force winds in Venezuela . The second tropical storm and first hurricane of the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , the system formed on June 24 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved westward and attained hurricane status before striking Trinidad on June 27 . The storm caused heavy damage on the island , estimated at around $ 3 million . The strong winds downed trees and destroyed hundreds of houses , leaving about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . Later , the hurricane crossed the northeastern portion of Venezuela , where power outages and damaged houses were reported .
After entering the Caribbean Sea , the hurricane maintained a northwest trajectory . It passed south of Jamaica on July 1 , where heavy rainfall flooded roads and railways . The hurricane crossed western Cuba on July 3 . High winds on the island destroyed hundreds of houses , and the storm 's rainfall damaged the tobacco crop . Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane turned to the west and attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on July 5 . It struck northeastern Mexico on July 8 and quickly dissipated . Upon its final landfall , the storm caused heavy damage in Mexico , and in southern Texas the storm ended a prolonged drought .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave was first observed near 40 ° W on June 23 . The next day , a ship in the region observed a closed circulation , suggesting that the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression about 1300 mi ( 2090 km ) east of Trinidad . The storm moved westward and gradually intensified . By June 27 , it attained hurricane status about 175 mi ( 280 km ) east of Trinidad , based on a ship report of a barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) ; it was the first of 11 hurricanes during the season . At around 2100 UTC on June 27 , the hurricane made landfall on extreme southern Trinidad with winds of about 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . After crossing the island , the hurricane struck the Paria Peninsula of northern Venezuela at the same intensity at 0200 UTC on June 28 . The 1933 Monthly Weather Review summary of the season noted that the hurricane was the " earliest known in [ the ] general area also the only one in a record of nearly 50 years to pass south of the Island of Trinidad and over the northeast corner of Venezuela . "
About two hours after striking Venezuela , the hurricane entered the southeastern Caribbean Sea . For the next few days it maintained its intensity while tracking to the northwest . A ship on June 30 reported a pressure of 982 mb ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) , suggesting winds of about 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The next day , the hurricane passed south of Jamaica and turned more to the west before resuming a northwest motion . At around 0600 UTC on July 3 , the hurricane made landfall on western Cuba with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . It weakened while crossing the island , although it maintained hurricane status upon entering the Gulf of Mexico . On July 4 , a strong high pressure area over the eastern United States turned the hurricane to the west . After restrengthening , the storm attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on July 5 , based on a ship report of a pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . It maintained that intensity for about 18 hours , and during that time the hurricane turned to the southwest . At 0100 UTC on July 8 , the hurricane made its final landfall near La Pesca , about halfway between Tampico , Tamaulipas and Brownsville , Texas . The intensity at landfall was estimated at around 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . After moving ashore , the hurricane rapidly weakened over the high terrain of northeastern Mexico , and the storm dissipated at around 1200 UTC on July 8 .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , the hurricane killed at least 35 people collectively in Trinidad , Venezuela , Jamaica , and Cuba . The hurricane first affected Trinidad , causing about $ 3 million in damage in the southern portion of the island . The storm destroyed 300 houses in one village , and thousands were left homeless . Trees across the island fell down and blocked many roads , including one that struck a car and seriously injured one man . Heavy damage was also reported to the cocoa industry . High winds destroyed about 60 oil derricks , and an 11 mi ( 18 km ) oil supply line was disrupted due to fallen trees . This represented a significant loss to the island 's oil industry , one of two such events in the 1930s . High winds downed power lines across the island , which were repaired by three days after the storm struck . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall and destroyed the roofs of many houses . Little damage occurred in the capital city of Port of Spain . There were 13 deaths in Trinidad , some of whom drowned after their boats sank . After the storm , medical assistance and relief supplies were sent via boat to Cedros , which was one of the most significantly affected areas .
After affecting Trinidad , the hurricane struck northeastern Venezuela , where damage was heaviest in Carúpano , Río Caribe , and Isla Margarita . High winds cut telephone and telegraph lines for several days . The storm destroyed several houses and fishing boats , resulting in several million bolívares in damage . Officials reported that there were " a number of lives lost " due to the hurricane . Striking with winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , the storm was one of only three Atlantic tropical cyclones on record at the time to affect the country with hurricane @-@ force winds as of 2015 , after hurricanes in 1877 and 1892 .
After moving across the Caribbean , the hurricane affected Jamaica . High winds downed about 200 @,@ 000 banana trees , while flooding in the western portion of the island affected roads and railways . Later , the hurricane crossed western Cuba , killing 22 people and causing $ 4 million in damage . The hurricane destroyed about 100 houses in Pinar del Río Province from the combination of strong winds and flooding from heavy rainfall . One person died after her house collapsed in the province . The rainfall caused four rivers to exceed their banks , and the storm @-@ related flooding left serious damage to the tobacco industry . The storm also damaged crops in the region . High winds downed telephone and telegraph lines in western Cuba . Little damage was reported in the capital city of Havana , despite the report of a peak wind gust of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . After the storm , Cuban President Gerardo Machado utilized the military to assist in relief operations and prevent looting .
The threat of the storm prompted the United States Weather Bureau to issue southeast storm warnings for Key West , Florida . Light rainfall from the storm was reported in Miami . Before the storm made its final landfall , the Weather Bureau issued northeast storm warnings from Brownsville to Port O 'Connor , Texas on July 5 . That same day , a hurricane warning was also issued for Brownsville . The hurricane ultimately struck a sparsely @-@ populated area of northeastern Mexico , causing several deaths and heavy damage in the country . High winds downed trees and power lines , and damaged the roofs of several houses . Along the beach near Tampico , high tides damaged coastal structures and flooded some cars . The effects extended into Texas , and Brazos Island , Port Isabel , and Port Aransas were flooded due to the storm surge . High tides damaged ten piers in Port Isabel , and there was damage to buildings along the coast . The storm damaged the cotton and fruit crops in south Texas from high winds and rainfall . Rains from the storm ended an extended drought in the Brownsville area .
= Zaion : I Wish You Were Here =
Zaion : I Wish You Were Here ( Japanese : あなたがここにいてほしい , Hepburn : Anata ga koko ni Itehoshii ) is a four @-@ episode Japanese science fiction original video animation ( OVA ) released by Gonzo in 2001 . The story is set in the near future , when a spaceborne virus threatens Earth by turning humans into violent creatures . Enhanced soldiers fight a losing war against these creatures to ensure the survival of the human race . The series was directed by Seiji Mizushima and written by Natsuko Takahashi . Music for the series was composed by Kenji Kawai . Zaion has been licensed for English @-@ language release in North America , the United Kingdom , and Australia .
= = Plot = =
The story of Zaion is set in 2004 , four years after the American CDC discovers a meteorite @-@ introduced virus that irreversibly alters the molecular structure of the human body and turns its victims into violent creatures . In an effort to eradicate the infestation that has claimed 3 percent of the human population , the World Health Organization of the United Nations establish a secret internal organization , the Committee of the Universal Resolution of Ecocatastrophe ( CURE ) in 2002 with several international branches , and creates a unit of soldiers whose bodies have been introduced with nanomachines . These soldiers , wearing Nano Osmolar Armor ( NOA ) , engage the victims in direct combat . They also establish units of unmanned , remote mech units known as Multi @-@ purpose Operative Beings ( MOB ) to assist the NOA . As the missions begin to take a toll on the NOA 's ranks , NOA soldier Yuuji Tamiya ( 田宮 ユウジ , Tamiya Yūji ) ( voiced by Joe Odagiri in Japanese and Joey Hood in English ) becomes angry at learning that CURE has been working on a secret weapon project , known as UNIT , and not employing it . The Japanese Branch 's weapon , UNIT @-@ i , is a girl named Ai ( アイ ) ( voiced by Yukari Tamura in Japanese and Christa Kimlicko Jones in English ) who is able to create a projected being that can destroy the creatures . During the next outbreak , victims of the virus fuse together into a larger creature and overwhelm the soldiers . CURE decides to put Ai 's ability to the test , and the projected being destroys the creature .
Yuuji is quarantined after coming in contact with one of the creatures but is released when he recovers from his injuries . However , his blood tests later indicate that the virus has evolved and is attacking the nanomachines in his body . CURE orders for Yuuji 's arrest , but he escapes and takes Ai hostage . When his condition worsens during the journey , Ai heals him with her powers . The other NOA soldiers catch up to the two and help them escape , but they are soon found by CURE units . Unwilling to see Yuuji and the others hurt , Ai decides to leave with the CURE soldiers . At the NOA facility , the infected soldiers become victims of the virus as the nanomachines are destroyed . Yuuji is forced to fight them and the CURE units sent to kill them at the same time . Ai finds out that Yuuji is in danger and asks that she be taken to the facility . She realizes her feelings for Yuuji and projects them with her powers to eliminate the virus . A larger outbreak occurs elsewhere in the city , and the virus further evolves to mimic the nanomachines ' abilities . Yuuji delays the creatures ' advance as Ai creates the projected being once again . She uses all her power to purge the infected area of the virus , but this causes her to collapse in exhaustion . Yuuji runs to her , fearing that she is dead , but she is still alive . Unfortunately , the seemingly defeated virus resists , and Yuuji desperately rushes towards the creatures to fight them . In the end it is revealed that Ai had lost her ability and she and Yuuji had left the organization . In the epilogue it shows Ai and Yuuji spending time together , happy to be free from their duties at last .
= = Media = =
The first episode of Zaion was published on the Internet on October 4 , 2001 . It was one of the few instances of a new series being introduced on the Internet before it was broadcast on television . The first two episodes aired later that day on the Kids Station television network . The network also aired the final episodes of the series on November 3 , 2001 . The ending theme song for the series is " Lunatic Trance : Shizuka naru Zekkyō " ( Lunatic Trance ～ 静かなる絶叫 ～ ) , which was released as a maxi single on November 21 , 2001 . The song was later included in Gonzo 's compilation release of music from its anime works in 2006 . The series did not have an opening theme .
Each episode of Zaion was released monthly on DVD by Japanese distributor Media Factory . The first episode was released on February 22 , 2002 , and the final episode was released on May 31 , 2002 . ADV Films licensed the series for the English language and released the episodes in pairs in 2003 . It then repackaged the series into one set , released on February 3 , 2009 . Madman Entertainment licensed Zaion for distribution in Australia and New Zealand and released its boxed set on July 26 , 2006 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of Zaion : I Wish You Were Here was mixed . " On the surface , it may appear to be merely another sci @-@ fi mecha action show " , Patrick King of Anime Fringe wrote . However , Zaion introduced apocalyptic themes similar those found in Michael Crichton 's novel Andromeda Strain and the film 28 Days Later . According to King , the real story of Zaion occurs when Yuuji and Ai develop their relationship , and " we begin to think less of the nanomachine technology and viral invasion of the planet and focus more upon the potential love between these two lonely people , trapped in a labyrinth devoid of an exit " . The series was produced with high audio and visual qualities and was designed with " plausible technical details " . King also praised the fitting soundtrack , which was composed by Kenji Kawai and incorporated the sounds of progressive rock . On the contrary , Jason Bustard of THEM Anime rated the series one out of five stars and accused Gonzo of attempting to " rip off Power Rangers as a last resort " . He also pointed out the seemingly oblivious general population of the world in Zaion that are not at all concerned about the invasion . " If they were trying for some sort of grand social statement here , they succeeded instead in making the vast majority of Japan simply look stupid " , Bustard charged .
Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network also rated Zaion below average . Although he criticized the series as a " woefully undercooked and dull bit of science fiction claptrap " , he also admitted that it " wouldn 't be quite so miserable if the design wasn 't as poorly handled as it is " . Gonzo , which was known for incorporating experimental animation into its productions , mismanaged the show 's 3D computer animation and produced a result that " could have been rendered many years ago in some ancient MS @-@ DOS modeling program " . Despite his criticisms , Bertschy called the soundtrack " a truck stop of pleasure on the highway of pain " and praised the professional English @-@ language dub released by ADV Films . Mania.com 's Chris Beveridge noted that character development between Yuuji and Ai was not consistent . " Yuuji comes across as little more than a blank sheet for the most part with just the scribble of ' angst ' on him " , Beveridge observed . Overall , Gonzo 's experimentation with computer animation " look highly fake and out of place " .
= Vincent Clarkson =
Vincent Clarkson , also known by the alter ego Valerie Davis , is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony .
Created by the soap 's founder and head writer James E. Reilly , the role was portrayed by Phillip Jeanmarie from 2006 – 2008 . Valerie Davis was played by Daphnée Duplaix from 2004 – 2008 , and temporarily by Siena Goines in 2007 . Jeanmarie originally auditioned for the role of a peeping tom before the role was expanded as the show progressed . Jeanmarie and Duplaix were both unaware that Vincent and Valerie were the same character until receiving the script . Goines was temporarily cast as Valerie during Duplaix 's maternity leave . At the end of the show , several props and costumes related to Vincent were sold at an auction , along with other items from the show .
Vincent is a member of the Russell family and the Crane family . The long @-@ lost son of Julian Crane and Eve Russell , he was portrayed as mentally unstable and violent . He appeared initially under the alias Valerie Davis , but his later persona as the " Blackmailer " , and his criminal actions , would dominate the show in its later years . He received further prominence for his incestuous affair with Chad Harris @-@ Crane , sexual identity as intersex , and pregnancy with his father 's child .
The character made daytime television history for having the first instance in a soap opera of two men simulating sex ; he is also notable for being an intersex character . Vincent has received mixed feedback from critics , with some praising Jeanmarie 's acting while others criticized and parodied the character 's relationship with Chad . Jeanmarie cited the role as inspiration for future soap operas to address LGBT issues .
= = Background = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Phillip Jeanmarie originally auditioned for the part of a peeping tom unaware that the role would be expanded into the character of Vincent Clarkson . Jeanmarie praised James E. Reilly for taking a risk by creating an intersex villain while also staying true to his " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek approach to his storytelling " . Jeanmarie stated that he enjoyed playing " the bad guy " and felt that Vincent was " surprising and challenging " to portray given the twists in his narrative . Reilly , and the show 's writers , did not inform Jeanmarie of their plans for Vincent 's storylines until the read @-@ through and the shooting of the scenes . Jeanmarie said this decision prevented him from overthinking the character and allowed him to act on his instinct . He equated his time on the soap opera to acting school . Daphnée Duplaix stated she was unaware that Valerie was Vincent 's split personality ; she said the cast did not know their future storylines : " until [ they ] ha [ d ] the script in [ their ] hand [ s ] " . From January 20 , 2007 to March 29 , 2007 , Siena Goines temporarily played the part during Duplaix 's maternity leave .
= = = Characterization and cast response = = =
Jeanmarie stated that he portrayed Vincent as a character in constant pursuit of love . He called his character " horribly scarred " from the abuse by his grandfather Alistair Crane and opined that his criminal and immoral behavior was meant to cover up his desire for acceptance . Jeanmarie viewed Vincent as a part of the larger history of the representation of LGBT persons on daytime television . He cited the role as inspiration for future soap operas to address LGBT issues .
Other Passions cast members had a more negative perception of the character . Tracey Ross , who played Russell family matriarch Eve Russell , reacted negatively to Vincent 's involvement in Eve 's storylines . She said that Vincent giving birth to his father 's child made her " physically nauseous " and she could only complete the birth scenes after the show 's acting coach , Maria O 'Brien , convinced her of " [ their ] comedic possibilities " . Vincent 's manipulation of Eve to incorrectly reattach Julian 's penis was criticized by co @-@ star McKenzie Westmore ( " This has got to be the worst storyline ever done , what are they doing ? " ) , who cited it as a reason for the show 's cancellation . Kim Johnston Ulrich , who played Ivy Winthrop , said she was confused by Vincent and never fully understood his storyline .
= = Appearances = =
= = = 2001 : Hidden Passions : Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox = = =
The 2001 novel Hidden Passions : Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox was published by HarperEntertainment as a tie @-@ innovelization to expand the backstories of prominent characters from the show , such as revealing more information regarding Eve Russell 's child with Julian Crane . It was promoted as being written by the character Tabitha Lenox ( it was in reality composed by writers Alice Alfonsi and James E. Reilly ) and was heavily featured on the show
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. The novel reveals that Vincent was born on Christmas day . It states that Alistair Crane arranged for Vincent 's death , but instead the hitman , Jack , placed the baby with social services without his knowledge . The series changed Alistair 's involvement in Vincent 's life ; Alistair abuses and manipulates Vincent as a tool for his plans to maintain power over Harmony . Despite the book 's billing as canonical when it was published , the show contradicts much of its information with the most prominent aspect being the alterations to Eve 's family .
= = = 2004 – 08 : Passions = = =
Vincent first appears in the December 16 , 2004 episode as his alter @-@ ego Valerie Davis . While working as an executive assistant to Crane Industries ' vice president Theresa Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald , Valerie is characterized by her connection with the Crane family and past sexual encounter with Chad Harris @-@ Crane . Vincent fabricates a backstory for Valerie ; she joined Crane Industries to change its lack of minority employees . Valerie is initially a minor character , appearing to help Ivy Winthrop in her attempts to break up Fox Crane and Kay Bennett and support Chad during work . But she gains more prominence when Eve catches her having sex with Crane Industries ' CEO Julian Crane . Valerie engages in a catfight with Eve after she is accused of using sex to climb the corporate ladder . During this time , Whitney Russell suspects that Valerie is having an affair with Chad . Vincent is first seen outside of his split @-@ personality when he introduces himself as a tabloid reporter at Chad and Whitney 's wedding on December 26 , 2006 . Whitney sets up Vincent and Valerie as a couple without knowing they are in fact the same person .
From 2006 to 2007 , Vincent adopts the disguise of the " Blackmailer " to rape , murder , and blackmail several of the show 's characters . Alistair ( who was presumed dead at the time ) , manipulated Vincent into performing these criminal actions . Daytime Confidential 's Jamey Giddens described the storyline as a " reign of terror [ that ] dominated the last few years of the series " and called Vincent a : " seemingly omnipotent , omnipresent force " . Vincent 's first act as the " Blackmailer " is to repeatedly rape his paternal half @-@ sister Fancy Crane ; he frames Fancy 's boyfriend Luis Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald for the rapes by planting his semen inside her . After his maternal half @-@ sister Simone Russell 's girlfriend Rae Thomas learns the truth behind Fancy 's rapes , he murders her and frames Luis for the crime . As the storyline progresses , Vincent begins to harbor an obsession with Theresa 's love interest Ethan Winthrop and blackmails Judge JE Reilly into sentencing Luis to death by lethal injection . Vincent 's aunt Sheridan Crane was the only person to identify him as the " Blackmailer " ; she keeps his secret on the condition that he bring her niece Pretty Crane back to Harmony to destroy Fancy 's relationship with Luis . Vincent convinces Sheridan to kill Theresa with an electric chair , but she is interrupted by Theresa 's rival Gwen Hotchkiss .
In February 2007 , Vincent is revealed to have been engaging in an incestuous and adulterous affair with Chad ( who was simultaneously Vincent 's half @-@ uncle , adoptive half @-@ cousin , and half @-@ brother @-@ in @-@ law ) ; the affair was cited as starting prior to the show 's storyline in Rome in the summer of 2006 . Vincent blackmails Chad with secret videos of their sexual encounters . Furious with Chad for continuing to sleep with Whitney , Vincent engineers a scenario in which Whitney sees Vincent and Chad having sex in the back of a gay bar ; Whitney immediately leaves Chad and Chad distances himself from Vincent . Chad informs Valerie of Vincent 's infidelity after overhearing the two fight ; Chad , as well as the viewer , is unaware that Vincent and Valerie are the same person . As the incest storyline progresses , Vincent reveals to Julian and Eve his secret identities as the " Blackmailer " and their son . For most of the series , Eve and Julian 's child is believed to be Chad , who is later shown to be Eve 's adoptive sister Liz 's child from her rape by Alistair . Despite Julian 's insistence that they protect their son and the Crane name , Eve tells the police that Vincent is the " Blackmailer " and Luis is set free moments before his execution . Vincent is arrested and placed in psychiatric care . Alistair helps Vincent to escape , but hires assassin Spike Lester to murder him . Vincent is rescued by Sheridan and they escape Harmony by car while being pursued by Spike . Vincent and Spike fall over the side of a cliff . Sheridan can save only one of the two men and chooses to save Spike after he reveals her son Marty is still alive . Vincent plummets to his ( apparent ) death on August 30 , 2007 . A few episodes later , Vincent emerges from the ocean and goes to Valerie 's house to attack her off @-@ screen for exposing his secrets . In the show 's final episode on NBC on September 7 , 2007 , Valerie removes her mask to reveal she is in fact Vincent ; it is strongly implied that Vincent has dissociative identity disorder .
In November 2007 , Vincent runs a blood test on himself after experiencing what appears to be symptoms of morning sickness and discovers he is pregnant . Eve inspects Vincent ( who is dressed as Valerie ) on November 22 , 2007 and discovers his pregnancy and his true gender identity as intersex . Vincent torments Eve out of revenge for her failure to prevent his abduction when he was born and to prevent her from telling anyone that he was still alive and pregnant with Julian 's child . After his psychopathic accomplice Viki Chatsworth severs Julian 's penis , Vincent plies Eve with drugs and alcohol so she botches her attempt to surgically reattach Julian 's penis ; she reattaches it upside @-@ down , and an erection might kill him . In May 2008 , Eve and Julian assist Vincent with the birth of his son on the Russells ' kitchen table after Eve explains everything about Vincent and Valerie to Julian . Eve plans to form a relationship again with Vincent ( believing that motherhood has mellowed him ) , and convinces Julian not to turn him in to the police . During the rehearsal dinner for the joint weddings of Luis Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and Fancy Crane , Noah Bennett and Paloma Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald , Miguel Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and Kay Bennett , and Edna Wallace and Norma Bates , Vincent and Viki kill all the guests with a poison mushroom sauce . Witch Tabitha Lenox gives up her powers and becomes a born again Christian in order to resurrect everyone . Vincent is last seen being arrested by Chief of Police Sam Bennett . Since T. C. Russell , Whitney , and Simone moved to New Orleans in 2007 , Vincent and Eve are the only two Russells in the final episode .
= = Impact and reception = =
Throughout his run on Passions , he received mixed feedback from critics . Jamey Giddens of Daytime Confidential praised Jeanmarie 's performance for making all of Vincent 's storylines believable , writing : " If anyone on that show could have won an Emmy it was him " . Giddens felt the fact that Vincent and Chad was the first instance in a soap opera of two men simulating sex should have received more media attention compared to that given Luke Snyder and Noah Mayer from the CBS soap opera As the World Turns and Oliver Fish and Kyle Lewis from the ABC soap opera One Life to Live . Soap opera journalist Roger Newcomb of the website We Love Soaps included Vincent in his review of gay , lesbian , and bisexual characters in the history of daytime television . Josh Robertson of Complex called Duplaix one of the most successful soap actresses , who had been a Playboy Playmate , for her performances as Valerie in thirty @-@ four episodes of Passions , along with her portrayal of Rachel Gannon in ninety @-@ five episodes of One Life to Live .
After the show 's cancellation , the character was frequently referenced as a prime example of its outrageous storylines . BuzzFeed 's community member Top40DJ included Valerie and Vincent on the list - Crazy Ladies of Daytime Soaps . Following James E. Reilly 's death on October 12 , 2008 , Gawker 's Kyle Buchanan listed the " insanely convoluted incest storylines " involving Vincent as one of : " the most insane things that have ever happened on television " . An article in Soap Opera Digest included the revelations that Vincent was the blackmailer , Eve and Julian 's son , and Valerie on the list of Passions ' most shocking secrets .
Herndon L. Davis of Windy City Times was critical of the character 's development , saying the soap opera " recklessly wrote a down @-@ low storyline which involved an African @-@ American man but eventually turned it into an outrageous intersex serial killer storyline " . Mike Perigard of the Boston Herald criticized the storylines involving the rapist as " just vile " . Joel McHale from E ! ' s weekly television series The Soup turned a scene in which Chad insisted he was " not gay " , despite his affair with Vincent , into a running gag by referring to the character as " Not Gay Chad " . During the show 's season five premiere , Charles Divins ( who was the principal actor to play Chad during the storylines focusing on the character 's sexuality ) made a cameo to explain to McHale that he was not his character and was neither dead nor gay . After Divins leaves the shot , McHale asks : " so your character sleeps with transsexuals ? " in reference to the reveal that Vincent was intersex .
Following DirecTV 's decision to not renew the show , Passions partnered with Premiere Props to hold a public two @-@ day estate sale of props and costumes from the show . Stacey Ward , a director of NBCUniversal , pitched the auction as : " an opportunity to own a piece of their favorite show " . Several Vincent @-@ related items were offered for sale , including his disguise as the " Blackmailer " ( without the mask ) and several of Valerie 's outfits .
= Ear =
The ear is the organ of hearing and , in mammals , balance . In mammals , the ear is usually described as having three parts — the outer ear , middle ear and the inner ear . The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal . Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals , the word " ear " often refers to the external part alone . The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles . The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth , and contains structures which are key to several senses : the semicircular canals , which enable balance and eye tracking when moving ; the utricle and saccule , which enable balance when stationary ; and the cochlea , which enables hearing . The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head , an arrangement that aids sound localisation .
The ear develops from the first pharyngeal pouch and six small swellings that develop in the early embryo called otic placodes , which are derived from ectoderm .
The ear may be affected by disease , including infection and traumatic damage . Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss , tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo , although many of these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural pathways leading from the ear .
The ear has been adorned by earrings and other jewellery in numerous cultures for thousands of years , and has been subjected to surgical and cosmetic alterations .
= = Structure = =
The human ear consists of three parts — the outer ear , middle ear and inner ear . The ear canal of the outer ear is separated from the air @-@ filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear by the eardrum . The middle ear contains the three small bones — the ossicles — involved in the transmission of sound , and is connected to the throat at the nasopharynx , via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube . The inner ear contains the otolith organs — the utricle and saccule — and the semicircular canals belonging to the vestibular system , as well as the cochlea of the auditory system .
= = = Outer ear = = =
The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible pinna ( also called the auricle ) , the ear canal , and the outer layer of the eardrum ( also called the tympanic membrane ) .
The pinna consists of the curving outer rim called the helix , the inner curved rim called the antihelix , and opens into the ear canal . The tragus protrudes and partially obscures the ear canal , as does the facing antitragus . The hollow region in front of the ear canal is called the concha . The ear canal stretches for about 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) . The first part of the canal is surrounded by cartilage , while the second part near the eardrum is surrounded by bone . This bony part is known as the auditory bulla and is formed by the tympanic part of the temporal bone . The skin surrounding the ear canal contains ceruminous and sebaceous glands that produce protective ear wax . The ear canal ends at the external surface of the eardrum .
Two sets of muscles are associated with the outer ear : the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles . In some mammals , these muscles can adjust the direction of the pinna . In humans , these muscles have little or no effect . The ear muscles are supplied by the facial nerve , which also supplies sensation to the skin of the ear itself , as well as to the external ear cavity . The great auricular nerve , auricular nerve , auriculotemporal nerve , and lesser and greater occipital nerves of the cervical plexus all supply sensation to parts of the outer ear and the surrounding skin .
The pinna consists of a single piece of elastic cartilage with a complicated relief on its inner surface and a fairly smooth configuration on its posterior surface . A tubercle , known as Darwin 's tubercle , is sometimes present , lying in the descending part of the helix and corresponding to the ear @-@ tip of mammals . The earlobe consists of areola and adipose tissue . The symmetrical arrangement of the two ears allows for the localisation of sound . The brain accomplishes this by comparing arrival @-@ times and intensities from each ear , in circuits located in the superior olivary complex and the trapezoid bodies which are connected via pathways to both ears .
= = = Middle ear = = =
The middle ear lies between the outer ear and the inner ear . It consists of an air @-@ filled cavity called the tympanic cavity and includes the three ossicles and their attaching ligaments ; the auditory tube ; and the round and oval windows . The ossicles are three small bones that function together to receive , amplify , and transmit the sound from the eardrum to the inner ear . The ossicles are the malleus ( hammer ) , incus ( anvil ) , and the stapes ( stirrup ) . The stapes is the smallest named bone in the body . The middle ear also connects to the upper throat at the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube .
The three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear . The malleus receives vibrations from sound pressure on the eardrum , where it is connected at its longest part ( the manubrium or handle ) by a ligament . It transmits vibrations to the incus , which in turn transmits the vibrations to the small stapes bone . The wide base of the stapes rests on the oval window . As the stapes vibrates , vibrations are transmitted through the oval window , causing movement of fluid within the cochlea .
The round window allows for the fluid within the inner ear to move . As the stapes pushes the secondary tympanic membrane , fluid in the inner ear moves and pushes the membrane of the round window out by a corresponding amount into the middle ear . The ossicles help amplify sound waves by nearly 15 – 20 times .
= = = Inner ear = = =
The inner ear sits within the temporal bone in a complex cavity called the bony labyrinth . A central area known as the vestibule contains two small fluid @-@ filled recesses , the utricle and saccule . These connect to the semicircular canals and the cochlea . There are three semicircular canals angled at right angles to each other which are responsible for dynamic balance . The cochlea is a spiral shell @-@ shaped organ responsible for the sense of hearing . These structures together create the membranous labyrinth .
The bony labyrinth refers to the bony compartment which contains the membranous labyrinth , contained within the temporal bone . The inner ear structurally begins at the oval window , which receives vibrations from the incus of the middle ear . Vibrations are transmitted into the inner ear into a fluid called endolymph , which fills the membranous labyrinth . The endolymph is situated in two vestibules , the utricle and saccule , and eventually transmits to the cochlea , a spiral @-@ shaped structure . The cochlea consists of three fluid @-@ filled spaces : the vestibular duct , the cochlear duct , and the tympanic duct . Hair cells responsible for transduction — changing mechanical changes into electrical stimuli are present in the organ of Corti in the cochlea .
= = = Blood supply = = =
The blood supply of the ear differs according to each part of the ear .
The outer ear is supplied by a number of arteries . The posterior auricular artery provides the majority of the blood supply . The anterior auricular arteries provide some supply to the outer rim of the ear and scalp behind it . The posterior auricular artery is a direct branch of the external carotid artery , and the anterior auricular arteries are branches from the superficial temporal artery . The occipital artery also plays a role .
The middle ear is supplied by the mastoid branch of either the occipital or posterior auricular arteries and the deep auricular artery , a branch of the maxillary artery . Other arteries which are present but play a smaller role include branches of the middle meningeal artery , ascending pharyngeal artery , internal carotid artery , and the artery of the pterygoid canal .
The inner ear is supplied by the anterior tympanic branch of the maxillary artery ; the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular artery ; the petrosal branch of middle meningeal artery ; and the labyrinthine artery , arising from either the anterior inferior cerebellar artery or the basilar artery .
= = Function = =
= = = Hearing = = =
Sound waves travel through the outer ear , are modulated by the middle ear , and are transmitted to the vestibulocochlear nerve in the inner ear . This nerve transmits information to the temporal lobe of the brain , where it is registered as sound .
Sound that travels through the outer ear impacts on the eardrum , and causes it to vibrate . The three ossicles bones transmit this sound to a second window ( the oval window ) which protects the fluid @-@ filled inner ear . In detail , the pinna of the outer ear helps to focus a sound , which impacts on the eardrum . The malleus rests on the membrane , and receives the vibration . This vibration is transmitted along the incus and stapes to the oval window . Two small muscles , the tensor tympani and stapedius , also help modulate noise . The two muscles reflexively contract to dampen excessive vibrations . Vibration of the oval window causes vibration of the endolymph within the vestibule and the cochlea .
The inner ear houses the apparatus necessary to change the vibrations transmitted from the outside world via the middle ear into signals passed along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain . The hollow channels of the inner ear are filled with liquid , and contain a sensory epithelium that is studded with hair cells . The microscopic " hairs " of these cells are structural protein filaments that project out into the fluid . The hair cells are mechanoreceptors that release a chemical neurotransmitter when stimulated . Sound waves moving through fluid flows against the receptor cells of the organ of Corti . The fluid pushes the filaments of individual cells ; movement of the filaments causes receptor cells to become open to receive the potassium @-@ rich endolymph . This causes the cell to depolarise , and creates an action potential that is transmitted along the spiral ganglion , which sends information through the auditory portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the temporal lobe of the brain .
The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz ( the audio range ) . Sounds outside this range are considered infrasound ( below 20 Hz ) or ultrasound ( above 20 kHz ) Although hearing requires an intact and functioning auditory portion of the central nervous system as well as a working ear , human deafness ( extreme insensitivity to sound ) most commonly occurs because of abnormalities of the inner ear , rather than in the nerves or tracts of the central auditory system .
= = = Balance = = =
Providing balance , when moving or stationary , is also a central function of the ear . The ear facilitates two types of balance : static balance , which allows a person to feel the effects of gravity , and dynamic balance , which allows a person to sense acceleration .
Static balance is provided by two ventricles , the utricle and the saccule . Cells lining the walls of these ventricles contain fine filaments , and the cells are covered with a fine gelatinous layer . Each cell has 50 – 70 small filaments , and one large filament , the kinocilium . Within the gelatinous layer lie otoliths , tiny formations of calcium carbonate . When a person moves , these otoliths shift position . This shift alters the positions of the filaments , which opens ion channels within the cell membranes , creating depolarisation and an action potential that is transmitted to the brain along the vestibulocochlear nerve .
Dynamic balance is provided through the three semicircular canals . These three canals are orthogonal ( at right angles ) to each other . At the end of each canal is a slight enlargement , known as the ampulla , which contains numerous cells with filaments in a central area called the cupula . The fluid in these canals rotates according to the momentum of the head . When a person changes acceleration , the inertia of the fluid changes . This affects the pressure on the cupula , and results in the opening of ion channels . This causes depolarisation , which is passed as a signal to the brain along the vestibulocochlear nerve . Dynamic balance also helps maintain eye tracking when moving , via the vestibulo – ocular reflex .
= = Development = =
During embryogenesis the ear develops as three distinct structures : the inner ear , the middle ear and the outer ear . Each structure originates from a different germ layer : the ectoderm , endoderm and mesenchyme .
= = = Inner ear = = =
After implantation , around the second to third week the developing embryo consists of three layers : endoderm , mesoderm and ectoderm . The first part of the ear to develop is the inner ear , which begins to form from the ectoderm around the 22nd day of the embryo ’ s development . Specifically , the inner ear derives from two thickenings called otic placodes on either side of the head . Each otic placode recedes below the ectoderm , forms an otic pit and then an otic vesicle . This entire mass will eventually become surrounded by mesenchyme to form the bony labyrinth .
Around the 33rd day of development , the vesicles begin to differentiate . Closer to the back of the embryo , they form what will become the utricle and semicircular canals . Closer to the front of the embryo , the vesicles differentiate into a rudimentary saccule , which will eventually become the saccule and cochlea . Part of the saccule will eventually give rise and connect to the cochlear duct . This duct appears approximately during the sixth week and connects to the saccule through the ductus reuniens .
As the cochlear duct ’ s mesenchyme begins to differentiate , three cavities are formed : the scala vestibuli , the scala tympani and the scala media . Both the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani contain an extracellular fluid called perilymph . The scala media contains endolymph . A set of membranes called the vestibular membrane and the basilar membrane develop to separate the cochlear duct from the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct , respectively .
Parts of the otic vesicle in turn form the vestibulocochlear nerve . These form bipolar neurons which supply sensation to parts of the inner ear ( namely the sensory parts of the semicircular canals , macular of the utricle and saccule , and organ of Corti ) . The nerve begins to form around the 28th day .
Molecular regulation
Most of the genes responsible for the regulation of inner ear formation and its morphogenesis are members of the homeobox gene family such as Pax , Msx and Otx homeobox genes . The development of inner ear structures such as the cochlea is regulated by Dlx5 / Dlx6 , Otx1 / Otx2 and Pax2 , which in turn are controlled by the master gene Shh . Shh is secreted by the notochord .
= = = Middle ear = = =
The middle ear and its components develop from the first and second pharyngeal arches . The tympanic cavity and auditory tube develop from the first part of the pharyngeal pouch between the first two arches in an area which will also go on to develop the pharynx . This develops as a structure called the tubotympanic recess . The ossicles ( malleus , incus and stapes ) normally appear during the first half of fetal development . The first two ( malleus and incus ) derive from the first pharyngeal arch and the stapes derives from the second . All three ossicles develop from the neural crest . Eventually cells from the tissue surrounding the ossicles will experience apoptosis and a new layer of endodermal epithelial will constitute the formation of the tympanic cavity wall .
= = = Outer ear = = =
Unlike structures of the inner and middle ear , which develop from pharyngeal pouches , the ear canal originates from the dorsal portion of the first pharyngeal cleft . It is fully expanded by the end of the 18th week of development . The eardrum is made up of three layers ( ectoderm , endoderm and connective tissue ) . The pinna originates as a fusion of six hillocks . The first three hillocks are derived from the lower part of the first pharyngeal arch and form the tragus , crus of the helix , and helix , respectively . The final three hillocks are derived from the upper part of the second pharyngeal arch and form the antihelix , antitragus , and earlobe . The outer ears develop in the lower neck . As the mandible forms they move towards their final position level with the eyes .
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Hearing loss = = =
Hearing loss may be either partial or total . This may be a result of injury or damage , congenital disease , or physiological causes . When hearing loss is a result of injury or damage to the outer ear or middle ear , it is known as conductive hearing loss . When deafness is a result of injury or damage to the inner ear , vestibulochoclear nerve , or brain , it is known as sensorineural hearing loss .
Causes of conductive hearing loss include an ear canal blocked by ear wax , ossicles that are fixed together or absent , or holes in the eardrum . Conductive hearing loss may also result from middle ear inflammation causing fluid build @-@ up in the normally air @-@ filled space , such as by otitis media . Tympanoplasty is the general name of the operation to repair the middle ear 's eardrum and ossicles . Grafts from muscle fascia are ordinarily used to rebuild an intact eardrum . Sometimes artificial ear bones are placed to substitute for damaged ones , or a disrupted ossicular chain is rebuilt in order to conduct sound effectively .
Hearing aids or cochlear implants may be used if the hearing loss is severe or prolonged . Hearing aids work by amplifying the sound of the local environment and are best suited to conductive hearing loss . Cochlear implants transmit the sound that is heard as if it were a nervous signal , bypassing the cochlea .
= = = Congenital abnormalities = = =
Anomalies and malformations of the pinna are common . These anomalies include chromosome syndromes such as ring 18 . Children may also present cases of abnormal ear canals and low ear implantation . In rare cases no pinna is formed ( atresia ) , or is extremely small ( microtia ) . Small pinnae can develop when the auricular hillocks do not develop properly . The ear canal can fail to develop if it does not channelise properly or if there is an obstruction . Reconstructive surgery to treat hearing loss is considered as an option for children older than five , with a cosmetic surgical procedure to reduce the size or change the shape of the ear is called an otoplasty . The initial medical intervention is aimed at assessing the baby 's hearing and the condition of the ear canal , as well as the middle and inner ear . Depending on the results of tests , reconstruction of the outer ear is done in stages , with planning for any possible repairs of the rest of the ear .
Approximately one out of one thousand children suffer some type of congenital deafness related to the development of the inner ear . Inner ear congenital anomalies are related to sensorineural hearing loss and are generally diagnosed with a computed tomography ( CT ) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan . Hearing loss problems also derive from inner ear anomalies because its development is separate from that of the middle and external ear . Middle ear anomalies can occur because of errors during head and neck development . The first pharyngeal pouch syndrome associates middle ear anomalies to the malleus and incus structures as well as to the non @-@ differentiation of the annular stapedial ligament . Temporal bone and ear canal anomalies are also related to this structure of the ear and are known to be associated with sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss .
= = = Vertigo = = =
Vertigo refers to the inappropriate perception of motion . This is due to dysfunction of the vestibular system . One common type of vertigo is benign paroxysmal positional vertigo , when an otolith is displaced from the ventricles to the semicircular canal . The displaced otolith rests on the cupola , causing a sensation of movement when there is none . Ménière 's disease , labyrinthitis , strokes , and other infective and congenital diseases may also result in the perception of vertigo .
= = = Injury = = =
Outer ear
Injuries to the external ear occur fairly frequently , and can leave minor to major deformity . Injuries include : laceration , avulsion injuries , burn and repeated twisting or pulling of an ear , for discipline or torture . Chronic damage to the ears can cause cauliflower ear , a common condition in boxers and wrestlers in which the cartilage around the ears becomes lumpy and distorted owing to persistence of a haematoma around the perichondrium , which can impair blood supply and healing . Owing to its exposed position , the external ear is susceptible to frostbite as well as skin cancers , including squamous @-@ cell carcinoma and basal @-@ cell carcinomas .
Middle ear
The ear drum may become perforated in the event of a large sound or explosion , when diving or flying ( called barotrauma ) , or by objects inserted into the ear . Another common cause of injury is due to an infection such as otitis media . These may cause a discharge from the ear called otorrhea , and are often investigated by otoscopy and audiometry . Treatment may include watchful waiting , antibiotics and possibly surgery , if the injury is prolonged or the position of the ossicles is affected . Skull fractures that go through the part of the skull containing the ear structures ( the temporal bone ) can also cause damage to the middle ear . A cholesteatoma is a cyst of squamous skin cells that may develop from birth or secondary to other causes such as chronic ear infections . It may impair hearing or cause dizziness or vertigo , and is usually investigated by otoscopy and may require a CT scan . The treatment for cholesteatoma is surgery .
Inner ear
There are two principal damage mechanisms to the inner ear in industrialised society , and both injure hair cells . The first is exposure to elevated sound levels ( noise trauma ) , and the second is exposure to drugs and other substances ( ototoxicity ) . A large number of people are exposed to sound levels on a daily basis that are likely to lead to significant hearing loss . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has recently published research on the estimated numbers of persons with hearing difficulty ( 11 % ) and the percentage of those that can be attributed to occupational noise exposure ( 24 % ) . Furthermore , according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( NHANES ) , approximately twenty @-@ two million ( 17 % ) US workers reported exposure to hazardous workplace noise . Workers exposed to hazardous noise further exacerbate the potential for developing noise @-@ induced hearing loss when they do not wear hearing protection .
= = = Tinnitus = = =
Tinnitus is the hearing of sound when no external sound is present . While often described as a ringing , it may also sound like a clicking , hiss or roaring . Rarely , unclear voices or music are heard . The sound may be soft or loud , low pitched or high pitched and appear to be coming from one ear or both . Most of the time , it comes on gradually . In some people , the sound causes depression , anxiety , or concentration difficulties .
Tinnitus is not a disease but a symptom that can result from a number of underlying causes . One of the most common causes is noise @-@ induced hearing loss . Other causes include : ear infections , disease of the heart or blood vessels , Ménière 's disease , brain tumors , emotional stress , exposure to certain medications , a previous head injury , and earwax . It is more common in those with depression .
= = Society and culture = =
The ears have been ornamented with jewelry for thousands of years , traditionally by piercing of the earlobe . In ancient and modern cultures , ornaments have been placed to stretch and enlarge the earlobes , allowing for larger plugs to be slid into a large fleshy gap in the lobe . Tearing of the earlobe from the weight of heavy earrings , or from traumatic pull of an earring ( for example , by snagging on a sweater ) , is fairly common .
Injury to the ears has been present since Roman times as a method of reprimand or punishment - " In Roman times , when a dispute arose that could not be settled amicably , the injured party cited the name of the person thought to be responsible before the Praetor ; if the offender did not appear within the specified time limit , the complainant summoned witnesses to make statements . If they refused , as often happened , the injured party was allowed to drag them by the ear and to pinch them hard if they resisted . Hence the French expression " se faire tirer l ’ oreille " , of which the literal meaning is " to have one 's ear pulled " and the figurative meaning " to take a lot of persuading " . We use the expression " to tweak ( or pull ) someone 's ears " to mean " inflict a punishment " . "
The pinnae have an effect on facial appearance . In Western societies , protruding ears ( present in about 5 % of ethnic Europeans ) have been considered unattractive , particularly if asymmetric . The first surgery to reduce the projection of prominent ears was published in the medical literature by Ernst Dieffenbach in 1845 , and the first case report in 1881 .
Pointy ears are a characteristic of some creatures in folklore such as the French croquemitaine , Brazilian curupira or Japanese earth spider . It has been a feature of characters on art as old as that of Ancient Greece and medieval Europe . Pointy ears are a common characteristic of many creatures in the fantasy genre , including elves , faeries , pixies , hobbits , or orcs . They are a characteristic of creatures in the horror genre , such as vampires . Pointy ears are also found in the science fiction genre ; for example among the Vulcan and Romulan races of the Star Trek universe and the Nightcrawler character from the X @-@ Men universe .
Georg von Békésy was a Hungarian biophysicist born in Budapest , Hungary . In 1961 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the function of the cochlea in the mammalian hearing organ .
The Vacanti mouse was a laboratory mouse that had what looked like a human ear grown on its back . The " ear " was actually an ear @-@ shaped cartilage structure grown by seeding cow cartilage cells into a biodegradable ear @-@ shaped mold and then implanted under the skin of the mouse ; then the cartilage naturally grew by itself . It was developed as an alternative to ear repair or grafting procedures and the results met with much publicity and controversy in 1997 .
= = Other animals = =
The pinna helps direct sound through the ear canal to the eardrum . The complex geometry of ridges on the inner surface of some mammalian ears helps to sharply focus sounds produced by prey , using echolocation signals . These ridges can be regarded as the acoustic equivalent of a fresnel lens , and may be seen in a wide range of animals , including the bat , aye @-@ aye , lesser galago , bat @-@ eared fox , mouse lemur and others .
Some large primates such as gorillas and orang @-@ utans ( and also humans ) have undeveloped ear muscles that are non @-@ functional vestigial structures , yet are still large enough to be easily identified . An ear muscle that cannot move the ear , for whatever reason , has lost that biological function . This serves as evidence of homology between related species . In humans , there is variability in these muscles , such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions , and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials . In such primates , the inability to move the ear is compensated for mainly by the ability to easily turn the head on a horizontal plane , an ability which is not common to most monkeys — a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another .
In some animals with mobile pinnae ( like the horse ) , each pinna can be aimed independently to better receive the sound . For these animals , the pinnae help localise the direction of the sound source .
= = = Invertebrates = = =
Only vertebrate animals have ears , though many invertebrates detect sound using other kinds of sense organs . In insects , tympanal organs are used to hear distant sounds . They are located either on the head or elsewhere , depending on the insect family . The tympanal organs of some insects are extremely sensitive , offering acute hearing beyond that of most other animals . The female cricket fly Ormia ochracea has tympanal organs on each side of her abdomen . They are connected by a thin bridge of exoskeleton and they function like a tiny pair of eardrums , but , because they are linked , they provide acute directional information . The fly uses her " ears " to detect the call of her host , a male cricket . Depending on where the song of the cricket is coming from , the
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season , when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery . The San Francisco Giants selected him in the 2003 draft . He reached the major leagues in 2006 and had become the Giants ' regular closer by the end of 2007 . In 2010 , he led the National League ( NL ) with 48 saves and posted a 1 @.@ 81 ERA , and he saved clinching games at every level of the playoffs , including the World Series .
In the first week of the 2012 season , Wilson injured his elbow and subsequently underwent his second Tommy John surgery . He completed his recovery midway through the 2013 season and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers , pitching effectively with them as a late @-@ inning reliever through the playoffs . However , he was not able to continue his success in 2014 , and the Dodgers released him after that season .
Wilson is known for his large black beard , which he began growing during the 2010 pennant race .
= = Early life = =
Wilson was born in Winchester , Massachusetts on March 16 , 1982 . While he was in second grade , he moved to Londonderry , New Hampshire . Today , he talks little of his childhood except to discuss his father , Mike Wilson , who was an Air Force veteran and a demanding perfectionist . During fall , he would have Brian bag leaves and bury them in the woods ; and in winter , he would have Brian spend seven hours shoveling snow on weekends . Brian said in a 2011 interview , " I think that 's how you need to be raised . It 's not your friend , it 's your dad . And he 's going to be strict . And one day you 're going to understand why . And sometimes , it 's a little too late . They might pass away , and you might not get that chance to say thanks or understand why you did those things . But when you become a man , you understand why . "
When Wilson was 12 years old , his father was diagnosed with cancer . His father fought the disease for five years before dying while Wilson was attending Londonderry High School ; Wilson today says he had to become a man when his father was diagnosed . In a 2011 story , ESPN.com writer Elizabeth Merrill said about Wilson 's high school years , " He was an honor roll student at Londonderry , but clashed with various authority figures who didn 't appreciate his occasional lack of a filter . " In the same story , a number of Londonderry faculty speculated that some teachers didn 't understand Wilson 's life situation at the time . Art Psaledas , an assistant principal at the school , added , " It happened at probably the worst time anybody could lose your dad . Watching his dad deteriorate over the years was probably the singular thing that formed his personality . "
= = High school career = =
Bob Napolitano , Wilson 's coach at Londonderry High School , noticed Wilson 's ability to concentrate on baseball . Napolitano specifically remembered the first home game of Wilson 's senior year , which happened shortly after his father 's death . No fewer than 29 professional scouts , all with radar guns , showed up to see him pitch . According to Napolitano , Wilson was completely oblivious to their appearance ; he ate and drank in the dugout , warmed up , and pitched a two @-@ hitter while apparently not noticing that scouts were there . The Cleveland Indians offered him a contract straight out of high school , but he did not sign , opting to attend college instead .
= = College career = =
After a coach saw Wilson pitch well at a tournament in California , he was offered a scholarship to Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , where he played for the LSU Tigers baseball team , eventually becoming their No. 2 starter . In his time at LSU , Wilson pitched in 51 games ( 22 starts ) and accumulated 18 wins , 10 losses , and five saves . He was in the middle of his third season on March 28 , 2003 , when he injured his elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery . He also played for the Keene Swamp Bats of the New England Collegiate Baseball League , a summer league for collegiate prospects . Despite facing extensive rehabilitation , Wilson chose to enter the 2003 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Coming off his surgery , Wilson was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 24th round in 2003 . He began his career with the Hagerstown Suns of the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League in 2004 . In 23 games , he had a 2 – 5 record , a 5 @.@ 34 earned run average ( ERA ) , 41 strikeouts , and 22 walks in 57 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He made three starts that year , the only time he ever started games professionally . The Giants switched single @-@ A affiliates the next year and Wilson began pitching for the Augusta GreenJackets . In 26 games , he had a 5 – 1 record , a 0 @.@ 82 ERA , 30 strikeouts , and seven walks in 33 innings pitched while notching 13 saves , good for second in the league behind Brett Campbell 's 19 . His performance with Augusta caused Mark Camps of the San Francisco Chronicle to mention him in his " Minor Report " on May 15 . He also pitched for the Norwich Navigators of the double @-@ A Eastern League ( posting no record , eight saves , a 0 @.@ 57 ERA , 22 strikeouts , five walks , and 15 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 15 games ) and the Fresno Grizzlies of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League ( posting a 1 – 1 record , no saves , a 3 @.@ 97 ERA , 13 strikeouts , eight walks , and 11 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in nine games ) .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2006 season = = = =
Wilson began 2006 with the Grizzlies before getting called up to the majors on April 23 to replace Tyler Walker , who was designated for assignment after struggling to begin the season . He made his major league debut that day in relief , pitching two innings , surrendering two hits and no runs while striking out three . He later revealed that he hurt himself during his first inning but continued pitching through the second without informing anyone of his injury . Afterward he was placed on the disabled list for a month . On May 23 , he returned from the DL . He was optioned to Fresno on June 7 when Tim Worrell was activated from the DL ; Giants ' manager Felipe Alou said Wilson was not getting enough playing time . Wilson would go on to have three more stints with the Giants in 2006 . On July 2 , he got his first career save , stranding three inherited runners in the eighth inning and throwing 1 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 6 – 2 victory over the San Diego Padres . In 31 games , he had a 2 – 3 record , a 5 @.@ 40 ERA , 23 strikeouts , and 21 walks in 30 innings pitched . In 24 games with Fresno , he had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 89 ERA , 30 strikeouts , and 14 walks in 28 innings pitched .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Wilson competed for the closer role with Armando Benítez in 2007 spring training . After he struggled and posted a 7 @.@ 71 ERA , the Giants optioned him to the minors to start the season . After building a 1 – 2 record , 2 @.@ 10 ERA , 37 strikeouts , 24 walks , 11 saves , and 34 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 31 games with Fresno , Wilson was called up on August 11 when Jonathan Sánchez was demoted . He was initially used as the setup man for closer Brad Hennessey , but he took over as closer on September 11 when Hennessey lost the role due to ineffectiveness . He went on to pitch in 24 games , recording a 1 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 28 ERA , 18 strikeouts , six walks , 23 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and six saves .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
Wilson remained the Giants ' closer in 2008 and kept the role all season . He recorded 24 consecutive saves from May 3 through August 17 , the longest streak by a Giant since Robb Nen had 28 straight in 2000 . Wilson was named to the All @-@ Star Game after leading the NL in saves with 25 in the first half of the season . He gave up no hits and struck out one in 2 / 3 innings in a 4 – 3 loss to the American League . He continued to lead the league in saves until José Valverde passed him at the end of August . Despite posting a 4 @.@ 04 ERA through September 6 , Wilson converted 37 of 40 save opportunities . In his final seven games of the year , however , he posted a 9 @.@ 56 ERA while converting just four out of seven opportunities . In 63 games , he had a 3 – 2 record , a 4 @.@ 62 ERA , 67 strikeouts , and 28 walks in 62 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He converted 41 saves in 47 attempts ; his 41 saves were tied with Brad Lidge 's total for second in the league behind Valverde 's 44 .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
On June 5 , 2009 , Wilson saved Randy Johnson 's 300th win . Johnson , searching for his 300th win , gave up one unearned run in six innings in Game 1 of a doubleheader against the Washington Nationals ; the Giants had a 2 – 1 lead in the eighth inning . With runners on first and second for the Nationals and two outs , Wilson was called on to get the save . He walked Ryan Zimmerman to load the bases and bring up Adam Dunn . He then loaded the count against Dunn before throwing a called strike three to end the inning . Wilson then pitched a scoreless ninth , preserving the victory for Johnson . On September 24 , with two outs and two strikes in the ninth inning and the Giants leading the Chicago Cubs by a 2 – 1 score , Wilson gave up a two @-@ run home run to Jeff Baker . The loss hurt the Giants ' chances of reaching the playoffs . In 68 games , Wilson had a 5 – 6 record , a 2 @.@ 74 ERA , 83 strikeouts , and 27 walks in 72 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He blew seven saves , but his 38 saves tied for third in the NL with Ryan Franklin 's total behind Heath Bell 's 42 and Francisco Cordero 's 39 . He led the league in saves requiring four outs or more , with eight .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In 2010 spring training , Wilson was asked whether or not he thought himself one of baseball 's elite closers . In what would turn out to be a very prophetic quote , he replied :
An elite closer is a closer who 's part of a World Series win . If you get that final out in the final win of the season , then you can consider yourself elite .
On March 25 , Wilson agreed to a contract extension with the Giants . He struck out five batters in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings on May 9 while recording a save in a 6 – 5 victory over the New York Mets . On May 15 , against the Houston Astros with the bases loaded , two outs , and the Giants leading 2 – 1 in the ninth inning , Wilson struck out Kazuo Matsui in a 15 @-@ pitch at bat to end the game . The next day , against Houston with runners on first and second , two outs , and the Giants leading 4 – 3 in the ninth , Wilson retired Matsui to end the game . On June 12 , Wilson entered in the eighth inning with one out , the bases loaded , and the Giants leading the Oakland Athletics 5 – 4 . Wilson struck out Adam Rosales and retired Rajai Davis to end the inning ; he then pitched a scoreless ninth to earn the save . He recorded 22 saves in his first 24 chances and was named to the All @-@ Star Game in which he threw a scoreless eighth inning in the contest , a 3 – 1 victory over the AL . On October 3 ( the final day of the regular season ) , the Giants faced the Padres , whom they led by one game in the NL West . Wilson threw a scoreless inning to earn the save and clinch the division for the Giants . Wilson converted his 48th save that day , tying the Giants ' single season save record of 48 held by Rod Beck . He finished the season with a 3 – 3 record , a 1 @.@ 81 ERA , 93 strikeouts , 26 walks , and 74 2 ⁄ 3 inning pitched in 70 games . He converted 48 of 53 save opportunities and led the majors in saves as well as leading the major leagues in saves of four outs or more ( 10 ) . He was named the This Year in Baseball Closer of the Year after the season . He finished 13th in NL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) voting .
= = = = 2010 postseason = = = =
Wilson made his playoff debut in Game 2 of the NL Division Series against the Atlanta Braves ; he blew a save , but that was partly because of an error by Pablo Sandoval . He earned saves in Games 3 and 4 as the Giants defeated the Braves in four games . In the NL Championship Series , the Giants faced the Philadelphia Phillies . In Game 4 , Wilson threw a scoreless inning and earned the win in the 6 – 5 victory . In Game 6 , Wilson entered with one out in the eighth inning , runners on first and second , and the Giants leading 3 – 2 . He got Carlos Ruiz to line into a double play . He then pitched the ninth inning , striking out Ryan Howard with two runners on base , clinching the series for the Giants . He joined Dennis Eckersley , Mitch Williams , and John Wetteland as the only pitchers since 1969 to win or save four games in a postseason series . ( In 2014 Greg Holland of Kansas City matched this feat . )
The Giants faced the Texas Rangers in the World Series . Wilson appeared in three games , allowing no runs . He recorded the save in the series @-@ clinching Game 5 as the Giants won their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
Wilson strained an oblique muscle in 2011 spring training and opened the season on the DL . He was activated from the DL on April 6 . After posting a 3 @.@ 75 ERA in his first two games , Wilson posted a 1 @.@ 26 ERA in his next 35 outings . During a game against the Detroit Tigers on July 1 , Wilson blew a save for a second straight game and was taken out of the game by Bruce Bochy . Upon entering the dugout , Wilson took out his frustrations by throwing a Gatorade cooler and smashing it with a bat . The Giants still won the game 4 – 3 as Jeremy Affeldt got the save . Wilson was elected to his third All @-@ Star Game ; he earned the save in a 5 – 1 victory over the AL .
Wilson was placed on the DL on August 21 due to inflammation in his right elbow . At the time of his injury , he was third in the NL in saves , behind Craig Kimbrel and John Axford . On September 18 , the Giants reactivated him from the DL . After two games back , Bochy decided to shut down Wilson for the final two games of the season . In 57 games , he had a 6 – 4 record , a 3 @.@ 11 ERA , 54 strikeouts , and 31 walks in 55 innings pitched . He converted 36 of his 41 save opportunities which tied Juan Carlos Oviedo for eighth in the NL .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Wilson 's 2012 season would be short @-@ lived . With the Giants leading the Colorado Rockies 4 – 1 entering the bottom of the ninth inning on April 12 , he made his second appearance of the season to get the save for the Giants . He walked in a run to make it 4 – 2 , but retired Marco Scutaro with the bases loaded to earn the save . He injured his elbow during the game and underwent Tommy John surgery for the second time in his career on April 19 , causing him to miss the remainder of the season . During his injury @-@ shorted season , Wilson made only 2 appearances with an ERA of 9 @.@ 00 and 1 save . The Giants went on to win their second World Series in three years . Wilson expressed confidence in an interview on April 15 that he would return to the Giants in 2013 . However , because he was coming off an injury and would be owed at least $ 6 @.@ 8 million for 2013 , he was non @-@ tendered after the season , which made him a free agent for the first time in his career . As of the end of the 2012 season , he ranked third all @-@ time in saves as a Giant with 171 , behind only Robb Nen ( 206 ) and Rod Beck ( 199 ) .
= = = 2012 – 2013 free agency = = =
Wilson chose not to sign with any team before the 2013 season because he wanted to be 100 % recovered from surgery when he attempted his comeback . On July 25 , he threw a bullpen session in front of various teams ' scouts with the hope to sign with a contender .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
On July 30 , 2013 , Wilson agreed to a contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the remainder of the 2013 season . After a few weeks at the Dodgers training facility in Arizona , he began a minor league rehab assignment .
He joined the Dodgers active roster on August 19 and made his debut with the team on August 22 against the Miami Marlins at Marlins Park . He appeared in 18 games for the Dodgers with a 2 @-@ 1 record and a 0 @.@ 66 ERA . Regardless of signing for the team late in the season , Wilson made 3 relief appearances in the postseason without giving up an earned run until the Dodgers lost in the 2013 NLCS to the St. Louis Cardinals .
On December 5 , 2013 , Wilson agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 10 million contract to return to the Dodgers . The deal also contained a player option for the 2015 season . His numbers were not as good in 2014 , as he had a 4 @.@ 66 ERA in 61 appearances . On October 8 , 2014 , he announced that he would be exercising his player option for 2015 . However , the Dodgers designated him for assignment on December 16 , 2014 . He was released by the Dodgers on December 19 and became a free agent .
= = Scouting report = =
Wilson was a power pitcher . He has a repertoire of four pitches . He throws a straight four @-@ seam fastball around 92 @-@ 95 mph ; this is one of his main pitches . He also has a slider , a cut fastball , and a two @-@ seam fastball . His slider traveled around 89 mph . His cut fastball has allowed him to use fewer four @-@ seam fastballs . In 2011 , he started throwing the two @-@ seam fastball as well . The two @-@ seamer starts away on a right @-@ handed hitter ( or in to a left @-@ handed hitter ) and has dramatic inward ( or outward ) movement over the plate . He has also experimented with curveballs , screwballs , and knuckleballs .
Wilson has said that when pitching , players cannot be worried about the potential outcome .
This is a man 's sport . You can 't go in there with doubts . You can 't accept failure , and you certainly can 't go into a situation thinking , ' Oh , gosh , what 's going to happen ? ' You make what 's going to happen . ... This game isn 't for negative emotions , or being scared .
= = Personality = =
Wilson is noted for his flamboyant personality .
In the 2010 MLB All @-@ Star Game , Wilson debuted a pair of bright orange cleats and continued to wear them throughout the season . On July 27 , Marlins ' manager Edwin Rodríguez complained that the shoes were too bright . Wilson received a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine from MLB the next day , and he responded by coloring half of the shoes black with a marker . He said afterwards , " The fact that he ( Rodríguez ) thinks these shoes throw 97 – 100 with cut might be a little far @-@ fetched . I guess we should probably have these checked for performance @-@ enhancing cleats . " He also stated that he was punished " for having too much awesome on my feet . "
In addition to his mohawk hairstyle , Wilson has a large black beard which he began growing and presumably dyeing during the Giants ' playoff run in 2010 . He never admitted to dyeing it , saying in 2010 , " It 's dark because we play a lot of day games . It 's tanned . It 's focused . " He decided he would not shave until the Giants ' season was over , and only if they failed to win the World Series . During the Giants ' playoff run in 2010 , Giants ' fans began growing their own beards or wearing fake beards . Many fans chanted " Fear the Beard " , and held up signs bearing the same motto . Teammate Sergio Romo also began growing a beard in 2010 ; he has had it intermittently ever since .
Wilson has a number of tattoos . On his left shoulder , he has a dragon to honor his father which represents the " protection from fear " that Wilson 's dad gave him . Across his chest , he has the words " In nomine patris " ( " In the name of the father " ) , and on his right wrist he has a Celtic cross with lettering that says " All Honor To Him " in Gaelic ; both of these tattoos symbolize his Christian faith . Finally , he has Japanese Kanji characters on his arm which symbolize his faith ; they say , " Father . Son . Eternal Strength . "
Wilson has enjoyed a great deal of media attention during his career . He once had a locally produced , self @-@ filmed reality show called Life of Brian . He has often been on The Cheap Seats . Following the World Series in 2010 , a photo of Wilson celebrating with teammate Buster Posey appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated . Wilson also appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Lopez Tonight . He has frequently starred in commercials .
Wilson became a Christian at the age of 23 . He has adopted a gesture of crossing his arms , with his left hand in his glove and his right hand underneath pointing with the index finger while looking at the sky , which both honors The Holy Trinity as well as his late father who died of cancer when Wilson was 17 . He performs it when he records a save or closes out a game .
On May 30 , 2011 ( Memorial Day ) , Wilson announced that in memory of his father , an Air Force veteran , he would endow two scholarships for LSU Air Force ROTC cadets . The scholarship will be a need based scholarship available to any college junior or senior . Later that year , on July 7 , Wilson gave away 1 @,@ 000 baseball gloves to members of the Giants Community Fund 's Junior Giants baseball program .
Frequently , Wilson has made references to " The Machine " , a character from the movie 8mm . In an episode of The Cheap Seats , he had someone dressed as " The Machine " walk past in the background in full BDSM leather fetish apparel , supposedly unknown to him . Another time , in an interview with Rome , Wilson appeared to receive a call from " The Machine " and pulled a leather mask ( allegedly " The Machine 's " ) out of his pocket to show to Rome .
= Croatian Natural History Museum =
The Croatian Natural History Museum ( Croatian : Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej ) is the oldest and biggest natural history museum and the main body for natural history research , preservation and collection in Croatia . Located on Dimitrije Demeter Street in Gornji Grad , one of the oldest neighbourhoods of the Croatian capital Zagreb , it owns one of the biggest museum collections in Croatia , with over 2 million artefacts , including over 1 @.@ 1 million animal specimens . It was founded in 1846 as the " National Museum " . The National Museum was later split up into five museums , three of which were in 1986 merged as departments of the newly named Croatian Natural History Museum . The museum contains a large scientific library open to the public , and publishes the first Croatian natural history scientific journal , Natura Croatica .
The permanent display of the Croatian Natural History Museum consists of mineralogical , petrographical and zoological collections , as well as two permanent exhibits in the atrium : the Rock Map of Croatia and the Geological Pole . It is home to the remains of the Neanderthal from Krapina .
= = History = =
The history of the Croatian Natural History Museum begins with the founding of the so @-@ called " National Museum " ( Narodni muzej ) on 10 September 1846 , the first museum for historic and pre @-@ historic objects related to Croatia . In 1867 , it was moved to its current address . The National Museum grew and was split into five new museums by the end of the 19th century . Three of them covered natural history : the Croatian National Zoological Museum ( Hrvatski narodni zoološki muzej ) , the Geological – Palaeontological Museum ( Geološko @-@ paleontološki muzej ) and the Mineralogical – Petrographic Museum ( Mineraloško @-@ petrografski muzej ) . All three were housed in the same building on Demeter Street 1 , and , in 1986 , united into the Croatian Natural History Museum .
The museum 's current building was earlier home to Amadeo 's theatre , the first theatre in Zagreb . Formed in 1797 by Antal Amade de Varkony , the prefect of Zagreb County , it operated until 1834 . In 2000 , Amadeo 's theatre was revived as a yearly summer series of theatrical plays entitled Scena Amadeo ( " Amadeo Scene " ) held in the museum atrium .
= = Library = =
The museum is home to a large scientific library open to the public . Its oldest books were printed in 17th @-@ century Italy , and includes works by Ulisse Aldrovandi , Niccolò Gualtieri and Carl Linné . The library was founded in 1868 by a newly appointed museum director , Spiridon Brusina . Starting from a meager corpus acquired from the National Library , including only three books on zoology , Brusina traveled throughout then @-@ Austria @-@ Hungary in order to acquire books . In 1875 , the museum acquired the large library and natural history collection of Francesco Lanza , a physician and archaeologist from Split , Croatia . Brusina retired in 1901 , reporting a collection 1 @,@ 800 works in 3 @,@ 948 volumes three years earlier . In 1928 , it was recorded that the library held 5 @,@ 838 books in 9 @,@ 901 volumes . As the library was not professionally maintained during the Croatian War of Independence or inventoried since , it is not known how many titles it holds . A 1999 estimate is 30 @,@ 000 volumes and 13 @,@ 100 monographs .
= = Journals = =
In 1885 , Brusina led a successful initiative to publish The Journal of the Croatian Natural History Society ( Glasnik Hrvatskoga naravoslovnoga družtva ) . The journal is published since 1972 under the title Periodicum biologorum , and focuses on biology and biomedicine , forestry and biotechnology . In 1992 , the museum began publishing Natura Croatica , a peer @-@ reviewed biological and geological academic journal . The natural history journal was the first of its kind in Croatia , despite the existence of seven natural history museums . The journal is published quarterly in English , and reviewed by both Croatian and foreign scholars .
= = Holdings = =
The museum is divided into Mineralogical – Petrographical , Geological – Palaeontological , Zoological and Botanical Departments . The first three are successors to the National Museum 's 19th @-@ century offspring museums , while the Botanical Department was established in 1990 .
The museum 's holdings number over 2 million rocks , minerals , fossils , and other artefacts collected all over the country . The zoological collection consists of 1 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 animal specimens , including a tissue bank for DNA analysis . It also holds the remains of the Neanderthal man found near Krapina by Dragutin Gorjanović @-@ Kramberger , a former director of the National Museum . The original remains are held in the museum 's vault , while a replica is being exhibited in the Krapina museum .
The museum 's permanent display encompasses mineralogical and petrographical collections , as well as a collection of animals , the bulk of which dates back to the 19th century . The zoological collection is on the second floor of the museum . It includes the skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal , a basking shark native to the Adriatic Sea and an Atlantic puffin , a bird today native to the Arctic area , which is believed to have nested in the Adriatic in the 19th century .
The mineralogical and petrographical collections are divided into three exhibitions . " From a Collection to a Museum " ( Od zbirke do muzeja ) showcases the work of Croatian mineralogists and petrographers thorugh history , including a geological map of Moslavačka gora in central Croatia by Ljudevit Vukotinović , as well as the work of Đuro Pilar , one of the first Croatian academic geologists . " The Empire of Minerals " ( Carstvo minerala ) displays a collection of minerals assembled by location of discovery , including collections of agate from Lepoglava and opal , gemstones rare in Croatia . " Rocky Planet Earth " ( Stjenoviti planet Zemlja ) is organized by rock types , and also contains meteorites , lava from Vesuvius and speleothems . In 2014 , the exhibitions were made accessible to blind people .
The atrium of the museum contains two exhibits : the Rock Map of Croatia ( Kamenospisna karta Hrvatske ) and the Geological Pole ( Geološki stup ) . The Rock Map of Croatia is a mosaic map assembled from various pieces of rock found in Croatia into the country 's shape .
= = Exhibitions = =
Exhibitions at the Croatian Natural History Museum have included " Dormice : in Biology and the Kitchen " and " Lion 's Pit " , exhibiting the remains of a cave lion ( Panthera leo spelaea ) , found deep in Vrtare Male , a pit cave near Dramalj , Croatia . With a body length of 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) , the lion was at the time of discovery claimed to be one of the biggest found in the world thus far . Another notable exhibition displayed the reconstruction of a Megalodon , an extinct giant shark found in the plains of northern Croatia , where the Paratethys ocean once stood . The museum held the first moss animal exhibition in the world in 2006 , entitled " Neptune 's Lace " . In 2009 , visitors had the opportunity to view crocodile fossils from the island Pag , while eighty live snakes owned by the Slovenian breeder Aleš Mlinar were exhibited in 2013 .
The museum takes part in the Croatian Museum Night ( Noć muzeja ) , an annual event whereby the public is allowed free entrance to many museums in Croatia during one night in the year . In the 2014 event , the museum was visited by more than 11 @,@ 000 people .
= Tropical Storm Arlene ( 1959 ) =
Tropical Storm Arlene was a short lived , pre @-@ season tropical storm which made landfall on the central Louisiana coastline on May 30 , 1959 , causing minor damages and one fatality . Arlene developed out of a tropical wave which was first noted near the Dominican Republic on May 23 . Development of the system was slow before it gained enough convection to be declared Tropical Storm Arlene on May 28 . The storm slowly intensified and reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on May 30 . Rapid weakening took place as the storm neared land and Arlene made landfall with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) later that night . Arlene weakened to what is now classified as a Tropical Depression early the next morning . The system degenerated into a remnant low on the afternoon of May 31 and fully dissipated late on June 2 while located over South Carolina .
Arlene dropped heavy rains totaling over 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) in localized areas as it moved into the Southeast United States . The maximum rainfall amount was 13 @.@ 55 in ( 344 mm ) , recorded in Merrill , Mississippi , over a three @-@ day period . The heavy rains caused minor flooding in Louisiana and property damage from the storm amounted to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million 2008 USD ) . One death was indirectly attributed to the storm when a man drowned in rough surf off the Texas coast .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Arlene developed out of a tropical wave which was first noted near the Dominican Republic on May 23 . The wave slowly developed as it moved westward through the Caribbean Sea and developed into an area of low pressure on May 25 . By May 27 , the low entered the Gulf of Mexico and a ship report the next day showed that the low had developed a closed low @-@ level circulation . Early the next morning , the low was determined to have intensified into Tropical Storm Arlene , the first storm of the season , while located 300 mi ( 480 km ) south @-@ southeast of New Orleans , Louisiana with winds estimated at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Arlene was moving towards the northwest at 10 to 15 mph ( 16 to 24 km / h ) . Arlene slowly intensified throughout the day as it continued towards the northwest at 12 to 15 mph ( 19 to 24 km / h ) . On May 29 , Arlene turned towards the west and its foreword motion slowed before becoming nearly stationary that night .
The storm was located 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Lafayette , Louisiana as it drifted northward and winds were estimated to have peaked at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . However , in the post @-@ season , it was determined that Arlene peaked near landfall with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . As Arlene neared the coast , the storm began to weaken due to the interaction with land . Arlene made landfall about 40 mi ( 65 km ) southeast of Lafayette , Louisiana at 2100 UTC ( 4 p.m. CST ) . The operational landfall intensity was 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) but it was lowered to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in the post season . Upon making landfall , Arlene became the earliest landfalling tropical cyclone in Louisiana history . Arlene weakened quickly to a tropical depression shortly after landfall . The storm further degenerated to a remnant area of low @-@ pressure on the afternoon of May 31 . The remnant of the storm lingered in the Southern United States until June 2 , when it dissipated over South Carolina . Although the original low pressure system dissipated , a new , non tropical center formed further north over Virginia . This new low quickly tracked northeast , brushing the southern coast of New England before moving over Nova Scotia and losing its identity on June 3 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The low that eventually became Arlene prompted wind warnings and small craft advisories for both coasts in southern Florida on May 27 . The small craft advisory was significantly expanded the next day when the low was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene . The new warnings stretched from Sabine Pass , Texas to Saint Marks , Florida . Gale warnings were also issued upon the upgrade from Morgan City , Louisiana to Pascagoula , Mississippi . Rough seas and tides of two to four feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 metres ) — also known as storm surge — were expected in the areas under the gale warning . By May 29 , all craft were advised not to leave port in Louisiana . Memories of Hurricane Audrey led to numerous residents evacuating coastal areas upon hearing about Arlene . In Pierre , 50 families evacuated to higher grounds . Officials reported that 25 families were also evacuated from low @-@ lying areas in Vermilion Parish . As Arlene neared landfall , the small craft advisory was canceled from Pensacola , Florida southward . The new warnings extended from Pensacola to Galveston , Texas . The gale warnings shifted more towards the west , now extending from Galveston , Texas to Grand Isle , Louisiana .
Arlene produced winds up to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) with gusts up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) upon landfall . The lowest pressure recorded on land was 999 @.@ 7 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 52 inHg ) , which was rounded up to 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) for the minimum pressure of the storm . Minor storm surge up to three feet was recorded at Weeks Island and Point Au Fer , Louisiana . Heavy rains fell across much of the southeastern Louisiana coastline . During a 24 ‑ hour span , 10 @.@ 92 in ( 277 mm ) of rain fell in Moisant International Airport . Roughly 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water flooded the control tower at the airport , forcing traffic control workers to relocate to the new tower which was under @-@ construction . A state maximum rainfall of 13 @.@ 13 in ( 334 mm ) fell in Houma . Along the coast , a few towns reported downed trees and electrical lines from high winds , resulting in scattered power outages .
At the height of the storm , several of the main roads in New Orleans were shut down due to flooding . At least 100 homes were flooded by the storm . In Baton Rouge , dozens of people were evacuated from a flooded home via ambulance and wagon to safer areas . In nearby Mississippi , rainfall from the storm was mainly confined to the southeastern counties ; however , significant accumulations , peaking at 13 @.@ 55 in ( 344 mm ) , were recorded . Rain from the remnant low spread into Georgia . Some stream flooding and crop damage were reported but overall , the damage was minor . In all , Arlene caused $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million 2010 USD ) in damage . One death was related to Arlene ; a man drowned in rough surf off the Galveston coast . After the initial low dissipated over the southeastern United States , the extratropical remnants of Arlene brought moderate rainfall to parts of the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England .
= The Cool Kids =
The Cool Kids is an American alternative hip hop duo composed of rappers Antoine " Sir Michael Rocks " Reed ( originally from Matteson , Illinois ) and Evan " Chuck Inglish " Ingersoll ( originally from Mount Clemens , Michigan ) . The Cool Kids ' music had been released primarily to the independent Chocolate Industries via their own label C.A.K.E. Recordings , but as of 2010 are no longer with Chocolate Industries .. Reed and Ingersoll have made appearances in numerous forms of media , as well as in collaborations with other artists such as Chip tha Ripper , Asher Roth , Yelawolf , Kenna , Ivan Ives , The Bloody Beetroots , Drake , Travis Barker , Lil Wayne , Pac Div , Ludacris , Mac Miller , Maroon 5 , Curren $ y , and The O 'My 's . Cool Kids are also members of the hip @-@ hop collective All City Chess Club founded in 2010 .
= = History = =
Reed attended Walter Payton College Prep in Chicago , IL while Ingersoll had attended Notre Dame High School in Harper Woods , MI where he played football and basketball . Reed and Ingersoll first exchanged conversations in 2005 when Reed found a beat on MySpace that Ingersoll had produced . The two met to discuss terms of the beat 's sale , and eventually ended up recording for two hours . They were inspired by golden age hip hop and artists like LL Cool J and Eric B. & Rakim . Ingersoll began promoting the new duo 's material , and it was eventually booked by Josh Young of Flosstradamus for a DJ performance . At this performance ( in a venue called Town Hall Pub ) , the duo met the DJ Diplo who offered to release a mixtape of their unreleased tracks titled Totally Flossed Out on his label Mad Decent , though it was eventually released on C.A.K.E. Recordings . They also received an offer from the DJ A @-@ Trak to sign to his Fool 's Gold Records label , which they did , but only for one single . Of their time with Fool 's Gold Records , the Cool Kids felt they weren ’ t getting enough attention : “ When your boss is on tour with Kanye West , it ’ s easy to have timelines missed , ” said Chuck in an interview .
All of their material had been released solely on the band 's MySpace page — their recording contract came after performances at the CMJ Music Festival and Pitchfork Media Music Festival , on July 15 , 2007 . Eventually , The Cool Kids signed to Chocolate Industries , another independent label . The group has revealed on its MySpace page that The Cool Kids ' debut album , When Fish Ride Bicycles , will be released in 2008 , though it did not come out until 2011 . Ingersoll has been the producer for tracks released thus far , but both work in rapping and production . The duo uses music software program Reason from Propellerhead Software to produce their music .
They have been on tour , opening for M.I.A. and they also joined the bill of the 2008 Rock the Bells hip hop festival on select dates . The group toured across Australia in February 2008 and also appeared at the Laneway Festival . The group also appeared at SUNY Purchase 's Culture Shock event in April 2009 . One of the duo 's singles , " Black Mags " , was featured in a late 2007 Rhapsody TV commercial , along with Sara Bareilles . In the same year , the group collaborated with Lil Wayne and DJ Benzi through the Internet on a track entitled " Gettin ' It " , which will reportedly appear on the DJ 's future album Get Right .
The Cool Kids have been featured in the video games NBA Live 08 and MLB 2K8 with the song " 88 " , in Need for Speed Nitro , with The Bloody Beetroots in the song Awesome , and in the episode " The First Cut Is the Deepest " from HBO 's TV series Entourage with the song " Mikey Rocks " . They were listed in Rolling Stone 's Ten Artists to Watch in 2008 . According to Rolling Stone , " since " Black Mags " debuted , the Cool Kids have gone from an underground sensation in their native Chicago to the hottest ticket at New York 's CMJ festival . "
The duo has been endorsed by Mountain Dew for their single , " Delivery Man " , to which commercials and the music video have aired on MTV2 . The group 's song " Bassment Party " was featured in the September 21 , 2008 episode of the HBO hit comedy Entourage . They also recorded an original track , " 2K Pennies , " for the soundtrack of NBA 2K9 . The Cool Kids have said in an interview that their success has been gradual . They will also be headlining the " NBA 2K Bounce Tour " along with Q @-@ Tip . The Cool Kids also performed at the 2009 Voodoo Experience in New Orleans , Louisiana . Producer Don Cannon said in an interview with XXL , that he will be working with The Cool Kids for their new album . The group 's second official mixtape , Gone Fishing was released on May 5 , 2009 . Their debut album , When Fish Ride Bicycles , was released July 12 , 2011 .
Their song " A Little Bit Cooler " was used in a " Most Valuable Puppets " commercial from Nike with LeBron James and Kobe Bryant entitled " Mrs. Lewis " . A new mixtape called Tacklebox came out on May 31 , 2010 . Chuck Inglish worked with Chip tha Ripper and produced his debut album Gift Raps in its entirety . The group claims they haven 't put out an album because of having issues with their former label Chocolate Industries for the past three years , but according to the group these issues are now settled and they are working on putting out When Fish Ride Bicycles . In 2010 , Chuck Inglish and Mikey Rocks teamed up with Gary , Indiana 's Freddie Gibbs and Cleveland 's Chip tha Ripper to form the " super group " P.O.C. ( Pulled Over by the Cops ) . Sir Michael Rocks has released a solo project titled The Rocks Report . When Fish Ride Bicycles was released on July 12 , 2011 . Featuring production by The Neptunes and also featuring Bun B , Chip Tha Ripper , Ghostface Killah , among other artists . The group plans a follow up album titled " Shark Week " .
On October 23 , 2011 Mikey Rocks signed with Jet Life Recordings , a Warner Bros. imprint owned by fellow rap artist Curren $ y . Chuck Inglish produced the EP " Candy Jams " for 10ille in February 2012 and is also set to work on a mixtape with Curren $ y .
On April 25 , 2015 , member Mikey Rocks took to Twitter to address the consistent questions about a possible reunion , saying they were " never coming back . " However , fellow member Chuck Inglish announced the duo were getting back together on July 13 , 2016
= = Discography = =
= Dogmeat =
Dogmeat is a recurring dog non @-@ player character ( NPC ) in the Fallout series of post @-@ apocalyptic themed role @-@ playing video games . Dogmeat was introduced as an optional companion to the player character in the original Fallout ( 1997 ) , and has made cameo appearances in the sequel Fallout 2 ( 1998 ) and in some other video games . Another , different Dogmeat is featured in the same role in Fallout 3 ( 2008 ) and Fallout 4 ( 2015 ) . In both incarnations of the character , Dogmeat was well received , becoming widely regarded as one of the best remembered features in the series , as well as one of the most popular sidekick type characters in video gaming overall .
= = Appearances = =
In the original Fallout by Black Isle Studios and Interplay Entertainment , the protagonist player character , the Vault Dweller , first encounters the feral Dogmeat in Junktown . Dogmeat 's former owner ( an unnamed man closely resembling Max Rockatansky ) died at the hands of thugs hired by a local gangster named Gizmo . If the player character feeds Dogmeat or is wearing a leather jacket , Dogmeat will follow them and fight in their defense . According to the series ' canon , Dogmeat was adopted by the Vault Dweller on 30 December 2161 , and killed by a force field barrier during the Vault Dweller 's assault on the Master 's Military Base on 20 April 2162 . Dogmeat was supposed to appear in the canceled film adaptation of the game as well .
In Fallout 2 , Dogmeat makes a non @-@ canonical appearance in an Easter egg type special encounter " Café of Broken Dreams " . During the encounter , Dogmeat can be picked up by the player character , the Chosen One , if the player approaches him wearing Vault 13 jumpsuit ( or the Bridgekeeper 's robes , due to a bug in the game ) . If the player chooses to kill Dogmeat , a man named Mel ( in a reference to Mel Gibson , the actor who played Mad Max in the film ) will appear and try to avenge him . Dogmeat has made uncredited cameo appearances outside of the Fallout universe in Troika Games ' 2001 Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( created by Fallout designer Tim Cain ) and in 2004 The Bard 's Tale by inXile Entertainment ( headed by Fallout producer Brian Fargo ) . However , there were no plans to bring back Dogmeat for the original third Fallout game project by Black Isle Studios , the canceled Van Buren .
An entirely different dog named Dogmeat appears in Fallout 3 by Bethesda Softworks , which begins in the year 2277 . His master , a scavenger , was killed by a band of raiders in the scrapyard where the dog is to be found . Dogmeat can be recruited by Fallout 3 's player character , the Lone Wanderer . The dog can find objects of value across the landscape and bring them to the player . Fallout 3 expansion set Broken Steel optionally ( enabled by choosing the ' perk ' bonus " Puppies ! " after reaching 22nd experience level ) allows a killed Dogmeat to be replaced by a new one ( with twice as many hit points , that is a starting value of 1 @,@ 000 instead of 500 ) whenever he dies during the game . A fanmade mod which provides an armor for Dogmeat was compared by Destructoid to the infamous horse armor paid DLC from Bethesda 's The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , " except free and functional " . Another mod adds Dogmeat to Fallout : New Vegas .
A new version of Dogmeat appears in Fallout 4 . Fallout 4 ′ s Dogmeat is a German Shepherd , and cannot die .
= = Character design = =
Dogmeat was inspired by the unnamed dog of Max Rockatansky ( Mad Max ) from the 1981 post @-@ apocalyptic film Mad Max 2 . His initial name had been " Dogshit " and his ultimate name was derived from the opening scene of the 1975 post @-@ apocalyptic film A Boy and His Dog , in which the main character Vic calls his dog Blood " dog meat " . According to Fallout producer , lead programmer and designer Tim Cain , " Leonard Boyarsky , the [ game 's ] art director ... had that movie running continuously in his office , and I think he remarked on several occasions that having a dog in the game would be really cool . [ It 's ] why we wanted a dog in the first place . " Fallout programmer and designer Jesse Heinig was credited by Cain as probably " one person to thank for Dogmeat . " Heinig himself said : " My understanding is that [ Fallout designer ] Scott Bennie settled on the name ' Dogmeat ' for the character , and it 's likely that he did pick that from the story in question . "
In 2009 , Fallout designer Chris Taylor said they " never expected that Dogmeat would become such a popular character . " Taylor said : " I always intended that the various NPCs that joined up with the player would come to a violent end . I was shocked when I heard of all the work people went through to keep Dogmeat alive to the end – especially the hell that they went through with the force fields in the Military Base . " According to Fallout 2 and Fallout : New Vegas designer Chris Avellone , Dogmeat is " arguably the most successful NPC companion ever " for several reasons : " One , he doesn 't talk , so the players can project a personality on to him . Two , he 's effective in combat ... and three , he 's a dog that stays with you through thick @-@ and @-@ thin . I don 't think there 's a deeper ' awww ' sentiment than people have in their hearts for their pets . "
= = Reception = =
Kotaku 's Owen Good called Dogmeat " one of the franchise 's most iconic characters " as well as its " one of the most [ e ] motionally fulfilling features . " The book Level Up ! : The Guide to Great Video Game Design by Scott Rogers used him as an example while discussing how the " party members don 't need to be human " . In 2008 , UGO Team stated this " undisputed champion of Fallout characters " is not " only our favorite Fallout character , he 's also one of gaming 's greatest dogs . " That same year , Joe Martin of Bit @-@ tech ranked Dogmeat as the sixth top PC game NPC of all time , commenting : " There are a lot of computer game characters we like and a few we ’ d even go so far as to say we love . Dogmeat though , despite being a definite tabula rasa , sits in a different category altogether and is the only computer game character that we ’ d reload and repeat significant portions of a game for , just so he could stand a better chance of survival . " In 2009 , Michael Fiegel of The Escapist called Dogmeat possibly the most beloved character of the Fallout universe , writing that " in an uncaring wasteland ... Dogmeat is a moral compass : Though your needle might swing towards good or evil , his center always holds strong provided you protect him . " Steve and Larson of ScrewAttack ranked Dogmeat as the tenth best gaming pet in 2011 . Dogmeat was included in numerous lists of best video game dogs , including by Lisa Foiles of The Escapist in 2010 , Michael Perry of PlayStation Official Magazine in 2012 , Gergo Vas of Kotaku in 2013 , and Benjamin Abbott of Metro , Brian Taylor of Paste , and the staff of Bild in 2014 . Ryan McCaffrey of IGN chose Dogmeat as the top feature he wished to return in Fallout 4 .
Dogmeat was also acclaimed by numerous publications as one of the best sidekick type characters in video games . He was included on GameSpot 's list of the top ten video game sidekicks in 2000 , chosen for his loyalty to his master in spite of his " propensity to get himself into trouble , his inability to perform any tricks , and his refusal to listen to directions " in the original game . This " loyal companion " was also chosen by GameSpot to be one of the 64 characters to compete in the 2008 poll for the title of " All @-@ Time Greatest Game Sidekick " . In 2004 , Dogmeat placed as second on GameSpy 's Dave Kosak 's list of the best video game sidekicks , also because of his extreme faithfulness to the player 's character . In 2008 , The Telegraph featured him as one of top ten greatest sidekicks in gaming history . In 2011 , Maximum PC included Dogmeat among the 25 of gaming 's greatest sidekicks , commenting that " though his look , his breed , and his stats have varied [ through the series ] , Dogmeat has the loyalty and heart of a champion . "
= Material properties of diamond =
Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic . Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque . Owing to its strong covalent bonding , diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Yet , due to important structural weaknesses , diamond 's toughness is only fair to good . The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown , however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed , and it could be as high as 90 – 225 GPa depending on the crystal orientation . The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting .
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Diamond has a high refractive index ( 2 @.@ 417 ) and moderate dispersion ( 0 @.@ 044 ) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance . Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present . Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond 's crystal lattice , and in some cases structural defects , are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond . Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors . Unlike many other minerals , the specific gravity of diamond crystals ( 3 @.@ 52 ) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond .
= = Hardness and crystal structure = =
Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – adámas ( " proper " , " unalterable " , " unbreakable " ) and sometimes called adamant , diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material , scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness . Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms , where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds . The material boron nitride , when in a form structurally identical to diamond ( zincblende structure ) , is nearly as hard as diamond ; a currently hypothetical material , beta carbon nitride , may also be as hard or harder in one form . It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals , thus they perform better as abrasive material . Owing to the use of those new ultra @-@ hard materials for diamond testing , more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness . A surface perpendicular to the [ 111 ] crystallographic direction ( that is the longest diagonal of a cube ) of a pure ( i.e. , type IIa ) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with an nanodiamond tip , while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip . Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested , the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa .
The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown , however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed , and it could be as high as 90 – 225 GPa depending on the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation : Tensile strength is the highest for the [ 100 ] crystal direction ( normal to the cubic face ) , smaller for the [ 110 ] and the smallest for the [ 111 ] axis ( along the longest cube diagonal ) . Diamond also has one of the smallest compressibilities of any material .
Cubic diamonds have a perfect and easy octahedral cleavage , which means that they only have four planes — weak directions following the faces of the octahedron where there are fewer bonds — along which diamond can easily split upon blunt impact to leave a smooth surface . Similarly , diamond 's hardness is markedly directional : the hardest direction is the diagonal on the cube face , 100 times harder than the softest direction , which is the dodecahedral plane . The octahedral plane is intermediate between the two extremes . The diamond cutting process relies heavily on this directional hardness , as without it a diamond would be nearly impossible to fashion . Cleavage also plays a helpful role , especially in large stones where the cutter wishes to remove flawed material or to produce more than one stone from the same piece of rough ( e.g. Cullinan Diamond ) .
Diamonds crystallize in the diamond cubic crystal system ( space group Fd3m ) and consist of tetrahedrally , covalently bonded carbon atoms . A second form called lonsdaleite , with hexagonal symmetry , has also been found , but it is extremely rare and forms only in meteorites or in laboratory synthesis . The local environment of each atom is identical in the two structures . From theoretical considerations , lonsdaleite is expected to be harder than diamond , but the size and quality of the available stones are insufficient to test this hypothesis . In terms of crystal habit , diamonds occur most often as euhedral ( well @-@ formed ) or rounded octahedra and twinned , flattened octahedra with a triangular outline . Other forms include dodecahedra and ( rarely ) cubes . There is evidence that nitrogen impurities play an important role in the formation of well @-@ shaped euhedral crystals . The largest diamonds found , such as the Cullinan Diamond , were shapeless . These diamonds are pure ( i.e. type II ) and therefore contain little if any nitrogen .
The faces of diamond octahedrons are highly lustrous owing to their hardness ; triangular shaped growth defects ( trigons ) or etch pits are often present on the faces . A diamond 's fracture may be step @-@ like , conchoidal ( shell @-@ like , similar to glass ) or irregular . Diamonds which are nearly round , due to the formation of multiple steps on octahedral faces , are commonly coated in a gum @-@ like skin ( nyf ) . The combination of stepped faces , growth defects , and nyf produces a " scaly " or corrugated appearance . Many diamonds are so distorted that few crystal faces are discernible . Some diamonds found in Brazil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are polycrystalline and occur as opaque , darkly colored , spherical , radial masses of tiny crystals ; these are known as ballas and are important to industry as they lack the cleavage planes of single @-@ crystal diamond . Carbonado is a similar opaque microcrystalline form which occurs in shapeless masses . Like ballas diamond , carbonado lacks cleavage planes and its specific gravity varies widely from 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 5 . Bort diamonds , found in Brazil , Venezuela , and Guyana , are the most common type of industrial @-@ grade diamond . They are also polycrystalline and often poorly crystallized ; they are translucent and cleave easily .
Because of its great hardness and strong molecular bonding , a cut diamond 's facets and facet edges appear the flattest and sharpest . A curious side effect of diamond 's surface perfection is hydrophobia combined with lipophilia . The former property means a drop of water placed on a diamond will form a coherent droplet , whereas in most other minerals the water would spread out to cover the surface . Similarly , diamond is unusually lipophilic , meaning grease and oil readily collect on a diamond 's surface . Whereas on other minerals oil would form coherent drops , on a diamond the oil would spread . This property is exploited in the use of so @-@ called " grease pens , " which apply a line of grease to the surface of a suspect diamond simulant . Diamond surfaces are hydrophobic when the surface carbon atoms terminate with a hydrogen atom and hydrophilic when the surface atoms terminate with an oxygen atom or hydroxyl radical . Treatment with gases or plasmas containing the appropriate gas , at temperatures of 450 ° C or higher , can change the surface property completely . Naturally occurring diamonds have a surface with less than a half monolayer coverage of oxygen , the balance being hydrogen and the behavior is moderately hydrophobic . This allows for separation from other minerals at the mine using the so @-@ called " grease @-@ belt " .
= = Toughness = =
Unlike hardness , which denotes only resistance to scratching , diamond 's toughness or tenacity is only fair to good . Toughness relates to the ability to resist breakage from falls or impacts . Because of diamond 's perfect and easy cleavage , it is vulnerable to breakage . A diamond will shatter if hit with an ordinary hammer . The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2 @.@ 0 MPa m1 / 2 , which is good compared to other gemstones , but poor compared to most engineering materials . As with any material , the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage . Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others . Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones , prior to faceting .
Ballas and carbonado diamond are exceptional , as they are polycrystalline and therefore much tougher than single @-@ crystal diamond ; they are used for deep @-@ drilling bits and other demanding industrial applications . Particular faceting shapes of diamonds are more prone to breakage and thus may be uninsurable by reputable insurance companies . The brilliant cut of gemstones is designed specifically to reduce the likelihood of breakage or splintering .
Solid foreign crystals are commonly present in diamond . They are mostly minerals , such as olivine , garnets , ruby , and many others . These and other inclusions , such as internal fractures or " feathers " , can compromise the structural integrity of a diamond . Cut diamonds that have been enhanced to improve their clarity via glass infilling of fractures or cavities are especially fragile , as the glass will not stand up to ultrasonic cleaning or the rigors of the jeweler 's torch . Fracture @-@ filled diamonds may shatter if treated improperly .
= = = Pressure resistance = = =
Used in so @-@ called diamond anvil experiments to create high @-@ pressure environments , diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals ( 6 million atmospheres ) .
= = Optical properties = =
= = = Color and its causes = = =
Diamonds occur in various colors : black , brown , yellow , gray , white , blue , orange , purple to pink and red . Colored diamonds contain crystallographic defects , including substitutional impurities and structural defects , that cause the coloration . Theoretically , pure diamonds would be transparent and colorless . Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes , according to the nature of defects present and how they affect light absorption :
Type I diamond has nitrogen ( N ) atoms as the main impurity , at a concentration of up to 1 % . If the N atoms are in pairs or larger aggregates , they do not affect the diamond 's color ; these are Type Ia . About 98 % of gem diamonds are type Ia : these diamonds belong to the Cape series , named after the diamond @-@ rich region formerly known as Cape Province in South Africa , whose deposits are largely Type Ia . If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal in isolated sites ( not paired or grouped ) , they give the stone an intense yellow or occasionally brown tint ( type Ib ) ; the rare canary diamonds belong to this type , which represents only ~ 0 @.@ 1 % of known natural diamonds . Synthetic diamond containing nitrogen is usually of type Ib . Type Ia and Ib diamonds absorb in both the infrared and ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum , from 320 nm . They also have a characteristic fluorescence and visible absorption spectrum ( see Optical properties ) .
Type II diamonds have very few if any nitrogen impurities . Pure ( type IIa ) diamond can be colored pink , red , or brown owing to structural anomalies arising through plastic deformation during crystal growth ; these diamonds are rare ( 1 @.@ 8 % of gem diamonds ) , but constitute a large percentage of Australian diamonds . Type IIb diamonds , which account for ~ 0 @.@ 1 % of gem diamonds , are usually a steely blue or gray due to boron atoms scattered within the crystal matrix . These diamonds are also semiconductors , unlike other diamond types ( see Electrical properties ) . Most blue @-@ gray diamonds coming from the Argyle mine of Australia are not of type IIb , but of Ia type . Those diamonds contain large concentrations of defects and impurities ( especially hydrogen and nitrogen ) and the origin of their color is yet uncertain . Type II diamonds weakly absorb in a different region of the infrared ( the absorption is due to the diamond lattice rather than impurities ) , and transmit in the ultraviolet below 225 nm , unlike type I diamonds . They also have differing fluorescence characteristics , but no discernible visible absorption spectrum .
Certain diamond enhancement techniques are commonly used to artificially produce an array of colors , including blue , green , yellow , red , and black . Color enhancement techniques usually involve irradiation , including proton bombardment via cyclotrons ; neutron bombardment in the piles of nuclear reactors ; and electron bombardment by Van de Graaff generators . These high @-@ energy particles physically alter the diamond 's crystal lattice , knocking carbon atoms out of place and producing color centers . The depth of color penetration depends on the technique and its duration , and in some cases the diamond may be left radioactive to some degree .
Some irradiated diamonds are completely natural ; one famous example is the Dresden Green Diamond . In these natural stones the color is imparted by " radiation burns " ( natural irradiation by alpha particles originating from uranium ore ) in the form of small patches , usually only micrometers deep . Additionally , Type IIa diamonds can have their structural deformations " repaired " via a high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature ( HPHT ) process , removing much or all of the diamond 's color .
= = = Luster = = =
The luster of a diamond is described as ' adamantine ' , which simply means diamond @-@ like . Reflections on a properly cut diamond 's facets are undistorted , due to their flatness . The refractive index of diamond ( as measured via sodium light , 589 @.@ 3 nm ) is 2 @.@ 417 . Because it is cubic in structure , diamond is also isotropic . Its high dispersion of 0 @.@ 044 ( variation of refractive index across the visible spectrum ) manifests in the perceptible fire of cut diamonds . This fire — flashes of prismatic colors seen in transparent stones — is perhaps diamond 's most important optical property from a jewelry perspective . The prominence or amount of fire seen in a stone is heavily influenced by the choice of diamond cut and its associated proportions ( particularly crown height ) , although the body color of fancy ( i.e. , unusual ) diamonds may hide their fire to some degree .
More than 20 other minerals have higher dispersion ( that is difference in refractive index for blue and red light ) than diamond , such as titanite 0 @.@ 051 , andradite 0 @.@ 057 , cassiterite 0 @.@ 071 , strontium titanate 0 @.@ 109 , sphalerite 0 @.@ 156 , synthetic rutile 0 @.@ 330 , cinnabar 0 @.@ 4 , etc . ( see dispersion ) . However , the combination of dispersion with extreme hardness , wear and chemical resistivity , as well as clever marketing , determines the exceptional value of diamond as a gemstone .
= = = Fluorescence = = =
Diamonds exhibit fluorescence , that is , they emit light of various colors and intensities under long @-@ wave ultraviolet light ( 365 nm ) : Cape series stones ( type Ia ) usually fluoresce blue , and these stones may also phosphoresce yellow , a unique property among gemstones . Other possible long @-@ wave fluorescence colors are green ( usually in brown stones ) , yellow , mauve , or red ( in type IIb diamonds ) . In natural diamonds , there is typically little if any response to short @-@ wave ultraviolet , but the reverse is true of synthetic diamonds . Some natural type IIb diamonds phosphoresce blue after exposure to short @-@ wave ultraviolet . In natural diamonds , fluorescence under X @-@ rays is generally bluish @-@ white , yellowish or greenish . Some diamonds , particularly Canadian diamonds , show no fluorescence .
The origin of the luminescence colors is often unclear and not unique . Blue emission from type IIa and IIb diamonds is reliably identified with dislocations by directly correlating the emission with dislocations in an electron microscope . However , blue emission in type Ia diamond could be either due to dislocations or the N3 defects ( three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy ) . Green emission in natural diamond is usually due to the H3 center ( two substitutional nitrogen atoms separated by a vacancy ) , whereas in synthetic diamond it usually originates from nickel used as a catalyst ( see figure ) . Orange or red emission could be due to various reasons , one being the nitrogen @-@ vacancy center which is present in sufficient quantities in all types of diamond , even type IIb .
= = = Optical absorption = = =
Cape series ( Ia ) diamonds have a visible absorption spectrum ( as seen through a direct @-@ vision spectroscope ) consisting of a fine line in the violet at 415 @.@ 5 nm ; however , this line is often invisible until the diamond has been cooled to very low temperatures . Associated with this are weaker lines at 478 nm , 465 nm , 452 nm , 435 nm , and 423 nm . All those lines are labeled as N3 and N2 optical centers and associated with a defect consisting of three nitrogen atoms bordering a vacancy . Other stones show additional bands : brown , green , or yellow diamonds show a band in the green at 504 nm ( H3 center , see above ) , sometimes accompanied by two additional weak bands at 537 nm and 495 nm ( H4 center , a large complex presumably involving 4 substitutional nitrogen atoms and 2 lattice vacancies ) . Type IIb diamonds may absorb in the far red due to the substitutional boron , but otherwise show no observable visible absorption spectrum .
Gemological laboratories make use of spectrophotometer machines that can distinguish natural , artificial , and color @-@ enhanced diamonds . The spectrophotometers analyze the infrared , visible , and ultraviolet absorption and luminescence spectra of diamonds cooled with liquid nitrogen to detect tell @-@ tale absorption lines that are not normally discernible .
= = Electrical properties = =
Except for most natural blue diamonds , which are semiconductors due to substitutional boron impurities replacing carbon atoms , diamond is a good electrical insulator , having a resistivity of 100 GΩ · m to 1 EΩ · m ( 1011 to 1018 Ω · m ) . Natural blue or blue @-@ gray diamonds , common for the Argyle diamond mine in Australia , are rich in hydrogen ; these diamonds are not semiconductors and it is unclear whether hydrogen is actually responsible for their blue @-@ gray color . Natural blue diamonds containing boron and synthetic diamonds doped with boron are p @-@ type semiconductors . N @-@ type diamond films are reproducibly synthesized by phosphorus doping during chemical vapor deposition . Diode p @-@ n junctions and UV light emitting diodes ( LEDs , at 235 nm ) have been produced by sequential deposition of p @-@ type ( boron @-@ doped ) and n @-@ type ( phosphorus @-@ doped ) layers .
Diamond transistors have been produced ( for research purposes ) . FETs with SiN dielectric layers , and SC @-@ FETs have been made .
In April 2004 , the journal Nature reported that below the superconducting transition temperature 4 K , boron @-@ doped diamond synthesized at high temperature and high pressure is a bulk superconductor . Superconductivity was later observed in heavily boron @-@ doped films grown by various chemical vapor deposition techniques , and the highest reported transition temperature ( by 2009 ) is 11 @.@ 4 K. ( See also Covalent superconductor # Diamond )
Uncommon magnetic properties ( spin glass state ) were observed in diamond nanocrystals intercalated with potassium . Unlike paramagnetic host material , magnetic susceptibility measurements of intercalated nanodiamond revealed distinct ferromagnetic behavior at 5 K. This is essentially different from results of potassium intercalation in graphite or C60 fullerene , and shows that sp3 bonding promotes magnetic ordering in carbon . The measurements presented first experimental evidence of intercalation @-@ induced spin @-@ glass state in a nanocrystalline diamond system .
= = Thermal conductivity = =
Unlike most electrical insulators , diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding and low phonon scattering . Thermal conductivity of natural diamond was measured to be about 22 W / ( cm · K ) , which is five times more than copper . Monocrystalline synthetic diamond enriched in the isotope 12C ( 99 @.@ 9 % ) has the highest thermal conductivity of any known solid at room temperature : 33 @.@ 2 W / ( cm · K ) . Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating . At lower temperatures conductivity becomes even better , and reaches 410 W / ( cm · K ) at 104 K ( 12C @-@ enriched diamond ) .
Diamond 's high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to distinguish diamonds from their imitations . These probes consist of a pair of battery @-@ powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip . One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip : if the stone being tested is a diamond , it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop . This test takes about 2 – 3 seconds . However , older probes will be fooled by moissanite , a crystalline mineral form of silicon carbide introduced in 1998 as an alternative to diamonds , which has a similar thermal conductivity .
= = Thermal stability = =
Being a form of carbon , diamond oxidizes in air if heated over 700 ° C. In absence of oxygen , e.g. in a flow of high @-@ purity argon gas , diamond can be heated up to about 1700 ° C. Its surface blackens , but can be recovered by re @-@ polishing . At high pressure ( ~ 20 GPa ) diamond can be heated up to 2500 ° C , and a report published in 2009 suggests that diamond can withstand temperatures of 3000 ° C and above .
Diamonds are carbon crystals that form deep within the Earth under high temperatures and extreme pressures . At surface air pressure ( one atmosphere ) , diamonds are not as stable as graphite , and so the decay of diamond is thermodynamically favorable ( δH = − 2 kJ / mol ) . So , contrary to De Beers ' ad campaign extending from 1948 to at least 2013 under the slogan " A diamond is forever " , diamonds are definitely not forever . However , owing to a very large kinetic energy barrier , diamonds are metastable ; they will not decay into graphite under normal conditions .
= The Brute Man =
The Brute Man is a 1946 American horror thriller film starring Rondo Hatton as the Creeper , a murderer seeking revenge against the people he holds responsible for the disfigurement of his face . Directed by Jean Yarbrough , the film features Tom Neal and Jan Wiley as a married pair of friends the Creeper blames for his deformities . Jane Adams also starred as a blind pianist for whom the Creeper tries to raise money for an operation to restore her vision .
The film was produced by Universal Pictures near the end of their horror film period . According to legend , as the result of its pending merger with International Pictures , Universal Pictures adopted a policy against releasing any more B movies , so sold The Brute Man for $ 125 @,@ 000 to poverty row 's Producers Releasing Corporation , which distributed the film without any mention of Universal 's involvement in publicity or credits . In fact , Universal released at least one B @-@ western following the merger , and still had numerous other titles in active circulation from the preceding few years , up to the month before the merger . Most experts tend to believe that Universal simply found the exploitation of the deceased Hatton and his deformity for the third time , in his last film ( in which evidence of his impending demise may be foreshadowed in his acting ) , and of a poorly @-@ developed story , to be detrimental to its corporate image but did not want to take a financial loss by simply shelving the film permanently .
Considered a lost film after its initial release , because it was neither reissued theatrically by Madison Pictures , inheritor of the PRC library of films , nor sent to television by Universal , it was eventually relocated for television by TNT and subsequently released to home video in 1982 . The Brute Man received generally negative reviews , drawing particular criticism for Hatton 's poor performance . The film was featured in a 1996 episode of the movie @-@ mocking comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Plot = =
The police investigate a string of murders committed by the Creeper ( Rondo Hatton ) , a mysterious killer with a hideously disfigured face . The Creeper attacks and murders Professor Cushman ( John Hamilton ) , a professor from the nearby Hampton University . Later that night , the killer approaches a woman named Joan Bemis ( Janelle Johnson ) in front of her home and identifies himself as Hal Moffet . Joan screams hysterically at the sight of him until he is driven to kill her . When police cars approach , the Creeper climbs the fire escape of a city tenement building to escape and enters the apartment of Helen Paige ( Jane Adams ) , a blind pianist . Unable to see the Creeper 's deformed face , Helen is not afraid of the intruder , even when he admits to fleeing . When police officers knock on her door , failing to identify themselves , Helen encourages him to hide in her bedroom , where he escapes through the window .
The next day , a general store delivery boy named Jimmy ( Jack Parker ) listens to a radio report about the Creeper 's murders . The cantankerous store owner Mr. Haskins ( Oscar O 'Shea ) arrives with a handwritten letter slipped under the door , requesting groceries be delivered to a nearby dock . Jimmy brings the groceries to the dock and leaves them at a door , where the Creeper takes them into his hideout . But , when Jimmy tries to spy on him through a window , the Creeper sneaks up on Jimmy and kills him . Meanwhile , at the police station , Captain M.J. Donelly ( Donald MacBride ) and Lieutenant Gates ( Peter Whitney ) receive complaints from the mayor 's office about their failure to arrest the Creeper , but they deflect the blame . The two officers then get a call about the missing delivery boy and head to the dock to investigate .
The Creeper sneaks out and escapes while Donelly and Gates infiltrate his hideout and discover Jimmy 's corpse . Donnelly also finds a newspaper clipping with a man named Hal Moffet and two of his friends , Clifford Scott ( Tom Neal ) and Virginia Rogers ( Jan Wiley ) , during their college days . The police visit Clifford and Virginia , who are now married and wealthy . Clifford tells the officers during college , Hal was a handsome college football star who competed with Clifford for Virginia 's affections . One day , while helping Hal prepare for a chemistry exam , a jealous Clifford deliberately gave him the wrong answers , resulting in Hal being asked by Professor Cushman to remain after class for extra work . While working on a chemistry experiment , Clifford walks by the window with Virginia to boast . Furious , Hal hurls a beaker to the ground , accidentally causing an explosion that disfigures his face . Donnelly speculates that Hal is the Creeper , and that he killed Professor Cushman and Joan because he holds them partially responsible for his accident .
Meanwhile , the Creeper goes to a pawn store to buy a brooch for Helen , and kills the pawnbroker ( Charles Wagenheim ) following a fight . He later brings the brooch to Helen , who he realizes for the first time is blind . Hal learns she needs $ 3 @,@ 000 for surgery that would restore her eyesight . When Helen tries to touch his face , Hal angrily storms out . He then goes to the Scott residence and demands money from Clifford and Virginia , whom he blames for his disfigurement . Clifford draws a gun and shoots Hal twice in the stomach , but the weakened Hal manages to strangle Clifford to death before escaping with Virginia 's jewels . He brings them to Helen , who is concerned about Hal 's injuries , but he flees before she can learn he is shot .
Helen brings the jewels to an appraiser , who recognizes them as having recently been reported stolen . Donelly and Gates bring Helen into the station , where they inform her Hal is the Creeper and accuse her of harboring a murderer . Reluctantly , she agrees to help them capture him . The next day , the newspapers run stories about Helen cooperating with police , which infuriates Hal . Feeling betrayed , he sneaks back into her apartment and finds her playing the piano . Sneaking up from behind , Hal is about to strangle her when the police seize and arrest him . The film ends with Donelly and Gates assuring Helen she will get the operation she needs .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The screenplay for The Brute Man was written by George Bricker and M. Coates Webster based on a story by Dwight V. Babcock . An author of pulp fiction stories and novels , Babock started writing for Universal Pictures in 1943 , where he worked primarily on horror films . The Brute Man marked the last of nine films Babcock wrote for Universal before he left for a job at Columbia Pictures . Bricker wrote several screenplays in a variety of genres , from horror films and mysteries to comedies , and worked primarily as a freelancer jumping from studio to studio . Babcock and Brister previously worked together on several low @-@ budget horror films , including The Devil Bat ( 1940 ) , House of Dracula ( 1945 ) , Pillow of Death ( 1945 ) , She @-@ Wolf of London ( 1946 ) and House of Horrors ( 1946 ) . Bricker and Webster both previously wrote the screenplays for Universal Pictures films featuring The Brute Man star Rondo Hatton : Bricker penned House of Horrors , and Webster wrote The Jungle Captive ( 1947 ) , the third in a series of films about an ape that transforms into a beautiful woman .
The Brute Man is a quasi @-@ prequel to House of Horrors , in which Hatton played a deformed madman named " The Creeper " who kills people by breaking their backs . In The Brute Man Hatton also plays " The Creeper " , while the story explains how he became deformed and why he has a murderous personality . Hatton also played a disfigured killer called the Creeper in The Pearl of Death , a 1944 Sherlock Holmes film , but neither House of Horrors nor The Brute Man have any connection to that film . In establishing a backstory explaining the Creeper 's motives , The Brute Man 's script seeks to humanize the character and elicit more sympathy for him than the Creeper 's other films , in which he is generally portrayed as a two @-@ dimensional murderer . The origin of the Creeper is based partially on autobiographical details from Hatton 's real life . Before becoming disfigured by an accident , the Creeper was a handsome young college football hero . Hatton himself was also a football player at the University of Florida before suffering from the effects of acromegaly , a syndrome that causes abnormal bone growth due to excess growth hormone from the pituitary gland . In the film , the character is disfigured by chemicals during a laboratory accident in school . While Hatton 's real @-@ life abnormalities stemmed from acromegaly , it was often incorrectly stated by Universal Pictures publicity materials that they were the result of exposure to mustard gas attacks during Hatton 's service in World War I.
The film 's setting , which appears to be a major city , is never identified in The Brute Man , but it has been suggested that it is Manhattan , since that is where House of Horrors took place . Commentators have noted similarities between The Brute Man and other films , including the Charlie Chaplin silent comedy City Lights ( 1931 ) , and the Universal Pictures horror film Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) . City Lights , like The Brute Man , included a protagonist ( Chaplin 's Tramp character ) who falls in love with a blind girl and seeks money for an operation to restore her eyesight . Likewise , the scenes between the Creeper and Helen Paige share a similar premise and dialogue as the scenes between the Frankenstein 's monster and the blind hermit in Bride of Frankenstein . In both films , the protagonist is shunned by society based on their physical appearance , but find companionship in a blind loner who knows nothing about their deformities . In both instances , the protagonist is first drawn to their blind companions by music . The Creeper heard Helen playing the piano , while the Frankenstein 's monster heard the hermit playing the violin . Commentators have noted other similarities between the two films . For example , the Creeper smashes a mirror after looking at his misshapen face , much like the Monster lashes out at his reflection in a waterfall pool .
= = = Casting = = =
The Brute Man marked one of several films in which Universal Pictures cast Hatton as a murderer , taking advantage of his natural deformities for shock value . As a result of his acromegaly , Hatton had abnormally enlarged and shaped bones on his head and hands , and the Universal Pictures publicity department often promoted the fact that Hatton did not need make @-@ up for his roles . Tom Neal , who had recently appeared in the cult classic noir film Detour ( 1945 ) , was cast as Clifford Scott . Having appeared in dozens of low @-@ budget films throughout the early @-@ 1940s , Neal began to become known as the " King of the B Pictures " . In The Brute Man , Neal portrayed Scott both in his older years and in the flashback scenes , where the character appears as a college student . To differentiate between the two , Neal was fitted with make @-@ up and costumes to make him better resemble a middle @-@ aged man during his non @-@ flashback scenes . Jane Adams was cast as the blind pianist Helen Paige . Adams had appeared in several Universal Pictures films before , including the Lon Chaney , Jr. film House of Dracula ( 1945 ) .
Jan Wiley was cast as Scott 's wife , Virginia . Although Wiley had appeared in several movies throughout the 1930s and 1940s , The Brute Man marked one of her final film performances . It was also recalled as one of her most memorable film appearances along with another Universal Pictures B horror film , She @-@ Wolf of London . However , her performance in The Brute Man proved to be a less than memorable one for her , so much so that in an interview shortly before Wiley 's death in 1993 , she could barely remember even having appeared in the film . Donald MacBride and Peter Whitney portray the police officers Captain M.J. Donelly and Lieutenant Gates , respectively . Their roles serve as comic relief for the film . Their characters portray the incompetence of the police force in their inability to find and arrest the Creeper and their focus on passing blame for their failures rather than diverting resources toward his arrest .
= = = Filming = = =
The Brute Man was developed by Universal Pictures Company , Inc. in the later years of their successful production of horror films , including Dracula ( 1931 ) , Frankenstein ( 1931 ) and The Mummy ( 1932 ) . While those films were great critical and financial successes , The Brute Man was filmed during what was widely considered the low point of the studio 's horror film period . It was produced by Ben Pivar and directed by Jean Yarbrough , both of whom had worked on House of Horrors and many other horror films for Universal over the years . The Brute Man was filmed in 13 days , during November 1945 . The flashback scenes — which depict how Hal Moffet became disfigured and ultimately became the Creeper — were all shot on the final day of filming . Jane Adams said Hatton 's acromegaly was becoming progressively worse by the time The Brute Man was filmed , and it made acting difficult for him . Hatton had trouble remembering his lines , focusing on his performance , and responding to the other actors . Hatton occasionally appears confused even on screen , like during one scene where he says " yes " while shaking his head " no . " Adams called him a friendly and thoughtful man , but called him " so pathetic to work with [ and ] almost autistic " .
Maury Gertsman , who handled the cinematography for nearly all Universal Pictures films from the mid @-@ 1940s to mid @-@ 1950s , worked as director of photographer on The Brute Man . Since the film focused on a disfigured serial killer , Gertsman sought to give the movie a dark , diseased look appropriate for the film 's subject matter and urban setting . Although primarily a horror thriller film , Gertsman uses several film noir elements in his photography , including shadowed lighting , unbalanced compositions , and chiaroscuro contrasts between light and dark . As a result , The Brute Man features a bleak , at times dismal visual atmosphere . Hans J. Salter , who composed the scores for many of the Universal Pictures films of the 1940s and 1950s , worked as composer for The Brute Man as well . Salter 's score for the film strongly resembled the music he composed for the Universal horror films Black Friday ( 1940 ) and The Invisible Man 's Revenge ( 1944 ) . Philip Cahn edited The Brute Man . Raymond Kessler and Ralph Slosser worked a dialogue director and assistant director , respectively , while John B. Goodman and Abraham Grossman worked as art directors . Other crew included Russell A. Gausman and Edward G. Robinson as set decorators , Joe Lapis as sound technician , Jack Pierce as make @-@ up director , Carmen Dirigo as hair stylist , and Vera West as gowns supervisor .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Although produced by Universal Pictures , The Brute Man was distributed by Producers Releasing Corporation , one of the smaller film studios from Hollywood 's Poverty Row . In 1945 , Universal merged with the company International Pictures , and the new organization adopted a policy against developing any more B movies , including Westerns , horror films , serials and movies running 70 minutes or less . This resulted in the firing of numerous production personnel members and the sale of several already @-@ developed films , including The Brute Man . The sale was also perpetuated in part by the death of star Rondo Hatton . He died as a result of his acromegaly on February 2 , 1946 , about eight months before The Brute Man was first screened , making it his final film . Universal feared releasing the film so soon after his death would lead to accusations that the studio was exploiting the illness that ultimately killed Hatton . Now embarrassed by the film , the studio was anxious to sell it .
Universal sold the film to PRC for $ 125 @,@ 000 , which represented the negative cost plus interest . The transaction occurred around August 1946 , but was not made public until it was screened for the trade press on October 1 , marking its official release date . The sale occurred so quickly and hastily on the copyright files stores at the Library of Congress , the name Universal Pictures was crossed out and Pathe Industries , PRC 's corporate body , was written in its place in pencil . Some pressbook advertisements circulated for the film still included the Universal Pictures logo . PRC had previously produced a horror film about acomegaly called The Monster Maker ( 1944 ) , in which a mad scientist injects human subjects with the disease as part of his experiments .
= = = Reception = = =
The Brute Man received generally negative critical reviews following its release on October 1 , 1946 . A 1946 review in the Harrison 's Reports trade journal , found that the film had some suspenseful moments and could be enjoyed by fans of the genre , but that the overall effect was " artificial and stagy " . The review stated most audiences " will find it tiresome in plot and in treatment [ ... ] in fact , some of the action and dialogue may provoke laughs , instead of serious response . " New York Post critic Arthur Winsten criticized the story and the acting of Rondo Hatton , commenting that his facial disfigurements alone did not make up for his poor acting skills : " Just as clothes don 't make a gentleman , so a face doesn 't make both a villain and continuous thrills . All this picture has is a face , handicapped by encircling improbabilities . " In a review published in 1947 , Wanda Hale of the New York Daily News called it " a crude production [ ... ] compiled of bits from various B thrillers " . In contrast , Mandel Herbstman of The Motion Picture Herald , said although the film used standard thriller film devices , The Brute Man " stands favorably " in its genre and director Jean Yarbrough kept the film moving at a brisk pace .
Decades after the film 's release , contemporary reviews of The Brute Man were similarly negative , with many commentators criticizing the exploitation of Hatton 's real @-@ life acromegaly . Film reviewer Leonard Maltin gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars . John Stanley , host of the KTVU television show Creature Features , described it as a dull and " shoddy thriller " , criticizing both the performances and the mood from the direction and photography . The authors of Universal Horrors : The Studio 's Classic Films , 1931 @-@ 1946 were highly critical of the film 's dialogue , and claimed much of the script seemed to be " time @-@ killing stuff " to pad the film 's already @-@ short running time . They wrote that Hatton 's acting was so bad , it " wouldn 't be acceptable even at a pre @-@ production cast get @-@ together and table reading , much less in the movie itself " .
Donald C. Willis , a writer who wrote about horror and science fiction films , described the horror scenes as completely lacking suspense , and said the film was " so flimsy that its three co @-@ plots seem to be operating independently of one another " . Keith Brown of the University of Edinburgh , in his paper " Notes on the Terror Film " , argued that The Brute Man is an example of what he calls the " terror film " , a genre distinguishable from the horror film due to its emphasis on naturally occurring sources of fear , rather than fantastical or otherworldly horror elements . Brown wrote that the Creeper character " blurs the boundary between human and animal on account of his grotesque , deformed features , but is natural and thus a figure of terror " .
= = = Home video = = =
For decades after the film 's theatrical release , copies of The Brute Man were unavailable , and it became regarded as a lost film . However , the film was eventually discovered and mass @-@ produced by Admit One , a home video distribution company that focused specifically on lesser @-@ known B films . The Brute Man was first released on Betamax and VHS in 1982 by Admit One . It has been reissued on VHS several times since then , and was released on laserdisc format in 1990 . The Brute Man was most recently released on VHS by Image Entertainment in 1999 , a year which also marked the first DVD release of the film , also by Image Entertainment . In his 2004 DVD guide book , Douglas Pratt complimented both the picture and sound transfers of the 1999 DVD release : " The picture looks great . There are a couple shots where a few speckles pop up , but much of the time the image is clean , with deep blacks and sharp , finely graded contrasts . " An inexpensive DVD version was also released in 2006 by Cheezy Flicks Entertainment , Inc . , which primarily markets B films .
= = Cultural references = =
Rondo Hatton 's likeness from The Brute Man inspired the appearance of one of the villain characters in Dave Stevens ' Rocketeer comic book as well as the 1991 film adaptation , The Rocketeer . In the film , the seven @-@ foot @-@ tall Tiny Ron Taylor portrays Lothar , an ugly and murderous henchman for the story 's antagonist . Rick Baker , the special make @-@ up effects artist that worked on the film , designed the character 's facial make @-@ up to resemble Hatton 's Creeper character , and Lothar dresses in a dark coat and hat similar to his clothing from The Brute Man .
In 2002 , the founders of the website The Classic Horror Film Board created the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards to honor horror works in film , television and publishing . The awards were named after the actor , and award recipients received statuettes with miniature busts of Hatton as he appeared portraying the Creeper in House of Horrors and The Brute Man . The statuettes were sculpted by illustrator Kerry Gammill and cast by modeler Tim M. Lindsey .
The Brute Man was featured in a seventh season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 , a comedy television series . In the show , the human character Mike Nelson and his two robots friends , Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo , are trapped in a satellite and forced by the mad scientist Dr. Forrester to watch bad films as part of an ongoing scientific experiment . In order to get through the experiment , Mike and the robots make jokes mocking the film as they watch . During the episode , their silhouetted images are superimposed over the film to give the impression that they are sitting in a movie theater as they make their jokes . The Brute Man was the second episode of the seventh season , which was broadcast on Comedy Central on February 10 , 1996 . The description for The Brute Man in The Mystery Science Theater 3000 Amazing Colossal Episode Guide , a book by the cast and writers of the series , reads : " A dark film about dark things . Rondo Hatton 's swan song ; he died just weeks after the film was completed . So murky and dark , it makes M look like Mrs. Doubtfire . "
Michael J. Nelson , the show 's head writer who also plays the character of the same name , said the staff initially felt strange making jokes at the expense of Rondo Hatton and his real @-@ life illness ; however , Nelson said , " Then you realize it 's the whole point of the movie : he 's a guy with a big ugly face ... And he is a terribly bad actor . " Paul Chaplin , another writer with the series , said of the actor 's acromegaly : " That fact opens up a large , irresolvable issue concerning the movie industry 's use of this poor afflicted fellow ; he was paid , after all , and movie work is nice work . Yet it can seem exploitative of misfortune . "
= Apeomyoides =
Apeomyoides savagei is a fossil rodent from the Miocene of the United States , the only species in the genus Apeomyoides . It is known from fragmentary jaws and isolated teeth from a site in the early Barstovian , around 15 – 16 million years ago , of Nevada . Together with other species from scattered localities in the United States , Japan , and Europe , Apeomyoides is classified in the subfamily Apeomyinae of the extinct rodent family Eomyidae . Apeomyines are a rare but widespread group that may have been adapted to a relatively dry habitat .
As is characteristic of apeomyines , Apeomyoides was a large eomyid with high @-@ crowned cheekteeth and a large gap between the incisors and cheekteeth . Furthermore , the cheekteeth — premolars and molars — approach a bilophodont pattern , with two distinct lobes . Other features distinguish Apeomyoides from other apeomyines , including the rectangular shape of the cheekteeth . The fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) is larger than the molars behind it and has two roots , while the lower molars have three .
= = Taxonomy = =
Apeomyoides is a member of the Eomyidae , a diverse rodent family that is now extinct . Eomyids first appeared in the Middle Eocene ( ~ 47 million years ago , mya ) in North America , where they existed until the end of the Miocene ( ~ 5 mya ) . In Europe , they survived a little longer , until the end of the Pliocene ( ~ 2 – 3 mya ) . Apeomyoides is further part of a distinctive subgroup of eomyids known as the Apeomyinae . The first apeomyine to be discovered was Apeomys tuerkheimae , named in 1968 based on fossils from the Early Miocene of Germany , and later discoveries have expanded the range of Apeomys and similar taxa . In 1998 , Oldřich Fejfar and colleagues reviewed Apeomys and identified a second , related genus Megapeomys , from the Early Miocene of Germany , the Czech Republic , and Japan . These scientists also named a new eomyid subfamily , Apeomyinae , to house Apeomys and Megapeomys . The Japanese Megapeomys was named as a separate species , Megapeomys repenningi , in 2011 . Further apeomyines have been identified in North America : Megapeomys bobwilsoni from the Hemingfordian of Nevada , Apeomyoides savagei from the Barstovian of Nevada , Zophoapeomys indicum from the Late Oligocene of South Dakota , and a possible second species of Zophoapeomys from the Late Oligocene of Nebraska . Another North American eomyid , Arikareeomys skinneri , from the Arikareean of Nebraska , has also been reidentified as an apeomyine .
In general , apeomyines are a widespread but generally rare group of dentally distinctive eomyids with a tendency towards large size . Fejfar and colleagues suggested that apeomyines were ecologically distinct from other eomyids and probably preferred a drier habitat . Although other scientists recognized Apeomyinae as a subfamily , in a 2008 summary of North American eomyids , Lawrence Flynn placed the group as a tribe , Apeomyini , within the subfamily Eomyinae . Flynn described Apeomyoides as the most derived apeomyine .
Apeomyoides savagei was described as a new genus and species by Kent Smith , Richard Cifelli , and Nicholas Czaplewski in 2006 . The generic name , Apeomyoides , adds the Greek suffix -ides , indicating similarity , to the name of the related genus Apeomys , while the specific name , savagei , honors Donald E. Savage for his work on fossil mammals and for assistance to Smith . In the same paper , these scientists argued in favor of apeomyine affinities for Arikareeomys .
= = Description = =
Apeomyoides savagei is a large eomyid , though not as large as Megapeomys lindsayi and M. bobwilsoni . Megapeomys repenningi from Japan is similar in size , but its cheekteeth are not as high @-@ crowned . A. savagei shows a series of traits that are characteristic for the apeomyines : high @-@ crowned cheekteeth with thick enamel that are bilophodont ( divided into two lobes ) in form and a very long diastema ( gap ) between the lower incisor and cheekteeth . However , the cheekteeth are higher @-@ crowned than those of other apeomyines
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back of his head , and the blood poured out of the nose and mouth like water from a briskly handled pump . This was the most horrible sight of all . I have seen death in all its forms , but never anything to equal this man 's end .
Others reported with shudders how birds of prey circled above the execution place and swooped down to catch pieces of human flesh in the air , while others were nauseated by the dogs loitering about the place of execution and rushing to the scene to devour some of the " delicacies " spread around as a result of the execution .
= = Mughal Empire = =
Blowing from a gun as a method of execution has a long and varied history on the Indian sub @-@ continent , and many reports from the mid @-@ 18th century and onwards testify to its varied use . The execution method was used during rebellions and as punishment for a variety of crimes . Here , a focus is chosen upon the Mughal tradition of blowing from guns as a local tradition preceding , for example , the British tradition on the same sub @-@ continent .
Several historians note that blowing people from the guns as a method of execution was an " old Mughal punishment " on the Indian sub @-@ continent . Just prior to the institution of the reign of the first Mughal emperor , Babur , his son Humayun is said to have blown from guns 100 Afghan prisoners on 6 March 1526 , in one incident of his father 's many struggles against the Lodi dynasty . During the latter half of the 17th century , members of the Jat people in Northern India rebelled and raided against the Mughal Empire , and the emperor Aurangzeb is said in one account to have ordered one of their leaders blown from a gun . Purbeel Singh , said to have been the last Hindu chief of Umga , close to Aurangabad in today 's Bihar state , was reportedly taken by an unnamed Mughal emperor to Aurungabad , and blown from a gun . The Sikh rebel Banda Singh Bahadur was finally vanquished in 1716 by the emperor Farrukhsiyar , and after his execution , Banda 's son was ordered to be " blown to bits by a cannon " .
While the preceding cases are examples of rebels or military adversaries being blown from guns , the Mughal era also contained a few examples of using this form of execution for other types of perceived crime . For example , in a rather anecdotal story from the times of Jahangir ( r . 1605 – 1627 ) , the emperor had six mullahs blown from guns , for having consented to , and given approval of , the forcible abduction and marriage of a Hindu girl to a Muslim officer . In 1714 , thieves were a severe annoyance to a marching army ; a trap was made , and two thieves caught by the concealed guards were later blown from guns . During a siege in 1719 , the problem of deserters was eventually solved for the commander of the Mughal army by blowing four deserters caught in the act from guns , in presence of his troops .
= = Portuguese Empire = =
Portuguese colonialists are , in several accounts , charged with having used blowing from a gun as a form of capital punishment in many of their colonies . A short review follows :
= = = Sri Lanka = = =
The Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida is reported to have blown many individuals from guns at Ceylon , around 1509 . During the Dutch siege of Colombo in 1656 , the city population endured extreme famine . One nursing mother became so starved that her production of milk stopped , and her infant was dying . She chose to kill it , and eat it . Once the Portuguese general became aware of her act of cannibalism , he ordered her blown from a gun , but in this particular instance , the clergy and the principal citizens dissuaded him from carrying out the act .
= = = Mozambique = = =
During explorer Francisco Barreto 's 1569 – 73 campaign in Monomotapa , he at one time imprisoned some 50 Muslim individuals , and had them " impaled , blown from mortars , torn apart on tree @-@ trunks , axed or shot " . In mid @-@ 18th @-@ century Tete , in north @-@ western Portuguese Mozambique , the capital punishment for slaves are said to have been to be blown from guns , and , in the first decade of the 19th century , it is reported that an inveterate raider chief was caught by the Portuguese and blown from a gun .
= = = Brazil = = =
In 1618 Brazil , native resistance against the Portuguese was unshaken , although a leader of them , Amaro , was taken prisoner and blown from a gun .
= = British India = =
= = = Before 1857 = = =
Blowing from a gun as a method of execution was used , perhaps most well known , by British troops during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The British , however , had a long tradition prior to the 1857 rebellion of executing sepoys found guilty of mutiny or desertion in this manner . According to one historian , the British tradition began in 1760 , when the government examined the modes of capital punishment in use . In the district of the 24 Perganas , it was found that the common military mode of capital punishment was flogging to death . Regarding blowing from a gun as an old Mughal punishment , the government opted for this technique , as being , relative to death by flogging , more deterrent , more public and more humane . Already in 1761 , orders were given in Lakhipur " to fire off at the mouth of a cannon the leader of the thieves who was made prisoner , that others may be deterred " . Technically , in cases of court @-@ martial , it seems that until 1857 the courts were composed of native officers rather than British , but it is added : " although they are presided over , and generally led and ruled , by the superintending officer , whose duty , however , is merely to transcribe the evidence , and assist the native officers with advice and counsel " .
In March 1764 , a subedar ( native officer ) thought to entice his troops over to the enemy ; he was court @-@ martialed and blown from a gun in front of the troops . In September the same year , major Hector Munro executed 24 or 25 " ring leaders " who caused a battalion to desert ( the desertion being on account of " lack of rewards " , " scarcity of provisions " and problems with climate and disease ) . Approving of the execution , one commenter said : " no disposition to mutiny was thenceforth manifested " . In 1775 , a commandant Muctoom Sahib incited his men not to embark for Bombay . Muctoom Sahib was blown from a gun , and the men embarked to Bombay without causing more trouble for the British . In 1782 , mutinies broke out in Bardhaman and Barrackpore . Three mutineers were sentenced to death by the court in Bardhaman , 2 of whom to be blown from a gun , the last to be hanged . In the Barrackpore trials , 4 of the 5 on trial were sentenced to be blown from a gun , while the last was to receive a thousand lashes and " to be drummed out of the cantonments with a rope around his neck " . During the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1789 – 1792 ) , six regiments mutinied over arrears of pay and held their officers confined . When order was restored , two of the most active were blown from guns . Not only mutineers were blown from guns , but also soldiers found guilty of desertion , as is shown from a few cases in 1781 and 1783 .
Not only sepoys were executed by being blown from a gun . In 1798 , mutiny broke out in the British unit 1st battalion of the Madras artillery . One British soldier was condemned to be blown from a gun . This , however , seems to have been exceptional , and one historian says that the soldier Forster is the only European on record to have been blown from a gun by the British authorities .
In 1804 , during a military engagement , the troops under lieutenant Birch 's command refused to quit the ground of their encampment . Colonel Burn deemed harsh measures were necessary , convened a court @-@ martial , and two of the officers involved were blown from guns and 9 others " severely flogged " . With full approval of the action , the writer observes : “ a measure which , there is every reason to believe , had the best effect , as the corps behaved during the subsequent siege with the greatest steadiness and propriety ” .
In the 1806 Vellore Mutiny , beginning with a night massacre of British officers and soldiers , with many sepoys killed during the suppression , 6 individuals were sentenced to be blown from the guns . In 1812 , a plot was discovered at Travancore to kill the European officers ; two ring leaders were blown from the guns , and several others were hanged . In 1819 , six deserters who had joined the ousted rajah of the annexed Kingdom of Nagpur were apprehended by the British and were blown from the guns on 7 February . In 1832 Bangalore , a conspiracy allegedly designed to exterminate all Europeans was discovered . Out of some 100 implicated , 4 were sentenced to be blown from the guns , two others to be shot .
Sometimes , although a person was condemned to death , he might hope for a pardon or a commuting of the punishment . In 1784 , a regiment mutinied over lack of pay . Lieutenant General Laing suppressed the rebels and ordered twelve to be blown from guns . The last of the twelve was very lucky , however : Bound to the cannon 's mouth , he had to endure three times that the fuse burnt out . He then asked Lieutenant General Laing whether he was really destined to die in this manner , and Laing chose to pardon him . In 1795 Midnapore , 5 sepoys were condemned in court @-@ martial to be blown from guns on account of mutiny , 3 others to be hanged . Their cases were appealed , however , and their sentences were commuted to be dismissed from service instead . In the 1824 mutiny at Barrackpore , occasioned by the resentment of sepoys to being shipped to the front in the First Anglo @-@ Burmese War , four days after the bloody suppression of the mutiny , one of the leaders , Bindee Tiwarree of the 47th regiment was found hiding , disguised as a faqir . In the ensuing court @-@ martial , he was condemned to be blown from a gun , but instead he was hung in chains , and after his death his body was placed in a gibbet for a few months . In 1836 , a sepoy was found guilty of having fled before the enemy and abandoned his European officers . Rungish was condemned to be blown from a gun , but the sentence was commuted into " transportation beyond the sea " .
= = = The Great Rebellion = = =
To appreciate the scale and frequency of the executions made by the British during the 1857 insurrection , one may , for example , look at the reports of incidents given in merely a single journal , " Allen 's Indian Mail " , for the year 1857 .
On 8 June , two sepoys from the 35th light Infantry were blown from guns . 10 June , in Ludhiana , Peshawar , some 40 from the 54th regiment were blown from guns . On 13 June , ten sepoys from the 45th Regiment at Firozpur were blown from guns , two hanged . The same day , in Ambala , 10 sepoys from the 54th regiment suffered the same fate . The 26th of the same month , in Aurungabad , 1 was blown from a gun , 1 hanged , and 3 were shot . On 8 July , in Jhelum , it is assumed that captured rebels would be blown away . On the 19th , Aurungabad , 1 was blown away , 2 shot . On 5 September , Settara , 6 were blown away . On 17 September , Multan , 1 was blown away , 121 were summarily executed . On 23 September , in Karachi , 1 was blown away , 7 were hanged and 20 deported . ( The local body count on court @-@ martialed individuals then came to 4 blown away , 14 hanged , 22 deported and 3 beheadings . ) At the end of October , in Rohilkhand near Agra , 1 was blown away . On 16 November , Bombay , two sepoys from the 10th regiment were blown away .
As an example of official statistics , rather than a collection of newspaper reports , in an 1859 paper to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on the rebellion in the Peshawar Valley in the Punjab , for the period May – September 1857 , 523 were recorded executed , of them 459 shot by musketry , 20 hanged ( 13 for desertion ) and the last 44 blown from a gun . Of those 44 , 4 were executed on charges of desertion , rather than mutiny . Official July – November statistics for the area about Agra says that of 78 who were given capital sentences , two had their sentence commuted into imprisonment , whereas 4 were blown from guns . Other official statistics , this time from Indore , state that , of 393 sepoys officially punished , 32 were executed , 21 of them by being blown from guns .
The preceding cases are examples of execution after formal court martial , and do not , therefore , record deaths as occurring during battle or during informal executions or massacres .
Several British were convinced that the sepoy insurgents had blown British women from guns . A specific case , mentioned by several sources , concerns that of Mr. and Mrs. Birch , Mrs. Eckford and Mrs. Defontaine , all of whom were said to have been blown from guns at Fatehgarh .
= = = After 1857 = = =
The Rebellion of 1857 was not the last time that British military used blowing from a cannon as an execution method . In 1871 , for example , 65 members of the Sikh sect Kukas or Namdhari were executed by the military , by being blown from guns .
= = Afghanistan = =
Within Afghanistan , a tradition of using blowing from a gun as capital punishment is attested from the early nineteenth century up to 1930 . Some examples are following :
= = = Early cases = = =
In 1802 , the forces of Mahmud Shah Durrani inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ghilzai tribes , and to discourage further aggression , he ordered one leader and his two sons blown from guns , as well as building a minaret out of Ghilzai skulls . In 1803 , when Shah Shujah Durrani ousted his half @-@ brother Mahmud from power , he revenged himself on an ally of Mahmud , Ashik , by blowing him from a gun for having captured by means of treachery Shujah 's and Mahmud 's half @-@ brother Zaman Shah Durrani , who had been king of the Durrani Empire prior to having been ousted by Mahmud in 1800 .
= = = The iron emir , 1880 – 1901 = = =
In 1880 , Abdur Rahman Khan became emir of Afghanistan , and he swiftly gained the nickname " the iron emir " for his perceived brutality and strong rule . For example , one source estimates that , during his 20 years on the throne , an average of 5 @,@ 000 executions a year took place , several by blowing from guns . For example , in December 1889 alone , 24 are recorded as having been blown from guns , and many others executed in other ways .
= = = Tajik reign of terror , 1929 = = =
In January 1929 , a new cycle of extreme violence broke out in Afghanistan when the Tajik Habibullāh Kalakāni became emir . The British minister Humphreys wrote : " None was safe , houses were pillaged indiscriminately , women were ravished and a reign of terror was established unprecedented in the annals of bloody Afghan history " . Political opponents were often blown from guns or executed in other ways . Habibullah 's regime was toppled in October 1929 , and then the Kuhestani Tajiks were persecuted . An article in The New York Times from 6 April 1930 was headlined with : " Eleven Afghans Blown from Guns at Kabul " .
= = In fiction = =
In Flashman in the Great Game , written by George MacDonald Fraser and set during the 1857 Indian Rebellion , Harry Flashman , a British Army officer who is impersonating an Indian , is knocked unconscious and captured during a British attack on the camp of Rani Lakshmibai . Flashman is assumed to be a rebel and awakens gagged and tied over the muzzle of a gun . He narrowly manages to avoid execution and has the rebels who were to be executed alongside him freed , an uncharacteristically humane act for a character usually portrayed as a liar , a bully and a scoundrel .
= Little Orphant Annie =
" Little Orphant Annie " is an 1885 poem written by James Whitcomb Riley and published by the Bowen @-@ Merrill Company . First titled " The Elf Child " , Riley changed the name to " Little Orphant Allie " at its third printing ; however , a typecasting error during printing renamed the poem to its current form . Known as the " Hoosier poet " , Riley wrote the rhymes in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect . As one of his most well known poems , it served as the inspiration for the character Little Orphan Annie upon whom was based a comic strip , plays , radio programs , television shows , and movies .
The subject was inspired by Mary Alice " Allie " Smith , an orphan living in the Riley home during her childhood . The poem contains four stanzas ; the first introduces Annie and the second and third are stories she is telling to young children . Each story tells of a bad child who is snatched away by goblins as a result of their misbehavior . The underlying moral and warning is announced in the final stanza , telling children that they should obey their parents and be kind to the unfortunate , lest they suffer the same fate .
= = Background = =
James Whitcomb Riley was a poet who achieved national fame in the United States during late nineteenth and early twentieth century . " Little Orphant Annie " is one of Whitcomb 's most well known poems . Originally published in the Indianapolis Journal on November 15 , 1885 under the title " The Elf Child " , the poem was inspired by a girl named Mary Alice " Allie " Smith .
Mary Alice Smith was born near Liberty , Union County Indiana 25 September 1850 . She lived on a small farm with her parents until ( as one story goes ) both parents died when she was about nine years old some stories say that Mary 's mother died with she was very young and her father , Peter Smith , died when she was ten . Other evidence points to her father being incarcerated at the time . What ever the cause she was considered an orphan . Mary 's uncle , a John Rittenhouse , came to Union County and took the young orphan to his home in Greenfield where he " dressed her in black " and " bound her out to earn her board and keep " . Mary Alice was taken in by Captain Reuben Riley as a " bound " servant to help his wife Elizabeth Riley with the housework and her four children ; John , James , Elva May and Alex . As was customary at that time , she worked alongside the family to earn her board . In the evening hours , she often told stories to the younger children , including Riley . The family called her a " Guest " not a servant and treated her like she was part of their family . Smith did not learn she was the inspiration for the character until the 1910s when she visited with Riley .
Riley had previously presented a fictionalized version of Mary Alice Smith in his short story “ Where Is Mary Alice Smith ? , ” published in The Indianapolis Journal of 30 September 1882 . In it , Mary Alice arrives at her benefactor family ’ s home and wastes no time in telling the children a grisly story of murder by decapitation and then later introduces them to her soldier friend Dave who is soon killed upon going off to war . The plot of this short story was heavily incorporated into the 1918 movie adaptation as well as Johnny Gruelle ’ s 1921 storybook .
Both “ The Elf Child ” and “ Where Is Mary Alice Smith ? ” were printed in book form for the first time in 1885 in The Boss Girl .
“ The Elf Child ” kept its original title in its first two printings , but Riley decided to change its title to " Little Orphant Allie " in an 1889 printing . The printing house incorrectly cast the typeset during the printing , unintentionally renaming the poem to " Little Orphant Annie " . Riley at first contacted the printing house to have the error corrected , but decided to keep the misprint because of the poem 's growing popularity .
When reprinted in The Orphant Annie Book in 1908 , the poem was given an additional , introductory verse ( “ Little Orphant Annie she knows riddles , rhymes and things ! … ” ) .
During the 1910s and 1920s , the title became the inspiration for the names of Little Orphan Annie and the Raggedy Ann doll , created by fellow Indiana native Johnny Gruelle . The rhyme 's popularity led it to being reprinted many times . It was later compiled with a number of other children 's poems in an illustrated book and sold .
The verses of the poem detail the scary stories told by Annie when her housework was done , repeating the phrase " An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' at gits you ef you don 't watch out ! . " [ sic ] It was popular among children , and many of the letters Whitcomb received from children commented on the poem . It remains a favorite among children in Indiana and is often associated with Halloween celebrations .
= = Poem = =
Riley recorded readings of several of his poems for the phonograph during the early twentieth century . Only four of the readings were ever released to the public ; one was " Little Orphant Annie " . Written in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect , the words can be difficult to read in modern times ; however , its style helped feed its popularity at the time of its composition . Riley achieved fame not just for writing poetry , but also from his readings . Like most of his poetry , " Little Orphant Annie " was written to achieve the best effect when read aloud .
The poem consists of four stanzas , each with twelve lines . Riley dedicated his poem " to all the little ones , " which served as an introduction to draw the attention of his audience when read aloud . The alliteration , parallels , phonetic intensifiers and onomatopoeia add effects to the rhymes that become more detectable when read aloud . The exclamatory refrain ending each stanza is spoken with more emphasis . The poem is written in the first person and in a regular iambic meter . It begins by introducing Annie , and then sets a mood of excitement by describing the children eagerly gathering to hear her stories . The next three stanzas are each a story which Annie tells the children . Each story tells of a bad child who is snatched away by goblins and has an underlying moral which is announced in the final stanza , encouraging children to obey their parents and teachers , help their loved ones , and care for the poor and disadvantaged .
Little Orphant Annie
Little Orphant Annie 's come to our house to stay ,
An ' wash the cups an ' saucers up , an ' brush the crumbs away ,
An ' shoo the chickens off the porch , an ' dust the hearth , an ' sweep ,
An ' make the fire , an ' bake the bread , an ' earn her board @-@ an ' -keep ;
An ' all us other children , when the supper @-@ things is done ,
We set around the kitchen fire an ' has the mostest fun
A @-@ list 'nin ' to the witch @-@ tales ' at Annie tells about ,
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' at gits you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
Wunst they wuz a little boy wouldn 't say his prayers , --
An ' when he went to bed at night , away up @-@ stairs ,
His Mammy heerd him holler , an ' his Daddy heerd him bawl ,
An ' when they turn 't the kivvers down , he wuzn 't there at all !
An ' they seeked him in the rafter @-@ room , an ' cubby @-@ hole , an ' press ,
An ' seeked him up the chimbly @-@ flue , an ' ever ' -wheres , I guess ;
But all they ever found wuz thist his pants an ' roundabout : --
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
An ' one time a little girl ' ud allus laugh an ' grin ,
An ' make fun of ever ' one , an ' all her blood @-@ an ' -kin ;
An ' wunst , when they was " company , " an ' ole folks wuz there ,
She mocked ' em an ' shocked ' em , an ' said she didn 't care !
An ' thist as she kicked her heels , an ' turn 't to run an ' hide ,
They wuz two great big Black Things a @-@ standin ' by her side ,
An ' they snatched her through the ceilin ' ' fore she knowed what she 's about !
An ' the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
An ' little Orphant Annie says , when the blaze is blue ,
An ' the lamp @-@ wick sputters , an ' the wind goes woo @-@ oo !
An ' you hear the crickets quit , an ' the moon is gray ,
An ' the lightnin ' -bugs in dew is all squenched away , --
You better mind yer parunts , an ' yer teachurs fond an ' dear ,
An ' churish them ' at loves you , an ' dry the orphant 's tear ,
An ' he 'p the pore an ' needy ones ' at clusters all about ,
Er the Gobble @-@ uns ' ll git you
Ef you
Don 't
Watch
Out !
= = Film adaptations = =
" Little Orphant Annie " was made into a silent film by the Selig Polyscope Company in 1918 , featuring Colleen Moore as Annie . She had previously been in A Hoosier Romance , also based on Riley 's work . Riley also appeared in the film as the silent narrator .
A short animated film based on the poem was released by Soyuztelefilm studio in Russia in 1992 , directed by Yulian Kalisher . The poem was translated into Russian by Oleg Yegorov .
= = Derivative work = =
In The Orphant Annie Story Book ( 1921 ) , author Johnny Gruelle augments the character ’ s background story and goes to great lengths to soften her image , portraying her as telling pleasant tales of fairies , gnomes and anthropomorphic animals rather than her characteristic horror stories .
= = In Popular Culture = =
In the TV series , Getting On ( U.S. TV series ) the character of Birdy Lamb recites part of the poem at the end of Episode 3 of Season 3 .
= Malin Åkerman =
Malin Maria Åkerman ( Swedish pronunciation : [ ˈmɑːlɪn ² oːkɛrˌman ] ; born May 12 , 1978 ) is a Swedish Canadian actress , model and singer . She became known for making appearances in several Canadian productions . In the early 2000s , she had many television and film parts , including The Utopian Society ( 2003 ) and Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle ( 2004 ) . Following a supporting role on the comedy series The Comeback ( 2005 ) , Åkerman gained her first starring roles in the feature films The Heartbreak Kid ( 2007 ) and 27 Dresses ( 2008 ) .
Åkerman played Silk Spectre II in the 2009 superhero film Watchmen , a role for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress . The same year , she had supporting and starring roles in both The Proposal and Couples Retreat , two commercial hits that garnered mixed to negative reviews . In 2010 , she became part of the main cast on the comedy series Childrens Hospital . She starred in four feature films in 2012 , including the comedy Wanderlust and the musical film Rock of Ages . In 2012 , she had a recurring role on the sitcom Suburgatory and starred in the short @-@ lived comedy series Trophy Wife from 2013 to 2014 , both of which aired on ABC .
Apart from acting and occasional modelling , Åkerman had a brief music career as the lead vocalist for alternative rock band The Petalstones , but eventually left to focus on her acting career . She was married to the band 's drummer Roberto Zincone from 2007 until 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Åkerman was born in Stockholm , Sweden , to aerobics teacher and part @-@ time model Pia ( née Sundström ) and insurance broker Magnus Åkerman . She has one sister , singer Jennifer Åkerman . When she was two years old , the family moved to Canada after her father was offered a job there . Four years later , her parents divorced , and her father moved back to Sweden . Both of her parents remarried , giving Åkerman one half @-@ brother and two half @-@ sisters . After her mother remarried , they moved to Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , Ontario . Later in her teenage years , her mother divorced again . Åkerman attended many different schools , including Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School in St. Catharines , Ontario . She once attended a Catholic school , though she was raised as a Buddhist . She has recalled some portions of her childhood as " painful " , explaining that " I loved my father very much and I only got to see him during the school holidays . But I think it was an advantage that they split up when I was very young , so I could get used to it . " She visited her father in Falsterbo , Sweden , during school breaks and talked to him regularly over the phone . She cites her parents as " supportive , positive influences " in her life .
As a child , Åkerman had no plans to become an actress . Her mother introduced her to modelling while she was still in primary school , and she later landed several advertising campaign deals , but she decided to quit at age twelve . Four years later she returned to modelling after being discovered by Ford Models in a shopping mall in St. Catharines . She was signed to the agency and later won a contract with skincare company Noxzema . She soon moved to Toronto while attending North Toronto Collegiate Institute and later on in her OAC year , Dante Alighieri Academy . At the age of eighteen , inspired by the " helplessness " she sometimes felt during her childhood , she decided to become a child psychologist . She supported her education by modelling for television commercials and catalogue layouts . While studying for a year at York University in Toronto , she was simultaneously offered guest roles on television as a result of her exposure in commercials . She saw the acting gigs as further opportunities to pay for her education , but found herself enjoying it and decided to drop out of school to become an actress . She moved to Los Angeles , California in 2001 to pursue her acting career full @-@ time .
= = Career = =
= = = 1997 – 2008 = = =
Åkerman made her acting debut on the Canadian science fiction series Earth : Final Conflict in 1997 , in a smaller role as a robot . She originally landed a role on an MTV pilot with Rachel McAdams , but the project was never picked up by the network . In 2000 , she guest starred on Relic Hunter and had a smaller role in the American film The Skulls . The following year , she made appearances on the Canada @-@ based series Doc and Twice in a Lifetime . In 2001 , she moved to Los Angeles , California in hopes of pursuing a broader acting career . At first , she worked as a waitress and stayed at a friend 's house . In 2002 , she received smaller role in the film The Utopian Society . The film was edited by Francesco Sondelli , the guitarist for alternative rock band Ozono . Sondelli asked Åkerman to help the band with song lyrics and later asked her to sing . Åkerman subsequently became the band 's singer , and they changed their name to The Petalstones . The band 's debut album , Stung , was released in August 2005 , but Åkerman eventually left to focus on her acting career , admitting that she " actually can 't sing " . She described her singing as " sort of a self @-@ made , self @-@ taught , if @-@ you @-@ can 't @-@ hit @-@ the @-@ note @-@ scream @-@ it kind of thing " .
In 2004 , she got a small role in the film Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle , but considered moving back to Canada as most of her auditions failed . She was then cast in a supporting role as Juna on the HBO television series The Comeback , with Lisa Kudrow in the main role . Kudrow played a former sitcom star who tried to restart her career . Åkerman 's appearance on the show garnered media attention and resulted in her being offered more roles . A year later , she guest starred on an episode of Love Monkey and two episodes of Entourage . Before the Entourage episodes aired , she landed a role in the 2007 comedy film The Brothers Solomon . The film was a box office bomb and received largely critical reviews .
Åkerman signed up for a role opposite Ben Stiller in the comedy film The Heartbreak Kid , directed by the Farrelly Brothers , in 2006 . She played in the lead female role as Lila , the newly wedded wife of Stiller 's character . The film follows the couple 's honeymoon in Mexico , where Stiller 's character falls in love with another woman and realizes that the marriage was a mistake . A remake of the 1972 film of the same name , it was released in October 2007 to generally poor reviews , as critics deemed it " neither as daring nor as funny " as the directors ' earlier films . Åkerman 's performance garnered more positive reviews ; Desson Thomson of The Washington Post called her a " fabulous comic partner " to Stiller , while Roger Moore of Times Herald @-@ Record asserted that she had outperformed him . The film grossed $ 14 million in its opening weekend in the United States , and went on to gross $ 127 million globally .
In 2007 , Åkerman joined the cast of 27 Dresses , a romantic comedy film directed by Anne Fletcher with Katherine Heigl in the lead role . The film follows Heigl 's character Jane , who has always been the bridesmaid and dreams of her own wedding . Åkerman played Jane 's sister Tess . The film was shot during the summer of 2007 , and was released in January 2008 to weak critical reception as it was considered " clichéd and mostly forgettable " . The film was more successful commercially , with a gross of $ 160 million . Åkerman played the title role in Bye Bye Sally , a short film directed by Paul Leyden and based on Lisa Mannetti 's short story Everybody Wins . The film premiered at the 2009 Newport Beach Film Festival .
= = = 2009 – 11 = = =
In 2009 , Åkerman starred as Silk Spectre II in the superhero film Watchmen , an adaptation of Alan Moore 's graphic novel of the same name . Directed by Zack Snyder , the feature film is set in an alternate reality in 1985 where a group of retired vigilantes investigate an apparent conspiracy against them . Snyder favoured Åkerman over other more well @-@ known actresses as he felt that they could not play such a serious part . Åkerman rehearsed with " months of hardcore training " and went on a very strict diet . She wore a brunette wig , high heels and an uncomfortable latex costume , which provided little protection when performing stunts , and she often bruised herself during filming . Åkerman stated that her character carries the emotion of the film as she is the only woman among several men . Premiering in February 2009 , the film received generally favourable reviews , and was a commercial success , grossing $ 185 million worldwide . Although Åkerman was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Teen Choice Award for her performance in the film , critics were generally negative towards her acting .
Åkerman appeared in the 2009 romantic comedy film The Proposal , starring Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds in the lead roles . Åkerman played a supporting role as Gertrude , the ex @-@ girlfriend of Reynolds ' character . Although the film received mixed reviews , it went on to gross $ 317 million worldwide . Also in 2009 , Åkerman starred in the comedy film Couples Retreat , opposite Jon Favreau and Vince Vaughn . The film follows four couples as they travel to a tropical island resort for couples therapy . Åkerman played Ronnie , the wife of Vaughn 's part . She enjoyed playing a mother for the first time and tried to make her character as truthful as possible , which included dyeing her hair brown to not look like a " blonde bombshell " . The film premiered in theatres in October 2009 and grossed $ 34 million in its opening weekend in the United States , entering number one at the box office , and totalled $ 171 million worldwide . Reception for the film was mainly negative , although Åkerman 's performance was met with more positive reactions .
In 2010 , Åkerman co @-@ starred as Annie in the Josh Radnor @-@ directed comedy @-@ drama film happythankyoumoreplease . As her character has alopecia , Åkerman shaved off her eyebrows and wore a bald cap to cover her hair . She was originally offered a different part , but felt that she wanted to play Annie as it was different from her previous roles . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2010 and received an audience award for Favorite U.S. Drama . Reviews from critics were polarized , but Åkerman received praise . Later in 2010 , she guest starred on the How I Met Your Mother episode " The Wedding Bride " , and joined the cast of the currently ongoing Adult Swim comedy series Childrens Hospital . Playing the part of the promiscuous Dr. Valerie Flame ( which is itself a part portrayed by Swedish @-@ only speaking " actress " Ingrid Hagerstown as a show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show ) , Åkerman joined during the series ' second season along with Henry Winkler . The series was originally a web series and Åkerman accepted the role after viewing several webisodes . " It was totally up my alley , my kind of humor " , she said of the series . The same year , she played a supporting role in the romantic comedy film The Romantics with Katie Holmes , Josh Duhamel and Anna Paquin . The film premiered in September 2010 on limited release to generally negative reviews .
In 2010 , she starred in Sebastian Gutierrez 's comedy film Elektra Luxx opposite Carla Gugino and Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . The film is a sequel to 2009 's Women in Trouble . Åkerman played Trixie , an awkward drug store clerk who falls for Gordon @-@ Levitt 's part , who in turn is obsessed with Gugino 's character , a retired porn star . Åkerman was offered the role during a screening of Women in Trouble . The film premiered in March 2011 on limited release and received generally unfavourable reviews ; critics dismissed its many subplots and called it a " bizarre sex comedy " . Next , Åkerman starred in the lead female role in the film The Bang Bang Club , which follows a group of young photojournalists in South Africa during the final stages of the apartheid . Åkerman played Robin Comley , a newspaper photo editor . The film premiered during the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival to mixed reviews from the press . In 2010 , Åkerman signed up for a part in newcomer Aaron Harvey 's Catch .44 , a drama @-@ thriller film with Forest Whitaker and Bruce Willis in the male lead roles . The film was generally ignored by critics and movie goers alike .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Åkerman had a supporting role in the 2012 comedy film Wanderlust , with Jennifer Aniston and Paul Rudd . The film focuses on an overworked couple who end up at a commune when they try to slow things down . Åkerman played Eva , a woman at the commune . The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics , who were divided regarding its humour , but ultimately praised the cast . Wanderlust underperformed at the box office , earning just over $ 20 million worldwide during its theatrical run . Åkerman appeared in the comedy film The Giant Mechanical Man , which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 23 , 2012 , to average reviews . She had a supporting role in the 2012 rock musical film Rock of Ages , based on the stage production of the same name . She played Constance Sack , a journalist who interviews Tom Cruise 's character Stacee Jaxx . She hired a vocal coach as her role required her to sing ; she and Cruise recorded a duet of Foreigner 's " I Want to Know What Love Is " ( 1984 ) . Although the film grossed lower than expected , its opening weekend gross in the United States became the third @-@ highest ever for an adaption of a stage production .
Åkerman starred in the 2012 bank heist action film Stolen opposite Nicolas Cage . In 2010 , she replaced Lindsay Lohan as Linda Lovelace in the planned film Inferno : A Linda Lovelace Story but the project never entered production . Two other projects , Cottage Country and The Numbers Station , were released in 2013 . She is up for a role in Serpent Girl , based on Matthew Carnahan 's book of the same name . In February 2012 , Åkerman was cast in the ABC comedy pilot The Smart One opposite Portia de Rossi and Jean Smart . The pilot was not ordered to series . In May 2012 , it was revealed that Åkerman will play Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Randall Miller 's film CBGB . In the fall of 2012 , Åkerman guest starred as Alex on two season two episodes of ABC 's Suburgatory .
Åkerman played the lead role on the ABC sitcom Trophy Wife . Åkerman played Kate Harrison , the third wife of Pete Harrison ( Bradley Whitford ) . Marcia Gay Harden and Michaela Watkins also star as Pete 's ex @-@ wives . The show received positive reviews , with critics singling out Åkerman for praise . Matt Webb Mitovich of TVLine said she " no less than shines here , coming off as fun @-@ loving but not flaky , warm and not overheated " . Gabriel Mizrahi of The Huffington Post called Åkerman " terrific " and Roth Cornet of IGN singled out her chemistry with co @-@ star Bradley Whitford and her aptitude for physical comedy . Åkerman said that she was initially put off by the title , having previously expressed frustration at constantly being asked to play the " trophy wife . " However , when she read the script , she loved the writing and the character and how " not trophy wife " she is . In 2013 , Akerman was a presenter with Josh Stamberg ( Drop Dead Divas ) at Women 's Image Network Awards .
Åkerman co @-@ led the critically acclaimed horror comedy The Final Girls in 2015 with Taissa Farmiga , portraying a mother and daughter who are reunited in a slasher film . In 2016 , Akerman costars in Showtime 's ' ' Billions as Lara Axelrod .
= = Personal life = =
Åkerman was born in Sweden and grew up in Canada ; she has " conflicting feelings " for the two countries . In an interview for Toronto Star , she said , " Every time I 'm in Canada I feel more Swedish , and every time I 'm in Sweden I feel more Canadian . I belong in both places and I love them both equally . " She holds both Swedish and Canadian passports . Apart from speaking fluent English and Swedish , she also speaks French and Spanish . She describes herself as a feminist as she believes in equal treatment for both sexes , but also considers that " We [ women ] are different " , adding that she " embrace [ s ] those differences . " She has revealed that she is dyslexic and said that it took her " a long time " to learn her lines . " I get horrified when I have to do table reads with the whole cast , because there ’ s a lot of stuttering
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coming from me , so I have to do a lot of prep " , she explained . Because of this , she prefers to improvise her lines .
Åkerman was raised a Buddhist , which inspired the lotus flower tattoo on her upper back . She also has a tattooed ' Z ' on her right wrist , honouring her husband , Italian musician Roberto Zincone . The two met in 2003 when Åkerman was the lead singer for The Petalstones , for which Zincone served as the drummer . After band practices , they usually socialized , using a dictionary as he could not speak English . They eventually started dating and married at Grand Hotel Moon Valley in Sorrento , Italy on June 20 , 2007 . The couple had one son , Sebastian Zincone , born on April 16 , 2013 . On November 25 , 2013 , the couple announced that they were separating . Zincone filed for divorce on December 2 , 2013 .
Åkerman is noted for frequently appearing in nude scenes in her films , such as The Heartbreak Kid and Watchmen . She has stated that she feels comfortable as long as the scenes are not gratuitous . In an interview for Daily Mail , she commented , " I spent a lot of time as a child in Sweden ; it ’ s natural there ... I don 't know many women who go to bed with their husband at night and have sex with a bra on ... So let 's make it real in the movies . " In 2008 , she made her first appearance on AskMen.com 's " 99 Most Desirable Women " list at number 60 . The same year , men 's magazine Maxim placed her at number 59 in their annual " Hot 100 " rankings . The following year , the magazine ranked her at number four . Although admitting that sex appeal is one of the " best assets " , Åkerman considers being beautiful both " a blessing and a curse " , stating , " I tend to get a lot of scripts in which people want me to play the trophy wife , which is frustrating because I want the interesting , meaty roles . "
In 2012 , Åkerman travelled to Tanzania with Opportunity International , and has since begun support of their international development work , becoming a Young Ambassador for Opportunity in June 2012 and hosting a fundraiser for Opportunity in October 2012 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Captain America : The Winter Soldier =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier is a 2014 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Captain America , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the sequel to 2011 's Captain America : The First Avenger and the ninth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) . The film was directed by Anthony and Joe Russo , with a screenplay by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , who had also written The First Avenger . It stars Chris Evans as Captain America , leading an ensemble cast that includes Scarlett Johansson , Sebastian Stan , Anthony Mackie , Cobie Smulders , Frank Grillo , Emily VanCamp , Hayley Atwell , Robert Redford and Samuel L. Jackson . In Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Captain America , Black Widow , and Falcon join forces to uncover a conspiracy within S.H.I.E.L.D. while facing a mysterious assassin known as the Winter Soldier .
A major influence in The Winter Soldier was conspiracy fiction from the 1970s such as Three Days of the Condor , with the script also drawing from the Winter Soldier story arc written by Ed Brubaker . The script was written in 2011 , with the Russo brothers entering negotiations to direct in June 2012 and casting beginning the following month . Principal photography commenced in April 2013 in Los Angeles , California before moving to Washington , D.C. and Cleveland , Ohio . While the directors aimed for more realism , with focus on practical effects and intense stunt work , 2 @,@ 500 visual effects shots were done by six different companies .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier premiered in Los Angeles on March 13 , 2014 . It was released internationally on March 26 , 2014 , and in North America on April 4 , 2014 , in 2D , 3D , and IMAX 3D . The film became a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 714 million worldwide . It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects . A sequel titled Captain America : Civil War also directed by the Russo brothers was released on May 6 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Two years after the Battle of New York , Steve Rogers works in Washington D.C. for the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D. under Director Nick Fury , while adjusting to contemporary society . Rogers and Agent Natasha Romanoff are sent with S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s counter @-@ terrorism S.T.R.I.K.E. team , led by Agent Rumlow , to free hostages aboard a S.H.I.E.L.D. vessel from Georges Batroc and his mercenaries . Mid @-@ mission , Rogers discovers Romanoff has another agenda : to extract data from the ship 's computers for Fury . Rogers returns to the Triskelion , S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s headquarters , to confront Fury and is briefed about Project Insight : three Helicarriers linked to spy satellites , designed to preemptively eliminate threats . Unable to decrypt the data recovered by Romanoff , Fury becomes suspicious about Insight and asks senior S.H.I.E.L.D. official Alexander Pierce to delay the project .
On his way to rendezvous with Maria Hill , Fury is ambushed by assailants led by a mysterious assassin called the Winter Soldier . Fury escapes to Rogers ' apartment , and warns Rogers that S.H.I.E.L.D. is compromised . After handing Rogers a flash drive containing data from the ship , Fury is gunned down by the Winter Soldier . Fury dies in surgery , and Hill recovers the body . The next day , Pierce summons Rogers to the Triskelion . When Rogers withholds Fury 's information , Pierce brands him a fugitive . Hunted by S.T.R.I.K.E. , Rogers meets with Romanoff . Using data in the flash drive they discover a secret S.H.I.E.L.D. bunker in New Jersey , where they activate a supercomputer containing the preserved consciousness of Arnim Zola . Zola reveals that ever since S.H.I.E.L.D. was founded after World War II , Hydra has secretly operated within its ranks , sowing global chaos with the objective of making humanity willing to surrender its freedom in exchange for security . The pair narrowly escape death when a S.H.I.E.L.D. missile destroys the bunker , and realize that Pierce is Hydra 's leader within S.H.I.E.L.D.
Rogers and Romanoff enlist the help of former USAF pararescueman Sam Wilson , whom Rogers befriended , and acquire his powered " Falcon " wingpack . Deducing that S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell is a Hydra mole , they force him to divulge that Zola developed a data @-@ mining algorithm that can identify individuals who might become future threats to Hydra 's plans . The Insight Helicarriers will sweep the globe , using satellite @-@ guided guns to eliminate these individuals . Rogers , Romanoff , and Wilson are ambushed by the Winter Soldier , who kills Sitwell . During the fight , Rogers recognizes the Winter Soldier as Bucky Barnes , his friend who was captured and experimented upon during WWII . Hill manages to extract the trio to a safehouse where Fury , who had faked his death , is waiting with plans to sabotage the Helicarriers by replacing their controller chips .
After the World Security Council members arrive for the Helicarriers ' launch , Rogers broadcasts Hydra 's plot to everyone at the Triskelion . Romanoff , disguised as one of the Council members , disarms Pierce . Fury arrives and forces Pierce to unlock S.H.I.E.L.D 's database so that Romanoff can leak classified information , exposing Hydra to the public . Following a struggle , Fury kills Pierce . Meanwhile , Rogers and Wilson storm two Helicarriers and replace the controller chips , but the Winter Soldier destroys Wilson 's suit and fights Rogers on the third . Rogers fends him off and replaces the final chip , allowing Hill to take control and have the vessels destroy each other . Rogers refuses to fight the Winter Soldier in an attempt to reach his friend , but as the ship collides with the Triskelion , Rogers is thrown out into the Potomac River . The Winter Soldier rescues the unconscious Rogers before disappearing into the woods . With S.H.I.E.L.D. in disarray , Romanoff appears before a Senate subcommittee and Fury , under the cover of his apparent death , heads to Eastern Europe in pursuit of Hydra 's remaining cells . Rogers and Wilson decide to find the Winter Soldier , while Rumlow , who was a double agent for Hydra , is hospitalized following the Triskelion 's destruction .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , at a Hydra lab , proclaims that the " age of miracles " has begun as scientists examine an energy @-@ filled scepter and two prisoners : one with superhuman speed , the other with telekinetic powers . In a post @-@ credits scene , the Winter Soldier visits a Bucky memorial at the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Cast = =
Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America :
A World War II veteran who was enhanced to the peak of human physicality by an experimental serum , frozen in suspended animation , and is now struggling to adjust to the modern world . Describing his character 's adjustment to the modern world , Evans said , " It 's not so much about his shock with [ technology ] ... It 's more about the societal differences . He 's gone from the ' 40s to today ; he comes from a world where people were a little more trusting , the threats not as deep . Now , it 's harder to tell who 's right and wrong . Actions you take to protect people from threats could compromise liberties and privacy . That 's tough for Steve to swallow . " Evans trained in parkour , Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu , karate , boxing , kickboxing , and gymnastics , as the Russo brothers believed that bringing Rogers into the modern day also meant that he had studied and mastered modern fighting styles and techniques . The filmmakers also looked to make the character 's shield , which has traditionally been used for defense , a more offensive weapon .
Scarlett Johansson as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow :
A highly trained spy working for S.H.I.E.L.D. , who partners with Rogers . Screenwriter Christopher Markus said that Black Widow was a " great contrast " to Captain America , describing her as " incredibly modern , not very reverent , and just very straightforward whereas Steve is , you know a man from the 40s . He 's not a boy scout , but he is reserved and has a moral center , whereas her moral center moves . " The Russos added , " She 's a character who lies for a living . That 's what she does . He 's a character who tells the truth . Give them a problem and they 'll have different ways of approaching it . She 's pushing him to modernize , and he 's pushing her to add a certain level of integrity to her life . " When asked about Romanoff 's relationship with Rogers , Johansson said , " By a series of unfortunate encounters , they will be in a situation in which their friendship becomes more intimate . They share many similarities because they live on the defensive without relying on anyone . Also , the two have been working for the government throughout their professional careers . With their friendship they begin to question what they want and what is their true identity . "
Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier :
Steve Rogers ' best friend , who has re @-@ emerged as an enhanced brainwashed assassin after being thought killed in action during World War II . About the character , Feige said , " Winter Soldier has been methodically , almost robotically , following orders for 70 years . " Stan said despite his nine @-@ picture deal with Marvel Studios including his appearance in The First Avenger , he was not sure about an imminent return for Bucky , and only heard the sequel was named after the Winter Soldier through a friend attending San Diego Comic @-@ Con. The actor endured five months of physical training to prepare for the role and did historical research stating , " I dove into the whole Cold War thing . I looked at the KGB . I looked at all kinds of spy movies , and all kinds of documentaries about that time , and what it was about . I grabbed anything from that time period . Anything about brainwashing . " Stan also practiced daily with the knife used by the Winter Soldier . Regarding Bucky 's transition into the Winter Soldier , Stan said , " You know , the truth of the situation is although he looks very different and there 's different things about him , it still comes from the same person . I think you 'll get to see that no matter what . I think part of my goal here was to make sure that you see an extension of that version but just a different color of that same version in a way . I think he 's still the same guy ; he 's cut from the same cloth . " Stan stated he felt the character 's introduction in the film was " sort of like a preview of the guy , " with more to the character being explored in The Winter Soldier sequel , Captain America : Civil War .
Anthony Mackie as Sam Wilson / Falcon :
A former pararescueman trained by the military in aerial combat using a specially designed wing pack . About the role , Mackie said " [ Wilson is ] a really smart guy who went through major military training and becomes a tactical leader . " Remarking , " He 's the first African @-@ American superhero . It makes me feel all the work I 've done has been paying off . I have a son , nephews and nieces , and I love the idea that they can dress up as the Falcon on Halloween . They now have someone they can idolize . That 's a huge honor for me . " Marvel , who cast Mackie because of his " energy and sense of fun , " did not let him read a script before signing on . Mackie spent five months doing two @-@ a @-@ day workouts and eating an 11 @,@ 000 calorie per day diet to get into shape for the role . Commenting on Rogers ' relationship with Wilson , Evans said , " Meeting Mackie 's character , he used to serve , now he works at the VA counseling guys who come home with PTSD — they connect on that level . I think they 're both wounded warriors who don 't bleed on other people . Cap has no one to bleed on . I think Mackie knows how to handle people like that . … Sometimes when things are bad , trusting a stranger is the way to go . "
Cobie Smulders as Maria Hill :
A high @-@ ranking S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who works closely with Nick Fury . Smulders said she performed some of her own stunts in the film , explaining , " I try to do my own stunts whenever I can . You 're only allowed to do certain stunts . There is an amazing team of stunt people that do most of the work in this film . But , I studied a lot of tae kwon do . I also did a lot of training just with weapons because I 'm not very comfortable around guns . I had to get comfortable because that 's my character 's thing ... I like to get really physical so I feel empowered when I am on set and even though you don 't see it on screen , maybe I am taking people out that you don 't see off camera . "
Frank Grillo as Brock Rumlow :
Commander of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s counter @-@ terrorism S.T.R.I.K.E. team . About the character , Grillo said , " He is a bad @-@ ass guy . [ He ] pretty much beats the shit out of everyone in the movie and that 's really it . " Regarding Rumlow 's alter ego , Grillo said , " Very early on the Russos said , ' Look , this is an origin film for this character . We 're gonna discover who this is and this is a big movie with a lot of moving parts , but we 're gonna discover you in this film and , you know , here 's the information about who Brock Rumlow turns into and blah , blah , blah . ' And so we 've had multiple discussions about what comes after that , that thing . So , you know , it 's obvious Rumlow is covered in rubble and burned to crisp at the end , but you see he 's still there . They don 't do that for no reason . "
Emily VanCamp as Sharon Carter / Agent 13 :
A S.H.I.E.L.D. agent assigned to guard Rogers without his knowledge . About the character , VanCamp said , " I play Agent 13 / Sharon Carter which everyone knows but we don 't really touch on that in this film . We 're just sort of introducing her . When we first see her we realize she 's living next to Captain America ... they sort of have a little thing going on and as we all know in the comic books they had a love affair off and on for years . They had a very complicated relationship . It 's almost as if they are planting the seeds now . Sort of leaving room to go wherever they want to go with it . " Regarding her casting , Joe Russo said , " We wanted someone that Cap would have an immediate interest in . It had to be a strong @-@ willed person , and we felt that Emily 's work on Revenge was a great test tube for what this character could be . She 's obviously very credible with physicality , she holds the screen really well , and she even looks like the character from the books . "
Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter :
A retired officer with the Strategic Scientific Reserve and a co @-@ founder of S.H.I.E.L.D. , who is a former love interest of Steve Rogers . On receiving the script , Atwell realized the character " would be 96 , and I would be up to the eyeballs in prosthetics . " The visual effects team was not satisfied with the initial make @-@ up used to make Atwell look older , and eventually resorted to aging her through CGI methods .
Robert Redford as Alexander Pierce :
A senior leader within S.H.I.E.L.D. , a member of the World Security Council and an old comrade of Nick Fury . Redford was cast in part as an homage to his roles in 1970s thrillers such as Three Days of the Condor , and for what the directors described as " an acting legend playing a villainous role " akin to Henry Fonda in Once Upon a Time in the West . As to what attracted him to the film , Redford said it interested him by being different from his usual work , and that he " wanted to experience this new form of filmmaking that 's taken over where you have kind of cartoon characters brought to life through high technology . "
Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury :
The director of S.H.I.E.L.D. Regarding Fury 's questionable code of ethics , Jackson said , " Almost everything that comes out of Nick Fury 's mouth is a lie in some sense . He has to ask , is he even lying to himself , too ? He has a very good idea of what 's going on but his paranoia keeps him from believing some of it . " Jackson added , " You see Nick Fury the office guy , him going about the day @-@ to @-@ day work of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the politics as opposed to that other stuff . It 's great to have him dealing with Captain America in terms of being able to speak to him soldier to soldier and try to explain to him how the world has changed in another way while he was frozen in time . Some of the people who used to be our enemies are now our allies – him trying to figure out , ' Well , how do we trust those guys ? ' or ' How do we trust the guys that you didn 't trust who don 't trust you ? ' And explaining to him that the black and white of good guys / bad guys has now turned into this gray area . " McFeely said , " Fury represents an obstacle for Steve in some ways . They don 't always agree on how S.H.I.E.L.D. ought to be used . " The writers gave Fury a more prominent role in The Winter Soldier , since within a plot featuring S.H.I.E.L.D. being dismantled , Fury would " take the brunt of it " . They also intended on having a character that had so far been depicted as a self @-@ assured man in charge being depicted as vulnerable , to enhance the sense of danger of the Hydra conspiracy .
Additionally , Toby Jones , Maximiliano Hernández , and Garry Shandling reprise their roles from previous Marvel Studios films as Arnim Zola , Jasper Sitwell , and Senator Stern , respectively . Georges St @-@ Pierre plays Georges Batroc , a mercenary and a master of the French form of kickboxing known as savate . Callan Mulvey plays Jack Rollins , a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s S.T.R.I.K.E. unit . Chin Han , Jenny Agutter ( who previously appeared in The Avengers ) , Alan Dale , and Bernard White appear as members of the World Security Council . Comedic actors Danny Pudi and DC Pierson have small roles as a S.H.I.E.L.D. technician and an Apple Store employee , respectively . Gary Sinise narrates a Captain America @-@ themed Smithsonian Institution exhibit , and Stan Lee cameos as a security guard there . Winter Soldier creator Ed Brubaker makes a cameo as a scientist working on the Winter Soldier . Co @-@ director Joe Russo cameos as a doctor , and Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely cameo as two S.H.I.E.L.D. interrogators . Thomas Kretschmann , Henry Goodman , Elizabeth Olsen and Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson appear , uncredited , as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , Dr. List , the Scarlet Witch , and Quicksilver , respectively , in the mid @-@ credits scene .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 2011 , before Captain America : The First Avenger was released in theaters , screenwriters Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely announced Marvel had already hired the duo to work on the film 's sequel . In September 2011 , Chris Evans said that a sequel may not be released until 2014 . In January 2012 , Neal McDonough , who played Dum Dum Dugan in Captain America : The First Avenger , mentioned that a sequel would likely be filmed after the completion of Thor : The Dark World , which would likely have been before the end of 2012 . By March 2012 , Marvel whittled down the possible directors for the sequel to three candidates : George Nolfi , F. Gary Gray , and brothers Anthony and Joseph Russo . Walt Disney Studios announced the planned release of the sequel to Captain America : The First Avenger on April 4 , 2014 . Disney stated , " The second installment will pick @-@ up where … The Avengers leaves off , as Steve Rogers continues his affiliation with Nick Fury and S.H.I.E.L.D. and struggles to embrace his role in the modern world . " Markus later elaborated , " I think S.H.I.E.L.D. is the water [ Rogers is ] swimming in . It 's definitely a Captain America movie . You know , if the first movie was a movie about the US Army , then this is a movie about S.H.I.E.L.D ... You will learn about S.H.I.E.L.D. You will learn about where it came from and where it 's going and some of the cool things they have . " In April , F. Gary Gray withdrew his name from consideration , choosing instead to direct the N.W.A biographical film Straight Outta Compton .
= = = = Writing = = = =
McFeely said the writing process began in the middle of 2011 , around the release of The First Avenger , with him and Markus " noodling on in hopes that there would be a second one and we did a lot of just throwing stuff at the wall and seeing what stuck " . The first few months of writing were a back and forth process with Marvel , but that after an outline was finished , the story did not change much . They opted to set the story in the present day , and , after " experimenting with flashback elements for more period World War II stuff " , decided to abandon the flashbacks as " it became unwieldy . " The film would be " Cap versus the world we all live in today " , while averting excessive comedy regarding the hero 's time displacement , as Markus considered the Captain " the most adaptive man on the planet . " The tone would be more grounded in reality despite the advanced technology to contrast the fantasy elements from both the first Captain America and The Avengers . Despite that , the comic book origins guaranteed that the film would not have verisimilitude . This still proved a challenge in the reveal of Arnim Zola , that had to be extensively rewritten to convey how " this grounded espionage paranoid thriller suddenly screeches to a halt and you switch gears really quickly with this ghost in the machine " that introduces more science fiction elements .
Markus and McFeely wanted to adapt Ed Brubaker 's Winter Soldier storyline from the comics , which they described as " the tone of Cap ’ s modern franchise " , but it took the duo six months to convince themselves that they could do it . In the meantime , while thinking how to progress from the war film tone of The First Avenger , the writers settled on the conspiracy genre for the screenplay , and cited Three Days of the Condor , The Parallax View , and Marathon Man as influences , feeling it better conveyed Captain America 's trust issues and contrasting values in the new world he was living in , with Markus saying , " If you put that 1940s man into present day geo @-@ politics everything is going to seem like a conspiracy . It ’ s just going to seem dirty and underhanded and shifty , and people won ’ t be telling the truth . " Three Days of the Condor in particular was used as the main source of the script structure , following the idea that the protagonist is being chased by a threat they , along with the audience , only discover halfway through the film .
The writers felt this approach was similar to how Stan Lee reinvented Captain America in the 1960s and 1970s , with " the Captain dealing with all sorts of the same things that the country [ was ] dealing with – Vietnam , Watergate and all that stuff – so he gets to have opinions on that " , thus making the " guy who is ostensibly from the more black and white 1940s react to this ultimately grey world that we live in . " Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige described the film as a political thriller , and as the duo struggled to figure out a third act , Feige suggested that S.H.I.E.L.D. be brought down and have Captain America fight the agency . The writers thought this was a great story point , for implementing " the physical manifestation of Cap changing the world . " Markus even noted how the 1970s comics had similar conspiracies . The Hydra reveal made sure to include returning characters among the undercover villains , as well as references to the comics such as Arnim Zola being kept alive as a machine . Feige later elaborated on the political thriller nature of the film saying ,
In our attempt to make all of our films feel unique and feel different we found ourselves going back to things like [ Three Days of the Condor ] . Also the other political thrillers of the ' 70s : The Parallax View , All the President 's Men . This was a time that Cap existed in the comics . He found himself in the swinging ' 60s followed by the Watergate Era followed by the Reagan Era followed by where we are today . In the comics it was a hell of a journey for Steve . And we couldn 't take him through those years because in our cinematic universe he was asleep . But we wanted to force him to confront that kind of moral conundrum , something with that ' 70s flavor . And in our film that takes the form of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Feige stated that Steve Rogers would be paired with other characters from The Avengers like Black Widow and Nick Fury , because unlike Tony Stark and Thor , who could return to their own supporting casts , Rogers had nowhere else to go , " and it just made sense that he was the one that stayed with what remains of the Avengers at the end of the film . ” The writers considered including Hawkeye , but " he didn ’ t have enough to do and suddenly it seemed like we were giving him short shrift " , leading all of his parts to be fulfilled by Black Widow , and Joe Russo adding that Jeremy Renner 's schedule could not be worked out for him to appear . As to why the Red Skull from The First Avenger did not appear in The Winter Soldier , Joe Russo explained , " I know we have a guy in a computer , but the tone we were chasing was sort of that conspiracy thriller . And we wanted to try and ground the movie as much as we could . And Red Skull , he ’ s a fantastical character and didn ’ t necessarily fit for Cap 2 and especially because it was about the fall of S.H.I.E.L.D. Certainly Hydra exists and that ’ s his legacy , but there ’ s something interesting about the fact that his legacy outlived the skull . And they ’ re still dealing with the demons of it , but not necessarily him . ”
Chris McKenna , who worked with the Russo brothers on the sitcom Community , contributed to the script by writing jokes for the film .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
By June 2012 , the Russo brothers entered negotiations to direct the sequel , and Samuel L. Jackson was confirmed to return as S.H.I.E.L.D. leader Nick Fury . Feige sought out the Russos after watching the genre @-@ parodying season 2 finale of Community which they directed , and for the additional ideas they brought to the initial story pitch . Joe Russo detailed that since the intent was for a political thriller , " all the great political thrillers have very current issues in them that reflect the anxiety of the audience . " Thus the brothers opted to include references to drone warfare , targeted killing and global surveillance . Joe even noted how during principal photography , the issues became more topical due to the disclosure of several National Security Agency surveillance @-@ related documents . At the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , it was announced that the official title for the sequel is Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and that the Russo brothers would direct the film . After signing on to direct , the Russo brothers met with Ed Brubaker to learn more about where the Winter Soldier character came from , his thinking and the themes behind the character . In July 2012 , Anthony Mackie entered negotiations to star as Falcon alongside Chris Evans in the sequel . Sebastian Stan was also confirmed to be reprising his role as James Barnes . By August 2012 , Anna Kendrick , Felicity Jones , and Imogen Poots were being considered front @-@ runners for a leading role in the film .
In September 2012 , Chris Evans stated that filming would begin in March 2013 . Evans also stated that Rogers ' adjustment to the modern world , which was originally set to be included in The Avengers , would be better suited for Captain America : The Winter Soldier . At the end of the month , The Greater Cleveland Film Commission announced that Captain America : The Winter Soldier would film in Cleveland , Ohio after the production was approved for a $ 9 @.@ 5 million tax credit . Producer Nate Moore said that after also serving as a location in The Avengers , Cleveland 's government was helpful in providing large locations for filming , which " provided production value which we probably could not have built in a backlot . " McFeely joked that while writing ambitious action scenes " I did not realize a great American metropolis would say ' Sure , shut down three miles of freeway and go to town ' . " Portions of the film were also scheduled to be shot in California and Washington , D.C.
By October , Emilia Clarke , Jessica Brown Findlay , Teresa Palmer , Imogen Poots , and Alison Brie were being considered for Rogers ' love interest in the film , and Scarlett Johansson was brought back to reprise her role as Black Widow . Later in the month , Frank Grillo was testing for the role of the villain Crossbones in the film , and by the end of the month , Grillo closed a deal to portray the character and Cobie Smulders signed on to reprise her role as Maria Hill from The Avengers .
In January 2013 , Hayley Atwell , who played Peggy Carter in Captain America : The First Avenger , said that she would not appear in the sequel . However Stanley Tucci , who played Dr. Abraham Erskine in the previous film , later said that Atwell would reappear in a flashback scene . Also in January , Marvel Studios announced that the film would be released in 3D , and Anthony Mackie said filming would begin on April 1 , 2013 . Later that month , Toby Jones , who portrayed Arnim Zola in the first film , said that he would reprise the role in the sequel . By the end of the month , stages were being built for a shoot at Raleigh Manhattan Beach Studios in Los Angeles .
In February 2013 , Emily VanCamp entered negotiations to play a female lead in the film . By March 2013 , Maximiliano Hernández was signed to reprise his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell from Thor and The Avengers and Robert Redford entered in talks to join the cast , as a high @-@ ranking member of S.H.I.E.L.D , which he later confirmed . Toward the end of March , UFC fighter Georges St @-@ Pierre was cast as a character based on the comics ' Batroc the Leaper in the film .
Captain America 's uniform was altered from the ones seen in previous films , with a Kevlar @-@ based ballistic component that would protect Captain America but at the same time function like a military uniform . Joe Russo said , " We wanted to use his Super Soldier outfit from the [ Steve Rogers : Super Soldier series ] as a way to represent , thematically , his place in the world of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the difference between working for S.H.I.E.L.D. and being Captain America . " For the Falcon costume , the filmmakers were interested in adding more of a tactical design than was represented in the comic books , by including real @-@ world webbing , straps and gear and stripping away the more comic book elements .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on April 1 , 2013 , at the Raleigh Manhattan Beach Studios in Los Angeles , under the working title Freezer Burn . Scenes taking place on the " Lemurian Star " were filmed on the Sea Launch Commander , docked in Long Beach , California . In early May , Dominic Cooper confirmed he would return as Howard Stark . On May 14 , 2013 , production moved to Washington , D.C. with filming taking place at the National Mall and the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge . The following day , Garry Shandling was spotted on set reprising his Iron Man 2 role of Senator Stern . Other filming locations in Washington , D.C. included the Willard Hotel and Dupont Circle .
Filming in Cleveland began on May 17 and was scheduled to last until mid @-@ June with locations scheduled on the West Shoreway , the Southerly Wastewater Treatment Plant in Cuyahoga Heights and the Lakeview Cemetery Dam . Cleveland was chosen as a stand @-@ in for Washington , D.C , with the city 's East 6th Street doubling as 7th and D Streets in Southwest D.C. Other locations in Cleveland included the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland , the Cleveland Public Library , Cleveland State University , the Cleveland Arcade , Tower City Center , the Cleveland Museum of Art , and the Western Reserve Historical Society . Interior shots were also filmed inside private homes and the Pilgrim Congregational Church in Tremont . Filming in Cleveland concluded on June 27 , 2013 .
Trent Opaloch , best known for his work on District 9 and Elysium , was brought in as the director of photography . Opaloch stated that while attempting to emulate the 1970s thrillers that served as inspiration for the writers and directors , the staging and lighting tried to bring realism through " classic framing and naturalistic lighting " , and the filming was done with hand @-@ held cameras . To achieve this , Opaloch used Arri Alexa Plus 4 : 3 cameras with Panavision anamorphic lenses and Codex Digital recorders . Stunt work aimed for realistic action , prioritizing practical effects . The fight scenes were staged for months , with a choreography that aimed to highlight Captain America 's superhuman qualities , and " move away from impressionistic action into specificity " : the raid on the S.H.I.E.L.D. vessel had stealthiness as the Captain knocked out enemies to avert detection , and the freeway fight with Winter Soldier was more " last minute " to highlight the characters ' struggle to survive .
In contrast to the quick editing and moving cameras of modern action films , The Winter Soldier aimed to feature longer action scenes that felt more visceral and dangerous . The Russos mentioned the bank robbing scene of Heat as a major influence , which they described as " the most intense eight minutes of filmmaking I 've seen in a movie theater " , and action scenes directed by Brian De Palma , such as the vault heist in Mission : Impossible , where " very likable characters are put in impossible situations that the audience is put on the edge on how they 'd escape " . Examples of these types of scenes include the ambushes on Nick Fury in the street and Captain America in the elevator .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Additional photography was filmed in December 2013 and January 2014 , in order for the Russos to accurately show the state of each character after the defeat of S.H.I.E.L.D. , having read the script of Avengers : Age of Ultron to guide their choices . Joss Whedon , director of The Avengers and Avengers : Age of Ultron , wrote and directed the mid @-@ credits scene , which featured Quicksilver , the Scarlet Witch , and Baron Wolfgang von Strucker . The title sequences were created by design firm Sarofsky , who had worked with the Russos since Community . Sarofsky collaborated with comic book artist David W. Mack on the sequences .
Anthony Mackie said the Russo brothers relied on minimal use of computer @-@ generated imagery , stating , " The Russos , what they did that was so great was , they wanted to stay with live action , which is a dying art form . If they can build it , they built it . If we could do it , we did it . They wanted to do as little CGI as possible . That 's why the movie looks so great . " Nevertheless , six special effects companies are involved in creating the visual effects of the film , including Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , Scanline VFX , Lola VFX , Luma Pictures , Whiskytree and The Embassy , with previsualization completed by Proof . The film contained 2 @,@ 500 visual effects shots , with 900 worked on by ILM . The film featured extensive use of digital doubles . Russell Earl , ILM visual effects supervisor , said , " The character that we did the most work on was Falcon . We knew we were going to do CG wings . We also did some shots with wires and some with stunt doubles and head replacement . And we needed a very good digital double . "
Lola VFX , who worked on the pre @-@ serum Steve Rogers scenes in this film and Captain America : The First Avenger , also worked on shots featuring an elderly Peggy Carter . This involved digitally transposing the facial features of an elderly actress onto the face of actress Hayley Atwell who had performed her lines with no make @-@ up and only a few tracking markers .
The Helicarriers in the film were completely digital . Earl said , " In [ The Avengers ] it was more like an aircraft carrier , now it ’ s an aircraft carrier with the addition of battle ship @-@ sized guns . We were all over the carriers [ with the virtual camera ] . We were on the decks ; we were flying next to them . We had a lot of close ups and different angles . And we didn ’ t just have one ; we had three . On top of that , we had to destroy them all . " This CGI environment was also used in close ups . Earl said , " The challenge was to get in all of the detail to make it feel like it is a real , working ship . We created details down to the railings and all the human @-@ scale stuff . ... For the shots in which we were destroying them , we had to have the internals as well – the hallways , the storage areas . " Many of the shots of Washington , D.C. were digitally created due to numerous flight restrictions in the city which necessitated that locations be recreated by computer . However , aerial footage of the city was filmed and used for live action plate photography for shots involving the Triskelion , which is located on Theodore Roosevelt Island on the Potomac River .
350 different versions of the film were made , to accommodate for the different formats it would be released in domestically , while also accounting for international localization and formats . The versions had to be completed in 17 days , versus a normal turnaround time of three to four weeks for contemporary films , to make its theatrical release date . One of the various changes for localization was the contents of Captain America 's notebook list seen at the beginning of the film . The first five items were different depending on where the film was released , while the final five items were the same across all prints . Marvel held online polls allowing fans to select the items featured in each country 's release .
= = Music = =
In June 2013 , Henry Jackman announced that he would compose the film 's score . About the score Jackman said , " ... it 's 50 % production and all the tricks I 've learnt from spending years in the record industry but then it 's also got the kind of injection of symphonic , thematic , heroic music that all kind of merges into one musical , and hopefully coherent piece " . A soundtrack album was released by Hollywood Records on April 1 , 2014 .
= = Release = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released in 32 markets on March 26 , 2014 and in North America on April 4 , 2014 , in 2D , 3D and IMAX 3D . The film debuted on 668 IMAX screens worldwide , a record for films releasing in April . The world premiere took place on March 13 , 2014 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California . The Paris premiere occurred on March 17 at Le Grand Rex , the London premiere took place on March 20 at Westfield London , the Beijing premiere took place on March 24 and the Cleveland premiere took place on April 1 . Chris Evans and Scarlett Johansson auctioned off passes to one of the premieres for charity .
= = = Marketing = = =
In July 2013 , Marvel Studios released a teaser poster depicting a damaged and discolored Captain America shield . The Los Angeles Times said , " the image suggests that [ Captain America ] might see some serious battle in the sequel " while Rolling Stone said , " the image hints at darker themes in the sequel " . Later that month , Marvel Studios head and producer Kevin Feige , directors Joe and Anthony Russo , and cast members Chris Evans , Scarlett Johansson , Samuel L. Jackson , Sebastian Stan , Anthony Mackie , Cobie Smulders , Emily VanCamp , and Frank Grillo held a panel at 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International and presented footage from the film . In addition , Marvel had booths depicting a Smithsonian @-@ type exhibit showing Captain America and the Howling Commandos from Captain America : The First Avenger . At the end of the month , audiences were shown a glimpse of the film along with some of Marvel 's other Phase Two slate of films at Disney XD 's Disney Fandom event .
In August 2013 , Feige , Evans , Stan , and Mackie presented a clip of the film at Disney 's D23 Expo . In September 2013 , Marvel announced that it is again partnering with Harley @-@ Davidson , continuing their relationship from Captain America : The First Avenger , with Captain America riding the company 's Softail Breakout motorcycle in the film .
In October 2013 , Marvel released the first trailer for Captain America : The Winter Soldier . The Hollywood Reporter said , " it looks like it 'll live up to the ' political thriller ' that 's been promised for months now . " The Los Angeles Times said , " [ the ] trailer runs 2 ½ minutes and teases plenty of action , conspiracy and clever banter between Captain America and his S.H.I.E.L.D. colleagues , with a smattering of the previously released Comic @-@ Con International and D23 footage . " The Los Angeles Times also noted that the day before the release of the trailer , the studio released " a teaser for a trailer . " The trailer received 23 @.@ 5 million views in the 24 hours after its release . In November 2013 , Jed Whedon , the co @-@ creator of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , said that there are plans to reference events from the film into the show , stating , " Nick Fury is in [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] , and S.H.I.E.L.D. makes an appearance , so we will definitely try to tee @-@ up some stuff and probably play a little bit of the fallout from that film . "
In January 2014 , Disney announced that in honor of the film , Captain America would be making appearances at Disneyland . The meet and greet experience opened March 7 , 2014 and is called Captain America : The Living Legend and Symbol of Courage , located at Innoventions in Tomorrowland . Also in January , Marvel Comics released a prelude digital comic titled , Marvel 's Captain America : The Winter Soldier Infinite Comic , written by Peter David , with art by Rock @-@ He Kim . The comic sees the return of the " Zodiac " , the mysterious weapon first seen in the One @-@ Shot Agent Carter , which has fallen into the wrong hands . Captain America , Black Widow , and Rumlow must track the weapon down and put it back in S.H.I.E.L.D. protection .
The first televised advertisement for Captain America : The Winter Soldier aired during Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2 , 2014 . According to The Hollywood Reporter , Disney paid over $ 4 million per 30 @-@ second spot . The Los Angeles Times said , " The clip promoting the April 4 release had a recognizably melancholy tone as Chris Evans ' patriotic hero grapples with the moral ambiguities of the modern age . " Also in February , Gameloft announced that a mobile video game , titled Captain America : The Winter Soldier – The Official Game , would be released in conjunction with the release of the film in late March 2014 for iOS and Android platforms . A few days later General Motors announced that Chevrolet partnered with Marvel Entertainment and provided a specially designed Corvette Stingray C7 for use by the Black Widow in the film . The vehicle debuted at the 2014 Chicago Auto Show , where fans received limited @-@ edition Captain America comic books . Evans was named the grand marshal of the 2014 Daytona 500 to promote the film 's release . Later in the month , a 30 @-@ second television spot received " a lot of attention on social media " for a line featured in the clip . The line , which was said by Captain America , suggests that Nick Fury would die in the film . The Hollywood Reporter noted that it all seemed " a bit too obvious " , noting the fact that Jackson , who plays Fury , is reprising the role in Avengers : Age of Ultron , although pointing out that it could be in a postmortem flashback appearance .
In March 2014 , Marvel released the Captain America Experience app , that allowed fans to capture a pictures of themselves with Captain America , and let them share it on Instagram and Twitter using specific hashtags to unlock 10 early screenings of the film across the United States , which took place on March 20 . On March 18 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled , Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which included a sneak peek of Captain America : The Winter Soldier . On April 1 , 2014 , Evans and Stan rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in honor of the film 's theatrical release . Jackson appeared in advertisements for Sky Broadband .
= = = Home media = = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment for digital download on August 19 , 2014 and on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and DVD on September 9 , 2014 . The physical media releases include behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes , and a blooper reel .
The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Captain America : The Winter Soldier earned $ 259 @.@ 8 million in North America and $ 454 @.@ 7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 714 @.@ 4 million . It became the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2014 worldwide . Deadline.com calculated the net profit for the film to be $ 166 @.@ 2 million , when factoring together " production budgets , P & A , talent participations and other costs , with box office grosses , and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV , " placing it ninth on their list of 2014 's " Most Valuable Blockbusters " .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier made $ 10 @.@ 2 million in Thursday night showings , more than double the midnight gross of its predecessor . It set an April single @-@ day ( $ 36 @.@ 9 million ) and April opening @-@ weekend record ( $ 95 @.@ 0 million ) , while its opening weekend was a 46 % increase over its predecessor . The film held the number one spot at the box office for three consecutive weekends , before being overtaken by The Other Woman in its fourth weekend . It achieved the largest total gross among films released in the month of April . At the end of its theatrical run , the film became the fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2014 behind American Sniper , The Hunger Games : Mockingjay - Part 1 , and Guardians of the Galaxy .
Captain America : The Winter Soldier topped the box office on its opening weekend with $ 75 @.@ 2 million from 32 overseas markets . The film debuted at number one in many territories , including Australia , China , and Russia and set a 3 @-@ day opening @-@ weekend record in China among Disney films , with $ 38 @.@ 81 million . It topped the box office outside North America on two consecutive weekends , followed by two weeks in second , behind Rio 2 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 256 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Suspenseful and politically astute , Captain America : The Winter Soldier is a superior entry in the Avengers canon and is sure to thrill Marvel diehards . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 70 out of 100 based on 47 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore audiences gave Captain America : The Winter Soldier an " A " grade rating on an A + to F scale .
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter said the film " takes the bold ( for Marvel ) step of reducing CGI spectacle to a relative minimum in favor of reviving the pleasures of hard @-@ driving old @-@ school action , surprising character development and intriguing suspense . " Scott Foundas of Variety said it is " chockfull of the breathless cliffhangers dictated by the genre , but equally rich in the quiet , tender character moments that made the first film unique among recent Marvel fare . " Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said , " While not on a par with The Avengers or the first and third Iron Man movies , this is another rock @-@ solid chapter in the big @-@ screen story of Marvel . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly noted the topicality of the film , stating , " Captain America : The Winter Soldier is the first superhero film since the terrorist @-@ inflected The Dark Knight that plugs you right into what 's happening now . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe said the film " delivers all the 3D CGI mayhem audiences have come to expect from the Marvel entertainment juggernaut , but there ’ s darkness and confusion just under its comic @-@ book surface . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal said , " What makes The Winter Soldier so enjoyable , and what will make it so profitable , is its emotional bandwidth — all the vivid , nuanced life lived by its characters in between their frenzied escapades , " and felt it fixed all the shortcomings of The First Avenger " and then some " .
Conversely , Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said , " [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] is everything a big budget superhero film should be – except inspired . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " Like many others of its type , [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] gets off to a kinetic start only to lose steam before blowing everything up . " Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph said , " You can 't help but feel disappointment that a film with a relatively spicy premise becomes , in the end , so risk @-@ averse . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said the film " has the usual overlong running time [ for the comic book superhero genre ] , the halfhearted feints in the direction of human feeling and the obligatory action sequences that are big without being either exciting or particularly legible . " Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post Dispatch felt " On paper this sequel has some promising elements , but on screen it retreats from the very issues that it raises , and on a shelf next to Captain America : The First Avenger , The Winter Soldier is pale . " Jake Coyle of the Associated Press said the film 's biggest misstep was the handling of Stan 's Winter Soldier , and that it was " getting difficult to tell the Marvel movies apart " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Sequel = =
Captain America : Civil War was released on May 6 , 2016 , and again is directed by the Russo brothers . Evans , Johansson , Stan , Mackie , VanCamp and Grillo reprise their roles from The Winter Soldier and they are joined by Robert Downey , Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man , Paul Bettany as Vision , Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye , Don Cheadle as James " Rhodey " Rhodes / War Machine , Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch , Paul Rudd as Scott Lang / Ant @-@ Man , and William Hurt as Thaddeus " Thunderbolt " Ross , all reprising roles from previous MCU films .
= The Last One ( Friends ) =
" The Last One " is the series finale of the television sitcom Friends . The episode serves as the seventeenth and eighteenth episode of season ten ; the episode 's two parts were classified as two separate episodes . It was written by series creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and directed by executive producer Kevin S. Bright . The series finale first aired on NBC in the United States on May 6 , 2004 , when it was watched by 52
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literature , as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form . James Macpherson ( 1736 – 96 ) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation . Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian , he published translations that acquired international popularity , being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . It was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon . Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic , but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience .
Robert Burns ( 1759 – 96 ) and Walter Scott ( 1771 – 1832 ) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle . Burns , an Ayrshire poet and lyricist , is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement . His poem ( and song ) " Auld Lang Syne " is often sung at Hogmanay ( the last day of the year ) , and " Scots Wha Hae " served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country . Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads . His first prose work , Waverley in 1814 , is often called the first historical novel . It launched a highly successful career , with other historical novels such as Rob Roy ( 1817 ) , The Heart of Midlothian ( 1818 ) and Ivanhoe ( 1820 ) . Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century . Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg ( 1770 – 1835 ) , Allan Cunningham ( 1784 – 1842 ) and John Galt ( 1779 – 1839 ) . One of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement , Lord Byron , was brought up in Scotland until he acquired his English title .
Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era , The Edinburgh Review ( founded in 1802 ) and Blackwood 's Magazine ( founded in 1817 ) , which significantly influenced the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism . Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century , caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a " British Isles nationalism . "
Scottish " national drama " emerged in the early 1800s , as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage . Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies . In the later eighteenth century , many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost . Towards the end of the century there were " closet dramas " , primarily designed to be read , rather than performed , including work by Scott , Hogg , Galt and Joanna Baillie ( 1762 – 1851 ) , often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism .
The Scottish national drama that emerged in the early nineteenth century was largely historical in nature and based around a core of adaptations of Scott 's Waverley novels . The existing repertoire of Scottish @-@ themed plays included Shakespeare 's Macbeth ( c . 1605 ) , Friedrich Schiller 's Maria Stuart ( 1800 ) , John Home 's Douglas ( 1756 ) and Ramsay 's The Gentle Shepherd ( 1725 ) , with the last two being the most popular plays among amateur groups . Ballets with Scottish themes included Jockey and Jenny and Love in the Highlands . Scott was keenly interested in drama , becoming a shareholder in the Theatre Royal , Edinburgh . Baillie 's Highland themed Family Legend was first produced in Edinburgh in 1810 with the help of Scott , as part of a deliberate attempt to stimulate a national Scottish drama . Scott also wrote five plays , of which Hallidon Hill ( 1822 ) and MacDuff 's Cross ( 1822 ) were patriotic Scottish histories . Adaptations of the Waverley novels , first performed primarily in minor theatres , rather than the larger Patent theatres , included The Lady in the Lake ( 1817 ) , The Heart of Midlothian ( 1819 ) ( specifically described as a " romantic play " for its first performance ) , and Rob Roy , which underwent over 1 @,@ 000 performances in Scotland in this period . Also adapted for the stage were Guy Mannering , The Bride of Lammermoor and The Abbot . These highly popular plays saw the social range and size of the audience for theatre expand and helped shape theatre @-@ going practices in Scotland for the rest of the century .
= = Art = =
The Ossian cycle itself became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works based on its themes were created by figures such as Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backward and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , who were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , Jacob More 's ( 1740 – 93 ) series of four paintings " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the eighteenth century .
The effect of Romanticism can also be seen in the works of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth @-@ century artists such as Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) , Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) and John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . Raeburn was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland . He was born in Edinburgh and returned there after a trip to Italy in 1786 . He is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the tradition of Reynolds . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's limner and painter for Scotland in 1823 . Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and has been seen as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . The work of Knox continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Scott , and he was also among the first artists to depict the urban landscape of Glasgow .
= = Architecture = =
The Gothic revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of Romanticism , and according to Alvin Jackson , the Scots baronial style was " a Caledonian reading of the gothic " . Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture are from Scotland . Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam , incorporates turrets into a conventional Palladian @-@ style house . His son Robert Adam 's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian . The trend is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , remodelled by Robert from 1777 .
Important for the re @-@ adoption of the Scots Baronial in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House , the residence of Scott . Re @-@ built for him from 1816 , it became a model for the revival of the style . Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth @-@ century houses included battlemented gateways , crow @-@ stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn ( 1789 – 1870 ) , David Bryce ( 1803 – 1876 ) , Edward Blore ( 1787 – 1879 ) , Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) . Examples in urban contexts include the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh ( from the 1850s ) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling ( 1859 – 69 ) . The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace , and its adoption as a royal retreat by Queen Victoria from 1855 – 58 , confirmed the popularity of the style .
In ecclesiastical architecture , a style similar to that developed in England was adopted . Important figures in this movement included Frederick Thomas Pilkington ( 1832 – 98 ) , who developed a new style of church building which accorded with the fashionable High Gothic , but which adapted it for the worship needs of the Free Church of Scotland . Examples include Barclay Viewforth Church , Edinburgh ( 1862 – 64 ) . Robert Rowand Anderson ( 1834 – 1921 ) , who trained in the office of George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh , worked mainly on small churches in the " First Pointed " ( or Early English ) style that is characteristic of Scott 's former assistants . By 1880 , his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public and private buildings in Scotland , such as the Scottish National Portrait Gallery ; the Dome of Old College , Medical Faculty and McEwan Hall , Edinburgh University ; the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central station ; the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh ; and Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute .
= = Music = =
One characteristic of Romanticism was the conscious creation of bodies of nationalist art music . In Scotland this form was dominant from the late eighteenth century to the early twentieth century . In the 1790s Robert Burns embarked on an attempt to produce a corpus of Scottish national song , building on the work of antiquarians and musicologists such as William Tytler , James Beattie and Joseph Ritson . Working with music engraver and seller James Johnson , he contributed about a third of the eventual songs of the collection known as The Scots Musical Museum , issued between 1787 and 1803 in six volumes . Burns collaborated with George Thomson in A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs , published from 1793 to 1818 , which adapted Scottish folk songs with " classical " arrangements . Thompson was inspired by hearing Scottish songs sung by visiting Italian castrati at the St Cecilia Concerts in Edinburgh . He collected Scottish songs and obtained musical arrangements from the best European composers , who included Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven . Burns was employed in editing the lyrics . A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs was published in five volumes between 1799 and 1818 . It helped make Scottish songs part of the European cannon of classical music , while Thompson 's work brought elements of Romanticism , such as harmonies based on those of Beethoven , into Scottish classical music . Also involved in the collection and publication of Scottish songs was Scott , whose first literary effort was The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border , published in three volumes ( 1802 – 03 ) . This collection first drew the attention of an international audience to his work , and some of his lyrics were set to music by Schubert , who also created a setting of Ossian .
Perhaps the most influential composer of the first half of the nineteenth century was the German Felix Mendelssohn , who visited Britain ten times , for a total of twenty months , from 1829 . Scotland inspired two of his most famous works , the overture Fingal 's Cave ( also known as the Hebrides Overture ) and the Scottish Symphony ( Symphony No. 3 ) . On his last visit to England in 1847 , he conducted his own Scottish Symphony with the Philharmonic Orchestra before Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . Max Bruch ( 1838 – 1920 ) composed the Scottish Fantasy ( 1880 ) for violin and orchestra , which includes an arrangement of the tune " Hey Tuttie Tatie " , best known for its use in the song Scots Wha Hae by Burns .
By the late nineteenth century , there was in effect a national school of orchestral and operatic music in Scotland . Major composers included Alexander Mackenzie ( 1847 – 1935 ) , William Wallace ( 1860 – 1940 ) , Learmont Drysdale ( 1866 – 1909 ) , Hamish MacCunn ( 1868 – 1916 ) and John McEwen ( 1868 – 1948 ) . Mackenzie , who studied in Germany and Italy and mixed Scottish themes with German Romanticism , is best known for his three Scottish Rhapsodies ( 1879 – 80 , 1911 ) , Pibroch for violin and orchestra ( 1889 ) and the Scottish Concerto for piano ( 1897 ) , all involving Scottish themes and folk melodies . Wallace 's work included an overture , In Praise of Scottish Poesie ( 1894 ) ; his pioneering symphonic poem about his namesake , medieval nationalist William Wallace AD 1305 – 1905 ( 1905 ) ; and a cantata , The Massacre of the Macpherson ( 1910 ) . Drysdale 's work often dealt with Scottish themes , including the overture Tam O ’ Shanter ( 1890 ) , the cantata The Kelpie ( 1891 ) , the tone poem A Border Romance ( 1904 ) , and the cantata Tamlane ( 1905 ) . MacCunn 's overture The Land of the Mountain and the Flood ( 1887 ) , his Six Scotch Dances ( 1896 ) , his operas Jeanie Deans ( 1894 ) and Dairmid ( 1897 ) and choral works on Scottish subjects have been described by I. G. C. Hutchison as the musical equivalent of Abbotsford and Balmoral . McEwen 's more overtly national works include Grey Galloway ( 1908 ) , the Solway Symphony ( 1911 ) and Prince Charlie , A Scottish Rhapsody ( 1924 ) .
= = Historiography = =
In contrast to Enlightenment histories , which have been seen as attempting to draw general lessons about humanity from history , the German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder in his Ideas upon Philosophy and the History of Mankind ( 1784 ) , set out the concept of Volksgeist , a unique national spirit that drove historical change . As a result , a key element in the influence of Romanticism on intellectual life was the production of national histories . The nature and existence of a national Scottish historiography has been debated among historians . Those authors who consider that such a national history did exist in this period indicate that it can be found outside of the production of major historical narratives , in works of antiquarianism and fiction .
An important element in the emergence of a Scottish national history was an interest in antiquarianism , with figures like John Pinkerton ( 1758 – 1826 ) collecting sources such as ballads , coins , medals , songs and artefacts . Enlightenment historians had tended to react with embarrassment to Scottish history , particularly the feudalism of the Middle Ages and the religious intolerance of the Reformation . In contrast many historians of the early nineteenth century rehabilitated these areas as suitable for serious study . Lawyer and antiquarian Cosmo Innes , who produced works on Scotland in the Middle Ages ( 1860 ) , and Sketches of Early Scottish History ( 1861 ) , has been likened to the pioneering history of Georg Heinrich Pertz , one of the first writers to collate the major historical accounts of German history . Patrick Fraser Tytler 's nine @-@ volume history of Scotland ( 1828 – 43 ) , particularity his sympathetic view of Mary , Queen of Scots , have led to comparisons with Leopold von Ranke , considered the father of modern scientific historical writing . Tytler was co @-@ founder with Scott of the Bannatyne Society in 1823 , which helped further the course of historical research in Scotland . Thomas M 'Crie 's ( 1797 – 1875 ) biographies of John Knox and Andrew Melville , figures generally savaged in the Enlightenment , helped rehabilitate their reputations . W. F. Skene 's ( 1809 – 92 ) three part study of Celtic Scotland ( 1886 – 91 ) was the first serious investigation of the region and helped spawn the Scottish Celtic Revival . Issues of race became important , with Pinkerton , James Sibbald ( 1745 – 1803 ) and John Jamieson ( 1758 – 1839 ) subscribing to a theory of Picto @-@ Gothicism , which postulated a Germanic origin for the Picts and the Scots language .
Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was Thomas Carlyle ( 1795 – 1881 ) , born in Scotland and later a resident of London . He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as Schiller and Goethe to the attention of a British audience . An essayist and historian , he invented the phrase " hero @-@ worship " , lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell , Frederick the Great and Napoleon . His The French Revolution : A History ( 1837 ) dramatised the plight of the French aristocracy , but stressed the inevitability of history as a force . With French historian Jules Michelet , he is associated with the use of the " historical imagination " . In Romantic historiography this led to a tendency to emphasise sentiment and identification , inviting readers to sympathise with historical personages and even to imagine interactions with them . In contrast to many continental Romantic historians , Carlyle remained largely pessimistic about human nature and events . He believed that history was a form of prophecy that could reveal patterns for the future . In the late nineteenth century he became one of a number of Victorian sage writers and social commentators .
Romantic writers often reacted against the empiricism of Enlightenment historical writing , putting forward the figure of the " poet @-@ historian " who would mediate between the sources of history and the reader , using insight to create more than chronicles of facts . For this reason , Romantic historians such as Thierry saw Walter Scott , who had spent considerable effort uncovering new documents and sources for his novels , as an authority in historical writing . Scott is now seen primarily as a novelist , but also produced a nine @-@ volume biography of Napoleon , and has been described as " the towering figure of Romantic historiography in Transatlantic and European contexts " , having a profound effect on how history , particularly that of Scotland , was understood and written . Historians that acknowledged his influence included Chateaubriand , Macaulay , and Ranke .
= = Science = =
Romanticism has also been seen as affecting scientific enquiry . Romantic attitudes to science varied , from distrust of the scientific enterprise to endorsing a non @-@ mechanical science that rejected the mathematicised and the abstract theorising associated with Newton . Major trends in continental science associated with Romanticism include Naturphilosophie , developed by Friedrich Schelling ( 1775 – 1854 ) , which focused on the necessity of reuniting man with nature , and Humboldtian science , based on the work of Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 – 1859 ) . As defined by Susan Cannon , this form of inquiry placed a stress on observation , accurate scientific instruments and new conceptual tools ; disregarded the boundaries between different disciplines ; and emphasised working in nature rather than the artificial laboratory . Privileging observation above calculation , Romantic scientists were often attracted to the areas where investigation , rather than calculation and theory , was most important , particularly the life sciences , geology , optics and astronomy .
James Allard identifies the origins of Scottish " Romantic medicine " in the work of Enlightenment figures , particularly the brothers William ( 1718 – 83 ) and John Hunter ( 1728 – 93 ) , who were , respectively , the leading anatomist and surgeon of their day and in the role of Edinburgh as a major centre of medical teaching and research . Key figures that were influenced by the Hunters ' work and by Romanticism include John Brown ( 1735 – 88 ) , Thomas Beddoes ( 1760 – 1808 ) and John Barclay ( 1758 – 1826 ) . Brown argued in Elementa Medicinae ( 1780 ) that life is an essential " vital energy " or " excitability " and that disease is either the excessive or diminished redistribution of the normal intensity of the human organ , which became known as Brunonianism . This work was highly influential , particularly in Germany , on the development of Naturphilosophie . This work was translated and edited by Beddoes , another graduate of Edinburgh , whose own work , Hygeia , or Essays Moral and Medical ( 1807 ) expanded on these ideas . Following in this vein , Barclay in the 1810 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica identified physiology as the branch of medicine closest to metaphysics . Also important were the brothers John ( 1763 – 1820 ) and Charles Bell ( 1774 – 1842 ) , who made significant advances in the study of the vascular and nervous systems , respectively .
The University of Edinburgh was also a major supplier of surgeons for the royal navy , and Robert Jameson ( 1774 – 1854 ) , Professor of Natural History at Edinburgh , ensured that a large number of these were surgeon @-@ naturalists , who were vital in the Humboldtian and imperial enterprise of investigating nature throughout the world . These included Robert Brown ( 1773 – 1858 ) , one of the major figures in the early exploration of Australia . His later use of the microscope paralleled that noted among German students of Naturphilosophie , and he is credited with the discovery of the cell nucleus and the first observation of Brownian motion . Charles Lyell 's work Principles of Geology ( 1830 ) is often seen as the foundation of modern geology . It was indebted to Humboldtian science in its insistence on measurements of nature , and , according to Noah Heringman , retains a much of the " rhetoric of the sublime " , which is characteristic of Romantic attitudes to landscape .
Romantic thinking was also evident in the writings of Hugh Miller , stonemason and geologist , who followed in the tradition of Naturphilosophie , arguing that nature was a pre @-@ ordained progression towards the human race . Publisher , historian , antiquarian and scientist Robert Chambers ( 1802 – 71 ) became a friend of Scott , writing a biography of him after the author 's death . Chambers also became a geologist , researching in Scandinavia and Canada . His most influential work was the anonymously published Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation ( 1844 ) , which was the most comprehensive written argument in favour of evolution before the work of Charles Darwin ( 1809 – 82 ) . His work was strongly influenced by transcendental anatomy , which , drawing on Goethe and Lorenz Oken ( 1779 – 1851 ) , looked for ideal patterns and structure in nature and had been pioneered in Scotland by figures including Robert Knox ( 1791 – 1862 ) .
David Brewster ( 1781 – 1868 ) , physicist , mathematician and astronomer , undertook key work in optics , where he provided a compromise between Goethe 's Naturphilosophie @-@ influenced studies and Newton 's system , which Goethe attacked . His work would be important in later biological , geological and astrological discoveries . Diligent measurement in South Africa allowed Thomas Henderson ( 1798 – 1844 ) make the observations that would allow him to be the first to calculate the distance to Alpha Centauri , before returning to Edinburgh to become the first Astronomer Royal for Scotland from 1834 . Influenced by Humboldt , and much praised by him , was Mary Somerville ( 1780 – 1872 ) , mathematician , geographer , physicist , astronomer and one of the few women to gain recognition in science in the period . A major contribution to the " magnetic crusade " declared by Humboldt was made by Scottish @-@ born astronomer John Lamont ( 1805 – 79 ) , head of the observatory in Munich , when he found a decennial period ( ten @-@ year cycle ) in the Earth 's magnetic field .
= = Politics = =
In the aftermath of the Jacobite risings , a movement to restore Stuart King James II of England to the throne , the British government enacted a series of laws that attempted to speed the process of the destruction of the clan system . Measures included a ban on the bearing of arms , the wearing of tartan and limitations on the activities of the Episcopalian Church . Most of the legislation was repealed by the end of the eighteenth century as the Jacobite threat subsided .
Soon after , there was a process of the rehabilitation of highland culture . Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army , which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , but by the nineteenth century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people of the region . In the 1820s , tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite , not just in Scotland , but across Europe . The international craze for tartan , and for idealising a romanticised Highlands , was set off by the Ossian cycle and further popularised by the works of Scott . His " staging " of the royal visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the king 's wearing of tartan resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry . Individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period , and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity . This " Highlandism " , by which all of Scotland was identified with the culture of the Highlands , was cemented by Queen Victoria 's interest in the country , her adoption of Balmoral as a major royal retreat and her interest in " tartanry " .
The romanticisation of the Highlands and the adoption of Jacobitism into mainstream culture have been seen as defusing the potential threat to the Union with England , the House of Hanover and the dominant Whig government . In many countries Romanticism played a major part in the emergence of radical independence movements through the development of national identities . Tom Nairn argues that Romanticism in Scotland did not develop along the lines seen elsewhere in Europe , leaving a " rootless " intelligentsia , who moved to England or elsewhere and so did not supply a cultural nationalism that could be communicated to the emerging working classes . Graeme Moreton and Lindsay Paterson both argue that the lack of interference of the British state in civil society meant that the middle classes had no reason to object to the union . Atsuko Ichijo argues that national identity cannot be equated with a movement for independence . Moreton suggests that there was a Scottish nationalism , but that it was expressed in terms of " Unionist nationalism " . A form of political radicalism remained within Scottish Romanticism , surfacing in events like the foundation of the Friends of the People in 1792 and in 1853 the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights , which was in effect a federation of romantics , radical churchmen and administrative reformers . However , Scottish identity was not directed into nationalism until the twentieth century .
= = Philosophy = =
The dominant school of philosophy in Scotland in the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century is known as Common Sense Realism . It argued that there are certain concepts , such as our existence , the existence of solid objects and some basic moral " first principles " , that are intrinsic to our make @-@ up and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived . It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief . The origins of these arguments are in a reaction to the scepticism that became dominant in the Enlightenment , particularly that articulated by Scottish philosopher David Hume ( 1711 – 76 ) . This branch of thinking was first formulated by Thomas Reid ( 1710 – 96 ) in his An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense ( 1764 ) . It was popularised in Scotland by figures including Dugald Stewart ( 1753 – 1828 ) and in England by James Beattie . Stewart 's students included Walter Scott , Walter Chambers and Thomas Brown , and this branch of thought would later be a major influence on Charles Darwin . William Hamilton ( 1788 – 1856 ) attempted to combine Reid 's approach with the philosophy of Kant .
Common Sense Realism not only dominated Scottish thought but also had a major impact in France , the United States , Germany and other countries . Victor Cousin ( 1792 – 1867 ) was the most important proponent in France , becoming Minister of Education and incorporating the philosophy into the curriculum . In Germany the emphasis on careful observation influenced Humboldt 's ideas about science and was a major factor in the development of German Idealism . James McCosh ( 1811 – 94 ) brought Common Sense Realism directly from Scotland to North American in 1868 when he became president of Princeton University , which soon became a stronghold of the movement . Noah Porter ( 1811 – 92 ) taught Common Sense Realism to generations of students at Yale . As a result , it would be a major influence on the development of one of the most important offshoots of Romanticism in New England , Transcendentalism , particularly in the writing of Ralph Waldo Emerson ( 1803 – 82 ) .
= = Decline = =
In literature , Romanticism is often thought to have ended in the 1830s , with a few commentators , like Margaret Drabble , describing it as over by 1848 . Romanticism continued much longer in some places and areas of endeavour , particularly in music , where it has been dated from 1820 to 1910 . The death of Scott in 1832 has been seen as marking the end of the great romantic generation , and Scottish literature and culture in general lost some of its international prominence from this point . Scott 's reputation as a writer also went into decline in the late nineteenth century , only recovering in the twentieth . Economic and social change , particularly the better communications brought by the railways , decreased the ability of Edinburgh to function as an alternative cultural capital to London , with its publishing industry moving to London . Lack of opportunities in politics and letters led many talented Scots to leave for England and elsewhere . The sentimental Kailyard tradition of J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald , of those that continued to pursue Scottish topics at the end of the nineteenth century , was seen by Tom Nairn as " sub @-@ romantic " .
In art , the tradition of Scottish landscape painting continued into the later nineteenth century , but Romanticism gave way to influences including French Impressionism , Post @-@ Impressionism and eventually Modernism . The Scots baronial style continued to be popular until the end of the nineteenth century , when other styles began to dominate . Although Romanticism persisted in music much longer than in almost every area , it fell out of fashion in the twentieth century and anti @-@ Romantic currents in Britain virtually buried Victorian and Edwardian music not written by Edward Elgar or Arthur Sullivan . The idea of the historical imagination was replaced with the source @-@ based empiricism championed by Ranke . Marinel Ash has noted that after the death of Scott , Scottish national history lost its momentum , and the Scottish literati stopped writing Scottish histories . Colin Kidd has observed a change of attitudes to historical writing and suggests that this was one reason for a lack of the development of political nationalism . In science , the rapid expansion of knowledge increased a tendency towards specialisation and professionalism and a decline of the polymath " man of letters " and amateurs that had dominated Romantic science . Common Sense Realism began to decline in Britain in the face of the English empiricism outlined by John Stuart Mill in his An Examination of Sir William Hamilton 's Philosophy ( 1865 ) .
= = Influence = =
Scotland can make a claim to have begun the Romantic movement with writers such as Macpherson and Burns . In Scott it produced a figure of international fame and influence , whose virtual invention of the historical novel would be picked up by writers across the world , including Alexandre Dumas and Honoré de Balzac in France , Leo Tolstoy in Russia and Alessandro Manzoni in Italy . The tradition of Scottish landscape painting significantly influenced art in Britain and elsewhere through figures like J. M. W. Turner , who took part in the emerging Scottish " grand tour " . The Scottish baronial style influenced buildings in England and was taken by Scots to North America , Australia and New Zealand . In music , the early efforts of men like Burns , Scott and Thompson helped insert Scottish music into European , particularly German , classical music , and the later contributions of composers like MacCuun were part of a Scottish contribution to the British revival of interest in classical music in the late nineteenth century .
The idea of history as a force and the romantic concept of revolution were highly influential on transcendentalists like Emerson , and through them on American literature in general . Romantic science maintained the prominence and reputation that Scotland had begun to obtain in the Enlightenment and helped in the development of many emerging fields of investigation , including geology and biology . According to Robert D. Purington , " to some the nineteenth century seems to be the century of Scottish science " . Politically the initial function of Romanticism as pursued by Scott and others helped to diffuse some of the tension created by Scotland 's place in the Union , but it also helped to ensure the survival of a common and distinct Scottish national identity that would play a major part in Scottish life and emerge as a significant factor in Scottish politics from the second half of the twentieth century . Externally , modern images of Scotland worldwide , its landscape , culture , sciences and arts , are still largely defined by those created and popularised by Romanticism .
= Chevrolet Cobalt SS =
The Chevrolet Cobalt SS is a line of three sport compact versions of the Chevrolet Cobalt built on the General Motors Delta platform at Lordstown Assembly in Ohio , United States . It featured two forced induction inline @-@ four Ecotec engines , as well as a third naturally aspirated engine in 1SS trim , later called the Cobalt Sport .
The Cobalt SS was GM 's first foray into the tuner market , launching with a 205 hp ( 153 kW ; 208 PS ) supercharged 2 @.@ 0 L engine in late 2004 as a 2005 model , paired with the F35 manual of Opel . The following year , a naturally aspirated 1SS model equipped with GM 's new 2 @.@ 4 L , 171 hp ( 128 kW ; 173 PS ) engine was added ; it had both automatic and manual transmission options . The supercharged version continued until it was discontinued after 2007 for a more economical turbocharged 2 @.@ 0 L engine producing 260 hp ( 194 kW ; 264 PS ) making it the manual only , highest trim Cobalt in the second quarter of 2008 ( See timeline ) .
The powertrain of the Cobalt SS received generally positive reviews , especially the turbocharged version , the car drew criticism for its interior quality , and its exterior styling , which was described as too reminiscent of its predecessor , the Cavalier . Reports surfaced in May 2009 that General Motors planned to eliminate the Cobalt SS as soon as December 2009 , but they proved to be untrue . Production continued , but ordering options for late 2010 models were limited , and production of all Cobalts ended in June 2010 . The car has been replaced by the Cruze , but a high performance version to directly replace the Cobalt SS has not yet been announced , nor any possible powertrains .
= = Model details = =
= = = Overview = = =
Of the five engines General Motors has placed in the Cobalt since its launch , three have been designated SS . The first was launched in 2004 as a 2005 model with a new powertrain that had debuted one year earlier on the Saturn ION Red Line . It was available as a Supercharged coupe only . The naturally aspirated 2 @.@ 4 L LE5 engine was the next SS to launch in late 2005 as a 2006 model , available as both a coupe and sedan for the duration of its run . However , in late 2007 , at the same time the announcement cancelling the SS Supercharged was made , GM also announced that the 2 @.@ 4 L would be renamed " Cobalt Sport " , rendering Chevrolet without a Cobalt SS for the first half of the 2008 model year . The 2 @.@ 0 L LNF turbocharged Cobalt was the last to launch in the second quarter of 2008 ; initially available only as a coupe until a sedan option was offered for the 2009 model year but again deleted for 2010 after less than 500 were produced .
All three models of the Cobalt SS feature four wheel , anti @-@ lock disc brakes . Compared to the base Cobalt , the SS has lower front and rear fascias for a more aggressive look with integrated foglamps , side rocker moldings , interior accents , and a chrome exhaust tip . Exclusive to the 2 @.@ 0 L Cobalt are a titanium @-@ faced sport analogue cluster with a 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) speedometer , an A @-@ pillar mounted boost gauge , reclining front bucket seats with two @-@ tone leather @-@ appointed seating surfaces , vertical adjusting head restraints and driver @-@ side lumbar and height adjusters , and a sport @-@ tuned FE5 suspension with a 24 mm front stabilizer bar and 22 mm rear stabilizer bar .
= = = SS Supercharged = = =
Available as a coupe only , the SS Supercharged featured the 2 @.@ 0 L LSJ Ecotec engine with an Eaton M62 Roots type supercharger and air @-@ to @-@ liquid intercooler . The engine makes 205 hp ( 153 kW ) at 5600 rpm and 200 lb · ft ( 271 N · m ) at 4400 rpm . 18 @-@ inch broad @-@ spoke wheels with P215 / 45R18 summer Pirelli tires are standard . Optional for the LSJ was a performance package coded G85 that added Recaro bucket seats and a limited slip differential ( LSD ) . LSD was optional for 2005 models ( performance package came with LSD ) and was standard in 2007 + models . The G85 option continues in the LNF Cobalt , but adds only the LSD . The car has become notable for a high profile spoiler that was standard in 2005 , but optional from 2008 when a lower profile spoiler used on all other Cobalt coupes became an option .
GM offers dealer @-@ installed performance upgrade packages called " stage kits " that are covered by factory warranty . The Stage 1 kit consists of new fuel injectors and a reprogram of the ECU , and yields up to a 30 hp ( 22 kW ) improvement . The Stage 2 kit consists of new fuel injectors and the same reprogram with a smaller serpentine belt and pulley for the supercharger , producing a 36 hp improvement and 18 lbft of torque . Both stage 1 and 2 kits increase the engine redline to 7 @,@ 000 rpm . The Stage 3 kit consists of a smaller , 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) supercharger pulley , a 2 @-@ pass intercooler end plate and a customizable replacement ECU . The Stage 3 ECU allows for the use of a 50 @-@ shot of nitrous , 100 octane fuel and an adjustable redline from 6 @,@ 750 to 8 @,@ 000 rpm . Stage 3 produces 248 hp ( 185 kW ) using 93 octane fuel , up to 260 hp ( 194 kW ) using 100 octane fuel , and much higher power with nitrous . Stage 3 is for track use only , and to emphasize this , air conditioning is disabled with the Stage 3 ECU .
A problem frequently encountered with the car , due to a combination of its high torque , front drive , and short first gear is wheel hop , wheelspin and a general lack of traction . Items like upgraded front and rear trans and motor mounts would eliminate this . The GM Performance Division later tried to rectify these problems in the turbocharged car by providing wider , stickier tires and stronger axles .
= = = SS Turbocharged = = =
The LSJ engine did not meet emissions requirements for the 2008 model year , and General Motors ' contract with Eaton had expired . The non @-@ supercharged 2 @.@ 4 L Cobalt SS also lost its Super Sport designation for the 2008 model year and was renamed " Sport " . However , in fall 2007 , a more powerful Cobalt SS was announced for the second quarter of 2008 . The car would be equipped with the 2 @.@ 0 L , turbocharged , direct injected , VVT , LNF Ecotec engine , making 260 hp ( 194 kW ) at 5300 rpm and 260 lb · ft ( 353 N · m ) at 2000 rpm , and remain mated to the F35 5 @-@ speed manual transmission . The engine had been introduced in a rear wheel drive application for the 2007 GM Kappa platform , which includes the Saturn Sky , Pontiac Solstice , and Opel GT .
Also new for the 2008 SS were SS @-@ embroidered sport seats with suede @-@ like UltraLux inserts , several new exterior colors , and wider 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) forged , split @-@ spoke wheels with P225 / 40R18 Continental AG tires , reminiscent of those offered for the Chevrolet Corvette C6 . The car 's electronics are also new , and along with greater assist in poor traction conditions , add a " no @-@ lift @-@ shift " feature which allows the driver to maintain turbocharger boost during upshifts . During a no @-@ lift @-@ shift , the driver shifts normally by depressing the clutch , but the accelerator pedal is held wide open . Also new is " launch control " , which feathers the throttle at roughly 4800 rpm until engagement of the clutch , allowing more consistent launches in competitive situations . To use the feature the driver presses twice on the traction control button which first turns off traction control , and then notifies the driver through the Driver 's Information Center that the launch control of Competitive Mode has been enabled . However , turbocharged Cobalt owners have found that better times can be achieved while racing when the car is manually launched . These features help propel the car from 0 to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in a class @-@ leading 5 @.@ 5 seconds , and a quarter mile time of 13 @.@ 9 seconds at 102 @.@ 5 mph ( 165 @.@ 0 km / h ) .
New for 2009 is the aforementioned four @-@ door sedan option , as well as an optional " reconfigurable performance display " ( RPD ) for the coupe only . The $ 295 option replaces the boost gauge in the A @-@ pillar , and allows the driver manipulation of traction control , stability control , " shift points " , and the engagement of Competition Mode , as well as information regarding the car 's engine torque and horsepower , g @-@ force , boost , wideband air fuel ratio , barometric pressure , temperature , and battery voltage . For 2010 , RPD is standard , as is a power sunroof . The red / ebony and grey / ebony interior color options are also dropped , as is the turbocharged sedan .
A stage 1 kit which raises power to 290 hp ( 216 kW ) and 340 lb · ft
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expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne 's army . James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France . Exiled and poor , there was little that either Charles or James could do about the wider political situation , and James ultimately travelled to Bruges and ( along with his younger brother , Henry ) joined the Spanish army under Louis , Prince of Condé , fighting against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes .
During his service in the Spanish army , James became friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage , Peter and Richard Talbot , and became somewhat estranged from his brother 's Anglican advisers . In 1659 , the French and Spanish made peace . James , doubtful of his brother 's chances of regaining the throne , considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy . Ultimately , he declined the position ; by the next year the situation in England had changed , and Charles II was proclaimed King .
= = Restoration = =
= = = First marriage = = =
After Richard Cromwell 's resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660 , Charles II was restored to the English throne . Although James was the heir presumptive , it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown , as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children . On 31 December 1660 , following his brother 's restoration , James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland , to go along with his English title , Duke of York . Upon his return to England , James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde , the daughter of Charles 's chief minister , Edward Hyde . In 1659 , while trying to seduce her , James promised he would marry Anne . Anne became pregnant in 1660 , but following the Restoration and James 's return to power , no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner , no matter what he had pledged beforehand . Although nearly everyone , including Anne 's father , urged the two not to marry , the couple married secretly , then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London . Their first child , Charles , was born less than two months later , but died in infancy , as did five further sons and daughters . Only two daughters survived : Mary ( born 30 April 1662 ) and Anne ( born 6 February 1665 ) . Samuel Pepys wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father , and played with them " like an ordinary private father of a child " , a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time . James 's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions . Even so , he kept mistresses , including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley , and was reputed to be " the most unguarded ogler of his time . " Anne Hyde died in 1671 .
= = = Military and political offices = = =
After the Restoration , James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral , an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second ( 1665 – 1667 ) and Third Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars ( 1672 – 1674 ) . Following the raid on the Medway in 1667 , James oversaw the survey and re @-@ fortification of the southern coast . The office of Lord High Admiral , combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs ( granted him by Charles upon his restoration ) gave James enough money to keep a sizeable court household .
In 1664 , Charles granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to James . Following its capture by the English the former Dutch territory of New Netherland and its principal port , New Amsterdam , were named the Province and City of New York in James 's honour . After the founding , the duke gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley . Fort Orange , 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) north on the Hudson River , was renamed Albany after James 's Scottish title . In 1683 , he became the governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company , but did not take an active role in its governance . James also headed the Royal African Company , a slave trading company .
In September 1666 , his brother Charles put him in charge of firefighting operations in the Great Fire of London , in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth . This was not a political office , but his actions and leadership were noteworthy . " The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire " , wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September .
= = = Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage = = =
James 's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of Catholicism ; he and his wife , Anne , became drawn to that faith . James took Eucharist in the Roman Catholic Church in 1668 or 1669 , although his conversion was kept secret for some time and he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676 . In spite of his conversion , James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans , including John Churchill and George Legge , as well as French Protestants , such as Louis de Duras , the Earl of Feversham .
Growing fears of Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673 . Under this Act , all civil and military officials were required to take an oath ( in which they were required to disavow the doctrine of transubstantiation and denounce certain practices of the Catholic Church as superstitious and idolatrous ) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of the Church of England . James refused to perform either action , instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral . His conversion to Catholicism was thereby made public .
Charles II opposed the conversion , ordering that James 's daughters , Mary and Anne , be raised as Protestants . Nevertheless , he allowed James to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Italian princess . James and Mary were married by proxy in a Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673 . On 21 November , Mary arrived in England and Nathaniel Crew , Bishop of Oxford , performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the Catholic marriage . Many British people , distrustful of Catholicism , regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Pope . James was noted for his devotion . He once said , " If occasion were , I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment . "
= = = Exclusion Crisis = = =
In 1677 , James reluctantly consented to his daughter Mary 's marriage to the Protestant William of Orange ( who was also James 's nephew , the son of his sister Mary , Princess Royal ) , acquiescing after his brother Charles and William had agreed upon the marriage . Despite the Protestant marriage , fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted , intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife , Catherine of Braganza , to produce any children . A defrocked Anglican clergyman , Titus Oates , spoke of a " Popish Plot " to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne . The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti @-@ Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation .
In England , the Earl of Shaftesbury , a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism , attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession . Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles 's illegitimate son , James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth . In 1679 , with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing , Charles II dissolved Parliament . Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681 , but were dissolved for the same reason . The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two @-@ party system : the Whigs were those who supported the Bill , while the Tories were those who opposed it . Ultimately , the succession was not altered , but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy @-@ making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother 's government .
On the orders of the King , James left England for Brussels . In 1680 , he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee royal government . James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death . The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded , but James 's relations with many in the English Parliament , including the Earl of Danby , a former ally , were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him .
= = = Return to favour = = =
In 1683 , a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles and James and spark a republican revolution to re @-@ establish a government of the Cromwellian style . The conspiracy , known as the Rye House Plot , backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James . Several notable Whigs , including the Earl of Essex and the King 's illegitimate son , the Duke of Monmouth , were implicated . Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot , implicating fellow @-@ plotters , but later recanted . Essex committed suicide and Monmouth , along with several others , was obliged to flee into Continental exile . Charles reacted to the plot by increasing repression of Whigs and dissenters . Taking advantage of James 's rebounding popularity , Charles invited him back onto the privy council in 1684 . While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Catholic king , the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed .
= = Reign = =
= = = Accession to the throne = = =
Charles died in 1685 from apoplexy after converting to Catholicism on his deathbed . Having no legitimate children , Charles was succeeded by his brother James , who reigned in England and Ireland as James II , and in Scotland as James VII . There was little initial opposition to his accession , and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession . James wanted to proceed quickly to the coronation , and was crowned with his wife at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 . The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685 , which gained the name of " Loyal Parliament " , was initially favourable to James , and the new King sent word that even most of the former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule . Most of Charles 's officers continued in office , the exceptions being the promotion of James 's brothers @-@ in @-@ law , the Earls of Clarendon and Rochester , and the demotion of Halifax . Parliament granted James a generous life income , including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties . James worked harder as king than his brother had , but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed .
= = = Two rebellions = = =
Soon after becoming king , James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew , the Duke of Monmouth , and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell , the Earl of Argyll . Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland , where James 's nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law , William of Orange , had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts .
Argyll sailed to Scotland and , on arriving there , raised recruits mainly from his own clan , the Campbells . The rebellion was quickly crushed , and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685 . Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard , he never posed a credible threat to James . Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh . A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death . The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation .
Monmouth 's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll 's , but the former was more dangerous to James . Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June . He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James 's small standing army . Monmouth 's rebellion attacked the King 's forces at night , in an attempt at surprise , but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor . The King 's forces , led by Feversham and Churchill , quickly dispersed the ill @-@ prepared rebels . Monmouth was captured and later executed at the Tower of London on 15 July . The King 's judges — most notably , George Jeffreys — condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes . Some 250 of the rebels were executed . While both rebellions were defeated easily , they hardened James 's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch .
= = = Religious liberty and the dispensing power = = =
To protect himself from further rebellions , James sought safety by enlarging his standing army . This alarmed his subjects , not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns , but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime . Even more alarming to Parliament was James 's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act . When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures , James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685 , never to meet again in his reign . In the beginning of 1686 two papers were found in Charles II 's strong box and his closet , in his own hand , stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism . James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles 's arguments : " Let me have a solid answer , and in a gentlemanlike style ; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church . " The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king .
James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms , but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it . James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685 , declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law . In response , the Parliament passed an Act that stated , " whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof , or should attend , either as preacher or as a hearer , a conventicle in the open air , should be punished with death and confiscation of property " . In March 1686 , James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Catholics but that the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters should continue , calling them to London when they refused to acquiesce his wishes . The Privy Councillors explained that they would grant relief to Catholics only if a similar relief was provided for the Covenanters and if James promised not to attempt anything that would harm the Protestant religion . James agreed to a degree of relief to Presbyterians , but not to the full toleration he wanted for Catholics , declaring that the Protestant religion was false and he would not promise not to prejudice a false religion .
James allowed Catholics to occupy the highest offices of the Kingdoms , and received at his court the papal nuncio , Ferdinando d 'Adda , the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I. James 's Jesuit confessor , Edward Petre , was a particular object of Protestant ire . When the King 's Secretary of State , the Earl of Sunderland , began replacing office @-@ holders at court with Catholic favourites , James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters . Sunderland 's purge of office @-@ holders even extended to the King 's Anglican brothers @-@ in @-@ law and their supporters . Catholics made up no more than one @-@ fiftieth of the English population . In May 1686 , James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common @-@ law courts that showed his power to dispense with Acts of Parliament was legal . He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter , as well as the Solicitor General Heneage Finch . The case , Godden v. Hales , affirmed his dispensing power , with eleven out of the twelve judges in Godden ruling in favour of the dispensing power .
In 1687 , James issued the Declaration of Indulgence , also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience , in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing Catholics and Protestant Dissenters . He attempted to garner support for his tolerationist policy by giving a speaking tour in the West of England in the summer of 1687 . As part of this tour , he gave a speech at Chester where he said , " suppose ... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned , it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [ religious ] opinions as for being of different complexions . " At the same time , James provided partial toleration in Scotland , using his dispensing power to grant relief to Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians .
In 1688 , James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church , further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Catholic governor of their church . While the Declaration elicited some thanks from Catholics and dissenters , it left the Established Church , the traditional ally of the monarchy , in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges . James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education . At the University of Oxford , James offended Anglicans by allowing Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College , two of Oxford 's largest colleges . He also attempted to force the Protestant Fellows of Magdalen College to elect Anthony Farmer , a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be secretly Catholic , as their president when the Protestant incumbent died , a violation of the Fellows ' right to elect a candidate of their own choosing .
In 1687 James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters so that it would repeal the Test Act and the penal laws . James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans . James instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the crown opposed to James 's plan , appointing new lords @-@ lieutenant and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies . In October James gave orders for the lords @-@ lieutenant in the provinces to provide three standard questions to all members of the Commission of the Peace : 1 . Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the penal laws ? 2 . Would they assist candidates who would do so ? 3 . Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence ? During the first three months of 1688 , hundreds of those asked the three questions who gave hostile replies were dismissed . Corporations were purged by agents , known as the regulators , who were given wide discretionary powers in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine . Most of the regulators were Baptists and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers , Baptists , Congregationalists , Presbyterians and Catholics , as well as Anglicans . Finally , on 24 August 1688 , James ordered the issue of writs for a general election . However , upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England , James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lords @-@ lieutenant to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations as part of the concessions James made to win support .
= = Glorious Revolution = =
In April 1688 , James re @-@ issued the Declaration of Indulgence , subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches . When seven Bishops , including the Archbishop of Canterbury , submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King 's religious policies , they were arrested and tried for seditious libel . Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir , James Francis Edward on 10 June of that year . When James 's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters , Anglicans could see his pro @-@ Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon , but when the Prince 's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Catholic dynasty , such men had to reconsider their position . Threatened by a Catholic dynasty , several influential Protestants claimed the child was " supposititious " and had been smuggled into the Queen 's bedchamber in a warming pan . They had already entered into negotiations with William , Prince of Orange , when it became known the Queen was pregnant , and the birth of James 's son reinforced their convictions .
On 30 June 1688 , a group of seven Protestant nobles invited the Prince of Orange to come to England with an army . By September , it had become clear that William sought to invade . Believing that his own army would be adequate , James refused the assistance of Louis XIV , fearing that the English would oppose French intervention . When William arrived on 5 November 1688 , many Protestant officers , including Churchill , defected and joined William , as did James 's own daughter , Princess Anne . James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army , despite his army 's numerical superiority . On 11 December , James tried to flee to France , allegedly first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames . He was captured in Kent ; later , he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard . Having no desire to make James a martyr , the Prince of Orange let him escape on 23 December . James was received by his cousin and ally , Louis XIV , who offered him a palace and a pension .
William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James 's flight . While the Parliament refused to depose him , they declared that James , having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames , had effectively abdicated the throne , and that the throne had thereby become vacant . To fill this vacancy , James 's daughter Mary was declared Queen ; she was to rule jointly with her husband William , who would be king . The Parliament of Scotland on 11 April 1689 , declared James to have forfeited the throne . The English Parliament passed a Bill of Rights that denounced James for abusing his power . The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts , the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown , the establishment of a standing army , and the imposition of cruel punishments . The Bill also declared that henceforth , no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne , nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic .
= = Later years = =
= = = War in Ireland = = =
With the assistance of French troops , James landed in Ireland in March 1689 . The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament ; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him . At James 's urging , the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland . James worked to build an army in Ireland , but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 when William arrived , personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control . James fled to France once more , departing from Kinsale , never to return to any of his former kingdoms . Because he deserted his Irish supporters , James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or " James the Shit " . In contrast to this popular perception , Breandán Ó Buachalla argued that " Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry " , and both Ó Buachalla and Éamonn Ó Ciardha argued that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the eighteenth century for all classes in Ireland .
= = = Return to exile and death = = =
In France , James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . James 's wife and some of his supporters fled with him , including the Earl of Melfort ; most , but not all , were Roman Catholic . In 1692 , James 's last child , Louisa Maria Teresa , was born . Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III to restore James to the throne in 1696 , but the plot failed and the backlash made James 's cause less popular . Louis XIV 's offer to have James elected King of Poland in the same year was rejected , for James feared that acceptance of the Polish crown might ( in the minds of the English people ) render him incapable of being King of England . After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697 , he ceased to offer much in the way of assistance to James .
During his last years , James lived as an austere penitent . He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England , specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State , one Commissioner of the Treasury , the Secretary at War , with the majority of the officers in the army .
He died of a brain haemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . James 's heart was placed in a silver @-@ gilt locket and given to the convent at Chaillot , and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to the Scots College in Paris . His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye and the English Jesuit college at Saint @-@ Omer , while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris .
James 's body was laid to rest in a triple sarcophagus ( consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead ) at the Chapel of Saint Edmund in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue St. Jacques in Paris , with a funeral oration by Henri @-@ Emmanuel de Roquette . James was not buried , but put in one of the side chapels . Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution . In 1734 , the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James 's canonisation , but nothing came of it . During the French Revolution , James 's tomb was raided .
= = Succession = =
James 's younger daughter Anne succeeded to the throne when William III died in 1702 . The Act of Settlement provided that , if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished , the crown would go to a German cousin , Sophia , Electress of Hanover , and to her Protestant heirs . Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter , Elizabeth Stuart , the sister of King Charles I. Thus , when Anne died in 1714 ( less than two months after the death of Sophia ) , the crown was inherited by George I , Sophia 's son , the Elector of Hanover and Anne 's second cousin .
James 's son James Francis Edward was recognised as King at his father 's death by Louis XIV of France and James 's remaining supporters ( later known as Jacobites ) as " James III and VIII . " He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I 's accession , but was defeated . Jacobites rose again in 1745 led by Charles Edward Stuart , James II 's grandson , and were again defeated . Since then , no serious attempt to restore the Stuart heir has been made . Charles 's claims passed to his younger brother Henry Benedict Stuart , the Dean of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church . Henry was the last of James II 's legitimate descendants , and no relative has publicly acknowledged the Jacobite claim since his death in 1807 .
= = Historiography = =
Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised since Whig historians , led by Lord Macaulay , cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as " tyranny which approached to insanity " . Subsequent scholars , such as G. M. Trevelyan ( Macaulay 's great @-@ nephew ) and David Ogg , while more balanced than Macaulay , still characterised James as a tyrant , his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud , and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history . In 1892 , A. W. Ward wrote for the Dictionary of National Biography that James was " obviously a political and religious bigot " , although never devoid of " a vein of patriotic sentiment " ; " his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow @-@ catholics in the first instance , and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second , the governing objects of his policy . "
Hilaire Belloc , a writer and Catholic apologist , broke with this tradition in 1928 , casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience , and his enemies " men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English . " However , he observed that James " concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth , and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made . " By the 1960s and 1970s , Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James 's motives in granting religious toleration , while still taking note of James 's autocratic rule . Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy , Ashley contending that " history is , after all , the story of human beings and individuals , as well as of the classes and the masses . " He cast James II and William III as " men of ideals as well as human weaknesses . " John Miller , writing in 2000 , accepted the claims of James 's absolutism , but argued that " his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics . Any ' absolutist ' methods ... were essentially means to that end . " In 2004 , W. A. Speck wrote in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that " James was genuinely committed to religious toleration , but also sought to increase the power of the crown . " He added that , unlike the government of the Netherlands , " James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government . He resisted any check on the monarch 's power . That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688 . He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch . "
Tim Harris 's conclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II :
The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects ( at least in England and Scotland ) ... simply naïve , or even perhaps plain stupid , unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well @-@ intentioned and even enlightened ruler — an enlightened despot well ahead of his time , perhaps — who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects ?
In 2009 , Steven Pincus confronted that scholarly ambivalence in 1688 : The First Modern Revolution . Pincus claims that James 's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics , and makes two major assertions about James II . The first of these is that James purposefully " followed the French Sun King , Louis XIV , in trying to create a modern Catholic polity . This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern , centralizing , and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus . " The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus , expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange 's armed invasion of England . Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical . Instead , readers are shown an intelligent , clear @-@ thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with , and lost out to , alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model , feared French power , and were outraged by James 's authoritarianism .
Scott Sowerby countered Pincus 's thesis in 2013 in Making Toleration : The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution . He noted that English taxes remained low during James II 's reign , at about 4 % of the English national income , and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV 's France , where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP . Sowerby also contends that James 's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists , including Quakers , Baptists , Congregationalists and Presbyterians , who were attracted by the king 's push for a new " Magna Carta for liberty of conscience " . The king was overthrown , in Sowerby 's view , largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed " holy league " to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe . Sowerby presents James 's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king 's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 October 1633 – 6 February 1685 : The Duke of York
10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685 : The Earl of Ulster
31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685 : The Duke of Albany
6 February 1685 – 11 December 1688 ( by Jacobites until 16 September 1701 ) : His Majesty The King
The official style of James in England was " James the Second , by the Grace of God , King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The claim to France was only nominal , and was asserted by every English King from Edward III to George III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled . In Scotland , he was " James the Seventh , by the Grace of God , King of Scotland , England , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . "
James was created " Duke of Normandy " by King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660 .
= = = Honours = = =
KG : Knight of the Garter , 20 April 1642
= = = Arms = = =
Prior to his accession , James 's coat of arms was the royal arms ( which he later inherited ) , differenced by a label of three points Ermine . His arms as king were : Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) .
= = In popular culture = =
James is a character in the novel The Man Who Laughs by Victor Hugo . He was portrayed by Josef Moser in the 1921 Austrian silent film The Grinning Face and by Sam De Grasse in the 1928 silent film The Man Who Laughs .
He has also been portrayed by Gibb McLaughlin in the 1926 silent film Nell Gwynne , based on a novel by Joseph Shearing , Lawrence Anderson in the 1934 film Nell Gwyn , Vernon Steele in the 1935 film Captain Blood , based on the novel by Rafael Sabatini , Douglas Matthews in the 1938 BBC TV drama Thank You , Mr. Pepys , Henry Oscar in the 1948 film Bonnie Prince Charlie , John Westbrook in the 1969 BBC TV series The First Churchills , Guy Henry in the 1995 film England , My England , the story of the composer Henry Purcell , and Charlie Creed @-@ Miles in the 2003 BBC TV miniseries Charles II : The Power & the Passion .
The squabbling surrounding James 's kingship , the Monmouth Rebellion , the Glorious Revolution , James 's abdication , and William of Orange 's subsequent accession to the throne are themes in Neal Stephenson 's 2003 novel Quicksilver .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestors = =
= Battle of Krasos =
The Battle of Krasos was a battle in the Arab – Byzantine Wars that took place in August 804 , between the Byzantines under Emperor Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) and an Abbasid army under Ibrahim ibn Jibril . Nikephoros ' accession in 802 resulted in a resumption of warfare between Byzantium and the Abbasid Caliphate . In late summer 804 , the Abbasids had invaded Byzantine Asia Minor for one of their customary raids , and Nikephoros set out to meet them . He was surprised , however , at Krasos and heavily defeated , barely escaping with his own life . A truce and prisoner exchange were afterwards arranged . Despite his defeat , and a massive Abbasid invasion the next year , Nikephoros persevered until troubles in the eastern provinces of the Caliphate forced the Abbasids to conclude a peace .
= = Background = =
The deposition of Empress Irene of Athens ( r . 797 – 802 ) , in October 802 , and subsequent accession of Nikephoros I signalled a more violent phase in the long history of the Arab – Byzantine Wars . Following a series of destructive annual raids across Asia Minor by the Caliphate , Irene seems to have secured a truce with Harun al @-@ Rashid in 798 in exchange for the annual payment of tribute , repeating the terms agreed for a three @-@ year truce following Harun 's first large @-@ scale campaign in 782 . Nikephoros , on the other hand , was more warlike and determined to refill the imperial treasury by , among other measures , ceasing the tribute . Harun retaliated at once , launching a raid under his son al @-@ Qasim . Nikephoros could not respond to this , as he faced an ultimately unsuccessful revolt of the Asian army under its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Bardanes Tourkos . After disposing of Bardanes , Nikephoros assembled his army and marched out himself to meet a second , larger invasion under the Caliph himself . After Harun raided the frontier region , the two armies confronted each other for two months in central Asia Minor , but it did not come to a battle ; Nikephoros and Harun exchanged letters , until the Emperor arranged for a withdrawal and a truce for the remainder of the year in exchange for a one @-@ off payment of tribute .
= = Battle = =
In August 804 , Harun dispatched another raid under his general Ibrahim ibn Jibril . The Arabs crossed into Asia Minor through the Cilician Gates and raided freely . Nikephoros set out to meet them , but was forced to return before he could do so , due to some unspecified event at his back ( Warren Treadgold surmises news of a possible conspiracy ) . On his march home , however , the Arabs launched a surprise attack at Krasos in Phrygia and defeated his army . According to al @-@ Tabari , the Byzantines lost 40 @,@ 700 men and 4 @,@ 000 pack animals , while the Emperor himself was wounded three times . The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor confirms that the imperial army lost many men and that Nikephoros was almost killed himself ; saved only by the bravery of his officers .
= = Aftermath = =
Preoccupied with trouble in Khurasan , Harun now accepted tribute and made peace . An exchange of prisoners was also arranged and took place during the winter at the two empires ' border , on the Lamos river in Cilicia ; some 3 @,@ 700 Muslims were exchanged for the Byzantines taken captive in the previous years . During Harun 's absence in Khurasan , however , Nikephoros used the opportunity to rebuild the destroyed walls of the towns of Safsaf , Thebasa , and Ancyra . The following summer he launched the first Byzantine raid for two decades ; into the Arab frontier district ( thughur ) in Cilicia . The Byzantine army raided and took prisoners as it went , even capturing the major Abbasid stronghold of Tarsus . At the same time , another Byzantine force raided the Upper Mesopotamian thughur and unsuccessfully besieged the fortress of Melitene , while a Byzantine @-@ instigated rebellion against the local Arab garrison began in Cyprus . Harun retaliated with a massive invasion in 806 , which forced Nikephoros to come to terms , but the Byzantine ruler soon violated them and prevailed over the Abbasid expeditions sent against him in 807 . Following renewed trouble in Khurasan , a peace treaty was signed in 808 which left the Byzantine frontier zone intact and ended the payment of tribute to the Caliphate .
= Cyclone Hudah =
Cyclone Hudah was a strong and destructive tropical cyclone that affected Southeast Africa in April 2000 . It was the last in a series of three cyclones that impacted Madagascar during the year . Hudah first developed as a disturbance embedded within the monsoon trough on March 22 , within the Australian region cyclone basin . Moving westward as the result of a strong subtropical ridge to its south , the storm quickly intensified , and reached Category 2 cyclone intensity on March 25 before entering the Southwest Indian cyclone basin . For various reasons that remain unknown , the cyclone was only designated a name by the time it had crossed into the area of responsibility of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Réunion . Nonetheless , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) assigned the name Hudah to the cyclone . An eye formed , and the storm intensified into a tropical cyclone on March 27 well to the southeast of Diego Garcia . On April 1 , the MFR upgraded it to a very intense tropical cyclone , estimating peak 10 minute winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) . By contrast , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated 1 minute winds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Cyclone Hudah maintained peak winds until making landfall just southeast of Antalaha , Madagascar on April 2 . It weakened greatly over land , but re @-@ attained tropical cyclone status on April 5 after moving over the Mozambique Channel . Hudah reached 10 minute winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) by the time it made landfall on Mozambique near Pebane , Mozambique , on April 8 , and dissipated by the next day .
While in the vicinity , Hudah brought moderate winds to Rodrigues , St. Brandon , and Tromelin Island . The cyclone affected the same parts of Madagascar that were previously impacted by cyclones Eline and Gloria . Waves reached at least 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height along the coast . The storm was considered the worst to affect the Antalaha region in 20 years , where 90 % of homes were destroyed . It was estimated that the storm left at least 100 @,@ 000 people homeless in Madagascar , and there were 111 deaths . In Mozambique , damage was much less than expected , and the storm affected areas farther north in the country than where Eline struck . Heavy rainfall occurred along the coast , but was insufficient to cause river flooding . Strong winds damaged roofs and downed trees , mostly around Pebane , and the storm killed three people .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 1800 UTC on March 22 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of disturbed weather in the central Indian Ocean , approximately 685 km ( 425 mi ) southeast of Christmas Island . The system was embedded mostly in the monsoon trough , surrounded by favorable environmental conditions , which prompted the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 0030 UTC on March 24 . Convection increased as vertical wind shear decreased , and the system developed a curved band pattern . Throughout the day , the storm showed signs of potential rapid intensification , due to its quick organization . The Bureau of Meteorology 's Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( Perth TCWC ) noted the system as a tropical low at 1000 UTC on March 24 , and the JTWC issued its first warning two hours later . However , for reasons which remain unclear , the Bureau of Meteorology did not extensively monitor the system .
Initially , the storm moved westward under the influence of a strong subtropical ridge to the south . Despite having reached tropical cyclone intensity according to Perth TCWC , it was not assigned a name . Once the storm crossed 90 ° E on March 25 , the Météo @-@ France 's La Réunion Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( MFR ) began tracking the system as a moderate tropical storm , giving it the name Hudah . Gradually intensifying , Hudah developed an eye with an eyewall primarily in the northern semicircle , indicated by a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) pass over the system . On March 26 , Hudah ceased strengthening as cloud tops warmed and the eye became no longer evident . Atmospheric divergence remained favorable , and Hudah eventually restrengthened , attaining tropical cyclone intensity at 0000 UTC on March 27 , while located approximately 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . This period of strengthening was short @-@ lived , likely due to dry air . The cloud structure fluctuated as well , with a poorly @-@ defined eye appearing at times on satellite imagery . Hudah was able to attain an initial peak intensity of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) at 0600 UTC on March 29 according to the MFR , shortly after passing 1010 km ( 630 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . An anticyclone that had been over Hudah showed signs of weakening later that day , spurring an increase in wind shear and causing weakening . This period of weakening was short @-@ lived , and Hudah resumed its former strengthening trend by the night of March 30 as shear decreased and convective organization and areal extent increased . After passing 275 km ( 170 mi ) north of Rodrigues Island , Hudah attained intense tropical cyclone status by 1200 UTC on March 31 . Satellite imagery indicated a large , cloud @-@ free eye , indicative of a strong tropical cyclone .
On April 1 , Hudah continued intensifying while approaching eastern Madagascar , and by 0600 UTC that day , the MFR upgraded the storm to very intense tropical cyclone intensity – the highest rating on the agency 's cyclone classification scale . Shortly after , at 1200 UTC , the storm was analyzed to have reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 73 inHg ) , ranking Hudah among some of the strongest tropical cyclones ever recorded in the Southwest Indian Ocean . The JTWC listed a similar intensity for the storm , with winds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) , though these winds were for 1 @-@ minute sustained winds instead of 10 @-@ minute sustained winds . This intensity was later analyzed to have been very near the theoretical maximum for tropical cyclones in the environmental conditions Hudah was in . At the time , TRMM imagery indicated that the storm featured two concentric eyewalls . Cyclone Hudah maintained peak intensity up until it made its first landfall approximately 28 km ( 17 mi ) southeast of Antalaha , Madagascar at 1730 UTC on April 2 . Hudah substantially weakened as it traversed the mountainous terrain of northern Madagascar , and was downgraded to tropical depression status by the time it entered the Mozambique Channel at 1200 UTC on March 3 .
Despite losing much of its convection over land , Hudah maintained a well @-@ organized cloud structure once in the Mozambique Channel on April 3 . As a result of moving back over warm waters , the system began to re @-@ intensify , and attained moderate tropical storm intensity at 0000 UTC on April 4 . Meanwhile , a large central dense overcast developed , and Hudah began to track west @-@ southwestward as opposed to its previous westward trajectory . Despite computer forecast models suggesting that Hudah would continue westward , the storm instead turn to a southward drift , giving it time to strengthen in the Mozambique Channel . This was the result of a mid @-@ latitude trough weakening the nearby subtropical ridge . By 1800 UTC on April 5 , Hudah was upgraded back to tropical cyclone intensity . A banding eye began to appear on satellite imagery , though it remained generally unstable , and a large banding feature formed over the western half of Hudah . The nearby trough later weakened in intensity , causing the tropical cyclone to move north @-@ northwestward towards the Mozambique coast on April 7 . It was at this time that Hudah reached a tertiary peak intensity with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The tropical cyclone accelerated northwards throughout the day , eventually making its final landfall near Pebane , Mozambique at 0600 UTC on April 8 as a slightly weaker storm . Once inland , Hudah rapidly weakened , and was no longer tracked by the MFR by 0000 UTC on April 9 . The JTWC issued its final warning on the system six hours later , as the remnants of Hudah moved through northeastern Mozambique , producing spotty convection .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Rodrigues Island , Saint Brandon , and Tromelin Island = = =
Passing north of Rodrigues Island on March 30 , Hudah produced moderate winds , though effects to infrastructure and crops on the island were minimal . During the night of the following day , Hudah passed near the Saint Brandon archipelago . A weather station on the island maintained by the Maritius Meteorological Services reported a minimum pressure of roughly 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) and a maximum sustained wind measurement of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . During the night of April 1 , the cyclone passed approximately 35 km ( 20 mi ) south of Tromelin Island , producing strong winds . A Météo @-@ France station on the isle recorded sustained winds of 125 km / h ( 80 mph ) and a gust of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . A minimum pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) was also recorded . Due to a lack of sustainable infrastructure on the latter two islands , damage was minimal .
= = = Madagascar = = =
As the cyclone moved closer to Madagascar on April 2 , Radio Madagascar called for residents of Toamasina to take precautionary measures . At the time , forecasts predicted that Hudah would make landfall in northern Madagascar later that day .
Upon making landfall , Hudah impacted the same regions that were affected earlier in the year by Cyclone Leon – Eline and Severe Tropical Storm Gloria . The cyclone produced waves at least 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height , which impacted the coast . Across affected areas , coffee plantations , fruit trees , and rice crops in low @-@ lying areas were damaged . Food warehouses in the northeastern areas of Madagascar were destroyed . In the small town of Antalaha , up to 90 percent of all homes were destroyed , and two people were killed . The city 's water and electrical systems were cut off . Only eight homes remained intact along a stretch of road leading from the town to the local airstrip . As a result , only concrete structures remained standing , while those made of iron sheeting or wood materials were destroyed . Thus , the road was covered in debris , slightly delaying airlift operations to the region in the storm 's aftermath . Nearby vanilla fields were also severely damaged .
Due to the effects of Hudah , the cyclone was considered the worst to strike the Antalaha region in 20 years . The towns of Maroantsetra and Andapa were also hit hard , with 60 – 70 percent of homes in the latter destroyed . Maroantsetra , a coastal town , was flooded by the storm surge , and as a result seven people died . The commune of Mananara Nord was completely flooded by the storm . Other isolated villages could not be reached via road or telecommunications due
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to the storm . One of these cities was Sambava , which suffered from a lack of available telephone links since late on April 2 . One person died in Sambava . A resort in the town of Cap Est was flattened . Initial estimates indicated that Hudah caused at least 100 @,@ 000 people to become homeless .
= = = Mozambique = = =
While Hudah was located in the Mozambique Channel , the cyclone was expected to cause flood conditions in the Mozambican provinces of Nampula , Cabo Delgado , and potentially Zambezia . Even prior to Hudah , Mozambique was already facing a widespread flood and resultant humanitarian crisis ; conditions which were further exacerbated by three tropical cyclones which impacted the country within the previous four months . The Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades ( INGC ) warned residents in potentially affected areas to take precautionary measures and secure fishing boats . The South African National Defense Force ( SANDF ) maintained 50 soldiers and other military personnel and a number of aircraft to monitor the ongoing floods in Mozambique and potential impacts from Hudah . An Australian contingency held operations for a hospital and water purification plant in Chibuto to assist potentially affected populations . Multiple other relief organizations began to supply Mozambique with relief supplies due to the threat of the impending storm . The UN World Food Programme ( WFP ) sent 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of food to Nampula Province and 500 tonnes ( 550 short tons ) of food to Quelimane Province . The WFP also placed relief aircraft on standby . The Mozambican Ministry of Health sent 30 tents and 10 rolls of plastic to Cabo Delgado , Nampula , and Zambezia provinces . The United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) dispatched a group of 12 @-@ member search and rescue team to Maputo in order to train local relief crews .
Just 46 days after Cyclone Eline 's devastating landfall in Mozambique , Hudah brought further flooding to the nation , although farther north than Eline . Before the storm moved ashore , Hudah dropped 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of rainfall over 24 hours in Quelimane along the coast . Despite the heavy rainfall from Hudah , there was not a repeat of the deadly river flooding that followed Eline . The Licungo River rose due to the rains , but the water levels did not rise above the banks . Some roads near Pebane were flooded , although not deep enough to disrupt travel . The storm 's strong winds knocked over many trees in its path , mostly in a 10 km ( 6 mi ) radius around Pebane , blocking the main road into the city . The winds also damaged about 10 % of the roofs in Pebane , as well as four schools ; about 160 boarding school children had to be sheltered elsewhere due to damage . A damaged wall fell and injured four people . Outside of the city , the winds damaged the manioc crop , and about 60 ha ( 150 acres ) of crop fields were destroyed . The cyclone destroyed around 100 huts in Pebane and nearby Moma , leaving 300 people homeless . There were three deaths in Mozambique related to Hudah ; strong winds knocked a coconut off a tree , killing a child . Overall damage was less than anticipated .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm , the United Nations Disaster Management Team ( UNDMT ) assisted the Conseil National de Secours ( CNS ) in Madagascar with surveying areas affected by Hudah . The UNDMT also appealed for relief materials for at least 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 people . Two light helicopters in Mahajanga and Sambava were dispatched to support two planes in providing assistance to affected populations . Médecins Sans Frontières ( MSF ) also provided food and medical aid . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) served as a channel for donations to relief efforts , and also made available US $ 50 @,@ 000 from the United Kingdom 's Department for International Development ( DFID ) for immediate relief purposes . Although the Red Cross had appealed for relief materials for Madagascar before Hudah had hit , these materials would arrive in April , assisting residents affected by Hudah and serving as a backbone for a long @-@ term rehabilitation plan . Due to inclement weather , surveys by humanitarian organizations on the island were not conducted until April 4 , a full two days after Hudah first struck the island . A Malagasy aircraft delived 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 metric tons ) of rice along with packages of other various supplies to affected regions . The CNS planned to deliver 10 tonnes ( 11 short tons ) of rice to Antalaha . Although initial reports indicated that 24 people were killed due to Hudah , later reports raised the death toll in Madagascar to 111 .
In Mozambique , the country 's National Institute of Disaster Management distributed 10 tons of food products and plastic housing tents to Pebane , where damage was worst . Officials determined that the storm damage could be repaired by local governments .
= Adolf Galland =
Adolf " Dolfo " Joseph Ferdinand Galland ( 19 March 1912 – 9 February 1996 ) was a German Luftwaffe general and flying ace who served throughout the Second World War in Europe . He flew 705 combat missions , and fought on the Western and the Defence of the Reich fronts . On four occasions , he survived being shot down , and he was credited with 104 aerial victories , all of them against the Western Allies .
Galland , who was born in Westerholt , Westphalia , became a glider pilot in 1929 before he joined Lufthansa . In 1932 , he graduated as a pilot at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( German Commercial Flyers ' School ) in Braunschweig before applying to join the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic later in the year . Galland 's application was accepted , but he never took up the offer . In February 1934 , he was transferred to the Luftwaffe . In 1937 , during the Spanish Civil War , he volunteered for the Condor Legion and flew ground attack missions in support of the Nationalists under Francisco Franco . After finishing his tour in 1938 Galland was employed in the Air Ministry writing doctrinal and technical manuals about his experiences as a ground @-@ attack pilot . During this period Galland served as an instructor for ground @-@ attack units . During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 , he again flew ground attack missions . In early 1940 Galland managed to persuade his superiors to allow him to become a fighter pilot .
Galland flew Messerschmitt Bf 109s during the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain . By the end of 1940 , his tally of victories had reached 57 . In 1941 , Galland stayed in France and fought the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) over the English Channel and Northern France . By November 1941 , his tally had increased to 96 , by which time he had earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords . In November 1941 , Werner Mölders , who commanded the German Fighter Force as the General der Jagdflieger , was killed in a flying accident and Galland succeeded him , staying in the position until January 1945 . As General der Jagdflieger , Galland was forbidden to fly combat missions .
In late January and early February 1942 , Galland first planned then commanded the Luftwaffe 's air cover for the Kriegsmarine Operation Cerberus which was a major success . It earned him the coveted Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds . Over the ensuing years , Galland ’ s disagreements with Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring about how best to combat the Allied Air Forces bombing Germany caused their relationship to deteriorate . The Luftwaffe fighter force was under severe pressure by 1944 , and Galland was blamed by Göring for the failure to prevent the Allied strategic bombing of Germany in daylight . The relationship collapsed altogether in early January 1945 , when Galland was relieved of his command because of his constant criticism of the Luftwaffe leadership . Galland was then put under house arrest following the so @-@ called Revolt of the Kommodores , during which senior Jagdwaffe pilots tried to " save " Galland 's position , while having Göring dismissed as Reichsmarschall .
In March 1945 , Galland returned to operational flying and was permitted to form a jet fighter unit which he called Jagdverband 44 . He flew missions over Germany until the end of the war in May . After the war , Galland was employed by Argentina 's Government and acted as a consultant to the Argentine Air Force . Later , he returned to Germany and managed his own business . Galland also became friends with many former enemies , such as RAF aces Robert Stanford Tuck and Douglas Bader . Adolf Galland died in February 1996 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Galland was born in Westerholt ( now Herten ) , Westphalia on 19 March 1912 to a family with French Huguenot ancestry . The first Galland in Westerholt was a refugee from France in 1792 . He became a bailiff to the count von Westerholt , beginning a tradition that was handed down from father to son . Adolf Galland ( junior ) was the second of four sons of Adolf Galland ( senior ) and his French wife Anna , née Schipper . Upholding the family tradition , Galland ( senior ) worked as the land manager or bailiff to the Count von Westerholt . Galland 's older brother was Fritz and his two younger brothers were Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand and Paul . Their father had pet names for all his family members . His wife Anna was called " Anita " . Fritz , his older brother , was called " Toby " , Adolf was " Keffer " , Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand was nicknamed " Wutz " and Paul was called " Paulinchen " or since they were expecting a girl , occasionally " Paula " .
His two younger brothers also became fighter pilots and aces . Paul claimed 17 victories , he was shot down and killed on 31 October 1942 . Wilhelm @-@ Ferdinand , credited with 54 victories , was shot down and killed on 17 August 1943 .
= = = Youth = = =
In 1927 , Galland 's lifelong interest in flying started when a group of aviation enthusiasts brought a glider club to Borkenberge , a heath east of the Haltern @-@ Münster railway and part of the Westerholt estate . It was here that the Gelsenkirchen Luftsportverein ( Air Sports Club of Gelsenkirchen ) created an interest in flying among young Germans . Galland travelled by foot or horse @-@ drawn wagon 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) until his father bought him a motorcycle to help prepare the gliders for flight . Under the Treaty of Versailles , Germany was denied an air force . They were however allowed gliders and it became the way for fledgling pilots to begin their flying career . The sport became so popular that the Reichswehr set up ten schools , at least one in each of the seven military districts of Germany . The military also published a magazine , Flugsport ( Flight Sport ) , to encourage an interest in aviation and began a series of glider competitions around the country . Galland had learned the basic laws of flight and how everything worked on paper but he found they did not always work in reality and his inexperience caused a few accidents . One of his tutors , Georg Ismer , taught him various techniques and in 1929 the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Galland passed his A certificate . This was one of three certificates he needed for his professional license . When he eventually attained his B and C certificates , his father promised to buy him his own glider if he also passed his matriculations examinations , which he succeeded in doing . Galland became an outstanding glider pilot ; he became an instructor before he had passed his Abitur .
In February 1932 , Galland graduated from Hindenburg Gymnasium ( high school ) in Buer and was among 20 personnel who were accepted to the aviation school of Germany 's national airline , Luft Hansa .
= = Early military career = =
= = = Pilot training = = =
During the final years of the Weimar Republic , jobs were scarce and life was hard for the Galland family economically . Adolf had some experience of flying gliders so he applied to the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule or DVS ( German Commercial Flying School ) which was heavily subsidised by Luft Hansa . He was one of 100 successful applicants out of 4 @,@ 000 . After ten days of evaluations , he was among just 18 selected for flight training . Adolf was then assessed on performance . Those that did not reach the standard were sent home . Galland 's first flight was in an Albatros L 101 . His early career went badly . On one flight , he made a heavy landing and damaged the undercarriage of his aircraft . Later , while leading three aircraft in formation , two of them collided . No one was killed , but Galland was judged to have employed poor formation tactics . These incidents affected him so badly he was convinced he would soon be sent home , and he applied to join the German Army . In the meantime , he carried on with his flight training . Galland did not receive a reply from the Army and settled down to continue his training . Flights in an Albatros L 75 and the award of a B1 certificate allowing him to fly large aircraft over 2 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 500 lb ) in weight helped him regain his confidence . Around the same time , the Army accepted his application , but owing to his successful training and improved flying , the flying school refused to release him . By Christmas 1932 , he had logged 150 hours flying and had obtained a B2 certificate .
Early in 1933 , Galland was sent to the Baltic Sea training base at Warnemuende to train on flying boats . Galland disliked learning what he perceived to be " seamanship " , but logged 25 hours in these aircraft . Soon afterward , along with several other pilots , he was ordered to attend an interview at the Zentrale der Verkehrsflieger Schule ( ZVS — Central Airline Pilot School ) . Here the group were interviewed by military personnel in civilian clothing . After being informed of a secret military training program being built that involved piloting high performance aircraft , all the pilots accepted an invitation to join the organisation .
= = = Into the Luftwaffe = = =
In May 1933 , Galland was ordered to a meeting in Berlin as one of 12 civilian pilots among 70 airmen who came from clandestine programmes , meeting Hermann Göring for the first time . Galland was impressed by and believed Göring to be a competent leader . In July 1933 , Galland travelled to Italy to train with the Regia Aeronautica ( Italian Air Force ) . Initially the Germans were treated as inferior by the Italians , but after Galland had flown some daring and impressive low @-@ level manoeuvres , the German contingent won their hosts ' respect .
In September 1933 , Galland returned to Germany and flew in some minor competitions as a glider pilot , winning some prizes . Soon afterwards he returned to the ZVS to learn instrument flying and receive training in piloting heavy transport aircraft logging another 50 hours . As a part of his training , beginning in October 1933 , Galland flew Lufthansa airliners . Flying the Junkers G24 from Stuttgart to Barcelona in Spain , via Geneva and Marseilles . In December 1933 , Galland was recalled to the ZVS headquarters and offered the chance to join the new Luftwaffe . Galland found the choice hard as he wanted the adventure of a military flying career , but as an airline pilot , Galland had enjoyed the life style of flying and visiting exotic places and was reluctant to give it up . Nevertheless , he decided to officially join the Luftwaffe .
After basic training in the Army , he was discharged from his barracks in Dresden in October 1934 . In February 1935 Galland was now part of 900 airmen waiting to be inducted to the new ReichsLuftwaffe . In March Galland was ordered to report to Jagdgeschwader 2 ( Fighter Wing 2 ) , arriving at its headquarters in Jüterbog @-@ Damm on 1 April 1935 . Galland 's performance had not yet been impressive enough for a position as an instructor , so he was evaluated and deemed good enough for an operational posting .
In October 1935 , during aerobatic manoeuvre training , he crashed a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 biplane and was in a coma for three days , other injuries were a damaged eye , fractured skull and broken nose . When Galland recovered , he was declared unfit for flying by the doctors . A friend , Major Rheital , kept the doctors report secret to allow Adolf to continue flying . The expansion of the Luftwaffe and his own Geschwader ( wing ) flooded the administration officers and Galland 's medical report was overlooked . Within a year , Galland showed no signs of injury from his crash . In October 1936 he crashed an Arado Ar 68 and was hospitalised again , aggravating his injured eye . It was at this point his previous medical report came to light again and Galland 's unfit certificate was discovered . Major Rheital was rumoured to have undergone a court @-@ martial , but the investigators dropped the charges . Galland , however , was grounded . He admitted having fragments of glass in his eye , but convinced the doctors he was fit for flying duty . Galland was ordered to undergo eye tests to validate his claims . Before the testing could begin , one of his brothers managed to acquire the charts . Adolf memorised the charts passing the test and was permitted to fly again .
= = = Condor Legion = = =
During the Spanish Civil War , Galland was appointed Staffelkapitän of a Condor Legion unit , 3 . Staffel Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) , which was sent to support the Nationalist side under Franco at Ferrol from mid @-@ 1937 . Galland flew ground attack missions in Heinkel He 51s . In Spain , Galland first displayed his unique style : flying in swimming trunks with a cigar between his teeth in an aircraft decorated with a Mickey Mouse figure . When asked why he developed this style , he gave a simple answer :
I like Mickey Mouse . I always have . And I like cigars , but I had to give them up after the war .
Galland flew his first of 300 combat mission in Spain with the J / 88 commander Gotthard Handrick , on 24 July 1937 , near Brunete . During his time in Spain , Galland analysed the engagements , evaluated techniques and devised new ground @-@ attack tactics which were passed on to the Luftwaffe . His experiences in pin @-@ point ground assaults were used by Ernst Udet , a proponent of the dive bomber and leading supporter of the Junkers Ju 87 to push for Stuka wings . Wolfram von Richthofen , an opponent of Udet 's , used them to push for the opposite : Schlachtflieger dual combination fighter @-@ bombers . After trials with Henschel Hs 123s , Bf 109s and Ju 87s , the Junkers was selected to undergo trials for the dive bomber role .
During his time in Spain , he developed early gasoline and oil bombs , suggested the quartering of personnel on trains to aid in relocation , and following the Nationalist victory was awarded the ‘ Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ’ for his contributions . On 24 May 1938 Galland left Spain and was replaced by Werner Mölders . Before leaving he made ten flights in the Bf 109 ; deeply impressed with the performance of the aircraft , it persuaded him to change from a strike pilot to a fighter pilot . Galland 's fellow student and friend at the Kriegsschule in Dresden , Johannes Janke , later said of him " a very good pilot and excellent shot , but ambitious and he wanted to get noticed . A parvenu . He was crazy about hunting anything , from a sparrow to a man . "
= = = Staff post in the RLM = = =
From May to August 1938 , Galland took leave and visited Spanish Morocco . On his return to Germany , he was ordered to the headquarters of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM — Ministry of Aviation ) where he was tasked with preparing recommendations on the subject of close air support . Galland favoured the virtually simultaneous attack of the air force before the Army advance , leaving their opponents no time to recover . While this reasserted the lessons of World War I , some of the Officer Corps were still pessimistic as to whether that kind of coordination was possible . Galland also adopted the Italian suggestion of heavy armament and criticised the light machine guns in early German fighter aircraft and pointed to the advantages of multi @-@ gun configurations ( combining machine guns with cannon ) . These proved successful in the Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . He also recognised the innovation of drop tanks to extend the range of aircraft as well as the need for specialised tactics for escorting bomber fleets ; Galland did not subscribe to the prevailing idea in the Luftwaffe ( and RAF ) that the bomber " would always get through " ( alone ) . All of Galland 's suggestions were adopted and proved successful in the early campaigns , 1939 – 41 . During his time in the RLM , he instructed , trained and equipped ground @-@ support wings for Fall Grün ( Case Green ) , the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938 . However , the invasion did not take place .
Unluckily for Galland , his excellence at evaluation earned him a place at Tutow training facility where he was asked to test fly prototype reconnaissance and strike aircraft . This was not what he wanted , and he hoped to be returned to a fighter unit to fly the Bf 109 . During his time there , he gave positive evaluations on types such as the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 189 and Henschel Hs 129 . During his test piloting career at Tutow , Galland received unwelcome news ; he was to become Gruppenkommandeur of II . ( Schlacht ) / Lehrgeschwader 2 ( II . ( S ) / LG 2 — 2nd battle group of the 2nd Demonstration Wing ) . It was not a fighter unit , but a special mixed Geschwader of ground attack aircraft .
= = Combat career ( 1939 – 41 ) = =
= = = Polish Campaign = = =
Just before the outbreak of war , Galland was promoted to Hauptmann . During the Invasion of Poland from 1 September 1939 onward , he flew with 4 Staffel , II . / Lehrgeschwader 2 . Equipped with the Henschel Hs 123 , nicknamed the " biplane Stuka , " supporting the German Tenth Army . On 1 September , Galland flew alone in a Fiesler Fi 156 ' Storch ' on a reconnaissance mission and was nearly shot down . The next day he flew ground attack missions in support of the 1st Panzer Division advancing to the Warta River . Galland 's Geschwader flew intensive sorties in support of the division and XVI Army Corps at Kraków , Radom , Dęblin and L 'vov . The German Army had reached the Vistula river near Warsaw by 7 September. and the Luftwaffe had been executing the kind of close air support operations Galland had been advocating . Galland participated in the maximum effort by the Luftwaffe during the Battle of Bzura . On 11 September , during one of his visits to the front , Adolf Hitler arrived at LG 2 headquarters for lunch with the staff . Such was the state of the Polish Air Force and Polish Army , that by 19 September 1939 some German air units were withdrawn from the campaign . Galland ceased combat operations on this date , having flown 87 missions . After flying nearly 360 missions in two wars and averaging two missions per day , on 13 September 1939 , Galland was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class .
After the Polish Campaign , Galland claimed to be suffering from rheumatism and therefore unfit for flying in open @-@ cockpit aircraft , such as the Hs 123 . He tactfully suggested a transfer to a single @-@ engine aircraft type with a closed cockpit would improve his condition . His request was accepted on medical grounds . Galland was removed from his post as a direct ground support pilot . Galland never explained whether open cockpits had caused the complaint or some other cause ; given his performance with eye specialists , a certain amount of suspicion is reasonable . He was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 — Fighter Wing 27 ) on 10 February 1940 as the adjutant , restricting him from flying .
= = = Western Europe = = =
After his transfer to JG 27 , Galland met Mölders again . Due to his injuries , Galland could never match Molders ' sharp eyesight ; the shards of glass in his eyes denied him that capacity . However , Mölders , by that time a recognised ace ( a pilot with five or more aerial victories ) , shared what experiences he could with Galland ; leadership in the air , tactics and organisation . Mölders was Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 53 at the time of their meeting . In order for Galland to gain experience on the Bf 109E , which Galland lacked , he offered Galland the chance to join his unit which was flying patrols along the French border . During these sorties , Galland learned Mölders ' tactics , such as using spotter aircraft to indicate the position of enemy formation , as an early warning system . Galland learned to allow the Staffel to operate freely in order to seize the initiative and surprise . Taking his findings back to JG 27 , its commander Max Ibel , agreed to their implementation . Galland gained further experience as a combat leader acting as the Gruppenkommandeur , when the ' Gruppenkommandeur went on leave .
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht invaded the Low Countries and France under the codename Fall Gelb . JG 27 supported German forces in the Battle for Belgium . On the third day of the offensive , 12 May 1940 , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west of Liege , Belgium , at a height of about 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , flying a Messerschmitt Bf 109 , Galland , with Gustav Rödel as his wingman , claimed his first aerial victories , over two Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Hawker Hurricanes . Both aircraft were from No. 87 Squadron . The Hurricanes had been escorting Bristol Blenheim bombers to bomb bridges in the Netherlands . Galland remembered ; " My first kill was child 's play . An excellent weapon and luck had been on my side . To be successful , the best fighter pilot needs both " — Galland pursued one of the " scattering " Hurricanes and shot down another at low level . The pilot , a Canadian , Flying Officer Jack Campbell was killed .
Galland claimed his third Hurricane later that same day over Tienen . He had long believed that his opponents had been Belgian , not knowing that all of the Belgian Air Force 's Hurricanes had been destroyed on the ground in the first two days , without seeing combat . On 19 May , Galland shot down a French Potez aircraft . During this flight he ran out of fuel short of the runway and landed nearby , at the base of a hill . With the help of soldiers from a German Flak battery , he pushed the Bf 109 up the hill and then half @-@ flew , half @-@ glided down to the Charleville @-@ Mézières airfield in the valley below . He sent back a can of fuel for his wingman , who had also landed short of the runway . He continued flying and the next day , claimed another three more aircraft , making a total of seven . For this he was awarded the Iron Cross First Class from Erhard Milch on 22 May .
With the effective defeat of Belgium JG 27 was moved into forward airfields to support the invasion of France . During the Battle of Dunkirk , after encountering the Supermarine Spitfire for the first time , Galland was impressed with these aircraft and their pilots . On 29 May , Galland claimed he had shot down a Bristol Blenheim over the sea . On 3 June during Operation Paula , he claimed another French aircraft , a Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 for his 12th victory .
On 6 June 1940 , Galland took over the command of III . / Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( III . / JG 26 — 3rd group of the 26th Fighter Wing ) with the position of Gruppenkommandeur . Under his command were the 7 , 8 and 9 Staffels with an establishment of 39 Bf 109Es . His Staffelkapitäns included Joachim Müncheberg and Wilhelm Balthasar . Balthasar , Staffelkapitän of 7 Staffel had mistakenly attacked Galland during Fall Rot ( Case Red ) . Being on the same radio frequency , Galland was able to warn Balthasar before he opened fire . The remainder of the campaign passed without incident and on 26 June , Major Gotthard Handrick took over command of JG 26 . Galland was pleased , having served under him during his Condor Legion days .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
From June 1940 on , Galland flew as the Gruppenkommandeur of III . / JG 26 ( JG 26 ) , fighting in the Battle of Britain with Messerschmitt Bf 109Es . On 19 July 1940 , he was promoted to Major and JG 26 moved to the Pas de Calais , where they were to remain for the next 18 months with III . / JG 26 based at Caffiers .
On 24 July 1940 , almost 40 Bf 109s of III . / JG 26 took off for operations over the English Channel — a phase of the battle known as the Kanalkampf . They were met by 12 54 Squadron Spitfires . The Spitfires forced the larger number of Bf 109s into a turning battle that ran down the Germans ' fuel . Galland recalled being impressed by the Spitfire 's ability to outmanoeuvre Bf 109s at low speed and to turn into the Bf 109s within little airspace . Only by executing a " Split S " ( a half @-@ roll onto his back , followed by pulling into a long , curving dive ) that the Spitfire could not follow without exceeding its maximum safe speed and risking structural failure , could his aircraft escape back to France at low altitude . The II . / Jagdgeschwader 52 covered their retreat , losing two Bf 109s to Spitfires from No. 610 Squadron . During the action , two Spitfires were shot down for the loss of four Bf 109s . Galland was shocked by the aggression shown by pilots he believed to be relatively inexperienced . Galland later said he realised there would be no quick and easy victory .
As the battles over the Channel continued , Galland shot down Spitfires on 25 and 28 July . On 1 August 1940 , Galland was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for his 17 victories . Galland continued to make fighter sweeps over southern England before the main assault opened . On 11 August , Galland 's unit engaged 74 Squadron . In a brief dogfight , one Spitfire was shot down . During these battles the RAF seemed to know just where and when to send their aircraft . This made Galland suspect a high level of organisation was at work controlling RAF fighters . The cloudy skies of Britain were a dangerous environment to confront an enemy that had an effective ground control system . Galland resolved to fly higher , where he could see most things and where the Bf 109 performed at its best .
By 15 August , in two weeks ' fighting over Britain , Galland had increased his own score to 22 . On this day he claimed three Spitfires . This put him to within three victories of Mölders , who had claimed the highest number of enemy aircraft destroyed and who was wounded and grounded with a damaged knee . One of Galland 's claims was against 54 Squadron RAF that had surprised him with their aggressive attacks three weeks before . JG 26 claimed nine Spitfires in the air battle — Galland himself filing a claim for a Spitfire at 12 : 55 off Folkestone . Only two 54 Squadron Spitfires were lost in the late @-@ morning early afternoon battle . Galland 's claim matches the loss of a Spitfire piloted by Sergeant N. A Lawrence who was rescued with severe shock . In the afternoon of that same day , Galland claimed two more Spitfires from 64 Squadron . JG 26 claimed eight of the unit 's Spitfires which were all officially " confirmed " by the Germans . However , only two of the RAF fighters were hit and both were destroyed . Pilot Officer C. J. D Andreae was killed in R6990 and R. Roberts bailed out of K9964 .
Galland was summoned to Karinhall on 18 August 1940 , and missed the intense air battle that day , known as The Hardest Day . During the meeting , Göring insisted that , in combat , Bf 109 fighters escort Bf 110s , which could not survive against single @-@ engine fighters . As high @-@ scoring aces , both Galland and Mölders shared their concerns that close escort of Bf 110s and bombers robbed fighter pilots of their freedom to roam and engage the enemy on their own terms . They also pointed to the fact that German bombers flew at medium altitudes and low speed , the best height area and speed for the manoeuvrability of the Spitfire . Galland resented his pilots having to carry out a task unsuited to their equipment but Göring would not move from his position .
Galland returned to action on 22 August replacing Gotthard Handrick as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 . Galland 's appointment made no impact on his successes . From 25 August — 14 September 1940 , Galland filed claims for victories 23 – 32 . This included three claims on 31 August 1940 for two Spitfires and a Hurricane to take his tally to 27 . His 25th victim may have been from 19 Squadron which was claimed 20 kilometers south of Cambridge at 09 : 42 . Klaus Mietusch also accounted for one for his 7th victory . Three 19 Squadron Spitfires were shot down in the morning near North Weald . Pilot Officer R.A.C Aeberhardt was killed in a crash @-@ landing in Spitfire R6912 while Flying Officer T.J.B Coward was wounded in the foot and F.N Brinsden was unhurt . He bailed out of R6958 . On 6 September , Galland claimed his 30th victory over a 610 Squadron Hurricane . JG 26 claimed two more of them shot down that morning . 610 lost four Hurricanes ; Flying Officer W.H Rhodes @-@ Moorehouse and C.R Davis were killed while Flying Officer J. Toplnicki and Pilot Officer H.T Gilbert were wounded .
During the battle , the fighter pilots were criticised by Göring for the growing bomber losses . In a front line General Officer briefing on Luftwaffe tactics , Göring asked what his fighter pilots needed to win the battle . Werner Mölders replied that he would like the Bf 109 to be fitted with more powerful engines . Galland replied : " I should like an outfit of Spitfires for my squadron . " which left Göring speechless with rage . Galland still preferred the Bf 109 for offensive sweeps , but he regarded the Spitfire as a better defensive fighter , owing to its manoeuvrability . Galland said :
The Bf 109 was superior in the attack and not so suitable for purely defensive purposes as the Spitfire , which , although a little slower , was much more manoeuvrable .
During the Battle of Britain , the question of killing enemy pilots while in their parachutes was raised . In another conversation with Göring , Galland recalled :
Göring wanted to know if we had ever thought about this . " Jawohl , Herr Reichsmarschall ! " He looked me straight in the eyes and said , " What would you think of an order to shoot down pilots who were bailing out ? " I should regard it as murder , Herr Reichsmarschall " , I told him , " I should do everything in my power to disobey such an order " . " That is just the reply I had expected from you , Galland " .
Galland later stated that he thought Göring may have been asking him this question so as to have an answer if the question was ever posed to him , as opposed to the implication that Göring would be in favour of such an action .
Galland passed another serious test on 15 September , the date known as Battle of Britain Day . In large scale @-@ clashes Galland claimed his 33rd air victory over a Hurricane while leading JG 26 . On 23 September , Galland became the third member of the Wehrmacht to receive the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) for achieving his 39th and 40th aerial victories . On 25 September , he was summoned to Berlin to receive the award from Adolf Hitler . The Battle of Britain continued with large @-@ scale dogfights well past 31 October 1940 , considered by some historians as the end of the campaign . A further eight victories — six Spitfires and two Hurricanes — were claimed in October 1940 including three on 30 October which took his tally to 50 — the last two victims were claimed at 16 : 00 CET and were likely from 41 Squadron . Pilot Officer G. G. F. Draper was wounded and Sergeant L. A Garvey was killed . In November , a further six victories including four Hurricanes were accounted for to record victories 51 – 56 putting him level with the late Helmut Wick who had been shot down and killed on 28 November . On 5 December 1940 , Galland recorded his 57th victory . This made him the most successful fighter pilot of the war at that point , putting him ahead of his colleague , friend and rival Werner Mölders .
= = = Channel Front = = =
Now , promoted to Oberstleutnant , he continued to lead JG 26 in 1941 against the RAF fighter sweeps across northern Europe . In early 1941 , most of the Luftwaffe 's fighter units were sent to the Eastern Front , or south to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations ( MTO ) , only leaving JG 26 and Jagdgeschwader 2 ( JG 2 ) as the sole single @-@ engine fighter Geschwader in France . By this time , JG 26 were being re @-@ equipped with the new Bf 109F , normally equipped with a 15 mm ( or later a 20 mm ) cannon firing through the propeller hub and two cowl @-@ mounted 7 @.@ 9 mm MG 17 . Galland felt the model was grossly under @-@ armed and so tested a series of 109 " specials " – one with a unique armament of an MG 151 / 20 cannon and two cowl @-@ mounted 13 mm MG 131 machine guns , and another with integral wing @-@ mounted 20 mm MG FF cannons .
On 15 April 1941 , Galland took off with lobster and champagne to celebrate General Theo Osterkamp 's birthday at Le Touquet , France . He made a detour with his wingman towards England , looking for RAF aircraft . Off the cliffs of Dover , he spotted a group of Spitfires . Galland attacked and claimed two confirmed and one unconfirmed shot down . The actual result was the destruction of one Spitfire ; the other two were damaged in force landings with both pilots wounded . During the combat , Galland 's undercarriage had dropped causing one of the RAF pilots ( Flight Lieutenant Paddy Finucane ) to claim Galland 's aircraft as destroyed , but Galland landed without incident at Le Touquet and presented Osterkamp with his gifts . Galland 's success that day represented his 60th and 61st aerial victory .
Galland received a telephone from Göring on 10 May 1941 , requesting Galland to intercept a Messerschmitt Bf 110 flown by Rudolf Hess heading for Scotland . Galland was unable to launch a full fighter sweep . However , Hess ' flight was far to the north and he reached Scotland crashing his aircraft . Galland sent out fighters to conduct some sweeps so he could honestly claim to have carried out his orders but it was nearly dark and Galland ordered his pilots unused to night flying to stand down .
Galland continued his successes in the summer . On 13 June , he led a small number of Bf 109s on a patrol off the English coast and attacked a pair of No. 258 Squadron RAF Hurricanes claiming both shot down . One can be confirmed through British records as crash landing at RAF Hawkinge . It took his tally to 63 . From this point on , the RAF would mount a non @-@ stop offensive with Fighter Command over France . The Germans did not see the point in these operations and soon labeled it the " nonsense offensive . " Galland intended to engage the British and inflict maximum damage while incurring small losses . To do this he only engaged JG 26 in staffel or gruppe strength . The fighters were to scramble quickly gain height and make use of the sun and cloud to attack the enemy formation that was most vulnerable . Under these tactics many JG 26 pilots began to emerge as aces and effective commanders . On 16 June 1941 , for example , JG 26 accounted for 15 enemy aircraft . Josef Priller was among those to score bringing his tally to 22 . Priller would later rise to command JG 26 . Galland claimed a Hurricane this day for victory number 64 — though the loss cannot be confirmed in British records . On 17 June , he accounted for two Hurricanes , one from 56 and another from 242 Squadron . The following day he accounted for a No. 145 Squadron Spitfire which inflated his tally to 67 — then the highest recorded tally against the Western Allies .
On the morning of 21 June , he accounted for two Bristol Blenheims but was shot down by the Spitfire escorts , crash @-@ landing near Calais . At 16 : 00 that same afternoon , Galland shot down a No. 611 Squadron Spitfire , but watching his victim for too long , he was himself shot down in Werknummer ( Factory number ) 6713 , code " < - + - " , by a 145 Squadron Spitfire flown by Sergeant R.J.C. Grant . Galland bailed out and tugged at what he thought was his parachute ripcord , but was actually pulling at his parachute release harness . With a " sickening " feeling , he composed himself and pulled the ripcord which opened . Theo Osterkamp drove over to the hospital where Galland was being treated for his wounds and informed him his 69 victories had now earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) .
On 2 July 1941 , Galland led JG 26 into combat against a formation of No. 226 Squadron Blenheim bombers . Galland 's fighter was hit by a 20 mm round from one of the bombers escort fighters . The armour plate fitted to the Bf 109 just days earlier saved Galland 's life . Wounded in the head he managed to land and was again hospitalised for the second time in a few days . Just earlier that week , when the armour plate was installed , he severely berated his mechanic , Gerhard Meyer , who welded it in , when he hit his head on the canopy upon entering his aircraft . That same mechanic received " a grateful slap on the back " . Galland had been shot up and shot down twice in the space of four days . The Blenheim brought his tally to 70 .
On 9 August 1941 , RAF ace Douglas Bader bailed out over St Omer , France . Bader was well known to the Luftwaffe and at the time of his capture had been credited with 22 aerial victories . Galland himself claimed two Spitfires on that date . Galland and JG 26 entertained Bader over the next few days . Owing to the significant stature of the prisoner , Galland permitted Bader , under escort , to sit in the cockpit of a Bf 109 . Apparently , despite losing one of his tin legs in the aircraft , Bader , in a semi @-@ serious way , asked if they wouldn 't mind if he took it on a test flight around the airfield . Galland replied that he feared Douglas would attempt to escape and they would have to give chase and shoot at each other again , and declined the request .
Throughout the summer , Galland claimed another 14 Spitfires in battles against Fighter Command over France . On 23 July 1941 , he accounted for three Spitfires ( Nos. 71 – 73 ) — one in the afternoon and two in the evening . JG 26 claimed 13 enemies for three losses under Galland 's command this day . Two on 7 August was sufficient to reach 75 aerial victories . On 19 August , he claimed two Spitfire and one Hurricane to surpass the World War I ace Manfred von Richthofen 's tally of 80 . His 80th and 81st victims were from 111 and 71 Squadrons . Galland also flew the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 in the autumn 1941 when the Geschwader converted to the type though he retained and flew Bf 109s himself . On 21 October he repeated his successes with a trio of Spitfires to reach 92 . His 96th victim — yet another Spitfire — was claimed on 18 November 1941 . It proved to be his last official victory for three years as he was about to be forbidden to fly combat missions . The RAF fighter probably came from 611 Squadron .
= = High command ( 1941 – 45 ) = =
= = = Overview = = =
In November 1941 , he was chosen by Göring to command Germany 's fighter force as General der Jagdflieger , succeeding Werner Mölders who had just been killed in an air crash en route to attend the funeral of Ernst Udet . Galland was not enthusiastic about his promotion , seeing himself as a combat leader and not wanting to be " tied to a desk job " .
Soon afterward , on 28 January 1942 , Galland was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) for his service as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 . Although not keen on a staff position , soon after Galland 's appointment , he planned and executed the German air superiority plan ( Operation Donnerkeil ) for the Kriegsmarine 's ( German navy , or War Marine ) Operation Cerberus , from his headquarters at Jever . The German battleships Scharnhorst , Gneisenau and heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen sailed from Brest , France , up the English Channel to Kiel , Germany . The operation caught the British off guard . The RAF attempted to intercept with the forces available , but the German fighter defences were able to shoot down 43 RAF aircraft with 247 British casualties . The Luftwaffe had prevented any damage on the ships by air attack .
A strong proponent of the day fighter force and the defence of Germany , Galland used his position to improve the position of the Jagdwaffe . The need was now pressing , as Germany had declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941 , and Galland was keen to build up a force that could withstand the resurgence of the Western Allied Air Forces in preparation for what would become known as the Defence of the Reich campaign . Galland was outspoken , something that was not often tolerated by Göring . Yet , by earning and cultivating the support of other powerful personalities in the Luftwaffe , like Erhard Milch and Günther Korten , and personalities in the industrial sector such as Albert Speer and even Adolf Hitler , Galland was able to survive in his position for three years .
= = = Unofficial combat missions = = =
After his appointment , Galland was strictly confined to operational matters and not allowed to fly tactical or combat missions . As the war continued Galland flew missions in violation of these restrictions against the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) bombing raids during the Defence of the Reich . Galland was keen to familiarise himself with all types of German fighter aircraft and flew the Fw 190 on these interception missions . He would actively engage American bombers on some raids . On at least one mission , he shot down a USAAF heavy bomber .
= = = Conflict with leadership = = =
Galland 's position as General der Jagdflieger brought him into gradual conflict with Göring as the war continued . In 1942 – 44 , the German fighter forces on all fronts in the European Theatre of Operations ( ETO ) came under increasing pressure and Galland 's relationship with Göring began to turn sour . The first distinct cracks began to appear in the spring , 1943 . Galland suggested that the fighter forces defending Germany should limit the number interceptions flown to allow sufficient time for re @-@ grouping and to conserve air strength . Only by conserving its strength and its precious resources — the fighter pilots — could the Luftwaffe hope to inflict damage on the bombers . Göring refused . He demanded every raid be countered in maximum strength regardless of the size of the Allied fighter escort . According to head of production and procurement Erhard Milch , who was also present at the meeting , " Göring just could not grasp it . "
During the late summer , 1943 , the USAAF fighters operated over German air space for the first time . Several aircraft crashed near Aachen on the cusp of Germany 's west border . Galland presented these wrecks as proof that the Luftwaffe was facing an enemy that could soon escort its heavy bombers with fighter aircraft to industrial targets inside Germany . Galland submitted his findings to Göring . Göring was livid with Galland and the fighter force . The Reichsmarschall called the report the " rantings of a worn @-@ out defeatist " , and gave Galland an " order " , that no Allied fighters had crossed into Germany . Göring declared the only possible reason could have been that short range fighters ran out of fuel at high altitude and " they were shot down much further west ... and glided quite a distance before they crashed . Galland and Milch denied this . Galland questioned why an Allied pilot would choose to glide east instead of west . Both men and argued that they must increase fighter production to reach a three or fourfold advantage over the attackers immediately to prepare for this new threat . Galland 's efforts to produce a fighter force fit for a war of attrition conflicted with Göring 's bias in favour of bombers , to maintain the offensive on all fronts . It was a policy the Reichsmarschall persisted with until the autumn , 1943 .
By October 1943 , the fractious relationship came to the surface again . Galland met with Göring at Göring 's estate , Schloss Veldenstein . During the conversation the need for new and improved interceptor aircraft arose . The demands made by Göring , that heavily cannon @-@ armed fighters be used in mass numbers to defeat bomber formations , were unreasonable to Galland . Göring , prompted by the desires of Hitler , wanted cannons of some 2 @,@ 000 lb in weight which fired at a rate of one shell per second . Galland explained that such a weapon could not be used effectively in an aircraft ; the cannon would be prone to jamming and the aircraft would be too difficult to manoeuvre . Galland also asserted the use of inappropriate weaponry such as the Messerschmitt Me 410 , a favourite of Hitler 's , had caused heavy losses . Galland argued such measures were deplorable and irresponsible . Göring ignored Galland 's arguments and continued his frequent attacks on the fighter force , accusing them of cowardice . Galland , as he always did , defended them , risking his career , and near the end of the war , his life in doing so . Galland stated that he could not agree to follow Göring 's plans and requested to be dismissed from his post and sent back to his unit . Göring accepted , but two weeks later he apologised to Galland and attributed his behaviour to stress . Galland continued in his post .
The arguments , mainly over aircraft procurement and armament for the defence of Germany from Allied bombing began to give rise to a growing personal rift between Göring and Galland .
= = = Innovations = = =
To retrieve the situation for the fighter force , Galland looked to employ new technology in the air war . On 23 May 1943 , Galland flew an early prototype of the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter . After the flight , he described his experience :
For the first time I was flying by Jet propulsion ! No engine vibrations . No torque and no lashing sound of the engine propeller . Accompanied by a whistling sound , my jet shot through the air . Later when asked what it felt like , I said , " It was as though angels were pushing . "
Galland became an enthusiastic supporter of the aircraft , realising its potential as a fighter rather than a bomber . Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the numerical superiority of the Allies :
In the last four months [ January – April 1944 ] our day fighters have lost 1 @,@ 000 pilots ... we are numerically inferior and will always remain so ... I believe that a great deal can be achieved with a small number of technically and far superior aircraft such as the [ Me ] 262 and [ Me ] 163 ... I would at this moment rather have one Me 262 in action rather than five Bf 109s . I used to say three 109s , but the situation develops and changes .
Galland succeeded in temporarily persuading Milch to support cancelling the Me 209 program in favour of producing 100 Me 262s by the end of 1943 . However , because of persistent problems with its turbojet engines and later , Hitler 's determination to use it as a bomber , the Me 262 was not developed as a fighter until late in the war .
By spring 1944 , the Me 262 was sufficiently ready for operational service . By this time , Galland faced rivalries amongst the Luftwaffe command over how best to employ the aircraft . Dietrich Peltz , commander of the IX . Fliegerkorps ( 9th Air Corps ) , wanted to use the aircraft as a weapon against a future Allied landing in France . Peltz saw the aircraft as an ideal fast bomber which could evade the overwhelming numbers of Allied piston @-@ engine fighters and attack the landing grounds . Peltz also wished to use highly trained bomber pilots who he felt could better serve as home defence fighter pilots in place of the overextended and overworked Jagdwaffe . Their blind @-@ weather experience and training , and background in multi @-@ engine aircraft made them ideal for these operations in his view . In the first five months of 1944 , Peltz ' conventional bomber force had suffered a significant defeat over England in Operation Steinbock but it did not dull his appetite for offensive action or dent his reputation with Göring . Galland argued against his suggestion . Instead , Galland thought the bomber corps should be disbanded and its pilots converted onto fighters . Göring adopted Peltz ' idea to impress Hitler and regain his waning influence .
Galland did not give up . He made repeated appeals for Me 262 fighter aircraft . Göring refused Galland 's requests to have equal numbers of Me 262 fighter and bomber variants built . However , Galland 's close relationship with Albert Speer , the German armaments minister , enabled him to retain a small operational number . Even this was difficult , as Hitler had taken personal control of turbo @-@ jet production and checked where each batch of the aircraft were being deployed . It was not until September 1944 that Hitler rescinded his directive that the Me 262 be used as a fighter @-@ bomber . Galland ignored the order and formed Eprobungskommando 262 to test the Me 262 against high @-@ flying Allied reconnaissance aircraft . He selected the highly decorated pilot Werner Thierfelder as its commander . Hitler heard of the experiment through Milch and ordered Göring to put a stop to it at a meeting on 29 May 1944 . Galland persisted with the experiments and ordered operations to be continued . They achieved isolated successes until Thierfelder was shot down and killed by P @-@ 51 Mustangs on 18 July 1944 . On 20 August , Hitler finally agreed to allow one in every 20 Me 262 to go into service with the Jagdwaffe which allowed Galland to build all – jet units .
Owing to his keen interest in the type he followed , with interest , the exploits of Kommando Nowotny , the all jet fighter unit . Although it had low serviceability rates , its aircraft achieved considerable success . To see how new aircraft performed in action , Galland often visited the front line airfields close to the scene of the fighting . On 8 November 1944 , he was present when ace Walter Nowotny took off with a force of Me 262s in an overcast to engage a USAAF raid . Galland listened to it over the radio waves . Nowotny claimed a bomber but his Me 262 was damaged . He was then jumped by USAAF fighters and crashed close to the airfield . Galland heard the firing but did not see the event . It did not dissuade him from believing in the capabilities of the aircraft as a fighter .
In the meantime , Galland pursued innovations with existing designs . The Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 aircraft was formed into several Geschwader with distinctly upgraded firepower . Called the Sturmbock ( Battering ram ) , these machines could inflict heavy damage on unescorted bomber formations . Galland supported the conversion of units such as Jagdgeschwader 300 to the Sturmbock role . The Sturmbock were heavily armed and armoured , which meant they were un @-@ manoeuvrable and vulnerable without protection from escorting Bf 109s . Still , the tactics quickly became widespread and were one of the few Luftwaffe success stories in 1944 . Galland said after the war , that had it not been for the Allied landing in Normandy which increased the need for lighter fighter variants , each Geschwader in the Luftwaffe would have contained a Gruppe of Sturmbock aircraft by September 1944 .
Galland himself flew on unauthorised interception flights to experience the combat pressures of the pilots , and witnessed USAAF bombers being escorted by large numbers of P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Nevertheless , on occasions the Sturmbock tactics worked . For example , on 7 July 1944 Eighth Air Force bombers belonging to the 492nd Bomb Group were intercepted unescorted . The entire squadron of 12 B @-@ 24s were shot down . The USAAF 2nd Air Division lost 28 Liberators that day , the majority to a Sturmbock attack .
= = = Dismissal and revolt = = =
Despite Göring 's apology after their previous dispute , the relationship between the two men did not improve . Göring 's influence was in decline by late 1944 and he had fallen out of favour with Hitler . Göring became increasingly hostile to Galland , blaming him and the fighter pilots for the situation . In 1944 , the situation worsened . A series of USAAF raids termed Big Week won air superiority for the Allies in February . By the spring 1944 , the Luftwaffe could not effectively challenge the Allies over France or the Low Countries . Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied Europe took place in June 1944 . According to a report made by Galland , in the previous four months 1 @,@ 000 pilots had been killed . Galland reported that the enemy outnumbered his fighters between 6 : 1 and 8 : 1 and the standard of Allied fighter pilot training was " astonishingly high " .
To win back some breathing space for his force and German industrial targets , Galland formulated a plan which he called the " Big Blow " ( German : Großer Schlag ) . It called for the mass interception of USAAF bomber formations by approximately 2 @,@ 000 German fighters . Galland hoped that the German fighters would shoot down some 400 – 500 bombers . Acceptable losses were to be around 400 fighters and 100 – 150 pilots . The night fighter force was to assist by employing 100 aircraft in southern and northern Germany , to prevent any crippled bombers making it to Switzerland and Sweden . Over the autumn 1944 Galland carefully husbanded is resources and waited for unusually bad weather to improve .
Hitler proved too impatient . He hoped to improve Germany 's position by winning a decisive victory on the Western Front . Hitler distrusted Galland 's theory and believed him to be afraid and stalling for time . The Führer was also sceptical that the Luftwaffe could stop the American air offensive and was not willing to have German resources sit idle on airfields to wait for an improvement in flying conditions . Admittedly Galland 's efforts had built up a useful reserve , but Hitler was now to use it in support of a land offensive . Göring and Hitler handed over the forces pooled by Galland to Peltz whom they had appointed commander of II . Jagdkorps — responsible for virtually all fighter forces in the west . Peltz appointed Gordon Gollob as Special Fighter Staff Officer for the offensive . Gollob ultimately was a vociferous opponent of Galland and eventually engineered his dismissal . Whether the " Big Blow " operation would have worked is a matter of academic debate . Historians remained divided , with some believing it was a lost opportunity while others think it would have had much less impact than Galland estimated .
The operation never took place . Instead , the fighter force was committed to the disastrous Operation Bodenplatte , designed to support German forces during the Battle of the Bulge . Galland 's influence on matters was now virtually nil . Appalled by the Ardennes losses , he personally confronted Gollob and criticised him severely . Gollob contacted the Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler . Himmler 's reputation as the most powerful man after Hitler at that time may have been a prime motive . Gollob complained about his misuse in the Luftwaffe and Galland 's leadership . The SS had already spread their influence into other areas of military affairs including the V @-@ 2 operations . Himmler , whose relationship with Göring was poor , took the opportunity to exploit the dissent in the Luftwaffe and undermine the Reichsmarschall by supporting Gollob . It was also an opportunity for the SS to seize control of the Luftwaffe and for Himmler to oust Göring from power . Göring , for his part offered no support to Galland when Himmler or the SS were mentioned . On 13 January 1945 , Galland was finally relieved of his command .
On 17 January , a group of senior pilots took part in a " Fighter Pilots Revolt " . Galland 's high standing with his fighter pilot peers led to a group of the most decorated Luftwaffe combat leaders loyal to Galland ( including Johannes Steinhoff and Günther Lützow ) confronting Göring with a list of demands for the survival of their service . Göring initially suspected Galland had instigated the unrest . Heinrich Himmler had wanted to put Galland on trial for treason himself ; the SS and Gestapo had already begun investigations into who he associated with . The Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL ) appointed the more politically acceptable Gollob , a National Socialist supporter , to succeed him as General der Jagdflieger on 23 January . Although professional contemporaries , Gollob and Galland had a mutual dislike , and after Galland had removed the Austrian from his personal staff in September 1944 , Gollob started to gather evidence to use against Galland , detailing false accusations of his gambling , womanising , and alleged private use of Luftwaffe transport aircraft . The official reason for his being relieved of command was his ill health .
For his own safety , Galland went to a retreat in the Harz Mountains . He was to keep the RLM informed of his whereabouts , but was effectively under house arrest . Hitler , who liked Galland , had not heard of the events . However , when he learned of them he ordered that " all this nonsense " [ the treatment of Galland ] , was to stop immediately . Hitler had been informed by Albert Speer , who in turn had been informed of events by one of Galland 's close friends . In the end , Göring contacted Galland and invited him to Karinhall . In light of his service to the fighter arm , he promised no further action would be taken against him and offered command of a unit of Me 262 jets . Galland accepted on the understanding that Gollob had no jurisdiction over him or his unit .
= = = Self appraisal = = =
Galland did not pretend to have been error free . After the war , he was candid about his own mistakes as General der Jagdflieger . Production and aircraft procurement were not his responsibility but Galland identified four major mistakes by the OKL during the war , and accepted partial responsibility for the first three :
Fighter pilots received no instrument training until very late in the war , after the training course had already been curtailed because of fuel shortages and the need to produce pilots more quickly to replace losses . Galland also did not make sure all @-@ weather flying was incorporated into pilot training , which was of decisive importance in an effective air defence force .
Attrition by 1942 had created a shortage of experienced combat leaders . No special training was made available for this role . Galland set up a course in late 1943 , but it only lasted a few months . Galland was quoted as saying he thought they could learn the skills while on operations , as he had . This ignored his own talents , and blithely expected other pilots to reach his high standards .
The Me 262 , while not a war winner , might have extended the Defence of the Reich campaign . The problems with the engines , failures of production priorities and Hitler 's meddling are well known , but the long delay between operational testing , tactical and doctrinal development and training were largely Galland 's fault .
The German pilots were increasingly lacking in quantity and quality . Galland recognised this but could not correct it without stepping outside his own authority . Galland noticed that the highly educated engineers and trainees were selected for the bomber arm in the early war years . Most of the brightest youth were pulled by expert campaigners , toward the Waffen SS and Kriegsmarine . The Luftwaffe did not match this effort .
= = Return to front line service = =
= = = Last combat = = =
Galland was initially assigned to command a Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 54 , at that time stranded behind Soviet lines in the Courland Pocket . Galland never took up this command but was given the task of forming Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 ) . On 24 February 1945 the order for formation of Jagdverband 44 read :
JV 44 is established at Brandenburg @-@ Briest with immediate effect . Ground personnel are to be drawn from 16 . / JG 54 , Factory Protection Unit 1 and III . / Erg JG 2 . The commander of this unit receives the disciplinary powers of a Divisional Commander as laid down in Luftwaffe Order 3 / 9 @.@ 17 . It is subordinated to Luftflotte Reich and comes under Luftgaukommando III ( Berlin ) . Verband Galland is to have a provisional strength of sixteen operational Me 262s and fifteen pilots . [ Signed ] Generalleutnant Karl Koller , Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe .
Galland was allowed to hand pick a number of experienced fighter pilots and aces for the unit , including Johannes Steinhoff , Erich Hohagen , Heinrich Bär and Gerhard Barkhorn . Erich Hartmann was also asked but would not leave his unit . The unit was officially formed on 22 February 1945 . Galland did everything he could to introduce the Me 262s to the wing as quickly as possible . Göring showed sympathy for Galland 's efforts , which thus far had only 16 operational jets in February . General Josef Kammhuber was asked to assist Galland . Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 or Bomber Wing 51 ) , 6 and 27 were behind their training schedules on jets , and they were to hand over their pilots and Me 262s to Jagdgeschwader 7 and Kampfgeschwader 54 . Galland added a suggestion that all experienced fighter pilots flying with Bf 109 or Fw 190 units should be made to join the Me 262 unit . If this could be done Galland believed he could get 150 jets in action against the USAAF fleets . The general chaos and impending collapse prevented his plans from being realised .
On 31 March 1945 , Galland flew 12 operational jets to Munich to begin operations . On 5 April , he organised the interception of a USAAF raid . The Me 262s destroyed three B @-@ 17s . On 16 April Galland claimed two Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder bombers shot down . On 21 April , to his surprise , he was visited by Göring for the final time . Göring officially assigned Günther Lützow to him and confessed to Galland that his assertions about the Me 262 and the use of bomber pilots with experience as jet fighter pilots had been correct . He enquired about the progress of his unit with outspoken civility . As they parted , Göring said , " I envy you Galland , for going into action . I wish I were a few years younger and less bulky . If I were , I would gladly put myself under your command . It would be marvelous to have nothing to worry about but a good fight , like it was in the old days . "
In the space of six days , Galland 's friend , Steinhoff was badly burned in a crash on 18 April ,
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colour scheme served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection . Darwin was impressed by the idea . At a subsequent meeting of the Entomological Society , Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic . In 1869 , Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace 's idea . Warning colouration was one of a number of contributions Wallace made in the area of the evolution of animal colouration in general and the concept of protective colouration in particular . It was also part of a lifelong disagreement Wallace had with Darwin over the importance of sexual selection . In his 1878 book Tropical Nature and Other Essays , he wrote extensively on the colouration of animals and plants and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection . He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism . In 1890 , he wrote a critical review in Nature of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton 's The Colours of Animals which supported Darwin on sexual selection , attacking especially Poulton 's claims on the " aesthetic preferences of the insect world " .
= = = = Wallace effect = = = =
In 1889 , Wallace wrote the book Darwinism , which explained and defended natural selection . In it , he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation . Thus it might contribute to the development of new species . He suggested the following scenario . When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point , each adapted to particular conditions , hybrid offspring would be less well @-@ adapted than either parent form and , at that point , natural selection will tend to eliminate the hybrids . Furthermore , under such conditions , natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation , as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring , and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species . This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect . Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868 , but had not worked it out to this level of detail . It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today , with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity .
= = = Application of theory to humans , and role of teleology in evolution = = =
In 1864 , Wallace published a paper , " The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of ' Natural Selection ' " , applying the theory to humankind . Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject , although Thomas Huxley had in Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature . He explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes . Unlike some other Darwinists , including Darwin himself , he did not " regard modern primitives as almost filling the gap between man and ape " . He saw the evolution of humans in two stages : achieving a bipedal posture freeing the hands to carry out the dictates of the brain , and the " recognition of the human brain as a totally new factor in the history of life . Wallace was apparently the first evolutionist to recognize clearly that ... with the emergence of that bodily specialization which constitutes the human brain , bodily specialization itself might be said to be outmoded . " For this paper he won Darwin 's praise .
Shortly afterwards , Wallace became a spiritualist . At about the same time , he began to maintain that natural selection cannot account for mathematical , artistic , or musical genius , as well as metaphysical musings , and wit and humour . He eventually said that something in " the unseen universe of Spirit " had interceded at least three times in history . The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter . The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals . And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in humankind . He also believed that the raison d 'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit . These views greatly disturbed Darwin , who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that sexual selection could easily explain apparently non @-@ adaptive mental phenomena . While some historians have concluded that Wallace 's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism , other Wallace scholars have disagreed , and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas . Reaction to Wallace 's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied . Charles Lyell endorsed Wallace 's views on human evolution rather than Darwin 's . Wallace 's belief that human consciousness could not be entirely a product of purely material causes was shared by a number of prominent intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . However , many , including Huxley , Hooker , and Darwin himself , were critical of Wallace . As the historian of science Michael Shermer has stated , Wallace 's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy , which were that evolution was not teleological ( purpose driven ) and that it was not anthropocentric ( human @-@ centred ) . Much later in his life Wallace returned to these themes , that evolution suggested that the universe might have a purpose and that certain aspects of living organisms might not be explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes , in a 1909 magazine article entitled The World of Life , which he later expanded into a book of the same name ; a work that Shermer said anticipated some ideas about design in nature and directed evolution that would arise from various religious traditions throughout the 20th century .
= = = Assessment of Wallace 's role in history of evolutionary theory = = =
In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory , Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin 's own theory . In reality , Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin 's , and was considered by many ( especially Darwin ) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day , whose ideas could not be ignored . One historian of science has pointed out that , through both private correspondence and published works , Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other 's ideas and theories over an extended period . Wallace is the most @-@ cited naturalist in Darwin 's Descent of Man , often in strong disagreement . Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life . By the 1880s , evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles , but Wallace and August Weismann were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it . In 1889 , Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection . Of all Wallace 's books , it is the most cited by scholarly publications .
= = Other scientific contributions = =
= = = Biogeography and ecology = = =
In 1872 , at the urging of many of his friends , including Darwin , Philip Sclater , and Alfred Newton , Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals . He was unable to make much progress initially , in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux at the time . He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification . Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds — which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution — to cover mammals , reptiles and insects as well , Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions still in use today . He discussed all of the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographical region . These included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges ( such as the one currently connecting North America and South America ) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation . He provided maps that displayed factors , such as elevation of mountains , depths of oceans , and the character of regional vegetation , that affected the distribution of animals . He also summarised all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions . The text was organised so that it would be easy for a traveller to learn what animals could be found in a particular location . The resulting two @-@ volume work , The Geographical Distribution of Animals , was published in 1876 and would serve as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years .
In this book Wallace did not confine himself to the biogeography of living species , but also included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern animal species . For example , he discussed how fossil evidence showed that tapirs had originated in the Northern Hemisphere , migrating between North America and Eurasia and then , much more recently , to South America after which the northern species became extinct , leaving the modern distribution of two isolated groups of tapir species in South America and Southeast Asia . Wallace was very aware of , and interested in , the mass extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene . In The Geographical Distribution of Animals ( 1876 ) he wrote , " We live in a zoologically impoverished world , from which all the hugest , and fiercest , and strangest forms have recently disappeared " . He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions to have been glaciation , but by the time he wrote World of Life ( 1911 ) he had come to believe those extinctions were " due to man 's agency " .
In 1880 , Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals . It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands . Wallace classified islands into three different types . Oceanic islands , such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands ( then known as the Sandwich Islands ) formed in mid @-@ ocean and never part of any large continent . Such islands were characterised by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians , and their inhabitants ( with the exceptions of migratory birds and species introduced by human activity ) were typically the result of accidental colonisation and subsequent evolution . He divided continental islands into two separate classes depending on whether they had recently been part of a continent ( like Britain ) or much less recently ( like Madagascar ) and discussed how that difference affected the flora and fauna . He talked about how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals , such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas . He extensively discussed how changes of climate , particularly periods of increased glaciation , may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands , and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages . Island Life was considered a very important work at the time of its publication . It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Wallace 's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world . In Tropical Nature and Other Essays ( 1878 ) , he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion , especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall . Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate , he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their eventual impoverishment due to soil erosion . In Island Life , Wallace again mentioned deforestation and also the impact of invasive species . On the impact of European colonisation on the island of Saint Helena , he wrote :
... yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile . The cause of this change is , however , very easily explained . The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin . When this was destroyed , the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil , and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay . This irreparable destruction was caused , in the first place , by goats , which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513 , and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in the thousands . These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees , because they eat off the young seedlings , and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest . They were , however , aided by the reckless waste of man . The East India Company took possession of the island in 1651 , and about the year 1700 it began to be seen that the forests were fast diminishing , and required some protection . Two of the native trees , redwood and ebony , were good for tanning , and , to save trouble , the bark was wastefully stripped from the trunks only , the remainder being left to rot ; while in 1709 a large quantity of the rapidly disappearing ebony was used to burn lime for building fortifications !
Wallace 's comments on environment grew more strident later in his career . In The World of Life ( 1911 ) he wrote :
These considerations should lead us to look upon all the works of nature , animate or inanimate , as invested with a certain sanctity , to be used by us but not abused , and never to be recklessly destroyed or defaced . To pollute a spring or a river , to exterminate a bird or beast , should be treated as moral offences and as social crimes ; ... Yet during the past century , which has seen those great advances in the knowledge of Nature of which we are so proud , there has been no corresponding development of a love or reverence for her works ; so that never before has there been such widespread ravage of the earth 's surface by destruction of native vegetation and with it of much animal life , and such wholesale defacement of the earth by mineral workings and by pouring into our streams and rivers the refuse of manufactories and of cities ; and this has been done by all the greatest nations claiming the first place for civilisation and religion !
= = = Astrobiology = = =
Wallace 's 1904 book Man 's Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets . He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the solar system that could possibly support life , mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase . More controversially he maintained that it was unlikely that other stars in the galaxy could have planets with the necessary properties ( the existence of other galaxies not having been proved at the time ) .
His treatment of Mars in this book was brief , and in 1907 , Wallace returned to the subject with a book Is Mars Habitable ? to criticise the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings . Wallace did months of research , consulted various experts , and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions . Among other things , Wallace pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere , that Lowell 's analysis of Mars 's climate was seriously flawed and badly overestimated the surface temperature , and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water , let alone a planet @-@ girding irrigation system , impossible . Richard Milner comments : " It was the brilliant and eccentric evolutionist Alfred Russel Wallace ... who effectively debunked Lowell 's illusionary network of Martian canals . " Wallace originally became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would likely be unique in the universe .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Spiritualism = = =
In a letter to his brother @-@ in @-@ law in 1861 , Wallace wrote :
... I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths . I will pass over as utterly contemptible the oft @-@ repeated accusation that sceptics shut out evidence because they will not be governed by the morality of Christianity ... I am thankful I can see much to admire in all religions . To the mass of mankind religion of some kind is a necessity . But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature ; whether we have an immortal soul or not , or whatever may be our state after death , I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth , or believe that those will be better off in a future state who have lived in the belief of doctrines inculcated from childhood , and which are to them rather a matter of blind faith than intelligent conviction .
Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology . Early in his career , he experimented with hypnosis , then known as mesmerism . He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects , with considerable success . When he began his experiments with mesmerism , the topic was very controversial and early experimenters , such as John Elliotson , had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment . Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and his later investigations into spiritualism . In 1893 , he wrote :
I thus learnt my first great lesson in the inquiry into these obscure fields of knowledge , never to accept the disbelief of great men or their accusations of imposture or of imbecility , as of any weight when opposed to the repeated observation of facts by other men , admittedly sane and honest . The whole history of science shows us that whenever the educated and scientific men of any age have denied the facts of other investigators on a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility , the deniers have always been wrong .
Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865 , possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims , who had been involved with it for some time . After reviewing the literature on the topic and attempting to test the phenomena he witnessed at séances , he came to accept that the belief was connected to a natural reality . For the rest of his life , he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine , no matter how many accusations of fraud sceptics made or how much evidence of trickery was produced . Historians and biographers have disagreed about which factors most influenced his adoption of spiritualism . It has been suggested by one biographer that the emotional shock he had received a few months earlier , when his first fiancée broke their engagement , contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism . Other scholars have preferred to emphasise instead Wallace 's desire to find rational and scientific explanations for all phenomena , both material and non @-@ material , of the natural world and of human society .
Spiritualism appealed to many educated Victorians who no longer found traditional religious doctrine , such as that of the Church of England , acceptable yet were unsatisfied with the completely materialistic and mechanical view of the world that was increasingly emerging from 19th @-@ century science . However , several scholars who have researched Wallace 's views in depth have emphasised that , for him , spiritualism was a matter of science and philosophy rather than religious belief . Among other prominent 19th @-@ century intellectuals involved with spiritualism were the social reformer Robert Owen , who was one of Wallace 's early idols , the physicists William Crookes and Lord Rayleigh , the mathematician Augustus De Morgan , and the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers .
During the 1860s the stage magician John Nevil Maskelyne exposed the trickery of the Davenport brothers . Wallace was unable to accept that he had replicated their feats utilizing natural methods , and stated that Maskelyne possessed supernatural powers .
In 1874 , Wallace visited the spirit photographer Frederick Hudson . A photograph of him with his deceased mother was produced and Wallace declared the photograph genuine , declaring " I see no escape from the conclusion that some spiritual being , acquainted with my mother 's various aspects during life , produced these recognisable impressions on the plate . " However , Hudson 's photographs had previously been exposed as fraudulent in 1872 .
Wallace 's very public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation . It strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates , Thomas Huxley , and even Darwin , who felt he was overly credulous . Others , such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became openly and publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue . Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism , notably William Crookes , were subject to much criticism from the press , with The Lancet as the leading English medical journal of the time being particularly harsh . The controversy affected the public perception of Wallace 's work for the rest of his career . When , in 1879 , Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace , Joseph Hooker responded :
Wallace has lost caste considerably , not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism , but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association , brought about a discussion on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings ... This he is said to have done in an underhanded manner , and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council .
Hooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request .
= = = Flat Earth wager = = =
In 1870 , a Flat @-@ Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £ 500 wager ( equivalent to about £ 43000 in present @-@ day terms ) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river , canal , or lake . Wallace , intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time , designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) stretch of canal . Both objects were at the same height above the water , and he mounted a telescope on a bridge at the same height above the water as well . When seen through the telescope , one object appeared higher than the other , showing the curvature of the earth .
The judge for the wager , the editor of Field magazine , declared Wallace the winner , but Hampden refused to accept the result . He sued Wallace and launched a campaign , which persisted for several years , of writing letters to various publications and to organisations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief . Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden , but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager and the controversy frustrated him for years .
= = = Anti @-@ vaccination campaign = = =
In the early 1880s , Wallace was drawn into the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination . Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty ; but , after studying some of the statistics provided by anti @-@ vaccination activists , he began to question the efficacy of vaccination . At the time , the germ theory of disease was very new and far from universally accepted . Moreover , no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked . When Wallace did some research , he discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable , in a few cases completely phony , statistics to support their arguments . Always suspicious of authority , Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination , and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were , in fact , due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation .
Another factor in Wallace 's thinking was his belief that , because of the action of natural selection , organisms were in a state of balance with their environment , and that everything in nature , even disease @-@ causing organisms , served a useful purpose in the natural order of things ; he feared vaccination might upset that natural balance with unfortunate results . Wallace and other anti @-@ vaccinationists pointed out that vaccination , which at the time was often done in a sloppy and unsanitary manner , could be dangerous .
In 1890 , Wallace gave evidence before a Royal Commission investigating the controversy . When the commission examined the material he had submitted to support his testimony , they found errors , including some questionable statistics . The Lancet averred that Wallace and the other anti @-@ vaccination activists were being selective in their choice of statistics , ignoring large quantities of data inconsistent with their position . The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory , though they did recommend some changes in procedures to improve safety , and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe . Years later , in 1898 , Wallace wrote a pamphlet , Vaccination a Delusion ; Its Penal Enforcement a Crime , attacking the commission 's findings . It , in turn , was attacked by The Lancet , which stated that it contained many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission .
= = Legacy and historical perception = =
As a result of his writing , at the time of his death Wallace had been for many years a well @-@ known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist . He was often sought out by journalists and others for his views on a variety of topics . He received honorary doctorates and a number of professional honours , such the Royal Society 's Royal Medal and Darwin Medal in 1868 and 1890 respectively , and the Order of Merit in 1908 . Above all , his role as the co @-@ discoverer of natural selection and his work on zoogeography marked him out as an exceptional figure . He was undoubtedly one of the greatest natural history explorers of the 19th century . Despite this , his fame faded quickly after his death . For a long time , he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science . A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of attention , including his modesty , his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation , and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas .
Recently , he has become a less obscure figure with the publication of several book @-@ length biographies on him , as well as anthologies of his writings . In 2007 a literary critic for New Yorker magazine observed that five such biographies and two such anthologies had been published since 2000 . There has also been a web page created that is dedicated to Wallace scholarship . In a 2010 book , the environmentalist Tim Flannery claimed that Wallace was ' the first modern scientist to comprehend how essential cooperation is to our survival , ' and suggested that Wallace 's understanding of natural selection and his later work on the atmosphere be seen as a forerunner to modern ecological thinking .
The Natural History Museum , London , co @-@ ordinated commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the ' Wallace100 ' project in 2013 . On 24 January , his portrait was unveiled in the Main Hall of the museum by Bill Bailey , a fervent admirer . On the BBC Two programme " Bill Bailey 's Jungle Hero " , first broadcast on 21 April 2013 , Bailey revealed how Wallace cracked evolution by revisiting places where Wallace discovered exotic species . Episode one featured orangutans and flying frogs in Bailey 's journey through Borneo . Episode two featured birds of paradise . On 7 November 2013 , the 100th anniversary of Wallace 's death , Sir David Attenborough unveiled a statue of Wallace at the museum . The statue was donated by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund , and was sculpted by Anthony Smith . It depicts Wallace as a young man , collecting in the jungle . November 2013 also marked the debut of The Animated Life of A. R. Wallace , a paper @-@ puppet animation film dedicated to Wallace 's centennial .
= = Awards , honours , and memorials = =
Served as president of the anthropology section of the British Association in 1866 .
Became president of the Entomological Society of London in 1870 .
Elected head of the biology section of the British Association in 1876 .
Elected to the Royal Society in 1893 .
Asked to chair the International Congress of Spiritualists ( meeting in London ) in 1898 .
In 1928 , a house at Richard Hale School ( then called Hertford Grammar School ) was named after Wallace . Wallace attended Richard Hale as a student from 1828 to 1836 .
Lecture theatres at Swansea and Cardiff universities are named after Wallace , and a building at the University of South Wales .
Craters on Mars and the Moon are named after him .
In 1986 the Royal Entomological Society of London mounted a year @-@ long expedition to the Dumoga @-@ Bone National Park in North Sulawesi named Project Wallace .
A group of Indonesian islands is known as the Wallacea biogeographical region in Wallace 's honour , and Operation Wallacea , named after the region , awards " Alfred Russel Wallace Grants " to undergraduate ecology students .
= = Writings by Wallace = =
Wallace was a prolific author . In 2002 , a historian of science published a quantitative analysis of Wallace 's publications . He found that Wallace had published 22 full @-@ length books and at least 747 shorter pieces , 508 of which were scientific papers ( 191 of them published in Nature ) . He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects as follows . 29 % were on biogeography and natural history , 27 % were on evolutionary theory , 25 % were social commentary , 12 % were on Anthropology , and 7 % were on spiritualism and phrenology . An online bibliography of Wallace 's writings has more than 750 entries .
= = = Selected books = = =
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1853 ) . Palm trees of the Amazon and their uses . ( Biodiversity Heritage Library ) . London .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1869 ) . The Malay Archipelago . Harper .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1870 ) . Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection ( Google Books ) ( 2nd ed . ) . Macmillan and Company .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1876 ) . The Geographical Distribution of Animals ( Google Books ) . Harper and brothers .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1878 ) . Tropical Nature , and Other Essays ( Google Books ) . Macmillan .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1881 ) . Island Life . Harper and brothers .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1889 ) . Darwinism : An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection , with Some of Its Applications . Macmillan .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1889 ) . Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro ( Google Books ) ( 1889 ed . ) . Ward , Lock .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1904 ) . Man 's Place in the Universe ( Gutenberg ) . Chapman & Hall .
Wallace , Alfred Russel ( 1905 ) . My Life ( Google Books ) . Chapman & Hall .
= = = Selected papers = = =
1853 : On the Monkeys of the Amazon . Speculates on the effect of rivers and other geographical barriers on the distribution of closely allied species .
1855 : On the Law Which Has Regulated the Introduction of New Species . Wallace 's thoughts on the laws governing the geographic distribution of closely allied species , including the Sarawak Law , and the implications of those laws for the transmutation of species .
1857 : On the Natural History of the Aru Islands . First methodical biogeographic study .
1858 : On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type . Paper on natural selection sent by Wallace to Darwin .
1859 : On the Zoological Geography of the Malay Archipelago . Contains first description of the Wallace Line .
1863 : Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton 's Paper on the Bee 's Cell , And on the Origin of Species . Wallace 's defence of the Origin on the topic of evolution of the hexagonal bee cell .
1863 : On the Physical Geography of the Malay Archipelago . Paper on the geography and possible geographic history of Indonesia with concluding remarks on importance of biogeography and biodiversity that are frequently cited in modern conservation circles .
1864 : On the phenomena of variation and geographical distribution as illustrated by the Papilionidae of the Malayan region . Monograph on Indonesian butterfly family with discussion of different kinds of variability including individual variation , polymorphic forms , geographical races , variation influenced by local conditions , and closely allied species .
1891 : English and American Flowers . Contains speculation on how glaciation may have affected distribution of mountain flora in North America and Eurasia .
A more comprehensive list of Wallace 's publications that are available online , as well as a full bibliography of all of Wallace 's writings , has been compiled by the historian Charles H. Smith at the The Alfred Russel Wallace Page .
= = Bird specimens collected by Wallace = =
= Cordelia Chase =
Cordelia Chase is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ; she also appeared on Buffy 's spin @-@ off series , Angel . Portrayed by Charisma Carpenter , the character appears as a series regular in the first three seasons of Buffy , before exiting the show and becoming a series regular during the first four seasons of Angel . The character made her last television appearance in 2004 , appearing as a special guest star in Angel 's one hundredth episode . Cordelia also appears in both canonical and apocryphal Buffy and Angel material such as comic books and novels .
Cordelia is introduced in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " as one of Sunnydale High 's popular cheerleaders , attending school alongside vampire slayer Buffy Summers . Through her interactions with Buffy and her friends , she comes to accept the existence of supernatural forces and helps Buffy fight against them . In the television series Angel , Cordelia joins Angel , a heroic vampire with a soul , in forming a detective agency dedicated to stopping supernatural forces and helping the helpless . After Cordelia acquires the ability to see visions of those in need , she becomes a more compassionate and heroic character . In the middle of the third season , she becomes a love interest of the protagonist Angel . In the fourth season of Angel , she appears to take on a villainous role before it is revealed that she is possessed by a malevolent deity ; this storyline eventually leads to her death and subsequent exit from the series . The character makes further canonical appearances in the comic books Buffy Season Eight and Angel : After the Fall , in a dream flashback and as a spirit guide .
Created as a foil for Buffy 's titular heroine , Cordelia was initially characterized as " shallow " , " vain " and " self @-@ centered " , and was used in the series to create conflict for the other characters . The character went through changes as she gradually redeemed herself throughout the course of Buffy and Angel , and has received attention in academic texts related to gender studies and social status .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Cordelia Chase first appears in the premiere episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , titled " Welcome to the Hellmouth " . Introduced as a potential friend for Sunnydale High 's newest student , Buffy Summers ( Sarah Michelle Gellar ) , Cordelia reveals her true colors by cruelly mocking Willow ( Alyson Hannigan ) , whom Buffy befriends instead . Ignorant of the supernatural , Cordelia shows up regularly throughout the first season of Buffy to insult and ridicule the other characters . She plays a larger role in the episode " Out of Mind , Out of Sight " , in which she falls victim to a social outcast who wants revenge on popular students for ignoring her so much that she turned invisible . In the season finale , Cordelia helps Buffy and her friends battle vampires , finally coming to terms with the existence of supernatural forces . In season two , Cordelia becomes a more active ally to the " Scooby Gang " and begins a romantic relationship with Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) . In " Bewitched , Bothered and Bewildered " , dating someone of Xander 's social status causes Cordelia 's ostracism from her popular peers and she reluctantly breaks up with him . However , when Xander performs a love spell to pay her back for hurting him , Cordelia realises how much he cares about her and takes him back , rejecting her superficial friends in the process . In season three 's " Lovers Walk " , Cordelia is heartbroken to see Xander kissing Willow and ends their relationship . By the season three episode " The Wish " , Cordelia slips back into her antagonistic persona from the first season , disassociating herself from the Scooby Gang altogether . In the episode " The Prom " , she reveals that her family 's wealth has been seized for tax fraud . Cordelia later attempts an unsuccessful relationship with Wesley ( Alexis Denisof ) and makes peace with Xander at the prom . In the season three finale , she rallies alongside Buffy and her friends at graduation against the demonic Mayor of Sunnydale ( Harry Groener ) , where Cordelia slays her first vampire .
After three seasons on Buffy , Cordelia moved over to star in Angel , a spin @-@ off series focusing on Buffy 's vampire ex @-@ lover Angel ( David Boreanaz ) . The first season of Angel sees Cordelia move to Los Angeles , in the hopes of escaping her new @-@ found poverty by becoming an actress . After Angel saves her life in the series pilot , Cordelia helps him found the supernatural detective agency Angel Investigations , working in an administrative position . She also becomes close to half @-@ demon co @-@ worker Doyle ( Glenn Quinn ) , but their budding romance is ended by his death nine episodes into the series . Before dying in the episode " Hero " , Doyle passes his ability to see people in distress over to Cordelia when he kisses her . Although she initially views the visions as a curse , in the season one finale , a demon causes Cordelia 's visions to overwhelm her — causing her to experience worldwide pain — and upon her recovery she vows to help those in need . In season two 's " Reunion " , Cordelia and the other staff at Angel Investigations are fired by Angel , who is becoming increasingly obsessed with bringing down the evil law firm Wolfram & Hart . Cordelia joins Wesley and Charles Gunn ( J. August Richards ) in re @-@ forming the agency on their own . Angel and Cordelia eventually reconcile in the episode " Epiphany " . As her acting career continues to flounder , Cordelia is sucked into and made princess of a medieval hell dimension called Pylea in the season two episode " Over the Rainbow " . When presented with the opportunity to pass her visions over to a champion named the Groosalugg ( Mark Lutz ) , Cordelia refuses and returns to L.A. with her friends in the season two finale .
In season three 's " Birthday " , Cordelia learns from the demon Skip ( David Denman ) that her visions are slowly killing her because human beings are not strong enough to control them . To save her life , Cordelia accepts Skip 's offer to alter history so that she never met Angel in L.A. , instead landing her big break as an actress . However , even in this alternate timeline , Cordelia feels compelled to help others and eventually crosses paths with Angel again , who received the visions in her place and is now insane . Unable to let her friend suffer , Cordelia has Skip return the timeline to normal , and agrees to become half @-@ demon , with new powers , in order to harbor the visions safely . This season also sees Angel become a father , with Cordelia stepping in to mother the infant Connor until he is kidnapped into a hell dimension in the episode " Sleep Tight " , only to emerge as a disturbed teenager ( Vincent Kartheiser ) in " The Price " . In the episode " Waiting in the Wings " , Angel realizes he has romantic feelings for Cordelia , but is prevented from voicing them by the return of Groosalugg . Cordelia dates Groosalugg for the remainder of the season , but Groo notices she loves Angel instead and decides to leave . In the season finale , Cordelia arranges to meet Angel to confess her feelings , but is prevented from doing so by Skip , who informs her that she has become a higher being . Cordelia accepts her duty , and leaves Earth for another dimension . In season four , Cordelia feels trapped in her position as a higher being , and so in the episode " The House Always Wins " she returns to Earth in an amnesiac state . In " Spin the Bottle " , her memories are returned via a spell , along with a vision of a mysterious Beast ( Vladimir Kulich ) . Afterward , she admits to Angel the feelings she once had for him . As L.A. succumbs to the apocalypse in season four 's " Apocalypse , Nowish " , Cordelia begins to behave out @-@ of @-@ character ; she seduces Connor , murders Lilah ( Stephanie Romanov ) in the episode " Calvary " , commands the Beast in " Salvage " , and magically battles former friend Willow to keep Angel from his soul in the episode " Orpheus " . In season four 's " Players " , the team realize that the now pregnant Cordelia is possessed , so Cordelia takes the unstable Connor on the run with her so they may give birth to their supernatural offspring , Jasmine ( Gina Torres ) . In " Inside Out " , Skip explains that Jasmine is his master , and a higher being who possessed Cordelia before her returning to Earth , manipulating events to be born in a new body of her own .
Cordelia falls into a post @-@ natal coma for the remainder of season four . Following an eleven @-@ episode absence , Cordelia returns to Angel in season five , in the 100th episode " You 're Welcome " . Having apparently awoken from her coma , Cordelia reunites with Angel Investigations , who she discovers have taken over Wolfram & Hart since their defeat of Jasmine . She chastises Angel for accepting W & H 's " deal with the devil " , and reminds him of his true mission and higher calling . Together , they face and defeat their old enemy Lindsey McDonald ( Christian Kane ) , who had been impersonating Doyle in an attempt to destroy Angel . In the episode 's closing moments , Cordelia reiterates to Angel that she loves him and kisses him , shortly before he receives a phone call reporting that Cordelia died that morning . When Angel turns around , Cordelia is gone . It is later revealed that this encounter — the Powers That Be repaying their debt to Cordelia — allowed Cordelia to pass one last vision over to Angel , giving him the knowledge he needs to bring down the Circle of the Black Thorn .
Between 2001 and 2004 , Joss Whedon and Jeph Loeb developed a 4 @-@ minute pilot episode for Buffy the Animated Series , which was set during the show 's first season . Had the series been picked up by a network , it would have featured Cordelia ( voiced by Charisma Carpenter ) in more high @-@ school adventures . Following a 2008 leak of the pilot to YouTube , Loeb expressed some hope that the series may be resurrected in some form .
= = = Literature = = =
Cordelia also appears in comic books and novels based on the Buffy and Angel television series . The Cordelia Collection , Vol . 1 by Nancy Krulik is a novelization of the Buffy episodes " Out of Mind , Out of Sight " , " Some Assembly Required " and " Homecoming " . These episodes tell specific incidents in which Cordelia becomes targeted : by a scorned classmate , to become a zombie 's bride and by hunters in a case of mistaken identity . She appears in numerous Angel novels as a member of Angel Investigations , but some feature Cordelia more prominently ; in Not Forgotten she uncovers exploitation of child immigrants , while in Haunted she appears as a contestant on a supernatural @-@ themed reality television show when she has a vision about another applicant . Cordelia appears in the majority of Angel comics , published by Dark Horse Comics during 2000 – 2002 and set between episodes of the television series . She appears less frequently in those by IDW Publishing between 2005 and 2011 , mainly in stories set in and after the fifth season . Cordelia typically plays a minimal role in the Dark Horse Angel comics . However , issue seventeen was a " Cordelia Special " , in which demonic items are stashed in Cordelia 's apartment . In the Dark Horse Presents story " Lovely dark and deep " , Cordelia lands a role as the star of a demonic movie . Cordelia appears in the IDW Publishing comic mini @-@ series Angel : The Curse , set after season five , in flashback scenes . She subsequently reappears in the mini @-@ series Angel : Old Friends , which sees Angel battle evil clones of his friends . Cordelia claims to be the genuine article , having returned from the dead , but Angel is unconvinced and kills her ; his suspicions prove correct when her body immediately disintegrates like the other clones .
Angel : After the Fall , a canonical comic book continuation of the television series plotted by Joss Whedon and written by Brian Lynch , features the characters of Angel and all of Los Angeles condemned to Hell after the events of the series finale " Not Fade Away " . Cordelia does not appear until the twelfth issue , in which she acts as a guide to Angel in his dying moments ; it is revealed she serves in some capacity as a higher power now . The character departs in issue thirteen . Cordelia also appears in a dream sequence within the twentieth issue of Buffy 's canonical continuation , Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight , titled " After These Messages ... We 'll Be Right Back ! " . Buffy dreams of when she was in her first year at Sunnydale High ; Cordelia 's physical appearance is based on the art style of Loeb and Whedon 's unproduced Buffy animated series .
= = Conception and casting = =
Cordelia was originally intended to serve as a dramatic foil to the series ' main character Buffy Summers . Adapting the concept of the movie into a television series , Whedon decided to reinvent the character of Buffy . The shallow cheerleader of the 1992 Buffy film , as played by Kristy Swanson , had grown more mature and open @-@ minded . Buffy now identified with the social outcasts , such as Willow and Xander . As a result , Cordelia Chase was created to embody the traits of that shallower Buffy . Despite portraying a shallow , valley girl stock character , actress Charisma Carpenter felt that Cordelia in early seasons was not " one @-@ dimensional " , nor was she " as superficial as people thought " . At the same time , Carpenter was critical of her frequent role as the damsel in distress . Angel co @-@ creator and executive producer David Greenwalt describes Cordelia in her Buffy years as " a somewhat shallow , somewhat vain , somewhat self @-@ centered but [ a ] lively and honest character who spoke her mind " . Indeed , even not when superhuman , she showed a lot of hardiness .
Charisma Carpenter had originally planned to read for the role of Buffy , but was late for her audition and instead tried out for Cordelia . Carpenter , who had dressed casually for the role of Buffy — who she believed " could really be herself " — felt unprepared to read for Cordelia because she " was definitely a character to dress for " . Although she had only fifteen minutes to prepare for the character , the producers were " really responsive " to Carpenter 's audition , and she left feeling confident she had got the part . After Carpenter 's audition , actress Sarah Michelle Gellar , who had been offered the role of Cordelia before Carpenter , was asked to come back and audition for the part of Buffy . Bianca Lawson originally won the role of Cordelia Chase , but turned it down due to other contractual obligations . Lawson would later be cast as vampire slayer Kendra in the show 's second season . Carpenter , proud of her own character 's growth across the two series , did not envy Gellar for winning the role of Buffy over her .
= = Characterization = =
= = = Characteristics and analysis = = =
Cordelia 's representation of an assertive modern woman and her character arc in Buffy has been commented on in several academic texts , particularly in gender studies , such as " Praising Cordelia : Aggression and Adaptation Among Adolescent Girls " , or Sex and the Slayer . In the latter , Dr. Lorna Jowett of the University of Northampton describes Cordelia 's initial place in the series where " At first glance , Cordelia seems to have the ' normal life ' Buffy often longs for . She is a familiar character from the teen drama : popular , a cheerleader , the center of cliques ( power as status ) . Furthermore , Cordelia 's exceptionalism is based on ' real ' material privilege rather than supernatural power . She represents in more exaggerated form the unnamed white middle @-@ class heterosexual qualities ( read privilege ) of the other characters ( to the point that it becomes visible ) . " Elizabeth Rambo notes how Cordelia 's status is highlighted by her nickname , " Queen C " , and Harmony 's remark to her , " Cordy , you reign . " Cordelia functions recognizably as the typical female victim of horror , often screaming and running away , and this makes her a perfect contrast for other female characters . "
" Praising Cordelia " argues that both Buffy and Cordelia are representations of assertive and competitive young women , who " represent two kinds of aggressive adolescent girls " . The article focuses on the competitive relationship between the characters . Buffy 's initial friendship with Cordelia is compromised once Cordelia sees the attractive , socially competent Buffy as a threat to her . Even after Cordelia joins the Scooby Gang and becomes Buffy 's friend , theirs is not a friendship of " mutual support , warmth and intimacy " but rather one of " mutual antipathy " . The authors opine that Cordelia , unlike Buffy , is a " representation of the archetypal ' feminine type ' " , one who conforms to the " pervasive stereotypes of femininity while , at the same time , dominating the other girls in the school " and commanding the attention of the boys . Describing her character arc in Buffy , Mary Alice Money views Cordelia as one of many transformed or redeemed Buffy characters , one who " reveals a previously unexpected vulnerability that nullifies some of their less attractive traits . " Jowett argues that Cordelia 's assimilation within the main group is due largely to her relationship with main character Xander , and she is rendered sympathetic to the audience once they witness her rebuff the peer pressure from her old friends . She is further endeared to the viewer when Xander betrays her , because the scenes showing her pain are shown only to the viewer . After Cordelia is cheated on by Xander with Willow she chooses not to go back to him , and instead retains her autonomy .
Others such as Susanne Kord and Elisabeth Krimer note how Cordelia is also a subversive representation of feminine stereotypes , describing " Although superficially , Cordelia conforms to the stereotype of the insensitive bitch " , what she actually does is " offers her viewers the clandestine pleasures of female self @-@ assertion " . One of Cordelia 's strongest traits , her honesty , is also highlighted in " Earshot " , where Buffy temporarily develops telepathic powers and can hear the thoughts of her friends , who avoid her to hide these thoughts . For Cordelia however , " her thought processes and actual utterances are completely identical " and because of this she embodies an " antithesis of female self @-@ sacrifice " in these years but also " the opposite of the kind of hypocrisy that is typically attributed to women " . Writer Jennifer Crusie interprets this as Cordelia 's " lack of depth " becoming " her strength " . She does not mean to argue that Cordelia is stupid however , pointing out " Cordy 's solipsism could easily be mistaken for stupidity , but it comes coupled with a keen intelligence and a fixity of purpose that makes her almost invincible . " Jowett feels Cordelia 's confidence is based in her wealth . Despite becoming more sympathetic as the series progressed , " bitchiness enhances Cordelia 's comic appeal " , as it offers viewers an opportunity to relish its honest truth @-@ telling .
= = = Development = = =
In early seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Cordelia was often used both as comic relief and occasionally for the damsel in distress plot device , which would require series ' heroine Buffy to save her . Any concerns that she was simply one @-@ dimensional were alleviated for the actress when writers developed the character through her relationships with Xander and later Wesley , which led Carpenter to become more convinced of her potential . In an article about the psychology of characters in Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Steven C. Schlozman writes about how " Cordelia is wealthy and , at first glance , superficial , appearing to care most about her own popularity . However , as the show progresses , we learn that her mother suffers from chronic fatigue syndrome and her father was prosecuted for income tax evasion . She is a reluctant participant , baffled at her own loyal feelings and bewildered at her attraction to the unpopular Xander . " He goes on to describe how Cordelia , and " all the characters of Buffy the Vampire Slayer are particularly compelling for their depictions of important adolescent themes . " Discussing Cordelia 's relationship with Xander , Carpenter says , " A lot of Cordy 's conflict , and a lot of who she is , comes out around Xander . Because she is in love with him in spite of herself , or in spite of him . I have my best moments with [ Nicholas Brendon ] . " However , her character 's growing involvement with Buffy and her friends caused the actress some concern ; " I wasn 't sure how I felt about it , because I didn 't want to lose my edge . I didn 't want her to be nice ; I didn 't want her to change because that 's who she is . " Carpenter 's challenge was to find a balance between the good and bad sides of Cordelia , and she explains , " That 's why I enjoy playing her so much . She 's got to be somewhat tolerable or why would they hang out with her ? But I [ try ] not to lose her edge , her honesty . " Carpenter claims that Cordelia 's " rough edges " made for difficult experiences with fans , who expected her to be snobby like her character . Charisma continually pleaded to get to slay a vampire , which the writers let her do in her final Buffy appearance , " Graduation Day , Part Two " .
Over the course of her appearances in Angel , Cordelia would develop enormously as a character . Describing this evolution , Carpenter comments , " When I first started playing Cordelia , she wasn 't nice . She has really deepened and has a stronger sense of responsibility . She 's a team player , which was not the case in the beginning . " Carpenter cherishes what playing a multi @-@ faceted character like Cordelia meant for her as an actress , describing
The road Cordelia has travelled , the journey she has taken up to now has been such a joy to play as an actress , because there have been so many chances to do so many different emotions . Heroic , vulnerable , just angry , possessed , funny – I get to be all those different things rolled into one . Getting this role , in hindsight ... God I made a good decision , or they did .
Cultural critic Jennifer Crusie points out how Cordelia was initially perfect for the transition to " selfish , superficial Los Angeles " , which turned out to be her " trial by fire " .
Executive producer David Greenwalt was very keen to acquire the character of Cordelia for the spin @-@ off series , commenting , " I desperately wanted her to come to Angel because Angel being dark and broody , we need a big bright smile . " At the same time , Whedon felt her presence was sorely missed in the fourth season of Buffy where " All of our characters got to the point where they were loving and hugging , and it was sort of like , where 's Cordelia ? " , leading him to introduce Spike ( James Marsters ) to the cast to accommodate her absence . Kelly A. Manners describes Cordelia as a " rich gal whose family ended up losing everything to the IRS . So in episode one of Angel , Cordelia showed up in LA trying to start a career as an actress because her family was in jail , actually . " Crusie states that in mourning for Doyle Cordelia also begins " finding within herself a new level of humanity " .
Greenwalt discusses how Cordelia " is sort of forced to become a deeper character " when she starts to receive the visions of the suffering and helpless , " She 's sort of living with one foot in the world of ' I want to be an actress ' and with another foot in the world of ' I want to save and help people , and I have a deeper purpose and mission . ' " Greenwalt felt that this development allowed Cordelia to develop from a " vainglorious high schooler to someone who 's almost like a superhero " ; this also provided Carpenter with the opportunity to stretch her potential as an actress . From the tenth episode , " Parting Gifts " , Cordelia begins to actively function as a supernatural character in the series while the introduction of Wesley also contributes some added comic relief to the series . It is from this episode Cordelia is also forced to mature as she mourns the death of Doyle , whose visions serve as a painful reminder of him . The first season finale saw Cordelia 's visions inflict all the suffering of the human world upon her , and to effectively act this , Carpenter 's acting coach showed her pictures of real human pain as motivation . The scene took over eight hours to film , and Carpenter was relieved when it was over . The experience saw Cordelia further resolve to help those in need , stating " I saw the world and there 's so much pain . We have to help them . " Carpenter explains , " Through the suffering of the world , and through her own experiences , she discovers what 's important in life . "
Carpenter pleaded to the producers to let her cut her hair in the second season of Angel , but they were dissatisfied with the darker tone and cut which created a " dark edge of Cordelia " which wasn 't as " warm and effervescent as she usually is " , so for the third season they wanted her to " go shorter and blonder " . Angel 's third season demonstrates Cordelia 's development into a fully @-@ fledged heroine . The episode " Birthday " saw her being offered the chance to live a life where she never met Angel , but her inner desire to help others sees her sacrifice this life and her humanity to become a half @-@ demon who can better withstand the visions she carries . In " Billy " , Cordelia begins to train alongside Angel to become a better fighter and learns quickly . Carpenter began to train extensively with the show 's stunt co @-@ ordinators both to learn how to fight and to handle weaponry . In the episode " Waiting in the Wings " , both Angel and Lorne remark on what a fine woman Cordelia has finally become , with Cordelia noting she is more like a superhero than she ever expected to be growing up in Sunnydale . Also in this episode , she and Angel both realize they have fallen for one another , but their love goes unconsummated . Critically , Jennifer Crusie considers Cordelia 's ascension to the heavens at the end of season three to be the " point that the Mutant Enemy Productions writers evidently lost their minds " . She goes on to describe how Cordelia 's compliance with Skip seems entirely out of character . Jes Battis also argues that a paradox is created when " the character who embraces her privilege ( Cordelia ) gets to become a higher being and exit Angel , and as an overwhelmingly positive force " where later Fred ( Amy Acker ) , " the character who is conflicted about her privilege " in season five " ends up being possessed by a millennia @-@ old demon " .
Angel season four played with audience 's expectations of the now heroic Cordelia by revealing her to be the season 's Big Bad ; it was later established that Cordelia had been possessed by a manipulative deity called Jasmine . The storyline was controversial with fans , and Carpenter has admitted hating how a possessed Cordelia seduced Angel 's teenage son . Carpenter has said , " I 'm in denial about that whole storyline . It was creepy . " However , director Terrence O 'Hara comments that Carpenter had " a lot of fun " with playing a manipulative Cordelia in the episode " Orpheus " because she enjoyed coming up with Cordelia 's new " schizophrenic madwoman " characterization . The episode " Inside Out " saw the height of this inversion of Cordelia 's character , where she is seen urging Connor to murder an innocent girl in order to expedite the birth of the child they conceived together . In an effort to stop Connor , the Powers That Be send the spirit of Connor 's mother Darla ( Julie Benz ) to convince him not to go through with it . The episode sees Carpenter dressed in black , while Benz appears in heavenly white as she becomes the voice of reason and morality . Steven S. DeKnight , who wrote and directed the episode , felt this was a brilliant role @-@ reversal for both actresses as Carpenter is accustomed to playing the benevolent Cordelia where Darla is normally seen as a sinister vampire . Much of season four 's storyline had to be adjusted due to Carpenter 's real @-@ life pregnancy ; after Cordelia gives birth to Jasmine in the episode " Inside Out " she is left in a coma for the remainder of the fourth season . Crusie discusses what she felt were the flaws in the execution of the fourth season ,
It 's that she betrays the man she trusts above all others and who trusts her absolutely ; it 's that she seduces a boy she once diapered ; it 's that she dresses like a drag queen and talks like a Dynasty reject . It 's that she 's not Cordy , and what might have been fun to watch had we been let into the secret before the Beastmaster seduced Connor becomes the extended rape and death of a much @-@ beloved character .
Matt Hills and Rebecca Williams also discuss the treatment of Cordelia ( and Darla ) in " Angel 's Monstrous Mothers and Vampires with Soul : Investigating the Abject in ' Television Horror ' " , from Reading Angel : The TV Spin @-@ off With a Soul by Stacey Abbot . They see the send @-@ offs of Cordelia , Fred and other characters as part of a pattern of highly gendered " elaborated abjection " seen in Angel . They also see Cordelia 's possession in season four as part of a recurring pattern : " More so than other characters in [ Buffy ] and Angel , Cordelia has suffered or been threatened with bodily invasion and rape , either symbolically or literally " and recounts the demon impregnation in " Expecting " , and similarly in " Epiphany " , where she develops a gestating demon in her head and then told she must mate with the Groosalugg in " Through the Looking Glass " . Cordelia even remarks on this , as Hills and Williams quote her as she remarks on her " status as a violated and devalued character " ; Cordelia states , " If you ever figure out how to get us out of here , I want you to find me a dimension where some demon doesn 't want to impregnate me with his spawn ! " They liken the horror motif in these examples , and in " Inside Out " , to what Barbara Creed called the ' monstrous womb ' in her book The Monstrous @-@ feminine : Film , Feminism , Psychoanalysis . Jes Battis also comments how , in comparison with the Fred @-@ Illyria season five storyline , Cordelia 's storyline is not as positive as Fred 's rebirth , because Fred got to " ' live on ' through Illyria , whereas Cordelia is taken right out of the show and receives no interesting blue @-@ haired reincarnation " . Continuing , they say that in fact , there is no meaningful connection between the " real " Cordelia and Jasmine , as the Cordelia who did those bad things is killed the moment Jasmine is , " and the ' true ' Cordy wakes up from her coma " . Further illustrating the comparisons , " Fred / Illyria become a joined mother / daughter subjectivity , a dual being whose constituent essences are inseparable ; Cordelia is never so intimately connected with her evil child and is remembered as the healthy , vibrant Cordy that everyone knew . " Pointing out symbolic parallels in the subtexts of these gestations , Battis notes
Cordelia , a vocal advocate of her own privilege , creates a fully formed supernatural being , Jasmine , who attempts ( shockingly ) to control the world . Fred , on the other hand , who internalizes her own privilege and cannot express it except in terms of insecurity and awkwardness , has her body devoured from the inside by the demon Illyria .
For Angel 's fifth season , as with Buffy 's fourth , Spike steps in to replace Cordelia as a source of comedic dialogue within the series . It is also noted by critics that , in the fifth season , " it doesn 't take long for Illyria to become a version of Cordelia , giving everyone the cold and honest truth whether they want it or not " . Concerning Cordelia 's last appearance in Angel 's fifth and final season , Joss Whedon says he used the 100th episode to reinforce the " mission statement " of the show , as well as assess where the characters are now compared to how they began . Whedon explains this episode presents an ideal opportunity to — through Cordelia , who was " there at the beginning " — ask of Angel , " Where are you now ? Where were you when you started and where are you now and how do you feel about that ? " The return to the show 's " original concerns " is echoed by the flashback to Doyle 's first season advertisement ; Sara Upstone points out aerial images of Los Angeles reappear at the same time Cordelia tells Angel " You forgot who you are , " bringing back the show 's link to the city . Buffy Summers was originally intended to appear in the 100th episode to get Angel ' back on track ' , but Sarah Michelle Gellar had other obligations . Writer / director David Fury explains that since " we couldn 't get Sarah " the episode was instead written for Cordelia . He adds , " This turned out to be a Godsend because Charisma was fantastic . " In the original script , Fury wrote a conversation between Wesley and Angel while driving to the hospital that set up Cordelia as a possible vegetable . The scene was never shot because " the shock of seeing her up and around after a 9 @-@ month coma was enough . We just didn 't want to tip it too soon , " says Fury .
= = Reception = =
For her role as Cordelia Chase , as she appeared in the television series Angel , Charisma Carpenter has been nominated four times by the Saturn Awards . Carpenter earned back @-@ to @-@ back nominations in 2000 and 2001 for Best Genre TV Supporting Actress and Best Actress on Television , respectively . The actress did not receive any nominations in 2002 , but again obtained two back @-@ to @-@ back nominations in 2003 and 2004 for Best Actress in a Television Series and Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series , respectively .
= Drakengard 2 =
Drakengard 2 is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Cavia for the PlayStation 2 . It was released in Japan by Square Enix on June 16 , 2005 and by Ubisoft on February 14 and March 3 , 2006 in North America and Europe respectively . It is the second entry in the Drakengard series and a direct sequel to the original Drakengard : the story revolves around Nowe , a boy raised by the dragon Legna , fighting against a tyrannical faction of Knights , encountering characters from the previous game and becoming entangled in the fate of the world .
Like the original , Drakengard 2 combines on @-@ foot hack and slash with aerial combat stages and RPG game mechanics . The previous game 's producer , writer and character designer returned to their respective roles . The game was designed as a more mainstream game in light of the previous game 's dark aesthetic and story . The game sold 206 @,@ 000 copies by the end of 2005 . Western reviews praised the story , but gave mixed opinions about the graphics and widely criticized the gameplay . A spin @-@ off from the series , Nier , was released in 2010 , while a third entry in the series , Drakengard 3 , was released in December 2013 in Japan and May 2014 in North America and Europe .
= = Gameplay = =
As with the original Drakengard , the game is split into chapters and subdivided into ground @-@ based and airborne missions . The story of the game dictates which missions come when during the initial playthrough and how they play out , though as the player progresses , new remixed versions of the various playable levels called " free missions " are unlocked , which allow the player to go through the missions with the story elements removed . The player can jump between the game world 's self @-@ contained areas via a world map unlocked after the first chapter . In between the various chapters and missions , the player builds up their characters using experience points earned in battle : the characters ' weapons and abilities , and the abilities of the player 's dragon , can be gradually improved . The player 's view of the world is through a fixed camera , which tracks the player 's progress across the player area . Collectables in the form of weapons and items such as armor and health points and items needed to progress within the level are also available for the player to seek out . The game features Normal , Hard , and Expert difficulty levels , and there are multiple weapons and items to collect throughout the levels .
Combat in the game is similar to its predecessor , with the main series of missions beginning after an opening tutorial . The game features ground @-@ based hack @-@ and @-
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progression B ♭ -Dm @-@ C. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly noted similarities between " Never Let You Go " and Chris Brown 's " Forever " , calling the previous a " fraternal twin " to the latter . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , using " Never Let You Go " and " Stuck in the Moment " as examples said that " the ballads — often a weak spot on pop / R & B records — are fully realized , mixing love @-@ struck lyrics with big , lovable choruses . " Lauren Carter of The Boston Herald stated that , " While it ’ s hard to buy into so much angst coming from a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , the promises of forever ( see “ Never Let You Go , ” for starters ) will undoubtedly delight the young girls who dream of spending eternity with pop ’ s newest heartthrob . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Never Let You Go " debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was listed on the chart for two weeks before dropping off . The song , like previous digital @-@ only singles of Bieber 's , had limited stays on the charts , and holds the record for the second all @-@ time biggest week @-@ to @-@ week descent in Hot 100 history , behind Justin Timberlake 's cover of " Hallelujah " and the Jonas Brothers ' " Pushin ' Me Away " . It debuted and peaked at fourteen in Canada , after spending four weeks on the Canadian Hot 100 it dropped off . Internationally , the song charted at sixty @-@ seven in Australian Singles Chart , and reached sixteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart , where it was on the chart for three weeks . Via digital sales behind the release of My World 2 @.@ 0 , " Never Let You Go " reached eighty @-@ four on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
Rolling Stone confirmed in January 2010 that the music video had already been shot by director Colin Tilley while Bieber was at the Atlantis resort in Dubai . Actress Paige Hurd portrays Bieber 's love interest in the video . The video premiered on March 30 , 2010 on Vevo . It was the new joint on BET 's 106 & Park on April 5 , 2010 .
Summarizing the video , Jocelyn Vena MTV News said , " Bieber is seen hanging out in the catacombs of Bahamian aquariums ... In this new clip , Bieber is seen performing on the beach and frolicking with Hurd . Bieber is definitely growing up a lot in this video — sharing near @-@ kisses , touching and nuzzling with her boyfriend . Shots of the pair in silhouette holding hands play into the video 's plot of two young teens falling in love in a very exotic locale . " Vena also said that Bieber continues her " knack for Michael Jackson @-@ esque dance moves . " ( read : bad mimicry and complete rip off of ) . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly called the video " So romantic , " as " they dance in an age @-@ appropriate fashion . " Chris Ryan of MTV News reviewed the video positively , stating that it is , " a really nice take on the innocence of young love , full of flirting , dancing and hair @-@ touching . "
= = Live performances = =
Bieber performed the song several times including at the new Microsoft Store grand opening in Mission Viejo , California , and in a live session with MTV . He also later performed it on The Early Show as a part of their 2010 Super Bowl programming , and on BET 's SOS : Saving Ourselves - Help for Haiti Telethon , to benefit Haiti after the earthquake , performing live on February 6 , 2009 , which also aired on VH1 , and MTV .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Justin Bieber , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , Johntá Austin
Production - Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , Johntá Austin
Vocal recording - Sam Thomas
Instruments - Bryan @-@ Michael Cox
Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid
Source
= = Charts = =
= Australian Army Reserve =
The Australian Army Reserve is a collective name given to the reserve units of the Australian Army . Since the Federation of Australia in 1901 , the reserve military force has been known by many names , including the Citizens Forces , the Citizen Military Forces , the Militia and , unofficially , the Australian Military Forces . In 1980 , however , the current name — Australian Army Reserve — was officially adopted , and it now consists of a number of components based around the level of commitment and training obligation that its members are required to meet .
= = Overview = =
For the first half of the 20th century , due to a widespread distrust of permanent military forces in Australia , the reserve military forces were the primary focus of Australian military planning . Following the end of World War II , however , this focus gradually shifted due to the changing strategic environment , and the requirement for a higher readiness force available to support collective security goals . Since then , Australian defence policy has been focused more upon the Regular Army , and there has been considerable debate about the role of the Army Reserve within defence planning circles . As the strategic situation has evolved in the post Cold War era , the organisation , structure , training and role of the Army Reserve has undergone considerable changes , and members of the Army Reserve are increasingly being used on overseas deployments , not only within Regular Army units , but also in units drawn almost entirely from Reserve units .
Despite being the main focus upon which Australian defence planning was based , since Federation Reserve units have primarily been used in the role of home defence and to provide a mobilisation platform during times of war . During World War I Australia 's contribution to the fighting came from forces raised outside of the citizens forces that were in existence at the time , and although many citizen soldiers enlisted in these forces , the Citizens Forces units remained in Australia . With the outbreak of World War II a similar situation evolved , with the establishment of an all volunteer expeditionary force , however , with the entry of Japan into the war the threat to Australia became more direct and a number of Militia units were called upon to fight in New Guinea and other areas of the South West Pacific .
Following the end of World War II , however , the decision was made to establish a permanent standing defence force and the role of Reserve forces was reduced to the point where for a while their relevance was called into question . Recently , however , there has been a move to develop a more capable Reserve force , as Australia 's overseas military commitments in the Pacific and Middle East have highlighted the importance of the Reserves once more . As such , since 2000 units of the Australian Army Reserve have been deployed to East Timor and the Solomon Islands on peacekeeping duties and many more individual Reservists have been used to provide specialist capabilities and to fill in Regular Army formations being sent overseas .
= = History = =
= = = Federation to World War I = = =
Following the Federation of Australia in 1901 , the amalgamation of the military forces controlled by the six separate , self @-@ governing British colonies to form a unified force controlled by the Commonwealth was an inevitable , albeit slowly realised , consequence , given that the new Constitution of Australia assigned the defence power solely to the Commonwealth . Indeed , this process took some time as , to a large extent , matters of defence were not necessarily a priority of the new Australian legislature at the time , and there was also a considerable diversity in opinion regarding the composition and size of the new national army and role it would play at home and indeed within the wider Imperial defence system . Nevertheless , the official transfer of forces from the states to the Commonwealth occurred on 1 March 1901 , and this date is today celebrated as the birthday of the modern Australian Army . At the outset , the bulk of the Commonwealth military force was to be made up of part @-@ time volunteers . This was arguably due to two factors . Firstly , there was a widespread desire amongst Australian policymakers to keep defence expenditure low , while secondly there was a widespread mistrust or suspicion surrounding the idea of a large standing army .
After the initial transfer of forces in March 1901 , further progress was slow as administrative and legislative instruments took time to develop . Indeed , it was not until 1 March 1904 that the Defence Act 1903 was proclaimed , providing the Commonwealth Military Forces a statutory framework within which they could operate . Amidst a background of political manoeuvring and personal agendas , the military forces were eventually reorganised into a more or less unified command structure . As a part of this , state @-@ based mounted units were reformed into light horse regiments , supplemented by the transfer of men from a number of superfluous infantry units , while the remaining infantry were organised into battalions of the Australian Infantry Regiment and engineers and artillery were organised into field companies and garrison artillery batteries . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act which did not provide for the establishment of a regular infantry force , the notion that the Commonwealth Military Forces would be largely based on a part @-@ time militia was set out in legislation .
The lack of importance placed on military matters in Australian political circles continued for some time , and the size of the Australian military in this time continued to fall , in part due to the emphasis placed upon mounted units in the new command structure . However , following a number of strategic and political " scares " , defence matters slowly began to take on more primacy in the Australian psyche before a review of defence needs was made in 1909 by Field Marshal Lord Kitchener . The result of this review was the realisation of the need to build a credible defence force that could not only defend the nation , but also possibly contribute to the Imperial defence system ( although this later realisation remained little more than a consideration on paper only ) . The review also validated the compulsory military training scheme that was to be introduced in 1910 , which was directly responsible for expanding the Citizens Forces by up to 50 percent in the three years prior to the outbreak of World War I.
Undoubtedly , the scheme proved to have numerous benefits , as many of these youths went on to serve in the First AIF during World War I and the expanded organisation allowed citizens forces officers more experience in commanding formed bodies of men . However , it was the main factor contributing to the decision to recruit the AIF on the basis of voluntary enlistment . Because the army in 1914 was largely made up of young men aged between 19 and 21 who had been enlisted under this scheme , and due to the provisions of the Defence Act that precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of the war it was necessary for the Australian government to raise a separate force , outside of the Citizens Forces organisation for service overseas . Regardless , it has been estimated that up to 50 @,@ 000 militiamen subsequently enlisted in the First AIF during the war .
During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914 , Citizens Forces units were called up to guard essential points and man coastal forts and harbour defences . The first Australian shots ( many sources report the first Allied shots ) of both World War I and World War II were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean . By June 1918 , 9 @,@ 215 home service troops were on active duty in Australia , alongside 2 @,@ 476 regular soldiers . From 1915 , only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts , but the personnel manning them were forbidden to enlist in the AIF . This ban was lifted in April 1915 but the presence of a German commerce raider in Australian waters caused a mobilisation from February to April 1916 , while another mobilisation occurred in April 1918 for the same reason . Just before the end of World War I , Australia 's home forces were reorganised to perpetuate the numerical identities of the AIF units . This was done renumbering the infantry regiments that had been formed in 1912 , and giving them the numbers of the AIF units that had been formed in their regimental areas . A total of 60 AIF infantry battalions had seen active service during the war , but there were more than 60 infantry regiments ; as a result , a number of the Citizens Force regiments were reorganised with multiple battalions , while other units were converted to pioneer regiments .
= = = Post World War I = = =
Following the end of World War I the units that had been raised as part of the AIF were disbanded , and the focus of Australian defence planning returned once more to the maintenance of the Citizens Forces . To this end , a review of defence requirements in 1920 established the need for Australia to be able to field a force of approximately 270 @,@ 000 men in the event of a war , of which half of this would be maintained in peacetime through compulsory enlistment . It was also decided that the Citizens Force would be re @-@ organised along the lines of the AIF , adopting the divisional structure of the AIF units and maintaining their battle honours . The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921 and the new organisation of the Citizens Forces was adopted a month later ; this saw the reorganisation of the 88 infantry battalions and five pioneer regiments that had been established under the 1918 scheme , the abolition of infantry regiments and the re @-@ establishment of the 60 infantry battalions that had existed within the AIF , as well as various other units , such as light horse regiments , as well .
There was little support for compulsory military service amongst the public , however , and combined with the financial pressure that the government felt at that time to reduce defence spending , the 1920 recommendations were not fully implemented . Although the compulsory training scheme was retained , it was decided that it would only be focused on the more populated areas , essentially ending the scheme in rural areas . The result of this was that the course of only a year the strength of the Citizens Forces fell from 127 @,@ 000 to only 37 @,@ 000 in 1922 . Throughout the 1920s , numbers decreased even further and although the divisional structure was maintained , it was little more than a skeleton force as units found their numbers dropping drastically .
In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Forces would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . At this time it was also decided to change the name of the force , with the title of " Militia " being adopted as it was felt that it implied voluntary service rather than forced . The force would be based upon the five divisions of the old AIF , although it was decided to limit the overall number of units . This force would also be armed with modern weapons and equipment . That , at least , was the promise , however , in reality this never came to fruition and to a large extent they continued to be trained and equipped with 1914 – 18 equipment right up to and during World War II . The result of this change in recruitment policy was a huge drop in the size of the Army , as numbers fell by almost 20 @,@ 000 in one year as there was little prospect for training and as the financial difficulties of the Great Depression began to be felt . As a result , in 1930 the decision was made to disband or amalgamate a number of units and five infantry battalions and two light horse regiments were removed from the order of battle . The following year , nine more infantry battalions were disbanded .
Between 1929 and 1937 , the number of soldiers within the Militia who could provide effective service was well below the force 's actual on paper strength as many soldiers were unable to attend even a six @-@ day annual camp out of fear of losing their civilian employment . Also it has been estimated that up to 50 per cent of the Militia 's other ranks were medically unfit . The numbers situation had become so tenuous that it was rare for a battalion to be able to field even 100 men during an exercise , so units accepted men that would not normally meet the medical requirements , indeed it has been stated that men who were " lame and practically blind " were allowed to join in an effort to improve numbers . To illustrate this , in 1936 , the largest battalion — the 30th / 51st Battalion — had just 412 personnel of all ranks , while the 11th / 16th Battalion , which was the smallest , had only 156 men .
Financially the Militia was neglected also . Despite the upturn in the economic situation in the early 1930s there was little financial respite for the Militia in this time . As the situation continued to improve , however , the defence vote was increased steadily after 1935 . Indeed , in 1938 the government decided to double the strength of the Militia as war clouds began to loom on the horizon , and late in the year a recruiting campaign was launched that saw the size of the Militia increase from 35 @,@ 000 to 43 @,@ 000 men over the space of three months . This trend continued into 1939 and by midway through the year there were over 80 @,@ 000 men serving on a part @-@ time voluntary basis . Nevertheless , there was a serious shortage of equipment and as a result , when World War II broke out in September 1939 the Militia was by no means an effective fighting force and the nation as a whole was not as well prepared for war as it had been in 1914 .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of the war , the government 's immediate response was to announce on 5 September 1939 that it would begin calling up 10 @,@ 000 militiamen at a time to provide sixteen days continuous service manning guard posts at selected points around the country . This was later expanded on 15 September to include all of the Militia , in two drafts of 40 @,@ 000 men , for one month 's continuous training , however , the suspension on compulsory training introduced in 1929 was not amended until January 1940 . On 5 September 1939 it was also announced that a division would be raised for overseas service , but there was still large @-@ scale opposition to the concept of conscription and the provisions of the Defence Act still precluded conscripts from serving outside of Australian territory , so it was announced that this force would be raised from volunteers only and would not be raised directly from the Militia . Conscripts , however , were required to serve in the Militia , with the result being that the Militia 's ranks were filled with both volunteers and conscripts during this time .
As was the case during World War I , many members of the Militia would go on to serve in the Second AIF . Nevertheless , for a period of time the government attempted to limit the number of militiamen transferring across to the AIF to build defences at home against concerns that Britain might not be able to fulfil its pledge to defend Singapore in the event of an attack there by the Japanese . As such , once again Australia maintained a policy of two armies . For the first two years Australia 's involvement in the war was focused in overseas theatres in Europe , the Middle East and North Africa , and during this time it was the AIF that was involved in the fighting overseas , while units of the Militia were used in garrison duties in Australia and New Guinea , then an Australian territory . During this time , the Militia units came to be derided by the men of the AIF units , with militiamen sometimes being labelled as " chocolate soldiers " or " koalas " .
This changed dramatically , however , following the entry of Japan into the war on 8 December 1941 , with the attack on Pearl Harbor and on the British forces in Malaya . Suddenly the war was brought to Australia 's doorstep and there was a risk that the Japanese could attempt to invade the Australian mainland . In April 1942 , the threat of invasion of Australia seemed very real following the loss of Malaya and Singapore and the subsequent Japanese landings in New Guinea . Seeing the threat that the Japanese posed to Australia , the government had begun to bring AIF units back from the Middle East but the bulk of the forces immediately available for the defence of Australia came from the militia , which was at that stage an organisation of some 265 @,@ 000 men organised into five infantry and two cavalry divisions .
Despite earlier derision , a number of Militia units went on to perform with distinction during the Pacific War , especially in 1942 , when they fought Japanese forces in New Guinea . As the situation in the Pacific worsened in July 1942 and the Japanese drove towards Port Moresby , members of the Militia found themselves on the front lines . As reinforcements were brought up from Australia , the Militia units that had been sent to New Guinea as garrison troops earlier in the war were called upon to fight a stubborn rearguard action on the Kokoda Track to delay the Japanese advance long enough for these reinforcements to arrive . At the same time , the Militia battalions of the 7th Brigade played a key role in the Battle of Milne Bay , when Australian and United States forces defeated the Japanese in a large @-@ scale battle for the first time during the war .
Later in the war , the Defence ( Citizen Military Forces ) Act 1943 was passed to change the law to allow the transfer of Militia units to the AIF if 65 percent or more of their personnel had volunteered for overseas service . Additionally , changes to the Act meant that Militia units were able to serve anywhere south of the Equator in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , excluding western Java and northern Borneo , and as a result of this , Militia units saw action against Japanese forces in the Dutch East Indies , at Merauke , later in the war . Despite this , the AIF remained the Australian Army 's main combat force during the war and indeed more than 200 @,@ 000 members of the Militia transferred to the AIF throughout the course of the conflict . Nevertheless , 32 Militia infantry battalions , later organised into three Militia divisions ( 3rd , 5th and 11th ) , saw service over much of the South West Pacific and participated in the following campaigns : Salamaua @-@ Lae , Huon Peninsula , Finisterre Range , New Britain and Bougainville .
= = = Post World War II to the Vietnam War = = =
Due to an overcommitment of resources early in the war , the Australian economy suffered badly from manpower shortages as early as 1942 . As a result , the government began the demobilisation process before the war was even over , and when it had finally come to an end , the government was necessarily very keen for the demobilisation process to be completed as quickly as possible . Understandably , defence issues were not given a high priority as people tried to rebuild their lives after the war and as such it was not until 1948 that the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) was reformed .
Subsequent reviews of defence policy and the strategic situation in South East Asia after the war had resulted in the formation of the Australian Regiment in 1948 , the first regular infantry unit of the Australian Army . From that time on as tension within the region increased the strength of the Regular Army increased rapidly in contrast to the CMF , signifying if not an end to Australian military planners ' reliance upon citizen soldiers , at least a shift in focus and a realisation of the mistakes that had been made prior to World War II . This would see the CMF providing a platform upon which the Army could mobilise in the event of a war . Initially , the plan had been for the CMF to be made up of 50 @,@ 000 men organised into two divisions and other units , however , recruitment was unable to meet these targets as initially it was attempted to achieve this through voluntary enlistment . Indeed , in its first year of existence , the actual strength of the CMF was only 8 @,@ 698 personnel , although this rose the following year to 16 @,@ 202 and to 32 @,@ 779 in 1950 . In March 1951 , a system of compulsory national service was re @-@ established .
The reintroduction of this conscription scheme saw the numbers of the CMF rise substantially but its management and administration required the allocation of a large number of resources and personnel from the Regular Army at a time when the army Regular Army already heavily committed in Korea and Malaya and so the scheme was suspended in 1959 . This was a significant blow to the CMF and its strength fell by more than half in that year to 20 @,@ 000 men . Further changes came with the introduction of the pentropic ( five battle group ) division into the Australian Army in 1960 . This proved a disaster for the CMF , as wholesale changes were made and units removed from the order of battle . Seven artillery regiments were disbanded from an original total of 17 , while 31 infantry battalions were reduced to 17 . This excluded the University Regiments and the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles which remained unchanged . The remaining battalions were later merged into just nine battalions . Meanwhile , the CMF armoured units had already been rationalised in 1957 and as a result the change to the pentropic structure mostly resulted in a change in role only , such as the 4th / 19th Prince of Wales 's Light Horse , which changed from an armoured unit to a reconnaissance regiment . The two CMF armoured brigade headquarters were also disbanded .
At the same time , it was decided to amalgamate old local and regional regiments that had existed into six new multi @-@ battalion state @-@ based regiments . While the pentropic system eventually fell by the wayside , these regiments have endured , maintaining the battle honours of the previously existing Militia units that had perpetuated the units of the AIF and serving as a valuable link to the traditions and service of earlier units . Nevertheless , many CMF soldiers felt that the introduction of these regiments reduced the Army 's links to the community due to the move away from the traditional regionally based system and as a result many of these soldiers chose to leave the organisation . In 1965 , as the pentropic system was abandoned , a further re @-@ organisation of the CMF was undertaken as existing battalions were reduced and additional battalions were raised in the more populous areas , namely in Queensland , Victoria and New South Wales . Concerns about the regional identity of these units were addressed by reintroducing the old numerical designations . In 1966 , the Army authorised the raising of six remote area battalions , one in each state . These units offered special conditions of service for men who could not meet their training requirements through normal attendance due to their occupation or place of residence . Ultimately though the Tasmanian battalion was never formed .
The subordinate relationship between the CMF and Regular Army was further underlined when the national service scheme was re @-@ introduced in 1965 , albeit in the guise of a selective ballot . Whereas previous incarnations of the system had not allowed for national servicemen to be sent overseas ( within various definitions of that term ) , the new scheme was implemented with the express purpose of sending these recruits overseas as Australia 's commitments in the region required a large @-@ scale increase in the Army . Additionally , instead of being used to fill the ranks of the CMF , the scheme was essentially used to expand the Regular Army . Due to the terms of service , national servicemen were required to serve two years full @-@ time in Regular Army units , after which they were required to serve a further three years in the CMF . Despite this , however , potential conscripts were given the option to voluntarily enlist in the CMF prior to their date of birth being announced , thus exempting them from being drafted for overseas service . Due to the desire of many to avoid being sent overseas , as a result of this option , it was estimated that by 1968 almost half of the 35 @,@ 000 men in the CMF had joined to avoid being drafted .
This led to a widespread public perception that the CMF was a refuge for " draft dodgers " , and to the creation of an organisation in which the majority of its members had little or no motivation to fulfil their training obligations . Although this was not a universal experience , overall it affected the morale of the CMF and , coupled with the decision by the government not to activate CMF units for service in Vietnam , this led to a decline in genuine voluntary enlistment . To a large extent also , the government 's decision to not use the CMF during this time highlighted the organisation 's increasing structural irrelevance , and questions about the role that the CMF had to play in the defence of Australia would remain until following the end of the Vietnam War . Meanwhile , the last CMF armoured regiment gave up its tanks in 1971 .
= = = Post Vietnam War to the new millennium = = =
When the Whitlam Government came to power in late 1972 , the CMF was in a very poor state . The new government moved quickly to end conscription , and this caused the CMF 's strength to fall by roughly 5 @,@ 000 to 23 @,@ 119 by June 1973 . In 1973 a committee of inquiry into the CMF was announced , under the chairmanship of Dr. T.B Millar and the subsequent report developed from this inquiry became known as the Millar Report . Far from being a vehicle of the Regular Army to denigrate the CMF as some opponents predicted , the report did much to highlight many of the conceptual and structural problems that the CMF was afflicted by at the time , however , the way in which the government chose to implement the recommendations , and indeed the way in which some of them were allowed to lapse , ultimately served to at least partially justify some of the cynicism voiced in certain CMF circles about the report .
The committee found that the CMF was a hollow shell of its former self , depleted in numbers and in equipment and unable to adequately fulfil its tasks . However , it still found that there was a role for the CMF to play in the strategic environment that existed at the time , although it would no longer be called upon to provide the base upon which mobilisation in a time of war would be built , instead it would be used to augment the Regular Army . This was the first step in creating the concept of a total force , in which the differing virtues of the citizen soldier and the regular soldier would be used to complement each other , and in this vein the Millar Report recommended that the name be changed from the CMF to the Australian Army Reserve .
Nevertheless , due to further cuts in defence spending and an eagerness of the government to implement those recommendations that could assist in achieving this goal , units that were unable to meet attendance requirements were disbanded or amalgamated with others , thus further diffusing the community links units had established in their local areas and thus further impacting upon recruitment and retention . Further , the decision was made to abolish the old CMF divisions , as the role of the Army Reserve would no longer be to act as a skeleton force that would be filled out upon mobilisation , but rather a force that could provide individual sub @-@ units of capability should the need arise to augment the Regular Army . Centralisation of training was also a result of the Millar Report ; beforehand , recruit training had been an ad hoc process managed mainly by the units themselves . Other issues such as pay and conditions of service , protection of civilian employment and recruitment and retention were touched upon but remained largely unaddressed until more recently .
Further reviews came in this time as Defence planners attempted to grapple with the questions regarding strategy following the wars of diplomacy of the previous three decades . The emergence of the Defence of Australia doctrine as the foundation upon which Australian defence policy would be based following Paul Dibb 's 1986 review of Australia 's defence capabilities seemed to provide the Reserves with a definite role . Nevertheless , there remained a reluctance to rebuild the Reserves and despite these major reviews , as late as the 1990s the Army still had not managed to develop a well @-@ structured reserve force , as it had continued to grapple with the competing demands of maintaining large @-@ scale general readiness over developing a ' hard core ' of capability within the Reserves that would be able to provide the Army with a nucleus force in times of national emergency .
In 1991 , in an attempt to rectify this , the Ready Reserve scheme was established . Under this scheme the 6th Brigade , an existing Regular brigade based in Brisbane at the time , was converted to a Ready Reserve formation . The majority of the personnel were Reservists who undertook a period of twelve months full @-@ time service before returning to normal Reserve status for a further four years . The scheme showed considerable promise . Nevertheless , due to cost constraints it was abolished in 1996 by the newly elected Howard government .
By the time that the opening phases of the East Timor operation began in 1999 , the issue regarding the purpose of the Army Reserve still had not been resolved . Instead of being able to provide formed units to augment the Regular Army , the Reserves was reduced to providing individuals for round @-@ out purposes only . As a result , in the initial phase of the operation there were only 100 Reservists available to fill positions in INTERFET , mostly in specialist roles that the Regular Army had trouble providing . As the deployment progressed to a second rotation in April 2000 , however , a further 630 Reservists volunteered for full @-@ time service .
The deployment to East Timor highlighted the limits of the Australian Defence Force and the need for an Army Reserve that could effectively provide deployable capabilities and individuals to round @-@ out to the Regular Army in times of heavy operational commitment . As such , in late 2000 the government did what many governments had toyed with since the formation of the citizen force almost a hundred years earlier : enacting legislation that enabled the call @-@ up of Reservists to full @-@ time service in circumstances that fell short of a full scale defence emergency , thereby allowing their deployment overseas , while also protecting their employment and providing remuneration to employers .
The continuing high operational tempo of the Army after East Timor further emphasised the need to develop the capability of the Army Reserve . Since then increasing numbers of Reservists have been deployed overseas in varying capacities as well as undertaking periods of full @-@ time service in Australia to maintain capabilities within Regular units heavily committed to deployments to Iraq , Afghanistan , East Timor and the Solomon Islands . In lower intensity areas , such as East Timor and the Solomon Islands , formed units of Reservists raised from personnel drawn from many units , have been deployed on peacekeeping duties to relieve the pressure being placed upon the Regular Army and allowing them to focus on the higher intensity combat zones in Iraq and Afghanistan . In addition to this Australian Army Reserve units have been deployed on border security duties with the Royal Australian Navy as part of Operation Relex , as well as participating regularly in multinational exercises such as Rifle Company Butterworth .
As such , the role of the Army Reserve now encompasses the ' 3 Rs ' — that is reinforcement , round @-@ out and rotation . With a total strength in 2005 – 06 of just 15 @,@ 579 active personnel , recruitment and retention remain an ongoing issue for Defence planners , nevertheless Reservists continue to have a high training obligation . Since September 2006 , in an incentive to rectify sliding retention rates , Reservist salaries have been streamlined with those of regular forces as a reflection of overall higher standard of training . This initiative shows that in recent decades , there are now many positions for which there is little training gap at all between Reservists and Permanent Force members . In 2008 – 09 total strength included 17 @,@ 064 active personnel . In addition there were another 12 @,@ 496 members of the Standby Reserve .
= = Current structure = =
= = = Components = = =
The Australian Army Reserve currently consists of the following components :
Standby Reserve
Active Reserve
These components are basically categories of service , which are determined by the level of training obligation and commitment that a member is required to meet .
= = = 2nd Division = = =
The majority of Australian Army Reserve units are under the command of the 2nd Division in six state based brigades , although with the establishment of the High Readiness Reserve there are now a number of " integrated " units that are essentially Regular Army units within 1st Division , that have either company or platoon @-@ sized Reserve sub @-@ units or have a large number of Reserve personnel in them serving alongside members of the Regular Army . There are also many Reservists serving on full @-@ time service within Regular Army units , performing the same roles and under the same pay and conditions as Regular soldiers . 2nd Division is currently made up of the following units :
4th Brigade – Victoria
Headquarters 4th Brigade
4th / 19th Prince of Wales 's Light Horse , Royal Australian Armoured Corps
5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment
8th / 7th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment
Melbourne University Regiment
2nd / 10th Medium Regiment , Royal Australian Artillery
22nd Engineer Regiment
108th Signals Squadron
4th Combat Service Support Battalion
5th Brigade – Southern New South Wales
Headquarters 5th Brigade
1st / 15th Royal New South Wales Lancers
1st / 19th Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment
4th / 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment
Sydney University Regiment
23rd Field Regiment , Royal Australian Artillery
5th Engineer Regiment
142nd Signals Squadron
5th Combat Service Support Battalion
8th Brigade – Northern and Central New South WalesHeadquarters 8th Brigade
12th / 16th Hunter River Lancers
2nd / 17th Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment
41st Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment
7th Field Regiment , Royal Australian Artillery
8th Engineer Regiment
155th Signals Squadron
8th Combat Service Support Battalion
University of New South Wales Regiment
9th Brigade – South Australia and Tasmania
Headquarters 9th Brigade
3rd / 9th Light Horse ( South Australian Mounted Rifles )
10th / 27th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment
12th / 40th Battalion , Royal Tasmania Regiment
Adelaide Universities Regiment ( AUR )
16th Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery
48th Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery
3rd Field Squadron , Royal Australian Engineers
144th Signals Squadron
9th Combat Service Support Battalion
11th Brigade – QueenslandHeadquarters 11th Brigade
9th Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment
25th / 49th Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment
31st / 42nd Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment
Queensland University Regiment
11th Engineer Regiment
141st Signals Squadron
11th Combat Services Support Battalion
13th Brigade – Western AustraliaHeadquarters 13th Brigade
A Squadron , 10th Light Horse Regiment
11th / 28th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment
16th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment
Western Australia University Regiment
7th Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery
13 Field Squadron , Royal Australian Engineers
109th Signals Squadron
13th Combat Services Support Battalion
= = = Other Reserve units = = =
The following units are reserve units within integrated ( mixed regular army and reserve ) formations :
6th Brigade51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment ( HQ at Cairns , Queensland )
NORFORCE ( HQ at Larrakeyah Barracks , NT )
Pilbara Regiment ( HQ at Taylor Barracks , WA )
17th Combat Service Support BrigadeC Company , 1st Military Police Battalion ( HQ at Derwent Barracks , Tasmania )
2nd Force Support Battalion ( HQ at Derwent Barracks , Tasmania )
3rd Health Support Battalion ( HQ at Keswick Barracks , SA )
Special Operations Command1st Commando Regiment ( HQ at Randwick Barracks , NSW )
= Maryland Senate =
The Maryland Senate , sometimes referred to as the Maryland State Senate , is the upper house of the General Assembly , the state legislature of the U.S. state of Maryland . Composed of 47 senators elected from an equal number of constituent single @-@ member districts , the Senate is responsible , along with the Maryland House of Delegates , for passage of laws in Maryland , and for confirming executive appointments made by the Governor of Maryland .
It evolved from the upper house of the colonial assembly created in 1650 when Maryland was a proprietary colony controlled by Cecilius Calvert . It consisted of the Governor and members of the Governor 's appointed council . With slight variation , the body to meet in that form until 1776 , when Maryland , now a state independent of British rule , passed a new constitution that created an electoral college to appoint members of the Senate . This electoral college was abolished in 1838 and members began to be directly elected from each county and Baltimore City . In 1972 , because of a Supreme Court decision , the number of districts was increased to 47 , and the districts were balanced by population rather than being geographically determined .
To serve in the Maryland Senate , a person must be a citizen of Maryland 25 years of age or older . Elections for the 47 Senate seats are held every four years coincident with the federal election in which the President of the United States is not elected . Vacancies are filled through appointment by the Governor . The Senate meets for three months every year ; the rest of the year the work of the Senate is light and most members hold another job during this time . It has been controlled by Democrats for a number of years . In the 2006 election , more than two @-@ thirds of the Senate seats were won by Democrats .
Senators elect a President to serve as presiding officer of the legislative body , as well as a President Pro Tempore . The President appoints chairs and membership of six standing committees , four legislative committees as well as the Executive Nominations and Rules Committees . When compared to other state legislatures in the United States , the Maryland Senate has one of the strongest presiding officers and some of the strongest committee chairs . Senators are also organized into caucuses , including party- and demographically @-@ based caucuses . They are assisted in their work by paid staff of the non @-@ partisan Department of Legislative Services and by partisan office staff .
= = History = =
The origins of the Maryland Senate lie in the creation of an assembly during the early days of the Maryland colony . This assembly first met in 1637 , making it the longest continuously operating legislative body in the United States . Originally , the assembly was unicameral , but in 1650 , the Governor and his appointed council began serving as the upper house of a now bicameral legislature . These appointees had close political and economic ties to the proprietors of the Maryland colony , Cecilius Calvert and his descendants . Thus , the upper house in colonial times often disagreed with the lower house , which was elected , tended to be more populist , and pushed for greater legislative power in the colony .
The upper house was briefly abolished during the English Civil War , as Puritan governors attempted to consolidate control and prevent the return of any proprietary influence . It was again abolished by Governor Josias Fendall in 1660 , who sought to create a colonial government based on an elected unicameral legislature like that of the Virginia colony . The position of Governor was removed from the legislature in 1675 , but for the following century , its function and powers largely remained the same .
In 1776 , following the signing of the Declaration of Independence and the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Maryland threw off proprietary control and established a new constitution . Under this new constitution , the upper house of the General Assembly first became known as the Maryland Senate . The new body consisted of fifteen Senators appointed to five @-@ year terms by an electoral college . The college , made up of two electors from each county and one each from the cities of Baltimore and Annapolis , was limited in its selections only by the stipulation that nine Senators need be from the western shore and six from the eastern shore .
The first election under the 1776 constitution took place in 1781 , and the system would not change again until 1838 . In the interim , a number of problems had cropped up in the appointment process , and the 1838 election saw the passage of a number of constitutional amendments that fundamentally changed how Senators were chosen . The electoral college was abolished , terms were lengthened to six years with rotating elections such that a third of the senate would be elected every two years , and a single Senator was chosen by direct election from each county and the City of Baltimore . The Senate no longer acted as the Governor 's Council , although they would continue to confirm the Governor 's appointments . Constitutional changes altered this new system slightly in 1851 , when terms were shortened to four years , and 1864 , when Baltimore City was given three Senate districts rather than one , but substantial change to the structure of the Senate did not come again until 1964 .
In 1964 , the Supreme Court ruled in Reynolds v. Sims that state legislative seats must be apportioned on the principle of one man , one vote . A number of state legislatures , including Maryland , had systems based on geography rather than population , and the court rules that this violated the 14th Amendment . Disproportionate population growth across Maryland since 1838 meant that the principle of one seat per county gave the voters of some counties , such as those on the eastern shore , disproportionate representation . Other counties , especially those in suburban areas , were underrepresented .
A special session of the legislature in 1965 changed the Senate to represent 16 districts and reapportioned the seats , again by county , but did so in such a way as to make the representation more proportional to population than it had been . Thus , the eastern shore , which had previously elected nine Senators , elected only four after 1965 . This was done to preserve the ideal of having whole counties represented by a single Senator , rather than breaking counties up into multiple districts . A constitutional amendment in 1972 expanded the Senate to 47 members , elected from districts proportional to the population . These districts are reapportioned every ten years based on the United States Census to ensure they remain proportional .
= = Powers and legislative process = =
The Maryland Senate , as the upper house of the bicameral Maryland General Assembly , shares with the Maryland House of Delegates the responsibility for making laws in the state of Maryland . Bills are often developed in the period between sessions of the General Assembly by the Senate 's standing committees or by individual Senators . They are then submitted by Senators to the Maryland Department of Legislative Services for drafting of legislative language . Between 2000 and 2005 , an average of 907 bills were introduced in the Senate annually during the three @-@ month legislative session . The bill is submitted , and receives the first of three constitutionally mandated readings on the floor of the Senate , before being assigned to a committee . The decision about whether legislation passes is often made in the committees . Committees can hold legislation and prevent it from reaching the Senate floor . The recommendations of committees on bills carry tremendous weight ; it is rare for the Senate as a whole to approve legislation that has received a negative committee report . Once a committee has weighed in on a piece of legislation , the bill returns to the floor for second hearing , called the " consideration of committee " report , and a third hearing , which happens just before the floor vote on it .
Once passed by the Senate , a bill is sent to the House of Delegates for consideration . If the House also approves the bill without amendment , it is sent to the Governor . If there is amendment , however , the Senate may either reconsider the bill with amendments or ask for the establishment of a conference committee to work out differences in the versions of the bill passed by each chamber . Once a piece of legislation approved by both houses is forwarded to the Governor , it may either be signed or vetoed . If it is signed , it takes effect on the effective date of the legislation , usually October 1 of that year . If it is vetoed , both the Senate and the House of Delegates must vote by a three @-@ fifths majority to overturn the veto . They may not , however , overturn a veto in the first year of a new term , since the bill would have been passed during the previous session . Additionally , joint resolutions and the budget bill may not be vetoed , although the General Assembly is constitutionally limited in the extent to which it may influence the latter ; it may only decrease the Governor 's budget proposal , not increase it .
Unlike the House of Delegates , the Senate has the sole responsibility in the state 's legislative branch for confirming gubernatorial appointees to positions that require confirmation . After the Governor forwards his nomination to the Senate , the Executive Nominations Committee reviews the nominee and makes a recommendation for confirmation or rejection to the Senate as a whole . Only one gubernatorial nominee in recent history has been rejected ; Lynn Buhl , nominated as Maryland Secretary of the Environment by Governor Robert Ehrlich , was rejected over concerns about her qualifications . The Senate also has sole responsibility for trying any persons that have been impeached by the House of Delegates . They must be sworn in before such a trial takes place , and a two @-@ thirds majority is required for conviction of the impeached person .
= = Composition = =
= = Organization = =
Maryland 's Senate consists of Senators elected from 47 Senate districts . While each Senator has the power to introduce and vote on bills and make motions on the floor , various committees , caucuses , and leadership positions help to organize the work of the Senate . Senators elect a President of the Senate , who serves as the presiding officer of the chamber . They also elect a President Pro Tempore , who presides over the chamber when the President is absent . The President of the Maryland Senate has significant influence over legislation that passes through the body through both formal means , such as his ability to appoint committee chairs and leaders of the majority party , and informal means that are less easily defined . These powers place the President of the Maryland Senate among the strongest state legislature presiding officers in the country .
Once legislation is introduced , it is passed to one of the standing committees of the Senate . There are six such committees . As a whole , the Maryland General Assembly has fewer standing committees than any other state legislature in the United States . Each committee has between 10 and 15 members . Four of the standing committees deal primarily with legislation ; the Budget and Taxation Committee , the Education , Health , and Environmental Affairs Committee , the Finance Committee , and the Judicial Proceedings Committee . The Chairs of these legislative committees have the power to determine whether their committees will hear a bill , and they therefore have significant influence over legislation . The Executive Nominations Committee manages the Senate 's responsibility to confirm gubernatorial appointments and makes recommendations of approval and disapproval to the body as a whole . Lastly , the Rules Committee sets the rules and procedures of the body . It also has the power to review legislation that has been introduced by a member of the Senate after the deadline for submission , and decide whether to refer it to a standing committee or let it die . Along with serving on the Senate committees , members of the Senate also serve on a number of joint committees with members of the House of Delegates .
While the committees are established by formal Senate rules , there are a number of caucuses that exercise significant influence over the legislative process . The most powerful of these are the Democratic Caucus and the Republican Caucus , each of which has a leader and a whip , referred to as a majority and minority leader and whip . As Democrats currently control a majority of seats in the Senate , their leader is referred to as the Majority Leader , and their caucus is able to influence legislation to a greater extent than the Republican caucus . The Majority Leader and Minority leader are responsible for managing their party 's participation in debate on the floor . Party caucuses also raise and distribute campaign money to assist their candidates . The Legislative Black Caucus of Maryland and Women Legislators of Maryland , caucuses of African @-@ American and female Senators respectively , also play prominent roles in the Senate .
Professional services for members of the Senate and the House of Delegates are provided by the Department of Legislative Services , which is non @-@ partisan . Individual members are also assisted by partisan staff members , and those in leadership positions have additional partisan staff . These staff members help to manage the offices of the Senators in the Miller Senate Office Building . Each Senator has one year @-@ round administrative assistant , as well as a secretary who assists them during the legislative session . There is also an allowance given to help pay for district offices .
= = Membership = =
= = = Qualifications = = =
To be eligible to run for the Maryland Senate , a person must be a citizen and be at least 25 years old . They must also have lived in the state for at least one year , and must have lived in the district in which they are to run for at least six months , assuming the district has existed with its current boundaries for at least that long . No elected or appointed official of the United States government , including the military , may serve in the Senate , excluding those serving in the military reserves and National Guard . Similarly , no employees of the state government may serve , except for law enforcement officers , firefighters , and rescue workers .
= = = Elections and vacancies = = =
Members of the Maryland Senate are elected every four years , in off @-@ year elections in the middle of terms for Presidents of the United States . Party nominations are determined by primary elections . The general election for Senate seats and all other state and federal elections in the normal cycle is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November . Should a Senate seat become vacant in the middle of a term , because of death , illness , incapacitation , disqualification , resignation , or expulsion of a member of the Senate , that seat is filled by appointment . The Central Committee of the previous Senator 's party in the county or counties in which the Senate district lies makes a recommendation to the Governor on whom to appoint to the seat . Within fifteen days of the Central Committee 's recommendation being selected , the Governor must appoint that person to the vacant seat .
The 47 districts from which Senators are elected are apportioned every ten years on the basis of population . Maryland 's constitution explicitly defines the process for the drawing of these districts , requiring that the Governor make a recommendation of a new electoral map and submit it for legislative approval . As of 2005 , there were approximately 112 @,@ 000 people in each district . Each Senate district also elects three Delegates , and incumbent Senators and Delegates will often run jointly as members of incumbent slates in their districts . It is rare , however , for an incumbent to be challenged .
= = = Salaries and benefits = = =
As of the 2006 – 2010 term , most of Maryland 's Senators and Delegates receive $ 43 @,@ 500 in annual pay while presiding officers earn $ 56 @,@ 500 . This pay , relatively low for a state legislator , reflects the part @-@ time nature of the body , which only meets three months out of the year . Most members of the Senate hold additional jobs during the remainder of the year . Senators can also seek reimbursement for expenses related to meals and lodging during the legislative session , and for certain travel expenses related to their duties at any point during the year . They also have access to benefits received by state employees , including health and life insurance as well as retirement savings plans . Maryland has a voluntary legislator pension plan to which both Senators and Delegates have access . Besides receiving their own benefits , Senators can award up to $ 138 @,@ 000 each year in scholarships to students of their choosing if those students meet requirements set by Senate rules .
= = = Current makeup = = =
As of November 2015 , a majority of seats in the Maryland Senate are held by members of the Democratic Party , with 33 Democrats and 14 Republicans , greater than a two @-@ thirds majority . This dominance is nothing new , as Democrats have had strong majorities in the chamber for decades . Democrats tend to control seats in the large population centers such as Baltimore City , Montgomery County , and Prince George 's County , while Republicans control most seats on the Eastern Shore and in western Maryland . The chamber has
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also had significant numbers of women and African @-@ Americans serve , with women averaging around 30 % of the seats and African @-@ Americans around 20 % .
= = = Leadership = = =
As of 2009 , Thomas V. Mike Miller , Jr. was serving his fifth term as President of the Senate . Nathaniel J. McFadden , from the 45th district in Baltimore , is the President Pro Tempore . The Democratic caucus is led by Catherine E. Pugh , the majority leader , and Lisa A. Gladden , the majority whip . J. B. Jennings serves as minority leader .
= = Rules and procedures = =
Many rules and procedures in the Maryland Senate are set by the state constitution . Beyond the constitutional mandates , rules in the Senate are developed by the Rules Committee . The Senate and House of Delegates both meet for ninety days following the second Wednesday in January , although these sessions may be extended for up to thirty days by majority votes in both houses , and special sessions may be called by the Governor . The Senate meets in the Senate Chamber of the Maryland State House , which has both gallery seating and a door open to the State House lobby , the latter being mandated by the state constitution . Seating in the Senate is by party , with the leaders of each party choosing the exact seating assignments . Each Senator has offices in Annapolis , in the Miller Senate Office Building .
A typical session of the Senate begins with a call to order by the President of the Senate . After the call to order , the previous day 's journal is approved , petitions are heard , and orders involving committee and leadership appointments or changes to the rules are presented . First , readings of legislation take place . Senators are then given leeway to introduce any visitors , often people observing its deliberations from the gallery above the Senate chamber . Then the Senators consider legislation . They begin with unfinished business from the previous session , then consider legislation and special orders with accompanying reports from committees . At the discretion of the presiding officer , the Senate may adjourn at any time , unless a majority of members present object to adjournment .
Lobbying is common in Annapolis ; there are more than 700 lobbyists registered with the state . While lobbyists may spend freely on advocacy , they are limited in gifts to legislators and in their ability to contribute to campaigns . Ethics issues related to lobbyists and other matters are handled by the Joint Committee on Legislative Ethics , a twelve @-@ member committee that includes six Senators . Members of the Senate may turn to either this committee or an ethics counsel to help them resolve questions of potential ethical conflict . Members are encouraged to avoid conflicts of interest , and are required to submit public financial disclosures to the state . In addition to employment prohibitions laid out in the state constitution , members are barred from advocating for any paying client before any part of the state government .
= Mantled guereza =
The mantled guereza ( Colobus guereza ) , also known simply as the guereza , the eastern black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , or the Abyssinian black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , is a black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , a type of Old World monkey . It is native to much of west central and east Africa , including Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , Nigeria , Ethiopia , Kenya , Tanzania , Uganda and Chad . The species consists of several subspecies that differ in appearance . It has a distinctive appearance , which is alluded to in its name ; the long white fringes of hair the run along each side of its black trunk are known as a mantle . Its face is framed with white hair and it has a large white tail tuft .
The mantled guereza is diurnal and arboreal , found in both deciduous and evergreen forests . It is an adaptable species that can cope with habitat disturbance and prefers secondary forest close to rivers or lakes . Although previously thought only to eat leaves , it also eats seeds , fruits , and arthropods . It is able to digest plant material with a high fibre content with its specialised stomach and may only eat from a few plant species at a time . It is preyed on by birds of prey and some mammals , such as the common chimpanzee and the leopard .
The mantled guereza lives in social groups of three to fifteen individuals . These groups normally include a dominant male , several females , and the offspring of the females . It has a polygynous mating system and copulation is initiated with vocal communication . After a gestation period of just over five months , infants are born with pink skin and white fur , which darkens to the adult coloration by three to four months . The mantled guereza is well known for its dawn chorus , the males ' " roar " is a method of long distance communication that reinforces territorial boundaries . It also makes other vocalization and uses body postures , movements , and facial expressions to communicate .
The mantled guereza is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) because it is widespread - although it is locally threatened in some areas , the decline is not great enough to list it in a higher category of threat . However , one subspecies found in Kenya is listed as Endangered . It can survive well in degraded forests and in some areas it is more common in logged areas than unlogged ones . The mantled guereza is also threatened by hunting for bushmeat and for its skin .
= = Etymology = =
The mantled guereza has many alternative common names including the guereza , the eastern black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , the magistrate colobus , or the Abyssinian black @-@ and @-@ white colobus . The name " mantled " refers to its mantle , the long silky white fringes of hair that run along its body and " guereza " is the native name of the monkey in Ethiopia . The scientific name Colobus derives from Greek kolobus meaning " mutilated " which refers to its lack of thumbs .
= = Discovery and taxonomic classification = =
The mantled guereza was discovered by Eduard Rüppell , a German naturalist and explorer , during his trip to Abyssinia between 1830 and 1834 . He wrote about the species in Neue Wirbelthiere con Abyssinien , Saengthiere in 1835 . It was first seen in Europe in 1890 in Berlin Zoological Garden when three individuals were purchased from a dealer from Massawa , Eritrea .
The mantled guereza is in the Colobinae subfamily , also known as the leaf @-@ eating monkeys , a group of Old World monkeys from Asia and Africa . This subfamily is split into three groups , the colobus monkeys of Africa , of which the mantled guereza is a part , the langurs , or leaf monkeys , of Asia , and an " odd @-@ nosed " group . The African colobus monkeys are divided again by distinctions in color , behavior , and ecology . The three genera are the black @-@ and @-@ white colobi , the red colobi , and the olive colobi . There are three black @-@ and @-@ white colobi : the mantled guereza , Colobus guereza , the king colobus , C. polykomos , and the Angola colobus , C. angolensis . Groves lists seven subspecies of mantled guereza in Mammal Species of the World ( MSW ) ( 2005 ) . The validity of the Djaffa Mountain guereza , C. g. gallarum , is uncertain , although not listed by Groves in MSW , it is recognised in his 2007 Colobinae review paper , and by International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) assessors Gippolliti and Butynski in 2008 .
Western guereza , Colobus guereza occidentalis , occurs from eastern Nigeria , Cameroon , and Gabon at the edge of its western range to South Sudan and Uganda , west of the Nile .
Omo River guereza , C. g. guereza , found in Ethiopia , in the highlands west of the Rift Valley down to the reaches of the Awash River , the Omo River , and in the Blue Nile gorge .
Djaffa Mountains guereza or Neumann 's black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , C. g. gallarum , found in the Ethiopian Highlands east of the Rift Valley .
Dodinga Hills guereza , C. g. dodingae , found in the Didinga Hills in South Sudan .
Mau Forest guereza , C. g. matschiei , occurs from western Kenya and Uganda south into northern Tanzania .
Mt Uaraguess guereza or Percival 's black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , C. g. percivali , found in the Matthews Range in Kenya .
Eastern black @-@ and @-@ white colobus , C. g. kikuyuensis , occurs in Kenya on the Ngong Escarpment of Mount Kenya and in the Aberdare Range .
Kilimanjaro guereza , C. g. caudatus , found in Tanzania and Kenya in the forests surrounding Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru .
The morphological difference between subspecies is most pronounced between the southeastern Kilimanjaro guereza , C. g. caudatus , and the northwestern western guereza , C. g. occidentalis . The intermediate subspecies show a gradual change between the two .
= = Physical description = =
The mantled guereza has a distinctive pelage , it is mostly black , with long white fringes of silky hair — known as a mantle or ornamentation — along the sides of its body and tail . The bands that make up the mantle start at the shoulders and extend along the back until they connect at the lower torso . The tail is long and ends in a white tuft which varies in how much it covers the tail . These features vary in color among subspecies , for example the tail of C. g. guereza is gray until the white tail tuft which covers half of its length , while the tail tuft of C. g. caudatus makes up 80 % of the tail . The mantle color ranges from white to cream or yellow . Its face is framed by white hair and it has bushy cheek hairs . The thigh has a white stripe .
Infants are born with pink skin and white hair . The hair and skin darken as they age and by three to four months they attain adult coloration . Male usually gain their coloration before females . The male typically weighs 9 @.@ 3 and 13 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 21 and 30 lb ) and the female weighs between 7 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 17 and 20 lb ) . The head and body length averages 61 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 24 @.@ 2 in ) for males and 57 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 22 @.@ 7 in ) for females . Like most colobi , the mantled guereza has a small thumb that is vestigial . There is dentition sexual dimorphism among the subspecies . In some , the males have larger teeth than females , in others the reverse is true , and some have no significant difference .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The mantled guereza is distributed throughout Equatorial Africa . It ranges from Nigeria and Cameroon in the west to Ethiopia , Kenya , Uganda , and northern Tanzania in the east . The mantled guereza lives in both deciduous and evergreen forests . It mainly inhabits forest and savannah woodlands and often extend into highland and montane forests . It can be found in other forest habitats , both primary and secondary , such as riparian ( near fresh or brackish water ) , gallery , and upland forests . It is particularly common in forests close to rivers and lakes and at high elevations . It can be found in elevations as high as 3 @,@ 300 metres ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) . This species prefers secondary forests and selects them over old @-@ growth forests if given the choice . It is likely that the mantled guereza prefers these forests due to the increased number of food trees and the weaker chemical defenses of the species within . The mantled guereza is sometimes found in swamps as well as human @-@ made habitats such as Eucalyptus plantations , which may be frequented when the monkey has nutritional deficiencies .
= = Ecology = =
The mantled guereza is primarily arboreal , but does sometimes descend on the ground to forage and travel , perhaps more so than most other colobines . It is diurnal and rests for up to half the day . Foraging or travelling are the next most common activity . Sometime after dawn , mantled guereza groups leave their sleeping trees and will return to them at dusk . During the day , the mantled guereza has long rest periods in between periods of moving and feeding . Other activities , including grooming , greeting , playing and being vigilant , are performed to a lesser extent .
Despite its reputation as an exclusive leaf @-@ eater , the mantled guereza is not an obligate folivore . While it mainly eats leaves and fruit , its diet is quite variable . It may eat bark , wood , seeds , flowers , petioles , lianas , aquatic @-@ plants , arthropods , soil , and even concrete from buildings . The amount of each food item in its diet varies by area and time of year . Nutritional factors like protein , tannins , and sodium levels in leaves influence its food choices . It may even intermittently travel longer distances to access plants with higher levels of nutrition . Leaves usually make up over half of its diet , although fruits are occasionally eaten more depending on the season . When foraging for leaves , the mantled guereza prefers young ones over old . With fleshy fruits , the mantled guereza prefers to eat them unripe , which may serve to reduce competition with primates that eat ripe fruits . It consumes a number of plant species but only some make up most of its diet at a specific site .
Like all colobi , the mantled guereza is able to digest leaves and other plant fibers with a large , multi @-@ chambered stomach that contains bacteria in certain areas . Like most colobines , it prefers foods with high fiber content that can be easily extracted with its specialized stomach . The mantled guereza is mostly preyed on by the crowned hawk @-@ eagle , but it is also eaten by other birds of prey such as Verreaux 's eagle . The common chimpanzee is known to hunt the guereza . The leopard is another possible predator .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The mantled guereza lives in stable social groups usually containing three to fifteen members . The groups usually contain one male , several females and juveniles . In some populations , groups containing several males are common . In multi @-@ male groups , males tend to be aggressive with one another with one being dominant . Some males may be expelled from these groups . Multi @-@ male groups may contain father @-@ son pairs or unrelated males . Males that are not part of groups either live solitarily or with other outside males in bachelor groups . The females keep the groups cohesive and they are matrilineally related . They rarely disperse from their natal groups , except possibly when they break apart . Males on the other hand , usually leave when they become subadults or adults . They may start out being solitary and or in bachelor groups . They gain entry into a social group either by being on the periphery or displacing a group male .
Because of its low quality diet and the dispersed distribution of its food , the mantled guereza has a resident @-@ egalitarian social structure . Female guerezas living in a group often have an egalitarian dominance style with no formalized rank relations . Relationships are relaxed and friendly with rare signals of dominance or subordinance . Physical aggression within the group is usually not harmful and rarely escalates into a conflict . Allogrooming is an important part of mantled guereza interactions and mostly occurs between females . The adult males rarely groom in the groups . While not strictly territorial , mantled guereza groups can be aggressive towards each other . In some populations , groups may defend core areas ( which exist as a small part of the home range ) , resources , and mates . During intergroup encounters , males can engage in direct or indirect mate defense , like defending a female 's resources . It is the males that participate in agonistic inter @-@ group encounters but female may do so as well . Aggressive encounters between groups usually involve chases , displays and vocalizations rather than physical contact .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
The mantled guereza has a polygynous harem @-@ based mating system . Mating solicitations are made by both males and females , half of the time for each . To solicit mating , the mantled guereza will walk near its potential partner and make low @-@ intensity mouth clicks or tough @-@ smacks . During copulation , the males hold on the female 's ankles and body . Most matings take place between individuals of the same group but copulations outside of the group have been recorded . In multi @-@ male groups , more than one male may mate with the females . The gestation period lasts 158 days with a 16 @-@ 22 month interbirth interval . The newborn guereza relies on its mother for support and must cling to her . As they grow older , infants can move on their own but keep returning to their mothers . The infants take up most of the attention in the groups . The other females in a group may handle an infant although the latter are only comfortable with their mothers . The males normally don 't pay much attention to infants until they are four to five weeks old . Infants can eat solid food at about eight to nine weeks and by fifty weeks they are fully weaned and no longer need to hold on to their mothers .
= = = Communication = = =
The most notable vocalization of the mantled guereza is the " roar " , which is made mainly at night or dawn by males . The sound of a roar can be carried for up to a mile . It is normally the dominant male who roars when there are multiple males in the group . Roars are used for long distance communication and can regulate inter @-@ group spacing without direct , physical contact while foraging . When one male starts roaring , neighboring males will start to roar as well . Often , the mantled guereza will respond to calls regardless of " caller identity , " focusing more on the collective vocal displays and not the familiarity of the caller . There is variation in the roars of males which could signal the status of their group and fighting ability . With a roar , a male can advertise his body size ; both actual and exaggerated . Other vocalizations are made as well . Males may snort , possibly as an alarm call . " Purrs " are made before group movements . Females and infants may " caw " when under mild distress . When in more serious distress , like if an infant is in danger , females and sub @-@ adults will squeak or scream . " Tongue @-@ clicking " is made during mild aggression . In addition to vocalizations , the mantled guereza communicates with several different body postures and movements , displaying of fringe fur , facial expressions , and touches .
= = Conservation status = =
Because it can live in both dry and gallery forests and move on the ground , the mantled guereza is less threatened than many other colobine species . The IUCN lists it as Least Concern because " although locally threatened in parts of its range , this widespread species is not thought to be declining fast enough to place it in a higher category of threat . " However , some of the subspecies are classified under different categories . The Mt Uaraguess guereza , C. g. percivali , is listed as Endangered due to its small range and its risk from hunting , while the Dodinga Hills guereza , C. g. dodingae , the Djaffa Mountains guereza , C. g. gallarum , and the Mau Forest guereza , C. g. matschiei are all listed as Data Deficient .
The Dodinga Hills guereza hasn 't been recorded since the 1960s . Unlike most other primate species , the mantled guereza can survive habitat degradation and can even thrive in degraded forests . Sometimes , logging may increase the number of preferred food trees for the mantled guereza and it is more abundant in logged areas than unlogged ones . However , complete forest clearance causes dramatic declines in numbers . In Uganda complete forest clearings caused a decline of 50 % over eight years . The mantled guereza is also threatened by hunting for meat and its skin . Mantled guereza meat sells as bushmeat for $ 4 – 9 US . The skins have been sold for fashion or in the tourist trade .
= Homerpalooza =
" Homerpalooza " is the 24th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 1996 . The plot focuses around Homer 's depression about aging and no longer being cool , and his quest to become cool again by joining the " Hullabalooza " music festival as a carnival freak . The episode title is a play on the Lollapalooza music festival . It was the last Simpsons episode written by Brent Forrester and the last episode directed by Wes Archer . Peter Frampton and musical groups The Smashing Pumpkins , Cypress Hill and Sonic Youth guest star as themselves .
= = Plot = =
After the school bus is destroyed at the auto wrecking yard , Homer is forced to drive his ( and other ) kids to school . Along the way , he listens to a classic rock radio station that plays " Shinin ' On " by Grand Funk Railroad and is shocked to discover that all of the kids hate it , and have never heard of them . After several more days of the kids hating his music ( which Bart calls " dinosaur bands " ) , Homer visits a music store and realizes that what he likes is no longer considered cool . As a result , Homer decides to take Bart and Lisa to the Hullabalooza music festival . At the festival , Homer tries to act cool by wearing a Rastafarian hat , but all he does is humiliate himself and is confronted by an angry crowd of Generation Xers who mistake him for a narc . After being tossed out by the crowd , Homer angrily kicks a cannon , which shoots one of Peter Frampton 's inflatable pigs ( purchased at " Pink Floyd 's yard sale " ) at his stomach . The festival head is impressed and Homer is hired as a part of the festival 's freak show .
As a result , Homer gets to go on tour with the festival and hangs out with The Smashing Pumpkins , Cypress Hill and Sonic Youth . Homer suddenly finds himself living the high life : partying with big name rock stars and becoming respected among American youth , including Bart. As the tour approaches a stop in Springfield , Homer 's stomach begins to hurt and he is sent to a veterinarian . The veterinarian advises Homer that if he performs his act one more time , his stomach will burst and he will die . Homer shrugs this news off , not wanting to lose his popularity . At first he decides to do his job , but at the last second he loses his nerve and dodges the cannonball . Consequently , he is released from the festival and , despite a warm sendoff from the rock stars , goes back to not being respected by his children .
= = Production = =
The entire story of this episode was developed by David Cohen , although it was written by Brent Forrester , who felt that Cohen at least deserved a " story by " credit . To do research for this episode , Forrester went to one of the Lollapalooza concerts , which he thought would be a fun little perk , but ended up being a horrible experience . Several of the jokes in this episode are based on his experiences : cameras ( including his own ) were being seized and thrown in the garbage , there were numerous advertisements , several " sour faced teens " , a real freak show ( Jim Rose Circus ) , and at one point a stranger approached Forrester and asked " how 's it going , narc ? "
During Homer 's confrontation with the Hullabalooza crowd , there is a brief shot of Homer with the members of the musical group No Doubt behind him . Gwen Stefani 's brother Eric Stefani , who himself had been a member of the band , was working as an animator at The Simpsons at the time and added them in .
= = = Casting = = =
The writers were aiming to have artists that represented several genres : hip hop ( Cypress Hill ) , alternative rock ( Sonic Youth , Smashing Pumpkins ) and a classic rock singer . Originally , Bob Dylan was sought for this role , but he was replaced by Peter Frampton . Neil Young and Pearl Jam were also sought for the episode but turned down the offer .
Originally , Courtney Love and Hole were wanted for this episode , but they declined . According to the DVD commentary an unnamed group had said that if Courtney Love were in the episode , they would not be . An Entertainment Weekly article revealed that the group was Sonic Youth . It was thought that Love would appear in the episode because she had recently done a movie with James L. Brooks , but she never responded to the request . Love was wanted specifically for one joke which would be in an exchange between her and Homer :
Courtney Love : Hi Homer ! I 'm a big fan , Courtney Love.Homer : Homer Grateful !
However , she did not appear and the joke was reworded for Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins :
Billy Corgan : Billy Corgan , Smashing Pumpkins.Homer : Homer Simpson , smiling politely .
= = Cultural references = =
The flashback where Homer meets the guys in the van is based on Dazed and Confused . Several of the scenes where Homer is hit with a cannonball are based on famous stock footage of Frank " Cannonball " Richards being hit with a cannonball . Otto 's drug @-@ induced hallucination of his " talking shoes " are based on the opening of the album version of the song " 1999 " by Prince . Homer 's walk in one scene parodies the walk in the Keep on Truckin ' comic that was drawn by Robert Crumb .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Music in this episode :
" Shinin ' On " by Grand Funk Railroad
" Mississippi Queen " by Mountain
" Zero " by The Smashing Pumpkins
" You Make Me Feel Like Dancing " by Leo Sayer ( sung by Homer & Barney )
" Do You Feel Like We Do " by Peter Frampton
" Insane in the Brain " by Cypress Hill
" Throw Your Set In The Air " by Cypress Hill
" Frankenstein " by the Edgar Winter Group
Sonic Youth plays their version of the theme over the end credits
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homerpalooza " finished 57th in ratings for the week of May 13 – 19 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and Married ... with Children .
The BBC website called the episode " One of the most memorable episodes , if not one of the greatest – the satire on youth counterculture is well handled , and Homer 's flashback to his youth is fabulous . " and IGN said the episode was one of the best of Season 7 . In a list of the 25 greatest guest voices on the show , released September 5 , 2006 , IGN.com ranked the Hullabalooza performers 23rd . The noise rock version of the end credits performed by Sonic Youth has been ranked among the best versions of the theme by Matt Groening and also by Chris Turner in his book Planet Simpson . Bill Oakley has said that Peter Frampton is one of his favorite guest stars and he wished he could have done a TV show with him . Alternatively , the Rover Hendrix act break joke has been called one of the worst jokes in Simpsons history by the writers and producers . In 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed the Smashing Pumpkins ' and Cypress Hill 's performances among the 33 funniest cameos in the history of the show . Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named Cypress Hill his sixth @-@ favorite musical guests on The Simpsons out of a list of ten .
= Sublingua =
The sublingua ( " under @-@ tongue " ) is a muscular secondary tongue found below the primary tongue in tarsiers and living strepsirrhine primates , which includes lemurs and lorisoids ( collectively called " lemuriforms " ) . Although it is most fully developed in these primates , similar structures can be found in some other mammals , such as marsupials , treeshrews , and colugos . This " second tongue " lacks taste buds , and in lemuriforms , it is thought to be used to remove hair and other debris from the toothcomb , a specialized dental structure used to comb the fur during oral grooming .
A rigid structure called the plica mediana or lytta runs from the front to the back , down the center of the sublingua to give it support . The plica mediana is usually made of cartilage and attaches the sublingua to the underside of the tongue . In lemuriforms , the sublingua mostly consists of two plicae fimbriatae ( singular : plica fimbriata ) , which run along the sides of the plica mediana and end in comb @-@ like serrated edges that are hardened with keratin . The plicae fimbriatae move freely over a limited range . The plica sublingualis , which is found in all primates , but is particularly small in lemuriforms , attaches the tongue and sublingua to the floor of the mouth . Tarsiers have a large but highly generalized sublingua , but their closest living relatives , monkeys and apes , lack one .
The sublingua is thought to have evolved from specialized folds of tissue below the tongue , which can be seen in some marsupials and other mammals . Simians do not have a sublingua , but the fimbria linguae found on the underside of ape tongues may be a vestigial version of the sublingua . Because of widely variable appearance of sublingual tissue in primates , the term " sublingua " is often confused with the frenal lamella , lingual frenulum , and other sublingual tissues .
= = Anatomical structure = =
The sublingua , or " under @-@ tongue " , is a secondary tongue located below the primary tongue in tarsiers , lemuriform primates , and some other mammals . This structure does not have taste buds or salivary glands . In lemuriforms , the sublingua is relatively large and its front edge is usually lined with keratinized serrations ( sometimes called " denticles " ) .
Down the middle of the sublingua is a thick strengthening rod called the plica mediana or lytta , which connects the sublingua to the underside of the tongue , and is part of the lingual septum ( septum of the tongue ) . The thickness and size of the plica mediana can vary between species , and except in treeshrews , it is cartilaginous and provides support for the sublingua .
Only the serrated and often keratinized tip of the sublingua is free to move small distances along the underside of the tongue , while the majority of its length adheres to the underside of the tongue . These free @-@ moving folds or filaments are called the plica fimbriata and attach to the base of the sublingua and are supported at the midline by the plica mediana . The plica fimbriata is highly developed and specialized in lemurs , and makes up the majority of the sublingua .
The fold that connects the back of the sublingua and tongue to the rear floor of the mouth is called the plica sublingualis . In lemurs , this is an underdeveloped structure consisting of only a tiny outgrowth on the floor of the mouth . The point where the plica sublingualis attaches to the rear floor of the mouth marks the location of the submandibular salivary glands .
= = = Differences between species = = =
In the aye @-@ aye , the sublingua is not shaped like a brush like it is in most lemurs . Instead , there is a thickened area along the plica mediana or lytta which has a hook @-@ shaped structure on the end . Within cheirogaleids , the sublingua lacks cartilage , and the sublingua of the gray mouse lemur has a distinct plica mediana and ends in two lobe @-@ like projections that lack keratinized serrations , but have three keratinized ridges which make the sublingua rigid .
In tarsiers , the sublingua does not have serrations along its tip and is much simpler and generalized in structure , making it clearly distinguishable from that of the lemuriform primates . The tarsier has a distinct plica mediana and its plicae fimbriatae are large and stick to the entire underside of the tongue . The plica sublingualis is also prominent .
Marsupials such as opossums and the common brushtail possum have also developed noticeable sublingua with a plica mediana and a less specialized , but conspicuous , plica fimbriata .
= = Function = =
Originally , the sublingua in lemurs was thought to be a vestigial organ inherited from their mammalian ancestors . In lemuriform primates , the sublingua is used to remove hair and debris from the highly specialized toothcomb , an arrangement of four or six long , forward @-@ facing teeth in the lower jaw used in oral grooming . The toothcomb of lemuriforms consists of both incisors and canine teeth ( which reinforce the incisors ) , and together , these finely spaced teeth act like teeth on a comb . Although the cleaning function has been suspected for nearly a century , there has been no clear confirmation of this . However , a study from 1941 presented evidence that the toothcomb accumulated a mat of hair during oral grooming , and the author did observe that lemurs extend and retract their tongue rapidly , possibly to use the sublingua to clean the toothcomb .
In the aye @-@ aye , which has replaced the toothcomb by evolving continually growing , rodent @-@ like incisors , the hook @-@ shaped tip of the sublingua fits precisely within the gap between the two lower incisors and keeps the area clean . Tarsiers lack a toothcomb , which may explain why their sublingua lacks the serrations typically found on the sublingua of lemuriforms . Although colugos also have a toothcomb , consisting of serrated edges on the tips of their incisors instead of finely spaced , elongated teeth , they do not have a sublingua . Instead , their toothcomb is cleaned by the tongue , which has serrated edges at the front that match the serrations on the incisors .
= = Evolution and development = =
The sublingua in lemuriform primates and tarsiers may have evolved from the specialized folds of tissue below that tongue , as seen in some marsupials , such as sugar gliders , as well as some embryonic eutherian mammals , such as whales and dogs . It is also found in some adult eutherian mammals , such as treeshrews , colugos , and rodents . The sublingua of treeshrews , close relatives of primates , is less developed than in lemuriforms and tarsiers , but suggests a phylogenetic relationship .
The sublingua in lemuriform primates is fully developed and particularly unique . Tarsiers , which are most closely related to monkeys and apes ( collectively called simians ) , also have a well @-@ developed but non @-@ specialized sublingua . Simians , however , do not have a sublingua , although some , such as titis have a highly specialized frenal lamella ( plica sublingualis ) . All primates have a plica sublingualis , and the fimbria linguae ( plica fimbriata ) found under the tongue of apes may be a vestigial version , although that is still disputed . The structure and appearance of the sublingua , frenal lamella , lingual frenulum , and other sublingual tissue vary greatly between primates , and as a result , their terminology is often confused .
In the species that have cartilage in the sublingua or lytta , that cartilage is not derived from the hyoid bone or hyoid arch ( the bone and cartilage that supports the tongue ) . Instead , the cartilage of the sublingua is a separately developed structure specifically adapted to support the sublingua .
= Nimrod ( album ) =
Nimrod ( stylized as nimrod . ) is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band Green Day , released on October 14 , 1997 through Reprise Records . The group began work on the album in the wake of their cancellation of a European tour after the release of Insomniac ( 1995 ) . Recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , the album was written with the intent of creating a set of stand @-@ alone songs as opposed to a cohesive album .
The album peaked at number ten on the Billboard U.S. charts and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The record was also certified triple platinum in Australia and double platinum in Canada . Upon release , Nimrod received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised Armstrong 's songwriting . The album yielded the acoustic hit " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " , which appeared in numerous pop culture events , including the series finale of the sitcom Seinfeld in 1998 . To promote the album , Green Day embarked on an extensive touring schedule .
Retrospectively , Nimrod is noted for its musical diversity and experimentation . It contains elements of folk , surf rock , and ska ; the lyrical themes discussed on the record include maturity , personal reflection , and fatherhood .
= = Background = =
In 1995 , Green Day released Insomniac , which did not perform as well commercially , as the band 's breakthrough major @-@ label debut Dookie ( 1994 ) . Speaking of Insomniac , vocalist / guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong noted , " It did a lot better than I thought it was going to do ... From the sound of it , we knew it wasn 't going to sell as much as Dookie . " The group embarked on an extensive world tour to promote Insomniac in early 1996 , which saw the band performing in sports arenas that contrasted with the small clubs the group was accustomed to playing . The members became increasingly uncomfortable with the level of stardom they had attained ; Armstrong recalled , " We were becoming the things we hated , playing those big arenas . It was beginning to be not fun anymore . "
Green Day also became homesick as touring forced the members to leave behind their families . The band eventually decided to cancel the late 1996 European leg of the Insomniac tour to take time off to spend at home . During this time , the band continued to write , and eventually completed over three dozen new songs by the beginning of 1997 . Although the group 's last effort with producer Rob Cavallo was considered a disappointment , the band did not contemplate choosing anyone else to work with on Nimrod , as the members viewed Cavallo as a " mentor " .
= = Recording and production = =
The album was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , and the band stayed at the Sunset Marquis Hotel during the sessions . Nimrod took four months to record and , Armstrong partially attributed the lengthy recording time to spending " a little too much time " playing pool and foosball during the sessions . The recording schedule , which lasted from noon to two in the morning every day , became frustrating for the group members , who began drinking heavily . Bassist Mike Dirnt recalled , " One night one of us was walking down the halls knocking on people 's doors while naked . " Another incident involved drummer Tre Cool throwing his hotel room television set out of his window . Armstrong noted , " There was a lot of glass . You have to live that arrogant lifestyle every now and then . " To keep the band focused , Cavallo enlisted his father and manager Pat Magnarella to supervise the group .
While working on Nimrod , Green Day explained to Cavallo their desire to create a more experimental album as the band had grown tired of its traditional three chord song structure . Armstrong drew inspiration from The Clash 's landmark record London Calling , and referred to Nimrod as " the record I 've wanted to make since the band started . " The album was intended to break the constraints of typical punk rock music . To preserve the quality of his songwriting , Armstrong began writing each song on acoustic guitar , to which the rest of the band would later add heavier instrumentation and faster tempos . Green Day recorded around 30 songs for Nimrod and picked 18 of them for the record . Dirnt explained that the recording was much more loosely structured than previous albums , and that creating songs was the focus as opposed to making a cohesive record . He observed , " We 've always screwed around with different types of music during our jams , but we 'd say , ' OK let 's stop and get back to the album . ' This time we just let them come up . "
Reprise Records president Howie Klein spent a lot of time in the studio with the band during recording , and recalled that , " What I realized immediately is that they had seemed to mature in their musical direction . It wasn 't just more of the same . There was so much growth in the band . " The musical maturation displayed on Nimrod was partially inspired by Bikini Kill 's Reject All American ( 1996 ) , which encouraged Armstrong to balance " rough punk rock songs " and " delicate pretty songs " . Armstrong wrote " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " in 1990 and did not show the song to his bandmates until the Dookie recording sessions in 1993 . During the sessions , the song was determined to be too different from the rest of the songs on Dookie , and producer Rob Cavallo was unsure of how to structure the recording . When the time came to record Nimrod , Armstrong decided to use the song , and Cavallo suggested they add strings to the track . He sent the band to play foosball in another room while he recorded the strings , which took " like fifteen , twenty minutes , maybe a half an hour at the most . " Cavallo reflected on his decision to add the strings " I knew we had done the right thing . I knew it was a hit the second I heard it . "
In addition to the strings on " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " , the music of Nimrod contains a variety of other instruments that were not featured on previous Green Day albums . " Walking Alone " features Armstrong playing the harmonica , despite the fact that he did not " know how to play it at all " . " Hitchin ' a Ride " opens with a Middle Eastern @-@ inspired violin performed by Petra Haden of That Dog . The band invited Gabrial McNair and Stephen Bradley of No Doubt 's horn section to play on the ska @-@ influenced " King for a Day " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Nimrod is more musically varied than previous Green Day albums . Armstrong noted that with the album , Green Day went down " different avenues , " adding : " Each song has its own character and identity so we wanted to be able to bring that out as much as possible . " " Nice Guys Finish Last " has been considered a song that " eases the transition " from Insomniac to Nimrod . Sandy Masuo of the Los Angeles Times likened " Worry Rock " to the music of Elvis Costello . " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " has been referred to as a " pop @-@ punk campfire singalong ballad " . After opening with Haden 's violin solo , " Hitchin ' a Ride " evolves into a bass @-@ driven rock song with a " Stray Cats vibe " . Cool referred to " Take Back " ( which features a more upfront hardcore @-@ style , both musically and vocally ) and " Platypus ( I Hate You ) " as " some of the most punk songs we 've ever done " . " Last Ride In " is a surf rock @-@ influenced instrumental , and " King for a Day " is a ska punk song featuring a horn section . Armstrong compared the song to the Oi ! genre , and noted " It would be funny for a bunch of macho fraternity guys to be singing along and , little do they know , the song 's about being in drag . " The " chiming " guitar riffs of " Redundant " have been compared to those of The Byrds .
Lyrically , Nimrod touches upon more reflective themes not present on earlier Green Day albums . Much of the album illustrates Armstrong 's sentiments on growing up and his role as a husband and father . " The Grouch " centers on Armstrong 's fears of " wasting away , getting fat , becoming impotent , and losing his ideals . " On " Walking Alone " , he reflects on old friends from his childhood , and notes that he is " too drunk to figure out they 're fading away . " Armstrong discusses the struggle to stay sober on " Hitchin ' a Ride " . " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " was inspired by Armstrong 's failed relationship with a woman that ended when she joined the Peace Corps in 1990 . The same woman is also the subject of " She " from Dookie , " Whatsername " from American Idiot ( 2004 ) and " Amanda " from ¡ Tré ! .
However , other songs contain subject matter and themes more typical of Green Day 's previous work . Armstrong wrote " Nice Guys Finish Last " about the band 's interactions with the band 's lawyers and managers and how " everybody thinks they know what 's best for you . " " Jinx " contains self @-@ deprecating lyrics characteristic of many of the band 's songs , while " Prosthetic Head " has been referred to as a " typical ticked @-@ off kiss @-@ off " . " King for a Day " tells the story of a cross @-@ dresser . " Uptight " contains repeated mentions of suicide ; Armstrong explained , " I think the word ' suicide ' just sounded really good . And the line , ' I 'm a son of a gun ' . It made sense , but I can 't really explain why it made sense . It just sort of does . "
= = Critical reception = =
The album received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave Nimrod three and a half stars out of five , calling it an " invigorating , if occasionally frustrating listen " , and although he praised Armstrong 's " gift for hooky , instantly memorable melodies " , he noted that " the 18 tracks whip by at such a breakneck speed that it leaves you somewhat dazed . " Greg Kot of Rolling Stone enjoyed the album 's melodic nature as well as the " measure of sincerity " present in Armstrong 's vocals . Kot appreciated the return of the band 's " juvenile sense of humor " that he felt was lacking on Insomniac , and praised the musical diversity on the record , remarking , " This music is a long way from Green Day 's apprenticeship at the Gilman Street punk clubs , in Berkeley , Calif . But now that the band has seen the world , it 's only fitting that Green Day should finally make an album that sounds as if it has . "
A group of editors writing for People also praised the record 's " fresh and original " melodies and " quick @-@ tempoed cool " , adding , " Kudos to Green Day , young punk 's reigning purists , for sticking with what they know best . " Sandy Masuo of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the " mature songwriting that really makes this album tick " , noting that " Naturally , a couple of thrash ' n ' bash hard @-@ core paeans are included , but they 're surrounded by songs that are surprisingly varied in character and grounded in a pop aesthetic that evokes a gaggle of great tunesmiths . " Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club wrote , " If Green Day still has a loyal following , its fans are bound to find something to like on Nimrod ; for all the attempts at diversity , the record is packed with mile @-@ wide hooks and sing @-@ along anthems . "
= = Chart performance = =
Nimrod debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200 , selling 81 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , and remained on the chart for 70 weeks . On March 16 , 2000 , Nimrod was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over two million copies . In Canada , the album peaked at number four , remaining on the chart for four weeks . On July 6 , 1998 , the record was certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the album debuted at number twelve and later peaked at number three on the country 's chart . The record was later certified triple platinum in Australia .
= = Promotion = =
The Nimrod promotional tour began in the fall of 1997 , and began with an in @-@ store record signing at a Tower Records in Manhattan . The band was upset upon reading reviews that suggested the band had lost its punk edge , and started a riot during its scheduled eight @-@ song set at the store . Armstrong then wrote the words " fuck " and " nimrod " in black spray paint on the storefront windows , and proceeded to moon the audience of 1 @,@ 400 people . After the riot settled down , Cool threw his bass drum into the crowd while Armstrong attempted the same with a 200 @-@ pound monitor , which was wrestled away from him by a store manager . No charges were filed and no injuries were reported , but the store was closed for the day to repair damages caused .
On the tour in promotion of the album , Green Day aimed for simplicity and decided not to bring new instrumentalists to play for the new songs . Armstrong commented , " Right now we 're refraining from pulling out a lot of that ' Nimrod ' stuff . We want to make things small . We don 't want to bring a horn section or a violin player out with us . A lot of people want to hear the old stuff , and that stuff is still just as significant to us . " The Nimrod tour marked the first time the band performed its now @-@ routine ritual of inviting audience members onstage to play instruments . During the tour , Armstrong felt that he became a better performer , noting , " I think some people walk away from a Green Day concert with the emotions you would get from some kind of theater performance where the crowd feels involved — where it 's not just about the singer . It 's not just about the band . "
While performing at the 1998 KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine , California , Third Eye Blind bassist Arion Salazar ran onstage and " bear @-@ hugged " Dirnt , who was caught off @-@ guard . The incident escalated into an on @-@ stage scuffle before Salazar was taken away by security . After the performance , Dirnt confronted Salazar backstage , and as the two were arguing , a beer bottle struck Dirnt in the head , causing a small fracture in his skull . Eyewitnesses later attributed the bottle throwing to a fan of Third Eye Blind . Salazar and the band 's management soon released a statement : " I am sorry that my attempt at doing something I thought would be funny escalated into Mike getting hurt . That was never my intention . I simply had too much to drink and made a very bad decision . If I had been in Mike 's place , I am sure I would have acted similarly . My heart goes out to him and I hope he recovers quickly . "
" Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " appeared in numerous events of popular culture , including a scene involving the death of a cancer patient on the medical drama ER and the series finale of the sitcom Seinfeld in 1998 .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Billie Joe Armstrong , all music composed by Green Day .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from Nimrod liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= The Nemesis of Faith =
The Nemesis of Faith is an epistolary philosophical novel by James Anthony Froude published in 1849 . Partly autobiographical , the novel depicts the causes and consequences of a young priest 's crisis of faith . Like many of his contemporaries , Froude came to question his Christian faith in light of early nineteenth century developments in history , theology , and science . Froude was particularly influenced by the Catholic teachings of the Oxford Movement and by the new approach to religious scholarship developed by the German Higher Critics .
The novel consists primarily of protagonist Markham Sutherland 's account of the development of his religious ideas and doubts , followed by a brief narrative in which Sutherland 's lack of faith leads him and his lover to tragic ends . The novel was condemned by English religious figures and publicly burned by William Sewell ; this led to Froude 's resignation of his fellowship at Oxford University . The novel 's reception amongst literary reviewers was mixed ; while writers such as George Eliot professed profound admiration , others such as Thomas Carlyle were harshly critical . Although no longer widely read as a literary work , it remains significant in intellectual history for its accounts of Victorian scepticism and the Oxford Movement .
= = Plot summary = =
The story of Markham Sutherland is presented through various letters , journals , and the third @-@ person account of the novel 's supposed editor , Arthur . Sutherland , under pressure from his father to become a clergyman , confesses to Arthur his reservations about accepting the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles and contemporary English Christianity in general . In particular , Sutherland is concerned about the depiction of God in the Old Testament , God 's patronage of the Israelites on non @-@ moral grounds , the doctrine of Eternal Punishment , and the supposed inerrancy of the Bible . Sutherland was profoundly influenced by John Henry Newman in his early years , but was ultimately unable to accept Newman 's doctrines . Sutherland also seeks guidance in the writings of Victorian historian and sage Thomas Carlyle ( who was Froude 's chief intellectual influence in later years ) , but finds no solutions . Tormented by his doubts and subsequent alienation from his family , Sutherland becomes morbidly depressed .
On Arthur 's advice , Sutherland takes orders , hoping that his doubts will eventually pass when he enters a more active life . Because of the selectivity of his sermons , however , his parishioners begin to suspect him of Socinianism . When Sutherland is tricked into making a harsh criticism of the British and Foreign Bible Society , claiming that the text of the Bible without clerical guidance is more likely to lead to wickedness than to Christian faith and virtue , his doubts are revealed , and he is forced to resign his position .
Sutherland travels to Como to rest and recover from illness , indulging in free religious speculation while there . He befriends Helen Leonard , who sympathises with his troubles and listens to his doubts . Helen 's dull , unloving husband prefers to spend time away from his wife , and leaves her in Sutherland 's company for the season . Helen and Sutherland fall in love , causing both great anxiety , although the relationship never becomes physical . The two consider eloping , but Helen decides she cannot leave her daughter , Annie . During this conversation , however , the unsupervised Annie dips her arm into the lake , causing her to fall ill and die soon after . Sutherland again becomes depressed , believing that his religious speculations have brought himself and Helen into sin . He plans suicide , but is stopped at the last moment by an old friend , representative of John Henry Newman . Sutherland retires to a monastery , although his repentance is short lived , and he dies still in doubt . Helen , meanwhile , separates from her husband and retires to a convent , although she is unreconciled with the Church because she maintains that her love for Sutherland is holier than her marriage .
= = Major themes = =
The novel 's primary interest comes from its depiction of Sutherland 's religious doubts , which arise from the weakness of a faith based on empirically false historical claims , " old @-@ wives ' tales " taken for truth . Instead , Sutherland aims to follow " not the Christian religion , but the religion of Christ , " spirituality without dogma . However , Froude was not fully satisfied with this
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1 intersects County Route 544 ( Clements Bridge Road ) , with which it forms a concurrency .
The route crosses the Big Timber Creek into Camden County , running along the border of Runnemede and Gloucester Township . County Route 544 veers to the right onto Evesham Road , and Route 41 continues northeast on Clements Bridge Road into Runnemede . At the intersection with Route 168 , Route 41 becomes county @-@ maintained and runs concurrent with County Route 573 . The two routes cross into Barrington , where they pass over the New Jersey Turnpike . Upon crossing a Conrail railroad line , Route 41 and County Route 573 run along the border of Barrington and Haddon Heights , with Barrington to the southeast and Haddon Heights to the northwest . The two routes pass under Interstate 295 before meeting U.S. Route 30 at a modified traffic circle .
Route 41 and County Route 573 continue north on Highland Avenue and cross into Haddonfield , where the road becomes Chews Landing Road . The two routes meet County Route 551 Spur ( Kings Highway ) , and they bear to the right onto Kings Highway , heading northeast . They pass over New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line and the PATCO Speedline and then intersect County Route 561 ( Haddon Avenue ) Past CR 561 , the road crosses the Cooper River into Cherry Hill Township . Route 41 and County Route 573 make a right turn onto a four @-@ lane divided highway and intersect Route 154 ( Brace Road ) . At this point , County Route 573 ends and Route 41 makes a left turn onto a six @-@ lane divided highway , becoming state @-@ maintained again and forming a concurrency with Route 154 .
At the point Route 41 crosses Route 70 , Route 154 ends and Route 41 continues to the northeast on Kings Highway , a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . Route 41 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway at the crossing of the Pennsauken Creek and enters Maple Shade Township , Burlington County . The route interchanges with Route 38 and with Route 73 a short distance later . It continues to the northeast , where Route 41 ends at the end of state maintenance and Kings Highway continues northeast as County Route 611 .
= = History = =
Route 41 was legislated in 1927 to run from Route 47 in Fairview in Deptford Township to Route 38 in Moorestown along its current alignment , except through Haddonfield , which it was to bypass to the east . Also legislated in 1927 was a spur of Route 41 , Route S41 , which was to run from the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge to Berlin . Later spurs of Route 41 included Route S41A , which was a southern extension of Route S41 from Berlin to Route 42 ( now U.S. Route 322 ) in Folsom proposed in 1938 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Routes S41 and S41A became Route 73 and Route 41 was legislated along a county @-@ maintained temporary route between Route 168 in Runnemede and Route 70 in Cherry Hill Township , signed Route 41 Temporary , when it became apparent the bypass around Haddonfield would not be fully completed . Only the northernmost section of the bypass between County Route 561 and Route 70 had been built and this eventually became Route 154 . The county @-@ maintained section of Route 41 also became known as County Route 573 .
Since 1953 , many changes have occurred along Route 41 . During reconstruction of the traffic circle between Routes 38 , 41 , and 73 into an interchange by the 1970s , Route 41 was relocated to a new alignment that bypassed the original traffic circle and extended north a short distance on Kings Highway to just south of the County Route 608 ( Lenola Road ) intersection in Maple Shade Township . The Ellisburg Circle at the intersection of Routes 41 , 70 , and 154 was reconstructed into an intersection with jughandles and traffic lights by the 1990s . This reconstruction involved realigning Route 41 to form a brief concurrency with Route 154 just south of Route 70 . In the early 2000s , the Route 41 interchange with Route 42 in Deptford Township was , along with the County Route 544 interchange with Route 42 , reconstructed to ease traffic movements in the area . Signs for Route 41 Temporary and County Route 573 still remain along this stretch of Route 41 , which today is officially considered to be a part of mainline Route 41 .
= = Major intersections = =
= M @-@ 139 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 139 is a state trunkline highway entirely within Berrien County in the US state of Michigan . The highway starts at US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) southwest of Niles and runs through rural areas of the county to terminate at an intersection with Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) in Benton Harbor . The highway run parallel to , and crosses over , the St. Joseph River several times as it follows a set of roads previously used for US 31 in the area . The highway was first designated in the 1930s as a bypass of the Benton Harbor and St. Joseph area . Its termini have been moved over the years since , extending and contracting the length of the highway between Niles and Benton Harbor . M @-@ 139 now serves to provide access through the area from a set of bypasses consisting of I @-@ 94 and US 31 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 139 begins at a junction with US 12 southwest of Niles in Bertrand Township . The highway travels northeasterly along Chicago Road through farm fields and residential neighborhoods . The trunkline turns north along Lincoln Avenue and then east on Main Street to run into downtown Niles . Main Street crosses the St. Joseph River , and at the intersection with Front Street , M @-@ 139 turns north along that street which is also called " OLD US 31 " on some maps . The highway runs parallel to the river as both exit the downtown area . M @-@ 139 turns toward the northwest on the outskirts of town , running through farm fields . The trunkline passes Webster and Long lakes as it crosses mixed forest and residential areas between Niles and Berrien Springs .
Entering Berrien Springs , M @-@ 139 curves around part of Lake Chapin . North of the dam that forms Lake Chapin from the St. Joseph River , the highway follows Ferry Street to the southwest to cross the river . In downtown Berrien Springs , the trunkline then turns northwesterly along St. Joseph Avenue to pass Andrews University . Northwest of the college , M @-@ 139 crosses US 31 ( St. Joseph Valley Parkway ) . From there the highway travels northwesterly through Royalton Township through farm fields parallel to the St. Joseph River . M @-@ 139 follows Niles Road to the community of Scottdale where it turns northward along Scottdale Road at an intersection with M @-@ 63 . M @-@ 139 crosses the St. Joseph River one last time south of the interchange with I @-@ 94 at its exit 28 ; M @-@ 139 then passes through the community of Fair Plain and enters the eastern edge of Benton Harbor . Before terminating at BL I @-@ 94 ( Main Street ) in Benton Harbor , the highway splits into a one @-@ way pair just north of Empire Avenue . Northbound traffic is routed along Martin Luther King Drive while southbound traffic flows on Fair Avenue .
M @-@ 139 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2011 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 139 were the 12 @,@ 248 vehicles daily between the intersections with Fairland and Deans Hill / Pokagon roads south of Berrien Springs ; the lowest counts were the 1 @,@ 576 vehicles per day in downtown Niles . The only section of M @-@ 139 that have been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) is from the interchange with US 31 northward . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 139 was designated as a state trunkline by 1931 from US 31 at Scottdale to US 12 in Benton Harbor . In late 1953 or early 1954 M @-@ 139 was extended westward along US 12 and then northward along Paw Paw Avenue to meet a new bypass routing of US 31 north of Benton Harbor . US 31 was rerouted to follow what is now the I @-@ 196 freeway in 1963 . At that time , US 31 was then routed along I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 139 to Scottdale . The following year , the concurrency was removed when M @-@ 139 was truncated to end at I @-@ 94 / US 31 . The northern extension on Paw Paw Avenue was turned back to local control , truncating the northern end of M @-@ 139 to the intersection with BL I @-@ 94 ( previously US 12 ) .
On August 27 , 2003 , the St. Joseph Valley Parkway freeway carrying US 31 was completed from northwest of Berrien Springs ( exit 15 ) to Napier Avenue near Benton Harbor ( exit 24 ) . The former section of M @-@ 139 replaced by US 31 was once again designated M @-@ 139 , with M @-@ 139 extending further along the former US 31 to the freeway 's exit 15 . In 2008 , M @-@ 139 was planned to extend southerly to end at Main Street ( Business US 12 , Bus . US 12 ) in Niles along the unsigned state trunkline OLD US 31 and Bus . US 31 , but after the City of Niles announced its plan to take over maintenance of the section of East Main Street between Front Street / Bus . US 31 and Fifth Street / M @-@ 51 in order to ban trucks , the plan was revised to extend M @-@ 139 further south , replacing the Bus . US 12 designation southwesterly to US 12 . The extension was executed on March 5 , 2010 , prior to route marker installation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Berrien County .
= September Morn =
Matinée de Septembre ( English : September Morn ) is a controversial oil painting on canvas completed in 1911 by the French artist Paul Émile Chabas . Painted over several summers , it depicts a nude girl or young woman standing in the shallow water of a lake , prominently lit by the morning sun . She is leaning slightly forward in an ambiguous posture , which has been read variously as a straightforward portrayal of protecting her modesty , huddling against the cold , or sponge bathing . It has also been considered a disingenuous pose permitting the " fetishisation of innocence " .
September Morn was first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1912 , and although the identity of its first owner is unclear , it is certain that Leon Mantashev acquired the painting by the end of 1913 . It was taken to Russia , and in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917 was feared lost . It resurfaced in 1935 in the collection of Calouste Gulbenkian , and after his death in 1955 was sold to a Philadelphia broker , who donated it anonymously to the Metropolitan Museum of Art ( the Met ) in 1957 . As of 2014 it is not on display .
From 1913 on , reproductions of the painting caused controversy in the United States . An art dealer in Chicago was charged with indecency and another in New York was targeted by anti @-@ vice crusader Anthony Comstock , both after displaying September Morn . Over the next few years the work was reproduced in a variety of forms , including on pins and calendars , while censorship and art were debated in newspapers . Chabas ' painting inspired songs , stage shows and films ; eventually some 7 million reproductions were sold , though Chabas – who had not copyrighted September Morn – did not receive any royalties .
Although several women claimed to be the model for September Morn , Chabas never revealed her identity . He described the work as " all I know of painting " , and responded positively to statements that it was his masterpiece . Later writers , however , have described the painting as kitsch , valuable only as a historic artifact .
= = Description = =
September Morn depicts , from an oblique point of view , a naked blonde girl or young woman standing ankle @-@ deep in the water near the shoreline of a tranquil lake surrounded by hills . The figure is backlit by the morning sun , but fully visible , if a little darker than her surroundings . Her arms are folded about her body , her right arm passing below her breasts as she grasps her left elbow , while her left arm conceals her pubic area . This pose has been variously interpreted as the subject protecting herself from the cold , covering her modesty , or sponge bathing , or as the artist 's " fetishisation of innocence " .
Reviews in 1912 noted that the painting was dominated by grays : those of her shaded body , the blue @-@ grays of the September water , the green @-@ grays of the sky , and the pink @-@ grays of the hills behind her . The art critic François Thiébault @-@ Sisson described this as evoking the morning , the young subject preparing to bathe while " light grey vapours are still floating over the lake " . This oil painting on canvas measures 163 @.@ 8 by 216 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 64 @.@ 5 by 85 @.@ 2 in ) , and Chabas 's signature is located in the lower left .
= = Background = =
= = = Chabas = = =
By the time he painted September Morn , Paul Émile Chabas ( 1869 – 1937 ) already had an established reputation as an academic artist . He regularly submitted to the Paris Salon , first participating in 1886 . He won a third class medal in the Salon of 1895 , and four years later won the Prix National for his painting Joyeux ébats , which earned him a gold medal at the 1900 Exposition Universelle and was acquired by the Musée des Beaux @-@ Arts de Nantes . In subsequent years Chabas spent the winters working in Paris , while he passed his summers painting young women along the shores of rivers , lakes , and seas . In 1902 he was made a Chevalier in the Legion of Honour .
Chabas studied under artists such as Tony Robert @-@ Fleury , William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau , and Albert Maignan . Although his earlier works were generally portraits , most of the painter 's later production consisted of nude girls and young women . The lakes and rivers of France were common settings for his paintings , which gave prominence to the interaction of light with the models and their surroundings . September Morn is typical of his style .
J. Valmy @-@ Baysse , in a 1910 overview of the artist , attributes Chabas 's style to the painter 's time at the family summer home along the Erdre ; he identifies the " grace of adolescence , its undefinable charm , [ and ] its chaste nudity " of the models with Chabas 's reminiscences of his youth . The art historian Bram Dijkstra has argued otherwise , stating that " no artist was more assiduous in exploiting the prurient possibilities of the woman @-@ child " than Chabas , whom he considers to have " emphasized analogies of nude little girls and the familiar poses of vanity or physical arousal given to adult women " .
= = = Nudity and art = = =
Female nudes were the dominant subject of painting in French Salons at the end of the 19th century . Female models had become more common than male ones beginning in the early 19th century , first serving allegorical roles or as muses , but eventually becoming individuals " who could be classified and whose history could be written " . In academic art – such as that of Chabas – the models were not portrayed as they were , but as idealized nudes , based on classical ideals ; the body hair of women models , for instance , would not be shown , and the pubic area was rendered smoothly . The hostess Suzanne Delve , who later claimed to have stood for September Morn , said that models were willing to provide " service to art " by posing nude for such works .
Not all forms of nude imagery were acceptable in France . The end of the 19th century had seen the introduction of various laws against pornography , images of adults and children meant to " provoke , incite , or stimulate debauchery " . Works targeted were initially those meant for wide distribution ( and thus , the lower class ) . However , the Australian art historian Fae Brauer writes that the line between art and pornography was blurred by the early 1910s ; even tighter laws , introduced in 1908 , had resulted in censorship of modernist works . For instance , three paintings by Kees van Dongen ( including two of his daughter ) were rejected from the Salon d 'Automne between 1911 and 1913 on grounds of indecency .
The United States had , since colonial times , generally been more puritan in terms of art than Europe . In the mid- and late @-@ 19th century the country 's government implemented laws against obscenity , such as the Tariff of 1842 which banned the importing of foreign works of art deemed obscene . By the end of the 19th century , an uneasy understanding had been reached : museums could hold works depicting nudity , but commercial works ( including photographs of artwork ) could be – and were – confiscated . Tensions remained over the issue of whether nudes represented European @-@ style sophistication ( a trait important to the upper @-@ class ) or encouraged behaviors which threatened families and encouraged " impure imaginations " .
= = Creation ; identity of model = =
Chabas began work on September Morn in mid @-@ 1910 at Talloires on the shores of Lake Annecy in Haute @-@ Savoie , some 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) south @-@ east of Paris . The model , whom he never identified but referred to as " Marthe " , was well known to his family . Owing to the financial situation of the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old 's family , " Marthe " had to work to support her mother . On the first day of painting , " Marthe " entered the morning water and instinctively recoiled at its chilliness . Chabas approved of this pose , saying that it was " perfect " . Over the course of two summers he worked on the painting , half an hour every morning . The work was completed on a September morning in 1911 , giving the painting its name . In 1935 , responding to claims that " Marthe " was living in poverty , Chabas explained that she had continued posing for him until she was 28 , when she married a rich industrialist , and that she was now aged 41 , plump , and had three children .
Numerous women have claimed or been claimed to be the model , some presenting different versions of events . In 1913 , a Miss Louise Buckley , performing in Eugene , Oregon , said that she had been paid $ 1 @,@ 000 and posed in the artist 's studio . The Paris @-@ based artist Jules Pages , meanwhile , stated that the woman depicted in September Morn had been a 25 @-@ year @-@ old of good character who earned her living as an artist 's model , but had gone into hiding after the controversy over the painting . Other claimants included a Swedish model named Gloria and a variety actress named Irene Shannon ; the latter made the claim in the lead @-@ up to a vaudeville skit called " November Mourning " .
In 1937 , twenty @-@ four years after September Morn caused controversy in the United States , the Parisian hostess Suzanne Delve declared that she had been the model . In her account , Chabas – who had known her since she was an infant – had her pose nude in his studio and later painted Lake Annecy in her absence . Delve described her nervousness at the first session , her mother chatting to her to distract her mind while Chabas 's wife played soothing music on the piano . She said she took her pose " instinctively " and that the controversy over the painting had ruined her life , as no Frenchman would want to marry a woman marred by scandal .
Yet another version is presented by the Metropolitan Museum of Art ( the Met ) in their 1966 catalogue of French holdings , including September Morn . According to this telling , Chabas completed the painting over three summers at Lake Annecy , though his peasant model served only as the basis for the figure 's body . The head was based on a sketch of a young American , Julie Phillips , which Chabas had completed upon observing her and her mother dining in Paris ; finding her profile to his liking , he silently drew her , then introduced himself and " apologized for his presumption " .
= = History = =
= = = Paris Salon and first sale = = =
Chabas first exhibited September Morn in the Paris Salon of April 14 to June 30 , 1912 . Because he did not plan to sell it , he gave a price of 50 @,@ 000 francs ( $ 10 @,@ 000 ) – more than he expected anybody to pay . For the painting , and his Portrait of Mme. Aston Knight , Chabas won a Medal of Honor , receiving 220 of 359 possible votes . At the Salon , the painting was uncontroversial , and it was soon reprinted in American publications such as Town & Country and The International Studio .
Sources are unclear as to the painting 's provenance after the Salon . According to the Met , the New York @-@ based Philip ( or Philippe ) Ortiz , manager of the New York Branch of Braun and Company , purchased it in late 1912 . According to a 1933 report in the Middletown Times Herald , he paid 12 @,@ 000 francs ( $ 2 @,@ 400 ) for the work , but never brought the painting back to the United States . However , Brauer suggests that Ortiz sent it to his gallery in New York , where it caused a controversy . According to Time , the painting was acquired by Leon Mantashev c . 1913 , after the painting was returned to Chabas .
A 1935 article in the Montreal Gazette , meanwhile , stated that the original September Morn had yet to go to the United States , and that Chabas had sold it directly to Mantashev . According to Chabas , this was after an American approached him to purchase the painting , but was unwilling to pay the asking price . In her memoirs , Vogue editor Edna Woolman Chase recounted how Ortiz had arranged for numerous reproductions to be made and sent to New York , and that – although he had been interested in acquiring the original – he had been unable to do so . Although it is possible that the original did not cross the Atlantic by 1913 , it is clear that reproductions did .
= = = Controversy and popularity = = =
= = = = Chicago = = = =
A full @-@ size reproduction of September Morn was displayed in a window of Jackson and Semmelmeyer , a photography shop in Chicago , Illinois , in March 1913 . A passing police officer noticed the print and on grounds that it was indecent , insisted it be taken down . The mayor of the city , Carter Harrison , Jr . , agreed with the policeman 's decision , and deemed that the image could be sold , but should not be displayed in public as children could see it . Fred Jackson , the owner , was charged with indecency , and at his request the case was brought to trial on March 18 .
In front of a jury , the city 's art censor Jeremiah O 'Connor testified that September Morn was lewd and should not be displayed in public , but rather only in a museum exhibition . W. W. Hallam of the Chicago Vice Committee agreed , arguing that , as the woman was committing the illegal act of bathing in public , September Morn had to be banned . Other witnesses for the prosecution included censors , educators , and clergy , such as the superintendent Ella Flagg Young and the head of the Juvenile Protective Association Gertrude Howe Britton .
Jackson , acting as his own lawyer , highlighted the hypocrisy of censoring the painting while a nude statue of Diana stood in front of the Montgomery Ward Building . He called upon painters , poets , and sculptors as his witnesses , including the artist Oliver Grover and the art critic Walter Smith . In his testimony , Grover stated " A nude woman is no more indecent than a bare tree . Men and women weren 't born with overcoats on . Anyhow , indecency may be decidedly apart from nudity . "
After less than an hour of deliberations , the jury found for Jackson , allowing him to reinstate the image in his display ; Jackson was so pleased that he promised a free copy of September Morn to each juror . Ten days after the trial Mayor Harrison went to the city council and proposed stricter obscenity laws . The city government agreed , and imposed a $ 25 – 100 fine for displaying nude art along public roads and in places frequented by children . By September Jackson ( together with fellow art dealers Samuel Meyer and William Kuhl ) had been found in violation of this law . Mayor Harrison later stated that he was " through " with the painting , saying " Chicago has been made the laughing stock of the whole country because of this bathing girl picture " .
= = = = New York = = = =
Further controversy arose in New York in May 1913 , two months after the conclusion of the Chicago trial . Anthony Comstock , head of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and nationally recognized for his campaigns against " smut " , saw September Morn – sources differ as to whether it was the original or a print – on display in the window of Braun and Company , an art dealership on West 46th Street . Rushing inside , he raged " There 's too little morn and too much maid ! Take it out ! " . A clerk , James Kelly , removed the work , but Ortiz , the gallery 's manager , reinstated it in the window after returning from his lunch break .
Comstock threatened Ortiz with legal action , and the manager – unaware that Comstock could not arrest him , and fearful that he could cause trouble for the gallery – was initially frightened . He consulted with Arthur Brisbane of the New York Evening Journal , who told him he had nothing to fear , and sent some reporters to cover the story . The following day , the controversy was highly covered in the press , who hailed Ortiz as " one art expert with the courage to stand up against Comstock and his dictatorship " . Following Comstock 's visit large crowds blocked the street outside Braun and Company , ogling September Morn . The gallery owner refused to sell his large print of September Morn , so that it could remain in his window .
After two weeks , when the dealership had sold every print it had , Ortiz removed the display . In a letter to the editor of The New York Times , he accused Comstock of causing the controversy to earn greater publicity for himself , and stated that he wearied of crowds outside his shop , who blocked paying customers from entering it . Ultimately , Comstock did not pursue legal action . The historian Walter M. Kendrick attributes this apparent leniency to September Morn 's status as a work of art , whereas Gerald Carson , writing in American Heritage , attributes it to a knowledge that no action could be taken against the work .
The controversy promoted polemics regarding September Morn and censorship , and multiple editorial cartoons ; one depicted a young woman bathing , only her head showing , with a caption attributed to Comstock reading " Don 't you suppose I can imagine what is UNDER the water ? " . Comstock called the work " demoralizing in the extreme and especially calculated to excite immodesty in the young " , arguing that it must be suppressed in the interest of the children . He emphasized that " the law is the law ... the picture will have to come out of the window " . Reverend Sydney Ussher of St. Bartholomew 's Episcopal Church took a more moderate approach , explaining that " so vivid a display of nudity as September Morn " would best not be displayed in the United States , owing to the people 's relative lack of appreciation for art .
Other , more positive , views were also expressed . The suffragist Inez Milholland defended September Morn , stating that it was " exquisite and delicate , depicting perfect youth and innocence " , and found it " funny , if it weren 't so sad " that such a work would be censored while more titillating film posters were left untouched . The social activist Rose Pastor Stokes wrote that this " glorious work of art " was a " rare " depiction of " the loveliest dream that nature ever made real — the human Body Beautiful " and that shame over one 's body should not be blamed on September Morn , but on a failed education system . The artist James Montgomery Flagg proclaimed " only a diseased mind can find anything immoral in September Morn " .
In his 1931 autobiography , the public relations pioneer Harry Reichenbach claimed responsibility for the controversy surrounding September Morn – and the work 's resulting popularity . He stated that Braun and Company had acquired some 2 @,@ 000 reproductions of the painting which they could not sell , and then hired him for $ 45 so that he could unload the stock . They then paid for a large lithograph reproduction to be made and put on display . Reichenbach , he stated , then contacted public figures to protest against the display . When there was no response , he accosted Comstock in his office and dragged him to the dealership , where some young children , whom Reichenbach had hired for fifty cents each , lusted over the display . The public relations man then worked towards maintaining interest in the work , prints of which had already increased in price – from 10 cents to a dollar .
= = = = Widespread reproduction and imitation = = = =
A 1937 Salt Lake Tribune article stated that , after the 1913 controversies , reproductions of September Morn were shown " on the front page of every newspaper in the land " . Ortiz required these newspapers to pay a charge and mention his copyright , otherwise face a penalty of $ 500 to $ 1000 ; Chase recalled that Vogue had been one of those charged . These newspaper reproductions , however , were sometimes censored . Fred L. Boalt of The Seattle Star , covering a local exhibit of a reproduction , explained his newspaper 's rationale for such censorship : " For humane as well as other reasons , [ ... ] the Star artist has painted in a short petticoat . He didn 't want to do it . He suffered . But we made him do it . "
Lithograph copies of September Morn were mass @-@ produced for popular sale , extending the success that followed the scandal , and were widely hung in private homes . Reproductions were featured on a variety of products , including cigar bands , postcards , bottle openers , statuettes , watch fobs , and candy boxes ; the model was also popular as a tattoo . September Morn was the first nude used for calendars , and by the late 1950s it had featured on millions . A couplet referring to Chabas 's work , " Please don 't think I 'm bad or bold , but where its deep it 's awful cold " , was widely circulated .
Media and merchandise
Allusions to the painting were common in vaudeville acts , becoming stock gags in the Orpheum Circuit . Stage imitations of the painting were also created . In 1913 , for instance , Florenz Ziegfeld , Jr. cast Ann Pennington as the model as part of his Follies . In this successful version of September Morn , the subject bore a sheer cape , with leaves placed strategically over her body , and stood on a stage made @-@ up as water . A burlesque act , deeming itself the " September Morning Glories " , was also created , as was a three @-@ act musical based on the painting . The latter – featuring a fifty @-@ strong chorus line – was put on by Arthur Gillespie and Frank Tannehill , Jr. and debuted at the La Salle Theater in Chicago . In Milwaukee , a man wearing " little or no clothing " passed himself off as " September Morn " at the 1915 Wisconsin State Fair ; he was brought to trial and fined $ 25 . Theatrical references to the painting continued into the 1950s . For instance , in Tennessee Williams 's 1957 play Orpheus Descending , the character Val sees it hanging in his room and mentions he " might keep turning the light on to take another look at it " .
September Morn also inspired several films . A two @-@ reel production by Pathé , titled September Morn , was released in February 1914 and followed the misadventures of a sailor who gets a tattoo of the model . After his girlfriend disapproves , he tries clothing the naked woman with a ripped skirt , but this fails to gain his lover 's approval ; ultimately , he ends up with a fully clothed nude and the text " Votes for Women " inked on his arm . Meanwhile , September Mourning , a November 1915 release produced by L @-@ KO , portrayed a pair of artists first vying for the attentions of a young woman in the park , then invading a school for girls . Robert McElravy , reviewing for Moving Picture World , found the film funny , but considered it to lack plot . A third film , Lois Weber 's Hypocrites , portrayed " The Naked Truth " ( an uncredited Margaret Edwards ) in a manner similar to Chabas 's model .
Several songs inspired by September Morn were likewise released . Musicians Frank Black and Bobby Heath penned a song , " September Morn " , based on the painting , and Aubrey Stauffer of Chicago published sheet music ( for voice and piano ) of " Oh , You September Morn " , from Gillespie and Tannehill 's musical . At Tin Pan Alley , Henry I. Marshall composed two works , a waltz for piano titled " Matin de Septembre ( September Morn ) " , and a piece for voice and piano titled " September Morn ( I 'd Like to Meet Her ) " , the latter featuring lyrics by Stanley Murphy . Both were published through Jerome H. Remick & Co. in 1913 .
As interest grew , purity societies attempted to ban reproductions of September Morn , and people in possession of them ran the risk of confiscation and fines . Postcards bearing the painting were banned from the postal system . Harold Marx , a New Orleans art dealer who displayed a reproduction , was arrested a month after being told to take the painting down ; displays of reproductions were also forcibly removed in Miami and Atlanta . In Chicago , a man was charged with disorderly conduct after bringing home a reproduction . Irene Deal , who dressed in a union suit and posed as " Miss September Morn " in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , as a publicity stunt , was controversially fined $ 50 for disorderly conduct . In 1914 , students at the College of Wooster in Wooster , Ohio , burned a copy of the painting for being against their religious beliefs .
Ultimately some 7 million reproductions of September Morn , prints of which remained popular as late as the 1960s , were sold . Reichenbach characterized this popularity as a " laugh on the overzealous guardians of virtue " in which the entire American populace participated . Inspired by the commercial success of September Morn , displays of images of nude women became more common ; a New York Times reader wrote in 1915 that they had become " increasingly vulgar and suggestive " .
In 1937 Life deemed September Morn " one of the most familiar paintings in the world " , and a retrospective Toledo Blade article characterized the model as having become America 's number one pin @-@ up girl . Writing in 1957 , Considine declared September Morn to be " the most controversial painting in the history of [ the United States ] " , and the New York Post declared it " the most famous nude till the Marilyn Monroe calendar " . Carson wrote in 1961 that September Morn had caused " the most heated controversy over nudity , art , and morals " in the United States since Hiram Powers ' statue The Greek Slave in the 1840s .
= = = Russia and Paris = = =
The oil baron Leon Mantashev acquired the original September Morn in c . 1913 , for a price of $ 10 @,@ 000 and brought it with him to Russia . After the outbreak of the October Revolution the painting was feared destroyed . Following Mantashev 's escape from Russia , pieces of his sizeable collection that were considered to have artistic value were sent to museums , but there was no information regarding works such as September Morn . By 1933 Chabas was seeking information regarding his work 's fate , which The Milwaukee Journal suggested was " hanging in some crowded Russian room , its owner perhaps completely ignorant of its world fame " . At the time several American galleries had copies purported to be the original .
The painting , however , was safe ; Mantashev had smuggled it out of the country , reportedly " rip [ ping ] it out of its frame " when the revolution broke out . In the early 1930s , in desperate need of funds , he sold September Morn to the Armenian art collector and philanthropist Calouste Gulbenkian for $ 30 @,@ 000 ; it was the last painting he owned . A United Press reporter discovered the painting , which was framed as a tondo , in Gulbenkian 's Paris home in 1935 . There it hung with works by artists such as Claude Monet and Paul Cézanne . By 1937 September Morn was on display in the Musée du Luxembourg , hung between works by Jean @-@ François Raffaëlli and Eugène Carrière . After Gulbenkian 's death in 1955 , the painting was acquired by Wildenstein and Company of New York .
= = = Acquisition by the Metropolitan Museum of Art = = =
September Morn was purchased by the Philadelphia broker and sportsman William Coxe Wright for $ 22 @,@ 000 in 1957 . In April of that year he offered it to the Philadelphia Museum of Art , but the painting was rejected for having " no relation to the stream of 20th century art " . Eventually he anonymously donated the work – valued at an estimated $ 30 @,@ 000 – to the Met in New York City . Speaking for the museum , Dudley T. Easby explained that , although the painting could not be classified as a masterpiece , it was nevertheless " a part of art history in view of the controversy that raged around the picture in earlier years " .
After acquisition , in September 1957 the painting was displayed near the Met 's front entrance , taking a place previously occupied by the Pérussis Altarpiece . This position of honor was held for several weeks . Hughes reported a " veritable pilgrimage " of visitors came to see the painting , which she considered to add a " fresh , popular appeal " to the Met which drew museum @-@ goers who would never have come otherwise . By then , the earlier scandal of the model 's nudity had lessened ; discussing an exhibit of the painting in Toledo , Ohio , Alan Schoedel of the Toledo Blade quoted a viewer as saying that 1950s America was so inundated with racy calendar art that the painting " couldn 't stand the competition " .
After September Morn was acquired by the Met , it was displayed at several venues , including the Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco in 1958 , the Toledo Museum of Art in Toledo , Ohio ( also 1958 ) , and by the Municipal Art Commission of Los Angeles in 1959 . Six years later it was again exhibited at Palace of the Legion of Honor , as part of an exhibition of works collected by the Wrights . In 1971 , the Met removed September Morn from display and placed it in storage ; Walter Monfried of The Milwaukee Journal wrote that the once @-@ racy painting was now considered " too tame and banal " . As of September 2014 , the Met 's website lists the painting as not on display , though it had been hung in the museum around 2011 .
= = Reception = =
In 1913 , Chabas stated that he was " pained and humiliated " by the controversy over September Morn , though he later expressed more positive views . He described the work as " all I know of painting " , and responded positively to statements that it was his masterpiece . In a 1914 interview , he explained that he had not meant to sell the painting , as it " was [ his ] wife 's favorite picture " . At the time of his death in 1937 , Chabas had only a single picture in his room : a reproduction of the painting , completed from memory ; he had boasted " If I had never seen it from the day I put down my brushes after painting it , I could make a perfect copy . " However , not having copyrighted the work , he did not receive any royalties from the marketing frenzy in the United States ; he recalled , " Nobody was thoughtful enough even to send me a box of cigars . "
Reviewing the painting after the Salon , Tr.L. in the Larousse Mensuel illustré praised Chabas 's technique as drawing " of a rare purity " , and modeling " of a remarkable delicacy " . Henri Frantz , reviewing the Paris Salon for The International Studio , described September Morn as " one of the [ Salon ] ' s most remarkable figure subjects " , highlighting the nude 's " graceful form " . In Le Temps , François Thiébault @-@ Sisson found that , despite an " excessively translucent technique " , the painting had " indisputable charm " and included " superior , very artistic , and delicately composed " imagery . A 1913 article in the Oregon Daily Journal described the model as " beautifully drawn " , and suggested that " it requires a powerful imagination to find anything suggestive in the work " .
Later reviews were less positive . The director of the Met , James Rorimer , wrote in 1957 that September Morn stood at " different ends of a wide spectrum " than the works of Old Masters and " modern giants " , but was important in helping viewers " realize the full benefit of our heritage " in their explorations of past and present art . That year , the Montreal Gazette 's art critic opined that the painting was banal and unacceptable for display in the Met 's main hall . The reviewer suggested that September Morn , with its " delicate , pearly tonality and simple , sparse , airy composition " , would be best served by being displayed among works considered better by early 20th @-@ century collectors but since reviewed poorly , to " dramatiz [ e ] for the public the danger of too @-@ hasty judgments " .
In 1958 , Blake @-@ More Godwin of the Toledo Museum of Art stated that , although September Morn was certainly art , it was not " great art " and was overshadowed by the controversy it had created ; the painting , he said , " bears the same relationship to art as a minor poem does to the classic and the imperishable " . Three years later , in an article in The Kenyon Review , Alfred Werner described September Morn as a " classic of kitsch " and " the ' idealized ' nude at its worst " : " without a wrinkle of the skin , without any breathing of the flesh ... pink , soft , spineless " . This classification of kitsch has been applied by several further writers , including Kendrick and the film scholar Norman Taylor .
Several writers have included September Morn in lists of works depicting children with erotic or pornographic subtexts . Brauer argues that although the nude " seems to embody the moral purity at puberty " , this innocence is actually a fetishistic mechanism which both allowed the work to pass the censors and be eroticised . She concludes that the painting is " paedophilically provocative " , and that Chabas was protected from censure by his status as an established artist and father . Such views have not been universally held . For instance , the historian Paul S. Boyer describes September Morn as " charmingly innocent " , and the art writer Elizabeth Lunday finds the painting to be " offensive only on the grounds of blandness " .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= M @-@ 25 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 25 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The route follows an arc @-@ like shape closely along the Lake Huron shore of the Thumb in the eastern Lower Peninsula between Port Huron and Bay City . It serves the lakeshore resorts along Lake Huron and Saginaw Bay and generally lies within sight of the lake and the bay . All is surface road and generally scenic , except for the freeway segment near the junction with I @-@ 75 and connection into the US 10 freeway .
Between Port Huron and Port Austin it is the north – south highway that used to be US 25 before the designation was removed from Michigan . Between Port Austin and Bay City it is an east – west route that appeared on some maps as US 25 and on some maps as M @-@ 25 . Since the 1970s , when all of US 25 was deleted north of Cincinnati , Ohio , it is now entirely M @-@ 25 .
= = Route description = =
= = = North to Port Austin = = =
The starting point of M @-@ 25 at a junction with Business Loop I @-@ 69 / Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 ) in Port Huron . M @-@ 25 is part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour for its entire length . From here M @-@ 25 heads north on Pine Grove Avenue until meeting M @-@ 136 . At this intersection , M @-@ 25 turns north on 24th Avenue to Lakeshore Road then runs parallel to the Lake Huron shoreline .
In the community of Lakeport , M @-@ 25 passes through Lakeport State Park . Past the park , M @-@ 25 changes names from Lakeshore Road to Kimball Road temporarily . M @-@ 25 intersects the east end of M @-@ 90 blocks from Lake Huron in Lexington . There are public beaches in Lexington and in Port Sanilac . M @-@ 25 's street name changes after the M @-@ 46 intersection to that of North Lakeshore Road . The Huron Shores Golf Club is located off the highway north of Port Sanilac at the intersection of Snover Road . Sanilac County has established the Sanilac County Park at the intersection of Downington Road and M @-@ 25 south of Richmondville . North of Forestville M @-@ 25 is once again called South Lakeshore Road as the highway crosses into Huron County .
Wagener County Park is located off M @-@ 25 in the community of Helena . M @-@ 25 begins to curve to the northwest in Sand Beach near the Rock Falls Cemetery . In the city of Harbor Beach , M @-@ 25 is called Huron Avenue and meets M @-@ 142 for the first of two occasions . Here is the Harbor Beach Golf Course on the south side of town as M @-@ 25 moves inland through town . North of town , the trunkline parallels an old routing of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway as it is once again renamed Lakeshore Road . The highway moves farther inland north of Rubicon and Port Hope as it begins to round the tip of the Thumb . In Grindstone City , M @-@ 25 loses the Lakeshore Road name in favor of Grindstone Road all the way to Port Austin .
= = = West to Bay City = = =
Port Austin is the location of the historical northern terminus of US 25 . Through town , M @-@ 25 turns north along Lake Street and runs concurrently with the northern end of M @-@ 53 . The highway turns westward on Port Austin Road along the lake where M @-@ 53 terminates ; this is also the point where the M @-@ 25 signage changes from northbound to westbound . West of town , M @-@ 25 turns south along the Saginaw Bay and meets Port Crescent State Park . From here south west , M @-@ 25 hugs the bay and its miles of beaches . North of Caseville is the Albert E. Sleeper State Park . Through Caseville , M @-@ 25 uses Main Street and passes the city beach off State Street . McKinley is home to the Scenic Golf & Country Club and Wild Fowl Bay . M @-@ 25 follows the shore of Wild Fowl Bay , a smaller bay off Saginaw Bay , to the city of Bay Port and the western terminus of M @-@ 142 on Fairhaven a smaller community south of Bay Port . From here south , the road is called Unionville Road and turns inland to Sebewaing .
At Unionville , M @-@ 25 turns more westerly to round the bottom of Saginaw Bay into Bay City along Bay City @-@ Forestville Road in Tuscola County . In the community of Quanicassee , it transitions to Center Road and crosses into Bay County . M @-@ 25 is routed the one @-@ way street pair of 7th Street and McKinley Street before crossing the Veterans Memorial Bridge over the Saginaw River . West of the bridge , the one @-@ way pairing of Jenny Street and Thomas Street are used before the two merge into Thomas Street west of the M @-@ 13 intersections .
The western terminus is at the junction of I @-@ 75 / US 23 and US 10 . As the roadway crosses the I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway it feeds into the eastern end of US 10 freeway .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
The M @-@ 25 designation was first used by July 1 , 1919 @.@ in the Upper Peninsula . The highway ran from Skandia along what is today M @-@ 94 to Munising . From there it used today 's routing of M @-@ 28 eastward to Newberry and Sault Ste . Marie . This designation was replaced by M @-@ 28 in 1927 .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1933 , US 25 was extended north from Port Huron to Port Austin. along M @-@ 29 . M @-@ 25 was designated along the portion of M @-@ 29 disconnected by the US 25 extension , from Bay City to Port Austin . M @-@ 25 was extended along US 25 to Port Huron when the latter was removed from Michigan in 1973 . The southern terminus was placed at I @-@ 94 in Marysville , Michigan until it was moved northward to end at BL I @-@ 94 ( now BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 ) in 1987 .
The section of M @-@ 25 in the City of Bay City was named what is now called a Pure Michigan Historic Byway by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . This designation was created on October 23 , 1997 , for the section of M @-@ 25 along Center Avenue between Madison Avenue and the eastern city limits . Originally called the Bay City Historic Heritage Route " , it has been called the Center Avenue Heritage Route by its local stewardship committee .
= = Major intersections = =
= Johanna Welin =
Johanna Welin ( born 24 June 1984 ) is a Swedish @-@ born German 2 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player . She played for USC Munich in the German wheelchair basketball league , and for the national team that won the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , after which President Joachim Gauck awarded the team with the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Johanna Welin was born on 24 June 1984 in Pajala , Sweden , a small town near the border between Sweden and Finland about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) north of the Arctic Circle . She has played football for Töreboda IK in the Swedish league . In the winter , her passion was snowboarding , until a bad fall in a snowboarding competition at Gothenburg in January 2004 left her paralysed from the waist down . She then took up wheelchair basketball , playing for GRBK Gothenburg in the Swedish league , but Sweden had no national women 's team . She spent two semesters studying German in Insbruck , but there was no wheelchair basketball team there , and she began playing for USC Munich , initially for their second team . There , she caught the attention of Holger Glinicki , the coach of the German national team , who asked her if she would like to play for the German national team . She took German citizenship , a relatively painless procedure for an athlete , and made the German national team , which went on to win gold at the 2011 European Championships in Nazareth , Israel , defeating the Netherlands in the final , 48 @-@ 42 .
In June 2012 she was named as part of the team that competed at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London , where they faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , a team that had defeated them 48 @-@ 46 in Sydney just a few months before . They defeated the Australians 44 @-@ 58 in front of a capacity crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball at the Paralympics since 1984 . They were awarded another Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 . In February 2013 , Welin 's name was entered in the Golden Book of Munich .
She has modelled for the advertising campaigns of team sponsors ING DiBa and LoFric , and is currently studying medicine in Munich .
= = Achievements = =
2011 : Gold European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2013 : Entry in the Golden Book of Munich
= Kansas Turnpike =
The Kansas Turnpike is a 236 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 380 km ) , freeway @-@ standard toll road that lies entirely within the U.S. state of Kansas . It runs in a general southwest @-@ northeast direction from the Oklahoma border to Kansas City . It passes through several major Kansas cities , including Wichita , Topeka , and Lawrence . The turnpike is owned and maintained by the Kansas Turnpike Authority ( KTA ) , which is headquartered in Wichita .
The Kansas Turnpike was built from 1954 to 1956 , predating the Interstate Highway System . While not part of the system 's early plans , the turnpike was eventually incorporated into the Interstate system in late 1956 , and is designated today as four different Interstate Highway routes : I @-@ 35 , I @-@ 335 , I @-@ 470 , and I @-@ 70 . The turnpike also carries a piece of U.S. Routes 24 and 40 in Kansas City .
Because it predates the Interstate Highway System , the road is not engineered to current Interstate Highway standards , and notably lacks a regulation @-@ width median . To reduce the risk of head @-@ on collisions , the Kansas Turnpike now has a continuous , permanent Jersey barrier in the median over its entire length . On opening , there was no fixed speed limit on the highway ; drivers were merely asked to keep to a " reasonable and proper " limit , although shortly afterward signs were erected in certain stretches indicating a maximum speed of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) . From 1970 to 1974 and again since 2011 , the turnpike 's speed limit has been set at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; that limit during the earlier period applied only during daytime hours .
Around 120 @,@ 000 drivers use the turnpike daily . The road features numerous services , including a travel radio station and six service areas . One of these service areas is notable for the presence of a memorial to University of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne , who died near the current highway 's route . The turnpike is self @-@ sustaining ; it derives its entire revenue from the tolls collected and requires no tax money for maintenance or administration .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Early federal plans for a nationwide system of interregional highways did not include a route along or near the present turnpike , instead connecting Oklahoma City and Kansas City via southeastern Kansas and U.S. Route 69 . By the mid @-@ 1940s , this route had shifted to roughly the present Interstate 35 alignment , serving Wichita . The only major difference from the present route was between Wichita and Emporia , where the highway ran north to Newton before turning northeast along U.S. Route 50 .
In the early 1950s , toll roads were gaining in popularity as a mechanism for funding new superhighways . This trend started with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in 1940 , which was mimicked by other toll roads in New York , New Jersey , several New England states , Ohio , and Colorado . In October 1951 , the Highway Council of the Kansas Chamber of Commerce researched the possibility of integrating the state into a potential cross @-@ country turnpike system . Eastern Kansas was also included in an interstate turnpike system stretching from Galveston , Texas to Saint Louis , Missouri , via Kansas City , that was proposed by Oklahoma governor Johnston Murray . Many firms from construction industries , as well as those concerned about the state 's economic development , worked to have legislation passed to allow the turnpike to be constructed . Governor Ed Arn and Gale Moss , the State Highway Director , were two major proponents of the turnpike concept .
The turnpike idea was an attractive one because initial construction was to be financed by the private sector via sales of revenue bonds , allowing state highway funds to be used for other important projects . The new toll road would also reduce traffic , and thus maintenance costs , on existing roads . There was also a concern that if Kansas lagged behind in turnpike construction , it might be bypassed by toll roads in other states , leaving it at an economic disadvantage . The toll concept also had the benefit of ultimately putting the financial burden on the drivers who actually used the road , instead of using tax revenue that had been collected from residents statewide . There was a some opposition to the plan , from both government officials and citizens , due to concerns that the toll revenue might not cover the repayments to investors , bankrupting the turnpike authority and burdening the state government with the remaining debt . There were also worries about the possibility of the turnpike requiring maintenance before the bonds had been repaid . Some critics also felt that the high speeds typical of turnpike driving were unsafe . As right @-@ of @-@ way for the project was obtained , the turnpike drew opposition from farmers and ranchers , who objected to the turnpike bisecting their property , making it difficult to access disjointed parcels of land .
The Kansas Chamber of Commerce held " turnpike clinics " in several locations across Kansas in 1952 , reporting an overwhelmingly positive reception from the public . The Kansas Turnpike Act , defining a turnpike from Oklahoma to Kansas City , became effective April 7 , 1953 . It created the Kansas Turnpike Authority , with Gale Moss selected as its first chairman . With a budget of only $ 25 @,@ 000 ( about $ 570 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , KTA 's first office was a former barbershop in the Kansas State Capitol .
Given Oklahoma 's plans to build a turnpike north from Oklahoma City to the Kansas state line , and taking into account traffic flow maps prepared by the highway department , a preliminary route was chosen connecting the proposed Oklahoma turnpike to Kansas City via Wichita and Topeka . A second route extending from Topeka to Salina , and further west to the Colorado state line ( the modern @-@ day I @-@ 70 corridor ) was also studied . Over 173 @,@ 000 drivers were surveyed to determine how many of them would be willing to use the two proposed routes in order to establish their profitability . While the western Kansas route was determined not to be feasible , the Oklahoma – Kansas City route was projected to generate a total revenue of $ 9 million in 1957 ( about $ 181 million in 2015 dollars ) . After considering a number of different alignments , including one bypassing Topeka via the present route of I @-@ 35 , the state decided on an " airline " route between Wichita and Topeka . From Wichita south , the turnpike was to parallel U.S. Route 81 , continuing into Oklahoma ; the interchange with U.S. Route 166 at South Haven was included to provide an outlet if Oklahoma lagged in its construction . The turnpike was to parallel U.S. Route 40 from Topeka to Kansas City . The Kansas City end was set at 18th Street and Muncie Boulevard , which was to be extended and upgraded to a freeway ( the Muncie Expressway ) to the Intercity Viaduct by the state .
After a ruling from the Kansas Supreme Court that found that the KTA could issue bonds and oversee the construction and administration of the turnpike , the turnpike authority sold $ 160 million ( around $ 3 @.@ 22 billion in 2015 dollars ) in revenue bonds in September 1954 . KTA bonds were quickly bought by investors , who were attracted by the Kansas Turnpike 's low construction costs — only one @-@ third of that of turnpikes in other states — and projections showing that enough tolls would be collected to pay off investors after nineteen years .
Ground was broken on December 31 , 1954 at the Kansas River bridge near Lawrence . Construction of the entire length of the turnpike was scheduled to take place all at once , with the turnpike partitioned into 14 parts , and the overall length also divided into 43 smaller portions . The Turnpike Authority sent out letters en masse to the affected landowners , offering a price and referring appeals to the
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The body is covered with a dense covering of long stiff hairs ( setae ) . The legs are long , slender , and yellow . There are six eyes , roughly equal in size , arranged in roughly triangular groups of three , with two eyes meeting in the middle , forming a wide " H " or bow @-@ tie pattern . Species of Unicorn are considered " soft @-@ bodied " , as the abdomen lacks the hardened plates that occur in many other goblin spiders . The abdomen possesses six spinnerets .
Males and females show some differences in morphology : male jaws ( chelicerae ) are longer and more slender than those of females ; the male palpal tibiae — the penultimate segment of the pedipalps — are enlarged compared to females ; and males alone possess a " clypeal horn " , a forward @-@ pointing projection of the clypeus surrounded by long stiff hairs , from which the genus name Unicorn ( " one horn " in Latin ) derives .
The copulatory bulb of males ( the sperm @-@ transferring organ at the tip of the pedipalps ) , terminates in a narrow , curving tip called an embolus , which in Unicorn bears a hook at its base and is accompanied by a similar curved extension called a translucent sclerite .
= = Reproduction = =
Like most spiders , the pedipalps of mature males end in a bulb terminating in a thin , curved projection called an embolus , through which sperm is released during mating . Female U. catleyi have been observed with broken @-@ off embolus tips lodged in their genitalia . This has been hypothesized as a type of " sperm @-@ plug " or copulatory plug , where , by breaking off a piece of his anatomy ( a process known as genital mutilation or genital breakage ) , a male physically precludes other males from successfully mating with the female , one of many types of sperm competition in animals . An alternative to the sperm competition function is that genital mutilation might allow males to more rapidly escape and avoid being cannibalized after mating , although this function is thought to be unlikely in Unicorn since there are no significant size differences between sexes , and cannibalism is more common when females are much larger than males . Sperm plugs of various types , including gelatinous or waxy substances , have been observed in at least 41 spider families , and are generally thought to ensure paternity . U. catlyei is one of only few goblin spiders known or suspected to utilize sperm plugs .
= = Habitat = =
Species of Unicorn have mostly been found at elevations between 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) above sea level , many from semi @-@ desert regions . U. socos has been collected at 360 m ( 1 @,@ 180 ft ) in central Chile . The spiders are hard to detect in the field , and most species have been collected by pitfall trapping . They are uncommon in museum collections , and almost nothing is known about their natural history .
= = Species and distribution = =
The genus Unicorn was established in 1995 by Norman Platnick and Antônio Brescovit , to encompass five newly described species and one species , U. argentina , that had previously been described as a species of Orchestina . A seventh species was described in 2010 . The type species of Unicorn is U. catleyi . Unicorn species occur in central and northern Chile , western Argentina , and Bolivia .
Unicorn argentina ( Mello @-@ Leitão , 1940 ) — Western Argentina
Unicorn catleyi Platnick & Brescovit , 1995 — Northern Chile and northwestern Argentina
Unicorn chacabuco Platnick & Brescovit , 1995 — Chacabuco Province , central Chile
Unicorn huanaco Platnick & Brescovit , 1995 — La Paz Department , Bolivia
Unicorn sikus González , Corronca & Cava , 2010 — Salta Province , northwestern Argentina
Unicorn socos Platnick & Brescovit , 1995 — Limarí Province , central Chile
Unicorn toconao Platnick & Brescovit , 1995 — Antofagasta Province , northern Chile
= = Classification = =
Unicorn is a member of the family Oonopidae ( oonopids , or goblin spiders ) , which contains over 1 @,@ 500 species worldwide . Within oonopids , Unicorn is classified in the subfamily Sulsulinae , which contains other soft @-@ bodied genera such as Xiombarg and Dalmasula . Due to certain features of the eyes and jaws that resemble those found in other families , and which are differently modified in many other oonopids , Platnick and Brescovit suggested Unicorn was among the most primitive or basal members of the Oonopidae , which was corroborated by a 2014 study that examined DNA similarities among the Oonopidae , finding that Unicorn and other sulsulines diverged before almost all other oonopids .
= Common firecrest =
The common firecrest ( Regulus ignicapilla ) also known as the firecrest , is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family . It breeds in most of temperate Europe and northwestern Africa , and is partially migratory , with birds from central Europe wintering to the south and west of their breeding range . Firecrests in the Balearic Islands and north Africa are widely recognised as a separate subspecies , but the population on Madeira , previously also treated as a subspecies , is now treated as a distinct species , the Madeira firecrest , Regulus madeirensis . A fossil ancestor of the firecrest has been identified from a single wing bone .
This kinglet is greenish above and has whitish underparts . It has two white wingbars , a black eye stripe and a white supercilium . The head crest , orange in the male and yellow in the female , is displayed during breeding , and gives rise to the English and scientific names for the species . This bird superficially resembles the goldcrest , which largely shares its European range , but the firecrest 's bronze shoulders and strong face pattern are distinctive . The song is a repetition of high thin notes , slightly lower @-@ pitched than those of its relative .
The common firecrest breeds in broadleaved or coniferous woodland and gardens , building its compact , three @-@ layered nest on a tree branch . Seven to twelve eggs are incubated by the female alone . Both parents feed the chicks , which fledge 22 – 24 days after hatching . This kinglet is constantly on the move and frequently hovers as it searches for insects to eat , and in winter it is often found with flocks of tits . Despite some possible local declines , the species is not the subject of significant conservation concerns owing to its large European population and an expansion of its range over the last century . It may be hunted and killed by birds of prey , and can carry parasites . It is possible that this species was the original " king of the birds " in European folklore .
= = Description = =
The common firecrest is a small plump bird , 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in length with a wingspan of 13 – 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) , and weighs 4 – 7 grams ( 0 @.@ 14 – 0 @.@ 25 oz ) . It has bright olive @-@ green upperparts with a bronze @-@ coloured patch on each shoulder , and whitish underparts washed with brownish @-@ grey on the breast and flanks . It has two white wingbars , a tiny black pointed bill , and brownish @-@ black legs . The head pattern is striking , with a black eye stripe , long white supercilium , and a crest which is bright yellow in the female and mainly orange in the male . The sexes are very similar , apart from the crest colour , although the female is a little duller in plumage and on average slightly smaller . Juveniles have a grey tinge to the duller upperparts , and lack the coloured crown ; the other head markings are present , but duller than in the adult . By their first winter , only the flight and tail feathers remain unmoulted , and the young birds are virtually indistinguishable from the adults in the field . This kinglet usually hops with its body held horizontally , and its flight is weak and whirring , with occasional quick evasive turns .
Adult firecrests are unlikely to be confused with any other species ; Pallas 's warbler has a similar head and wing pattern , but its crown stripe is pale lemon , not bright yellow or orange , and its supercilium is also pale yellow , not bright white . The juvenile common firecrest might be confused with the goldcrest , but usually shows enough face pattern to distinguish it from its relative , which has a very plain face at all ages . The firecrest can also be separated from Pallas 's warbler by the warbler 's pale crown stripe and yellow rump . There is more likelihood of confusing the juvenile firecrest with the yellow @-@ browed warbler , which has a similar head pattern ; the warbler ( an Asiatic species ) has pale fringes to the feathers of the closed wing , a whitish belly and darker brown legs . The yellow @-@ browed warbler also lacks the pale half circle present below the young firecrest 's eye .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers , but frequently given family status , especially as recent research shows that , despite superficial similarities , the crests are phylogenetically remote from the warblers . The names of the family , Regulidae , and its only genus , Regulus , are derived from the Latin regulus , a diminutive of rex , " a king " , and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets . The common firecrest was first formally described by Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1820 as Sylvia ignicapilla ; the relatively late identification of this common European bird arose from a perception that it was just a variety of the goldcrest . The species name is derived from Latin ignis " fire " and capillus " hair " . The binomial is frequently given as R. ignicapillus due to a misunderstanding of Latin grammar .
There are two widely recognised subspecies of common firecrest , nominate R. i. ignicapilla and Mediterranean R. i. balearicus ( Jordans , 1923 ) . The latter form is found on the Balearic Islands and in north Africa , and is slightly paler below and greyer above than the nominate subspecies . Other subspecies have been claimed , including southeastern R. i. caucasicus , North African R. i. laeneni , and Crimean R. i. tauricus . The Madeira firecrest , R. madeirensis , was formerly also considered to be a subspecies of the common firecrest , but phylogenetic analysis based on the cytochrome b gene showed that the Madeiran form is distinct at the species level . Cytochrome b gene divergence between the Madeira firecrest and the European bird is 8 @.@ 5 % , comparable with the divergence level between other recognised Regulus species , such as the 9 % between the goldcrest and the golden @-@ crowned kinglet . The island form also differs in morphology and vocalisations . The proposed split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) in 2003 , although some authorities , like The Clements checklist , have not yet recognised the new species .
The flamecrest or Taiwan firecrest ( Regulus goodfellowi ) of Taiwan has sometimes been viewed as a race of the common firecrest ; however , the flamecrest 's territorial song , which resembles those of the Himalayan races of the goldcrest , and genetic data indicate that the flamecrest is closely related to the Himalayan goldcrest and only distantly to the two firecrest species . The kinglets on the Canary Islands , which were also considered to be close to firecrests , have now been shown to comprise two subspecies of goldcrest .
= = = Fossils = = =
There are a few Pleistocene ( 2 @.@ 6 million to 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) records from Europe and Israel of extant Regulus species , mostly goldcrests or unidentifiable to species , but also a Spanish specimen of firecrest . A left ulna from Bulgaria was identified as belonging to a fossil species , Regulus bulgaricus , from 2 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 95 mya . This appears to be ancestral to the common firecrest , with the goldcrest diverging from this lineage in the Middle Pleistocene .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The common firecrest breeds in lowland broadleaf forest , preferring cork oak and alder where available , otherwise beech and holly . It also uses mixed broadleaf and conifer woodland , and stands of spruce , European silver fir , cedar and pines , often with undergrowth of juniper , ivy and wild rose . In drier Mediterranean habitats it is found in conifers , evergreen oak , and mixed woodlands up to 2 @,@ 800 m ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) . Unlike more specialised birds such as Eurasian nuthatch and common treecreeper , both of which forage on trunks , the crests do not need large woodlands , and their population density is independent of forest size . In winter it is less reliant on conifers than the goldcrest , moving from forest to fringes and scrub . It occurs singly or in pairs , spending much time in the tree canopy , although frequently venturing into bushes and other lower vegetation . This species can thrive in fairly urban areas , provided that suitable habitat is available in parks or large gardens ; population densities in gardens can be comparable with the maximum levels found in natural habitats .
The nominate subspecies breeds in Europe from southern England , France , Spain and Portugal east to Belarus , northwestern Ukraine , and Greece , and north to the Baltic and southern Latvia . There are isolated populations east of the main range in Abkhazia , the Crimea and Turkey . Its range lies between the 16 and 24 ° C ( 61 and 75 ° F ) July isotherms . Southern birds are largely resident , unlike northern and eastern populations which are migratory , wintering mainly in Mediterranean areas and the far west of Europe from Portugal north to Britain . R. i. balearicus is resident in the Balearic Islands and the northern parts of Morocco , Algeria and Tunisia . This species has been recorded as a vagrant from Norway , Finland , Estonia , Cyprus , Egypt and Lebanon .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The common firecrest is monogamous . The male sings during the breeding season , often with its crest raised , and has a display which involves pointing its bill at another bird , showing the crest and strong face pattern . This differs from the display of the plainer @-@ faced goldcrest , which bows its head to emphasise the crest . The breeding territory is about 0 @.@ 5 hectares ( 1 @.@ 2 acres ) , and may overlap with neighbouring goldcrest territories . Firecrests will sometimes defend their territories against goldcrests with the crest raised and a great deal of wing @-@ fluttering , but the amount of actual competition between the species may not be very great . A Spanish study suggested that territorial conflicts between the species , and other phenomena like males singing mixed or alternating songs , were most frequent when one species locally far outnumbered the other ; in other circumstances , the two kinglets learned to ignore each other 's songs . In his courtship display the male firecrest raises his crest , points it towards his mate and hovers over her before mating takes place .
The nest is often suspended from a hanging branch usually at no great altitude , although Eric Simms reported nests at heights from 2 @.@ 5 to 20 m ( 8 @.@ 2 to 65 @.@ 6 ft ) . Firecrests may favour breeding close to northern goshawk nests . That large bird will prey on potential predators of the firecrest such as Eurasian sparrowhawks , and nest robbers like grey squirrels , Eurasian jays and great spotted woodpeckers . As is typical for the family , the nest is a closed cup built in three layers with a small entrance hole near its top . The nest 's outer layer is made from moss , small twigs , cobwebs and lichen , the spider webs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it . The middle layer is moss , and this is lined with feathers ( up to 3 @,@ 000 ) and hair . The nest is smaller , deeper and more compact than that of the goldcrest , about 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) across and 5 – 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) deep , with a wall thickness of about 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The nest is constructed by the female alone , although the male will accompany the female while she builds the nest over a period of a few days to three weeks .
Laying starts in western Europe at the end of April , and in the east of the range in late May ; second clutches , which are common , commence in June to July . The eggs are pink with very indistinct reddish markings at the broad end , unlike those of Madeira firecrest which are described as like those of a Phylloscopus warbler ( white with some brown speckles ) . The eggs are 14 mm × 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in × 0 @.@ 39 in ) and weigh 0 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 025 oz ) , of which 5 % is shell . The clutch size in Europe is 7 – 12 eggs , but probably smaller in northwest Africa . The female incubates the eggs for 14 @.@ 5 to 16 @.@ 5 days to hatching , and broods the chicks , which fledge eight to ten days later . Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young . This species becomes sexually mature after one year , and has a life expectancy of less than two years .
Although their ranges overlap substantially , hybridisation between goldcrests and firecrests seems to be prevented by differences in courtship rituals and different facial patterns . Even in aviary studies in which a female goldcrest was given an artificial eyestripe to facilitate mating with a male firecrest , the chicks were never raised by the mixed pair , and appeared to be poorly adapted compared to the parent species .
= = = Feeding = = =
All species of kinglet are almost exclusively insectivorous , preying on small arthropods with soft cuticles , such as springtails , aphids and spiders . They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects , and occasionally take pollen . All species will hover to catch flying insects . Although the similarly sized firecrest and goldcrest are often found together , there are a number of factors that reduce direct competition for food . Common firecrests prefer larger prey than goldcrests . Although both will take trapped insects from spider webs on autumn migration , firecrests will also eat the large orb @-@ web spiders ( on rare occasions kinglets have been found stuck in a spider web , either unable to move or dead ) .
The common firecrest feeds in trees , exploiting mainly the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees . This is in contrast to the goldcrest , which frequently feeds on the undersides of branches and leaves . In winter , flocks of common firecrests cover a given distance about three times faster than do goldcrests , and ignore the smallest prey items preferred by their relative ; large invertebrates are killed by beating them repeatedly against a branch . The differences in behaviour are facilitated by subtle morphological differences ; firecrests have broader bills with longer rictal bristles ( which protect a bird 's eye from food items it is trying to capture ) , and these features reflect the larger prey taken by the species . The firecrest 's less forked tail may reflect its longer episodes of hovering while hunting . Firecrests forage more often while standing , and have a foot better adapted for perching , whereas the goldcrest 's longer hind toe reflects its habit of moving vertically along branches while feeding . It also has a deep grooves in the soles of its feet capable of gripping individual needles , while firecrests have a smoother underside to the foot .
Young common firecrests are fed almost exclusively with springtails ; larger food items are not accepted , and spiders are occasionally regurgitated . From the fifth day onwards , the nestling diet includes aphids and a high amount of snail shells , the latter being needed for bone growth . After the second week , the food includes larger moths and caterpillars , as well as various arthropods typically avoided by adults , such as harvestmen , earwigs , and centipedes .
In winter , the firecrest joins loose flocks of other wanderers such as tits and warblers . This kinglet , like other species that prefer mixed @-@ species foraging flocks in winter , hunts over a greater range of heights and vegetation types than when feeding alone . For species that tend to feed in flocks , foraging success while in a flock was about twice that for solitary birds . In some areas , wintering birds have developed the habit of coming to feeding stations and bird tables for fatty food , sometimes with goldcrests or warblers such as the common chiffchaff and blackcap . The kinglet 's digestive system is adapted to an entirely insectivorous diet , whereas Sylvia warblers include fruit in their autumn diet . A Spanish study compared that genus with the insectivorous firecrest and Phylloscopus warblers . The results showed that , relative to body weight , the insect @-@ eaters had shorter intestines , but longer gut passage times than the Sylvia species . The insect @-@ eaters are also generally slightly smaller than the omnivores .
= = = Voice = = =
The contact call is three or four thin high notes , similar to that of goldcrest , but slightly lower in pitch , zit @-@ zit @-@ zit rather than see @-@ see @-@ see . The song is a succession of call notes in a longer and slightly more varied sequence . Typically there are 11 – 14 notes per song , becoming louder and faster , with the final three notes slightly different from the preceding ones : zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zit @-@ zirt.zirt.zirt. The song usually lasts 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 seconds , shorter than the 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 seconds for the goldcrest , and may be repeated up to eight times a minute . In May and June , singing is most frequent after dawn , but continues less often throughout the day . Later in the breeding season , song becomes largely confined to the morning .
The song of the Mediterranean subspecies of common firecrest , R. i. balearicus , is very similar to that of the nominate form , but one factor in separating the Madeiran firecrest from common firecrest is that the island bird 's song is divided into three phrases , two of them consisting of modified display and anger calls . Its display calls also use a larger frequency range and more harmonics than those of the continental subspecies . Male goldcrests and Madeiran firecrests sometimes show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the common firecrest , but the reverse is apparently not true , because the songs of the common firecrest are simpler in construction than those of its relatives .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Throughout the firecrest 's range , the main predator of small woodland birds is the Eurasian sparrowhawk , which takes avian prey as up to 98 % of its diet . The tawny owl relies more on mammalian catches , but about one @-@ third of its food is forest birds . Eggs and young may be taken by grey squirrels , Eurasian jays and great spotted woodpeckers . The firecrest appears to be virtually unknown as a host of the common cuckoo , a widespread European brood parasite .
The invasive Argentine ant ( Linepithema humile ) is common in the Mediterranean area , and reduces arthropod numbers by removing most native ant species . The reduction in prey items is greatest in the tree canopy , and has a greater effect on species like the firecrest that feed high in the foliage . Less food is available for chicks , and parents have to spend more time foraging .
Data on specific parasites of the firecrest is lacking , but the widespread moorhen flea , Dasypsyllus gallinulae has been recorded in a related Regulus species . A number of feather mites have been recorded in the genus , including Proctophyllodes glandarinus on firecrest . These mites live on fungi growing on the feathers . The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil .
= = Status = =
The common firecrest expanded its range in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries , colonising northern France , followed by first breeding in the Netherlands in 1928 and Denmark in 1961 . In Britain , it had only been recorded a handful of times by 1839 , but first bred in 1962 , and is now widespread as a breeding bird in much of southern England . Milder winters have meant that more birds can winter further north , and therefore the breeding range can expand without incurring the risks involved in lengthy migrations . A population was found in northern Morocco in 1986 .
Population growth may be limited by lack of suitable habitat , and there may be local declines due to loss of conifers through storms or replacement by plantations of native deciduous trees . There may also be localised losses in areas of high heavy metal pollution , which particularly affects ground feeders like thrushes and conifer foliage gleaners , including both European Regulus species . Conifer specialists suffer from the loss and poor quality of needles , and the consequent decrease in abundance of their invertebrate food . The common firecrest has a large range and a population estimated at 10 – 30 million individuals , most in Europe . The population is believed to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or serious threats , and it is therefore classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = In culture = =
Aristotle and Pliny relate the legend of a contest amongst the birds to see who should be their king , the title to be awarded to the one that could fly highest . Initially , it looked as though the eagle would win easily , but as he began to tire , a small bird which had hidden under the eagle 's tail feathers emerged to fly even higher and claimed the title . Following from this legend , in much European folklore the wren has been described as the " king of the birds " or as a flame bearer . However , these terms were also applied to the Regulus species , the fiery crowns of the goldcrest and firecrest making them more likely to be the original bearers of these titles , and , because of the legend 's reference to the " smallest of birds " becoming king , the title was probably transferred to the equally tiny wren . The confusion was assisted by the similarity and consequent interchangeability of the Ancient Greek words for the wren ( βασιλεύς basileus , " king " ) and the crests ( βασιλισκος basiliskos , " kinglet " ) . In English , the association between the firecrest and Eurasian wren was reinforced by the kinglet 's old name of " fire @-@ crested wren " .
= Knock Madness =
Knock Madness is the third studio album by American rapper Hopsin . It was released on November 24 , 2013 , by Funk Volume and distributed by Empire Distribution . Hopsin has said that the overall vibe of the album is different from his previous album Raw and that he has said all he needs to about leaving Ruthless Records . The album contains guest appearances from rappers SwizZz , Dizzy Wright , Jarren Benton , and Tech N9ne , among others . Like its predecessors , the album 's production was entirely handled by Hopsin himself .
Knock Madness was supported by three singles , " Old Friend " , " Hop Is Back " , and " Rip Your Heart Out " , the last of which features Tech N9ne . Hopsin also supported the album with the Fuck It Tour with Yelawolf , and the Knock Madness Tour . Knock Madness was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . The album also peaked at number 76 on the US Billboard 200 and , as of December 2013 , has sold 16 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Background = =
Hopsin spoke about the album in an interview with HipHopDX on August 12 , 2011 , where he said that he was aiming to make the production quality of Knock Madness sound just as good , if not better , than his perception of Dr. Dre 's upcoming album , Detox . He also stated that the album would have a " positive message " and that when people listen to the album he wants them to feel " inspired to be better in life " . On January 20 , 2012 , he stated via his Twitter account that Knock Madness was his main priority in life .
He later spoke on the background of the album 's sound , saying ,
I 'm 28 years old , and I see that I 'm kind of in this weird position . I don 't have many friends in my personal life , but I have so many fans . So when I go outside and people recognize me , it 's kind of a bittersweet feeling , like I don 't recognize the fans . I don 't really have it like they probably think I have it . I 'm really still a loser guy , but I 'm just really popular now . I don 't have a girlfriend no more , and I have this money , but I 'm not satisfied with my life . It 's this weird feeling of being incomplete , and I need to find myself . So that 's kind of what it did to me , and the album just came out with me just fucking rapping some dark shit .
= = Recording and production = =
Following the RAW Tour in mid @-@ 2011 , Hopsin begun working on Knock Madness , though not very heavily . On January 17 , 2012 , fellow Funk Volume rappers SwizZz and Dizzy Wright were confirmed to make appearances on the album . In a March 2012 interview , Hopsin said that he talked to Tech N9ne about appearing on the album , which Tech N9ne agreed to . He also stated in 2012 that he wanted Yelawolf on the album .
In September 2012 , Hopsin confirmed that he would self @-@ produce the majority of the album , with drummer Travis Barker producing one or two tracks . Later that month , Hopsin would indicate interest in working with Childish Gambino . In addition , Hopsin approached Macklemore in January 2013 to get him featured in the album .
In February 2013 , Hopsin stated in an interview that he was currently recording the album , having recorded 18 songs , and that he hoped to have the album completed by June . Hospin begun heavily recording Knock Madness in March 2013 following the end of a long @-@ term relationship , which gave him more time to record and focus on his music . He also indicated the album would be released with a bonus CD that will have all the ' Ill Mind of Hopsin ' songs remastered , however this ultimately did not take place . In October 2013 , Hospin confirmed that he had finished recording the album and had turned it in to Funk Volume , stating he had personally re @-@ mastered the album 20 @-@ 30 times to get the sound just right .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Hopsin detailed the album to The Source saying ,
There 's a variety of music on there . There 's crazy , wild lyrics . There 's sad , emotional lyrics and even funny lyrics . I got serious songs and sad songs . Just a big variety of everything . I wanted to show the full me . I have a lot of people who love me , but I have a lot of haters as well . There are at least one or two songs for someone that doesn 't really like me or what I put out . I think they 'll stumble across a couple songs that will make them go , oh ok , I fucks with him now . I kinda wanted to make an album to show my wide range of music that I can do . I just wanted to show the full me .
In the lead single " Hop Is Back " , Hopsin pokes fun at Kendrick Lamar and disses Kanye West 's newer music . Hopsin clarified his statements in an interview with HipHopDX saying he had no ill feelings towards Kendrick Lamar , and that he dissed West because he disliked his new music . " Tears to Snow " is an emotional song about him and his ex @-@ girlfriend having relationship issues and breaking up . In the song he explains how she would assume he would cheat on her . The second verse is also partly about how Hopsin 's former colleagues have changed and turned against him . For " Rip Your Heart Out " featuring Tech N9ne , Hopsin created what he called a " weird , funky , dope beat that you can just bop your head to . "
Hopsin spoke on " Hip Hop Sinister " saying , " That 's probably the most intense rap song on the album . It 's not a song that 's going to slowly change anybody 's life . It 's just a rap song just have bars and sound dope . The energy on that , you 'll probably hear it and want to cut somebody 's throat . The song just amps you up so much . It 's so hyped to where you want to punch a hole in somebody 's head or punch a hole through the wall . " " Good Guys Get Left Behind " is a love song , that features multiple twists and turns . " Old Friend " is based around a friend of his that became addicted to methamphetamine and the personal issues which he suffered from it . Hopsin has said the meaning of the song was " to show what early wrong decisions can do to youngsters in the long run " , as well as " what they can possibly miss out on . "
" Lunch Time Cypher " was meant to give the feeling of a high school cypher , complete with beatboxing , random , crazy lyrics from Hopsin , and featured artists Passionate MC and G @-@ Mo Skee . The song " What 's My Purpose " is , according to Hopsin , " about a human born into this current dark society . How everybody is doing the same thing . Nobody is really different . And the government has us here to just make money . " He also touches on his race @-@ related arrest after a concert in Orlando , Florida . The album 's outro " Caught In the Rain " discusses about how Hopsin is soul @-@ searching and needing to find himself .
= = Release and promotion = =
In July 2012 , Hopsin released the fifth installment of his " Ill Mind of Hopsin " video series . It received over one million views in less than 24 hours and currently has over 58 million views . In " Ill Mind of Hopsin 5 " , Hopsin expresses his frustration with jaded youth and disenchantment towards other rappers who are unrelatable . The song itself charted at number 17 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital songs chart .
In December 2012 , Hopsin hinted on his Facebook and Twitter pages that him and Travis Barker were working on a project together , though further details were withheld at the time . Then , in late December , Travis Barker revealed that a collaboration EP would be released in 2013 . Then , on February 5 , 2013 , Hopsin announced that production for the EP had been finished .
In February 2013 , Hopsin said the album would be released around September 2013 . The album cover for Knock Madness , as well as the album 's release date of November 26 , 2013 , was revealed at the end of the music video for " Ill Mind Six : Old Friend " . The cover artwork depicts Marcus Hopson burying his rap alter ego Hopsin .
On September 11 , 2013 , Hopsin debuted a new vlog series about the making of the album . The series focused on how he got inspired , came up with lyrics , and mixed the songs for Knock Madness . On November 7 , 2013 , Hopsin released the album 's track listing .
= = = Touring = = =
Hopsin , with the rest of the Funk Volume artists , went on a two @-@ month worldwide tour in late 2012 , which included 58 shows in 60 days throughout the United States , Europe and Australia . From November 14 to November 23 , 2013 , Hopsin toured with Shady Records artist Yelawolf in promotion of Knock Madness on The Fuck It Tour . They toured the West Coast of the United States and Hopsin performed material from the album for the first time . The Knock Madness World Tour began on December 12 , 2013 in Australia . On January 18 , 2014 , the tour moved to North America , starting in Santa Cruz , California . The leg of the tour ran through March 22 , 2014 . Dizzy Wright and DJ Hoppa joined Hopsin on select dates during the North American run of the tour .
= = Singles = =
In an interview with ThisIs50 , Hopsin released information on the album , stating that the first single would be named " Hop Madness " . Hopsin confirmed via his Facebook and Twitter on January 5 , 2012 that he would be shooting the " Hop Madness " video that month . On February 16 , 2012 , Hopsin stated that the music video would be released within the next month . The video was officially released on March 15 , 2012 . The song was ultimately excluded from the album .
On July 17 , 2013 , Hopsin released the music video for " Old Friend " on both his YouTube channel , and the single to iTunes . He later confirmed that the song is not the sixth in the " Ill Mind of Hopsin " series but rather the first single from Knock Madness . On August 18 , 2013 , Hopsin confirmed in a Facebook status that the lead single from Knock Madness , titled " Hop Is Back " , would be released in a couple of weeks . However , the single 's release , with its accompanying music video , was delayed until October 22 , 2013 . " Rip Your Heart Out " , featuring Tech N9ne , was released as the album 's third single on November 12 , 2013 . The same day , Hopsin and Tech N9ne filmed the music video for " Rip Your Heart Out " . The music video for " I Need Help " was released on April 6 , 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
Knock Madness received generally positive reviews from music critics . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 77 , based on 5 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Omar Burgess of HipHopDX classified the album as " Pop @-@ tinged Horrorcore of the highest order " , praising its " catchy hooks , accessible production and subject matter " as well as " Hopsin 's raw technical ability " with regards to lyricism and wordplay . In the end Burgess said , " When he [ Hopsin ] strikes the perfect balance between shock value , raw emotion and his immense skill set , that moment may yield a classic album . " Sheldon Pierce of XXL called Knock Madness " a stepping stone album , one that can only produce even better music in the future " , and noted that the album did well to " serve as a peek into the wildly entertaining thought process of one of hip @-@ hop 's most misunderstood characters . "
Jordan Sowunmi of Exclaim ! stated that the album excels when Hopsin " focuses on external obsessions : ode to amateur skating ' Nollie Tre Flip ' has the most enticingly offbeat rapping on the album , as well as a dizzying internal rhyme scheme , while ' Turn on the Lights ' analogue ' Dream Forever ' is heartfelt and raw . " David Jeffries of AllMusic praised the album 's consistency for providing " shocking lyrics and infectious hooks " , highlighting ' Rip Your Heart Out ' featuring Tech N9ne as a standout track . Dominick Grillo of DJBooth noted that Hopsin 's " technical passionate wordplays offer constant comparisons to Eminem " , concluding that the album is " a dark , often violent creative response to the pressure now resting on Hopsin 's shoulders " , conceding that there are moments when Hopsin " weighs himself ( and the audience ) down with layers upon layers of negativity " , though admitting that the album " works best when Hopsin is either angrily fighting or humorously poking fun at some sort of ludicrosity . "
= = Commercial performance = =
After only being released for three days , Knock Madness debuted at number 132 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 4 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In its first full week the album rose to number 76 on the Billboard 200 , selling 12 @,@ 000 more copies , bringing its total album sales to 16 @,@ 000 according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album has sold 58 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of April 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Hopsin .
= = Personnel = =
Album credits adapted from AllMusic .
Hopsin - executive producer , mixing , primary artist
Jarren Benton - featured artist
Passionate MC - featured artist
G @-@ Mo Skee - featured artist
SwizZz - featured artist
Tech N9ne - featured artist
Dizzy Wright - featured artist
Connor Tingley - art direction
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
Though the album 's release date was originally scheduled for November 26 , 2013 , Funk Volume announced on their Facebook page on November 18 that it would be very hard to find Knock Madness in stores the first week of its release , due to a delay and few stores placing orders for the album . However , instead of pushing back the release date as announced , Funk Volume decided to release the album on its initial date of November 26 , for digital download and compact disc format through their website . The album was then released in compact disc format in retail stores on December 3 , 2013 .
= Diffuse panbronchiolitis =
Diffuse panbronchiolitis ( DPB ) is an inflammatory lung disease of unknown cause . It is a severe , progressive form of bronchiolitis , an inflammatory condition of the bronchioles ( small air passages in the lungs ) . The term diffuse signifies that lesions appear throughout both lungs , while panbronchiolitis refers to inflammation found in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles ( those involved in gas exchange ) . DPB causes severe inflammation and nodule @-@ like lesions of terminal bronchioles , chronic sinusitis , and intense coughing with large amounts of sputum production .
The disease is believed to occur when there is susceptibility , or a lack of immune system resistance , to DPB @-@ causing bacteria or viruses , caused by several genes that are found predominantly in individuals of East Asian descent . The highest incidence occurs among Japanese people , followed by Koreans . DPB occurs more often in males , and usually begins around age 40 . It was recognized as a distinct new disease in the early 1960s , and was formally named diffuse panbronchiolitis in 1969 .
If left untreated , DPB progresses to bronchiectasis , an irreversible lung condition that involves enlargement of the bronchioles , and pooling of mucus in the bronchiolar passages . Daily treatment of DPB with macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin eases symptoms and increases survival time , but the disease currently has no known cure . The eventual result of DPB can be respiratory failure and heart problems .
= = Classification = =
The term " bronchiolitis " generally refers to inflammation of the bronchioles . DPB is classified as a form of " primary bronchiolitis " , which means that the underlying cause of bronchiolitis is originating from or is confined to the bronchioles . Along with DPB , additional forms of primary bronchiolitis include bronchiolitis obliterans , follicular bronchiolitis , respiratory bronchiolitis , mineral dust airway disease , and a number of others . Unlike DPB , bronchiolitis that is not considered " primary " would be associated with diseases of the larger airways , such as chronic bronchitis .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms of DPB include chronic sinusitis ( inflamed paranasal sinuses ) , wheezing , crackles ( respiratory sounds made by obstructions such as phlegm and secretions in the lungs ) , dyspnea ( shortness of breath ) , and a severe cough that yields large amounts of sputum ( coughed @-@ up phlegm ) . There may be pus in the sputum , and affected individuals may have fever . Typical signs of DPB progression include dilation ( enlargement ) of the bronchiolar passages and hypoxemia ( low levels of oxygen in the blood ) . If DPB is left untreated , bronchiectasis will occur ; it is characterized by dilation and thickening of the walls of the bronchioles , inflammatory damage to respiratory and terminal bronchioles , and pooling of mucus in the lungs . DPB is associated with progressive respiratory failure , hypercapnia ( increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood ) , and can eventually lead to pulmonary hypertension ( high blood pressure in the pulmonary vein and artery ) and cor pulmonale ( dilation of the right ventricle of the heart , or " right heart failure " ) .
= = Cause = =
DPB is idiopathic , which means an exact physiological , environmental , or pathogenic cause of the disease is unknown . However , several factors are suspected to be involved with its pathogenesis ( the way in which the disease works ) .
The major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) is a large genomic region found in most vertebrates that is associated with the immune system . It is located on chromosome 6 in humans . A subset of MHC in humans is human leukocyte antigen ( HLA ) , which controls the antigen @-@ presenting system , as part of adaptive immunity against pathogens such as bacteria and viruses . When human cells are infected by a pathogen , some of them can present parts of the pathogen 's proteins on their surfaces ; this is called " antigen presentation " . The infected cells then become targets for types of cytotoxic T @-@ cells , which kill the infected cells so they can be removed from the body .
Genetic predisposition for DPB susceptibility has been localized to two HLA haplotypes ( a nucleotide or gene sequence difference between paired chromosomes , that is more likely to occur among a common ethnicity or trait ) common to people of East Asian descent . HLA @-@ B54 is associated with DPB in the Japanese , while HLA @-@ A11 is associated with the disease in Koreans . Several genes within this region of class I HLA are believed to be responsible for DPB , by allowing increased susceptibility to the disease . The common genetic background and similarities in the HLA profile of affected Japanese and Korean individuals were considered in the search for a DPB gene . It was suggested that a mutation of a suspected disease @-@ susceptibility gene located somewhere between HLA @-@ B and HLA @-@ A had occurred on an ancestral chromosome carrying both HLA @-@ B54 and HLA @-@ A11 . Further , it is possible that a number of genetic recombination events around the disease locus ( location on a chromosome ) could have resulted in the disease being associated with HLA @-@ B54 in the Japanese and HLA @-@ A11 in Koreans . After further study , it was concluded that a DPB susceptibility gene is located near the HLA @-@ B locus at chromosome 6p21.3. Within this area , the search for a genetic cause of the disease has continued .
Because many genes belonging to HLA remain unidentified , positional cloning ( a method used to identify a specific gene , when only its location on a chromosome is known ) has been used to determine that a mucin @-@ like gene is associated with DPB . In addition , diseases caused by identified HLA genes in the DPB @-@ susceptibility region have been investigated . One of these , bare lymphocyte syndrome I ( BLS I ) , exhibits a number of similarities with DPB in those affected , including chronic sinusitis , bronchiolar inflammation and nodules , and the presence of H. influenzae . Also like DPB , BLS I responds favorably to erythromycin therapy by showing a resolution of symptoms . The similarities between these two diseases , the corresponding success with the same mode of treatment , and the fact that the gene responsible for BLS I is located within the DPB @-@ causing area of HLA narrows the establishment of a gene responsible for DPB . Environmental factors such as inhaling toxic fumes and cigarette smoking are not believed to play a role in DPB , and unknown environmental and other non @-@ genetic causes — such as unidentified bacteria or viruses — have not been ruled out .
Cystic fibrosis ( CF ) , a progressive multi @-@ system lung disease , has been considered in the search for a genetic cause of DPB . This is for a number of reasons . CF , like DPB , causes severe lung inflammation , abundant mucus production , infection , and shows a genetic predominance among Caucasians of one geographic group to the rarity of others ; whereas DPB dominates among East Asians , CF mainly affects individuals of European descent . While no gene has been implicated as the cause of DPB , mutation in a specific gene — much more likely to occur in Europeans — causes CF . This mutation in the CF @-@ causing gene is not a factor in DPB , but a unique polymorphism ( variation ) in this gene is known to occur in many Asians not necessarily affected by either disease . It is being investigated whether this gene in any state of mutation could contribute to DPB .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Inflammation is a normal part of the human immune response , whereby leukocytes ( white blood cells ) , including neutrophils ( white blood cells that specialize in causing inflammation ) , gather , and chemokines ( proteins released from certain cells , which activate or elicit a response from other cells ) accumulate at any location in the body where bacterial or viral infections occur . Inflammation interferes with the activity of bacteria and viruses , and serves to clear them from the body . In DPB , bacteria such as Haemophilus influenzae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa can cause the proliferation of inflammatory cells into the bronchiolar tissues . However , when neither bacteria are present with DPB , the inflammation continues for an as yet unknown reason . In either circumstance , inflammation in DPB can be so severe that nodules containing inflammatory cells form in the walls of the bronchioles . The presence of inflammation and infection in the airways also results in the production of excess mucus , which must be coughed up as sputum . The combination of inflammation , nodule development , infection , mucus , and frequent cough contributes to the breathing difficulties in DPB .
The fact that inflammation in DPB persists with or without the presence of P. aeruginosa and H. influenzae provides a means to determine several mechanisms of DPB pathogenesis . Leukotrienes are eicosanoids , signaling molecules made from essential fatty acids , which play a role in many lung diseases by causing the proliferation of inflammatory cells and excess mucus production in the airways . In DPB and other lung diseases , the predominant mediator of neutrophil @-@ related inflammation is leukotriene B4 , which specializes in neutrophil proliferation via chemotaxis ( the movement of some types of cells toward or away from certain molecules ) .
Inflammation in DPB is also caused by the chemokine MIP @-@ 1alpha and its involvement with CD8 + T cells . Beta defensins , a family of antimicrobial peptides found in the respiratory tract , are responsible for further inflammation in DPB when a pathogen such as P. aeruginosa is present . If present with DPB , the human T @-@ lymphotropic virus , type I , a retrovirus , modifies DPB pathogenesis by infecting T helper cells and altering their effectiveness in recognizing the presence of known or unknown pathogens involved with DPB .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of DPB requires analysis of the lungs and bronchiolar tissues , which can require a lung biopsy , or the more preferred high resolution computed tomography ( HRCT ) scan of the lungs . The diagnostic criteria include severe inflammation in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles and lung tissue lesions that appear as nodules within the terminal and respiratory bronchioles in both lungs . The nodules in DPB appear as opaque lumps when viewed on X @-@ rays of the lung , and can cause airway obstruction , which is evaluated by a pulmonary function test , or PFT . Lung X @-@ rays can also reveal dilation of the bronchiolar passages , another sign of DBP . HRCT scans often show blockages of some bronchiolar passages with mucus , which is referred to as the " tree @-@ in @-@ bud " pattern . Hypoxemia , another sign of breathing difficulty , is revealed by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood , using a blood test called arterial blood gas . Other findings observed with DPB include the proliferation of lymphocytes ( white blood cells that fight infection ) , neutrophils , and foamy histiocytes ( tissue macrophages ) in the lung lining . Bacteria such as H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa are also detectable , with the latter becoming more prominent as the disease progresses . The white blood , bacterial and other cellular content of the blood can be measured by taking a complete blood count ( CBC ) . Elevated levels of IgG and IgA ( classes of immunoglobulins ) may be seen , as well as the presence of rheumatoid factor ( an indicator of autoimmunity ) . Hemagglutination , a clumping of red blood cells in response to the presence of antibodies in the blood , may also occur . Neutrophils , beta @-@ defensins , leukotrienes , and chemokines can also be detected in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid injected then removed from the bronchiolar airways of individuals with DPB , for evaluation .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
In the differential diagnosis ( finding the correct diagnosis between diseases that have overlapping features ) of some obstructive lung diseases , DPB is often considered . A number of DPB symptoms resemble those found with other obstructive lung diseases such as asthma , chronic bronchitis , and emphysema . Wheezing , coughing with sputum production , and shortness of breath are common symptoms in such diseases , and obstructive respiratory functional impairment is found on pulmonary function testing . Cystic fibrosis , like DPB , causes severe lung inflammation , excess mucus production , and infection ; but DPB does not cause disturbances of the pancreas nor the electrolytes , as does CF , so the two diseases are different and probably unrelated . DPB is distinguished by the presence of lesions that appear on X @-@ rays as nodules in the bronchioles of both lungs ; inflammation in all tissue layers of the respiratory bronchioles ; and its higher prevalence among individuals with East Asian lineage .
DPB and bronchiolitis obliterans are two forms of primary bronchiolitis . Specific overlapping features of both diseases include strong cough with large amounts of often pus @-@ filled sputum ; nodules viewable on lung X @-@ rays in the lower bronchi and bronchiolar area ; and chronic sinusitis . In DPB , the nodules are more restricted to the respiratory bronchioles , while in OB they are often found in the membranous bronchioles ( the initial non @-@ cartilaginous section of the bronchiole , that divides from the tertiary bronchus ) up to the secondary bronchus . OB is a bronchiolar disease with worldwide prevalence , while DPB has more localized prevalence , predominantly in Japan . Prior to clinical recognition of DPB in recent years , it was often misdiagnosed as bronchiectasia , COPD , IPF , phthisis miliaris , sarcoidosis or alveolar cell carcinoma .
= = Treatment = =
Macrolide antibiotics , such as erythromycin , are an effective treatment for DPB when taken regularly over an extended period of time . Clarithromycin or roxithromycin are also commonly used . The successful results of macrolides in DPB and similar lung diseases stems from managing certain symptoms through immunomodulation ( adjusting the immune response ) , which can be achieved by taking the antibiotics in low doses . Treatment consists of daily oral administration of erythromycin for two to three years , an extended period that has been shown to dramatically improve the effects of DPB . This is apparent when an individual undergoing treatment for DPB , among a number of disease @-@ related remission criteria , has a normal neutrophil count detected in BAL fluid , and blood gas ( an arterial blood test that measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood ) readings show that free oxygen in the blood is within the normal range . Allowing a temporary break from erythromycin therapy in these instances has been suggested , to reduce the formation of macrolide @-@ resistant P. aeruginosa . However , DPB symptoms usually return , and treatment would need to be resumed . Although highly effective , erythromycin may not prove successful in all individuals with the disease , particularly if macrolide @-@ resistant P. aeruginosa is present or previously untreated DPB has progressed to the point where respiratory failure is occurring .
With erythromycin therapy in DPB , great reduction in bronchiolar inflammation and damage is achieved through suppression of not only neutrophil proliferation , but also lymphocyte activity and obstructive mucus and water secretions in airways . The antibiotic effects of macrolides are not involved in their beneficial effects toward reducing inflammation in DPB . This is evident because the treatment dosage is much too low to fight infection , and in DPB cases with the occurrence of macrolide @-@ resistant P. aeruginosa , erythromycin therapy still reduces inflammation .
A number of factors are involved in suppression of inflammation by erythromycin and other macrolides . They are especially effective at inhibiting the proliferation of neutrophils , by diminishing the ability of interleukin 8 and leukotriene B4 to attract them . Macrolides also reduce the efficiency of adhesion molecules that allow neutrophils to stick to bronchiolar tissue linings . Mucus production in the airways is a major culprit in the morbidity and mortality of DPB and other respiratory diseases . The significant reduction of inflammation in DPB attributed to erythromycin therapy also helps to inhibit the production of excess mucus .
= = Prognosis = =
Untreated DPB leads to bronchiectasis , respiratory failure , and death . A journal report from 1983 indicated that untreated DPB had a five @-@ year survival rate of 62 @.@ 1 % , while the 10 @-@ year survival rate was 33 @.@ 2 % . With erythromycin treatment , individuals with DPB now have a much longer life expectancy due to better management of symptoms , delay of progression , and prevention of associated infections like P. aeruginosa . The 10 @-@ year survival rate for treated DPB is about 90 % . In DPB cases where treatment has resulted in significant improvement , which sometimes happens after about two years , treatment has been allowed to end for a while . However , individuals allowed to stop treatment during this time are closely monitored . As DPB has been proven to recur , erythromycin therapy must be promptly resumed once disease symptoms begin to reappear . In spite of the improved prognosis when treated , DPB currently has no known cure .
= = Epidemiology = =
DPB has its highest prevalence among the Japanese , at 11 per 100 @,@ 000 population . Korean , Chinese , and Thai individuals with the disease have been reported as well . A genetic predisposition among East Asians is suggested . The disease is more common in males , with the male to female ratio at 1 @.@ 4 – 2 : 1 ( or about 5 men to 3 women ) . The average onset of the disease is around age 40 , and two @-@ thirds of those affected are non @-@ smokers , although smoking is not believed to be a cause . The presence of HLA @-@ Bw54 increases the risk of diffuse panbronchiolitis 13 @.@ 3 @-@ fold .
In Europe and the Americas , a relatively small number of DPB cases have been reported in Asian immigrants and residents , as well as in individuals of non @-@ Asian ancestry . Misdiagnosis has occurred in the West owing to less recognition of the disease than in Asian countries . Relative to the large number of Asians living in the west , the small number of them thought to be affected by DPB suggests non @-@ genetic factors may play some role in its cause . This rarity seen in Western Asians may also be partly associated with misdiagnosis .
= = History = =
In the early 1960s , a relatively new chronic lung disease was being observed and described by physicians in Japan . In 1969 , the name " diffuse panbronchiolitis " was introduced to distinguish it from chronic bronchitis , emphysema , alveolitis , and other obstructive lung disease with inflammation . Between 1978 and 1980 , results of a nationwide survey initiated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan revealed more than 1 @,@ 000 probable cases of DPB , with 82 histologically confirmed . By the 1980s , it was internationally recognized as a distinct disease of the lungs .
Before the 1980s , the prognosis or expected outcome of DPB was poor , especially in cases with superinfection ( the emergence of a new viral or bacterial infection , in addition to the currently occurring infection ) by P. aeruginosa . DPB continued to have a very high mortality rate before generalized antibiotic treatment and oxygen therapy were beginning to be used routinely in the effort to manage symptoms . Around 1985 , when long @-@ term treatment with the antibiotic erythromycin became the standard for managing DPB , the prognosis significantly improved . In 1990 , the association of DPB with HLA was initially asserted .
= Cottalango Leon =
Cottalango Leon ( born 1971 ) is an Indian @-@ American computer graphics technician who won the Academy Award for scientific and technical achievement jointly with Sam Richards and J. Robert Ray in 2016 .
Leon won the Academy Award for " the design , engineering and continuous development " of Sony Pictures Imageworks itView technology , a digital 3D film review software . Leon worked on the itView technology for eight years as the chief contributor .
Schooled in India , Leon is an Arizona State University alumnus . He has worked at Sony Pictures Imageworks since 1996 , and has contributed to the making of several commercially successful films , including the Spider @-@ Man film series and the Men In Black film series .
= = Early life and family = =
Leon was born at his mother 's family residence in Thoothukudi , Tamil Nadu in 1971 . Both his parents – mother Rajam Mariasingam and father Loorthu – were primary school teachers . When Leon was young , his parents moved from the south of Tamil Nadu to Coimbatore . Leon 's early years were spent in this city – a place he still visits every two years .
Leon attended the Government High School at Kallapalayam , a village in the Sultanpet Block of Coimbatore . After studying here till grade VII , he studied from grade VIII to grade XII at Kadri Mills High School in Coimbatore . During his childhood , Leon became interested in the subjects of mathematics and science , and also developed , as per him , a keen interest in " the visual aspect of movies " . Subsequently , Leon attended college at the PSG College of Technology from 1988 till 1992 , completing his Bachelors of Engineering degree in computer science . He completed his M.S in computer science from Arizona State University in 1996 , specialising in computer graphics .
Leon married Roopa in 2001 . Roopa also belongs to southern Tamil Nadu , having lived there till her marriage to Leon . The couple have a daughter Shruthi and live in Culver City .
= = Career = =
After graduating , Leon joined the New Delhi firm Softek LLC and worked with them for two years till 1994 . As per Leon , during this time , he became inspired by Jurassic Park after watching the film and decided to pursue his career in the technologies used in its making . After completing the master 's degree at Arizona State University in 1996 , Leon worked for a short time as a game programmer with DreamWorks Interactive , before joining Sony Pictures Imageworks in 1996 , where he continues working to date , currently holding the position of Principal Software Engineer .
At Imageworks , as per Leon , he was asked to develop an improved digital film review software as an alternative to a then existing software . Leon released the initial version within two months of having been assigned the job ; after receiving positive feedback from the artists using the software , Leon kept updating various functionalities of the software over the years . This digital 3D film review software , itView , led Leon to get an Academy Award in 2016 . Leon mentions working alone on the project for many years , and that he was over time given a team when the project achieved significant growth . In a 2016 media interview , Leon says that he worked on the itView technology for eight years as the chief contributor .
To date , Leon has worked on several commercially successful films , including Stuart Little , the Spider @-@ Man film series , the Men In Black film series , Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs , The Smurfs , Hotel Transylvania , and Open Season .
= = 2016 Academy Award = =
Leon , at the age of 44 , won the 2016 Academy Award for scientific and technical achievement for " the design , engineering and continuous development " of Sony Pictures Imageworks itView technology . In a ceremony held on 13 February 2016 at Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills , California , Leon received the Academy Award jointly with Sam Richards and J. Robert Ray . As per the Academy , these set of awards are bestowed upon individuals who have contributed significantly over time – and not necessarily in the past year – to the motion picture industry .
Richard Edlund , Chair of the Scientific and Technical Awards Committee at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences praised the " outstanding , innovative work " of awardees , adding that their contributions " have further expanded filmmakers ’ creative opportunities ... ” The Academy 's award citation praised itView 's API plugin and varied functionalities , mentioning that " itView provides an intuitive and flexible creative review environment that can be deployed globally for highly efficient collaboration . " Leon said that " the award was not totally unexpected " but that it felt " good to be recognised by the Academy and the wider industry . "
= Jeff Wooller =
Herbert Jeffrey " Jeff " Wooller ( born 6 March 1940 ) is an English accountant and educationalist . He is noted for his accountancy tuition initiatives , and for campaigning for reform of his professional institute , the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales . The institute eventually excluded him from its membership because of his association with the Irish International University , Irish University Business School and International University Business School . Wooller has founded several educational institutions such as the Jeff Wooller College , Institute of Professional Financial Managers and Irish University Business School .
= = Early life and career = =
Born in Yorkshire , Wooller attended Millbridge Upper School and Heckmondwike Grammar School . He began his career as a banker , which took him to Bangladesh and Pakistan . When he returned to Yorkshire , he took a job with Peat Marwick , an accounting firm . In 1970 , Wooller attended the London School of Economics to take a two @-@ year Master of Science in accounting and finance . After the course ended in 1972 , he went to Cass Business School and received a Doctor of Philosophy . At Cass Business School , Wooller together with Dr Peter Grinyer conducted extensive research into the corporate models of projects sponsored by the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales .
In January 1974 , he was appointed technical editor of Accountancy , with special responsibilities in industry and commerce . He created the " Students forum " section of Accountancy and also edited the " Students ask " section . He is also a former editor of The Treasurer , the monthly journal of the Association of Corporate Treasurers and contributed to Accounting and Business Research . He has previously worked as a management accountant with Tate & Lyle plc and Imperial Chemical Industries . On 2 November 1987 , Wooller was appointed editor of The Accountant .
In the 1980s , Wooller set up referral courses in the United Kingdom costing £ 500 , which were offered on a " no pass no fee " basis provided the student had completed a 200 @-@ hour work programme and a minimum of 10 tests . In 1985 , Wooller called for an appeals procedure to be implemented for students who were unsuccessful in getting an extension to the normal time limit for completing examinations .
In 2007 , Wooller lost his membership as an Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Financial Accountants after appearing on television . He had made statements that discredited the professional body and accountancy .
= = Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales = =
Wooller was a dissident member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales ( ICAEW ) . In 1991 , Wo
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oller accused the ICAEW of having built @-@ in bias when it marked examinations during a recession , and used PE II ( Professional Education II ) results to show the bias . Wooller was fined by the ICAEW in 1995 for promoting unaccredited MBA courses . Wooller formed a ginger group when the ICAEW tried to merge with the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants ( CIMA ) in 1995 . Wooller 's ginger group opposed many of the actions of the ICAEW . The merger was shelved after the majority of the ICAEW members voted against it . The ginger group decided to keep fighting for democratic reforms and in June 1996 , demanded that the executive of the ICAEW be elected directly by the 109 @,@ 000 members of the body , instead of by the ICAEW 's council of seventy members . A year later , Wooller demanded that members of the ICAEW be allowed to vote on Peter Gerrard 's key constitutional reform proposals , and Wooller 's motion failed by 1 @,@ 400 votes , including proxies .
In April 1998 , Wooller claimed that the council of the ICAEW was obstructing his campaign to increase democracy after it refused to allow the original text of motions that were to be published to be heard at the annual general meeting in June 1998 . Wooller 's first motion was about electing the president of the ICAEW democratically by ballot . The other two motions came about from the Gerrard report . The second motion said the district societies should be self @-@ financing and the third motion was on reducing the number of council members to fifty @-@ three . The first motion used a quotation from an Accountancy Age interview with council member Ian Hay Davison , and Wooller was told to stop circulating Hay Davison 's quotation after he objected to being quoted . The ICAEW asked members to vote on an increase in the number of council members from seventy @-@ five after requests made in the Gerrard report . Wooller asked members to reduce the number of council members to fifty @-@ three , which was recommended by the Gerrard report as the ideal council quota . A 54 % majority of the ICAEW members supported Wooller 's motion to reduce the number .
Another merger was proposed , this time between the ICAEW , CIMA , and CIPFA . Wooller said that his ginger group was " on full alert to mobilise against any proposed merger . " He also said that " we have all made huge sacrifices to become ICAEW members . We could all easily have taken CIMA or CIPFA without having to make any sacrifices " , believing that differing standards of education were the greatest obstacle . Wooller also said that if the merger was to go ahead , the council of the super @-@ institute could change the accounting examinations system and qualifications . The merger between the three institutes never took place .
The ICAEW received praise from Wooller for its efforts to promote the ACA ( ICAEW Chartered Accountant ) qualification in China in 2007 . In a letter to Accountancy Age , Wooller went on to say that " there is also huge potential for our qualification in India and Eastern Europe . " Wooller was excluded from the ICAEW in October 2009 after acting as the vice @-@ chancellor of the Irish International University , Irish University Business School and International University Business School and not stopping it from confusing students or employers . He was not present at his disciplinary tribunal and had made no final written submissions to the tribunal .
= = Organisations = =
Wooller founded the Jeff Wooller College which was based in London . It provided a wide range of courses including ACCA , CIMA , CAT and AIA courses . In 1995 , Wooller denied involvement in a visa scam with the Jeff Wooller College . In the 1990s , Wooller sold the business to Felix Orogun and in 2008 , it was renamed to Holborn School of Finance and Management following bad publicity about Wooller .
Wooller founded the Capital Barter Corporation International ( CBCI ) in May 1996 ; it was dissolved in February 2009 . He is also the chief executive of the Institute of Professional Financial Managers and founder of the Irish University Business School . He also owned James Good Developments Limited and was involved with St. Clements University .
Wooller is a former honorary chancellor of the Irish International University . When the university was investigated by the BBC , Wooller told them that the university was not recognised anywhere and its website was " a figment of someone 's imagination . Someone 's dreamt up what a university should look like , and that 's what 's on the website . " He admitted that the university 's operations were dodgy . Wooller had previously raised issues with Hardeep Singh Sandhu , the owner of the university , regarding its non @-@ existent campus and accreditation by the Quality Assurance Commission , an organisation owned by Sandhu . Wooller 's response to the BBC London investigation was published by Accountancy Age .
= = Personal life = =
Wooller has million @-@ pound properties in Kensington and Monte Carlo and lives as a tax exile in Monte Carlo .
= = Publications = =
Grinyer , Peter ; Wooller , Jeff ( 1973 ) . Corporate Financial Modelling in the U.K. , Preliminary Results of a Survey . City University Graduate Business Centre . OCLC 500430694 .
Grinyer , Peter ; Wooller , Jeff ( 1975 ) . Corporate Models Today : a new tool for financial management . Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales . ISBN 9780852911044 .
Grinyer , Peter ; Wooller , Jeff ( February 1975 ) . " Computer models for corporate planning " . Long Range Planning 8 ( 1 ) : 14 – 25 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0024 @-@ 6301 ( 75 ) 90113 @-@ 2 .
Dickinson , D ; Garner , P ; Lewis , J ; Wooller , Jeff ( 1977 ) . Financial Management Handbook . Sweet & Maxwell . ISBN 9780903393331 .
Grinyer , Peter ; Wooller , Jeff ( Winter 1980 ) . " An Overview of a Decade of Corporate Modelling in the UK " . Accounting and Business Research 11 ( 41 ) : 41 – 49 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 00014788 @.@ 1980 @.@ 9729679 .
Wooller , Jeff ( 1981 ) . Wooller 's Guide to PE II : The Exam @-@ Room Approach .
= Portrait of Madame Cézanne =
Portrait of Madame Cézanne ( sometimes Portrait of Mrs. Cézanne ) is a 1962 Pop art painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is a quotation of Erle Loran 's diagram of a Cézanne painting of the same name . It was one of the works exhibited at Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition in Los Angeles . The work became controversial in that it led to a reconsideration of what constitutes art .
Lichtenstein and Loran sparred in the press , and art critics were intrigued by the viewpoints of the two . Loran 's view was that Lichtenstein had plagiarized his work , and at one point filed suit . Lichtenstein felt that he was making a statement with his painting on the ridiculous attempt by Loran to explain Cézanne by diagram . The press frequently used the word transformation when crediting Lichtenstein 's work , but Lichtenstein attempted not to accept the association of his work with that word .
= = Background = =
Portrait of Madame Cézanne was exhibited along with works such as Man with Folded Arms at Lichtentein 's first Pop exhibition in Los Angeles . The linear twice @-@ removed black @-@ and @-@ white ( along with Man with Folded Arms ) is regarded as a quotation of Erle Loran 's outline diagram of Cézanne 's compositional methods published in a diagram book called Cézanne 's Composition . The book was popular in the academic community . Loran 's representation in a " harsh black outline " depicted the axes of the composition without representing the " texture and expressiveness of Cézanne 's original . " In fact , Loran stated that " this diagrammatic approach may seem coldly analytical to those who like vagueness and poetry in art criticism . " Loran 's diagrammatic techniques were standard at the time ; redrawn outlines of the figure were illustrated with alphabetized arrows to identify areas and directions . The diagram highlighted body part positioning without studying the painted surface .
According to John Coplans 's Roy Lichtenstein , the artist was fascinated by the drawings : " isolating the woman out of the context of the painting seemed to Lichtenstein to be such an oversimplification of a complex issue as to be ironical in itself " ; the oversimplification referred to was Loran 's representing Cézanne 's work with nothing more than black lines . The work marked the first of Lichtenstein 's " artistic appropriations of the canonical works of Modernism " that resulted from his realization of the interrelation " between avant @-@ garde and kitsch " .
= = Description = =
The two images garnered attention among critics by highlighting the nuances between copying and creating art , between real and fake art . As Andy Warhol challenged the status quo by " humanizing mass @-@ produced product " , Lichtenstein dehumanized masterpieces . This demonstrates " that the quotation of popular culture was not the sign of intelligence suspended but rather the shape of thought . "
The publication of this work was considered by some observers as more sacrilegious than Duchamp 's revisions to the Mona Lisa . Loran wrote two hot @-@ tempered letters in response . In September 1963 issues of ARTnews and Artforum , His articles were written after Lichtenstein 's first Pop exhibition in Los Angeles , which featured the two life @-@ sized works depicting Loran 's images . Loran , whose text was by this time over twenty years old , even attempted to sue Lichtenstein . According to David Deitcher , " The angrier of the two tracts appeared in Art News , where Loran openly expressed his contempt for Lichtenstein 's work and hinted at his desire to sue . " :
In a recent sell @-@ out exhibition at the Ferus Gallery , Los Angeles , he [ Lichtenstein ] gave the title of Portrait of Mme. Cézanne to the black and white line drawing on bare canvas reproduced here . Sale price : $ 2000 , or more . I suppose I should be flattered that a diagrammatic sketch of mine should be worth so much . But then , no one has paid me anything — so far .
One critic noted that although Loran was making instructive points with his diagram , Lichtenstein 's was an artistic statement . However , Loran was joined by Brian O 'Doherty , a critic with The New York Times , in ridiculing the defense of Pop art as transformative rather than appropriationist art . In 1963 , O 'Doherty wrote his belief that Lichtenstein 's work was not art in The New York Times saying , he was " one of the worst artists in America " who " briskly went about making a sow 's ear out of a sow 's ear . " Loran felt Pop art paled in comparison to the aesthetics of Abstract Expressionism . Lichtenstein did not accept the transformation defense . Other critics got involved in the matter , with Gene Swenson querying Lichtenstein " about the charges of antagonistic critics ' that Pop Art does not transform its models . " Lichtenstein responded that art forms but does not transform . Max Kozloff opined that Loran was being mocked and that while Lichtenstein 's product had didactic content , its purpose and need was questionable . Kozloff worried in The Nation that Lichtenstein 's work may lead to the values that modern art held being rejected moving forward .
The painting is regarded as " another of his comments on the way in which we view art . " The work , along with his Femme au Chapeau from 1962 mark the beginnings of Lichtenstein 's presentations of art about art because it was among his first paintings that drew upon a predecessor artist . Lichtenstein noted his objection to the attempt to reduce art diagrammatically : " I wasn 't trying to berate Erle Loran ... but it is such an oversimplification trying to explain a painting by A , B , C. " He also noted that " The Cézanne is such a complex painting . Taking an outline and calling it Madame Cézanne is in itself humorous , particularly the idea of diagramming a Cézanne when Cézanne said , ' ... the outline escaped me . ' "
Lichtenstein obtained legal validation that his work was original when Loran 's lawsuit was dismissed , clearing the way for artists to elaborate on images produced by others .
= Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals =
The Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals is a non @-@ profit museum in Hillsboro , Oregon , United States . Located just north of the Sunset Highway on the northern edge of Hillsboro , the earth science museum is in the Portland metropolitan area . Opened in 1997 , the museum ’ s collections date to the 1930s with the museum housed in a home built to display the rock and mineral collections of the museum founders . The ranch style home is listed on the National Register of Historic Places , the first of its kind listed in Oregon .
The museum sits on 23 wooded acres ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) , with the main building containing 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) of space . Collections include petrified wood , various fossils , fluorescent minerals , meteorites , zeolites , and a variety of other minerals . With more than 20 @,@ 000 specimens , the museum is the largest of its kind in the Pacific Northwest . The facility has around 25 @,@ 000 visitors each year , many of whom are on school tours .
= = History = =
Richard L. Rice married Helen Hart in 1932 and the couple began rock collecting in 1938 after finding agates along the Oregon Coast . In 1952 the Rices built a new home north of Hillsboro on 30 acres ( 12 @.@ 1 ha ) that would later house the museum . The Rices founded a museum in 1953 to display their collections . Their collections won them the Woodruff Trophy three years in a row at the Tucson Gem & Mineral Show , which led to that trophy 's retirement . Helen served as president of the American Federation of Mineralogical Societies from 1959 to 1960 .
In 1996 the Rices established the non @-@ profit museum . Richard and Helen Rice both died in 1997 with the home passing to the non @-@ profit museum as part of their estate . In 1997 the Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals officially opened . In June 2000 , 94 pieces from the F. John Barlow collection of crystallized gold were added to the museum . The facility opened an exhibit in 2001 dedicated to the lapidary arts , and by that time the museum had grown to more than 4 @,@ 000 items .
The museum opened a new gallery in January 2003 to feature petrified wood . Rudy W. Tschernich was named curator in June 2003 , replacing Sharleen Harvey . In 2004 the Cascadia Meteorite Laboratory at Portland State University loaned the museum 52 meteorites in an exhibit funded by NASA . Attendance had grown to around 15 @,@ 000 in 2004 .
In 2005 the North America Research Group unearthed the fossilized remains of a thalattosuchian crocodile from the Jurassic period in Central Oregon . The museum plans on displaying these fossils after they are studied . Later in 2005 , the 1 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 170 m2 ) Northwest Minerals Gallery opened in a former storeroom at the museum after renovations totaling $ 150 @,@ 000 .
By 2007 the museum received 25 @,@ 000 visitors each year , mainly from school groups . In August 2008 the museum opened a retail gift shop in The Streets of Tanasbourne shopping center , and closed it in December 2009 due to the economic recession . This satellite gift shop was to be a temporary endeavor , and was designed in part to help drive traffic to the museum . By 2010 the museum 's collections had grown to more than 20 @,@ 000 specimens , and still had about 25 @,@ 000 visitors annually , with about 18 @,@ 000 coming from school field trips . Tschernich stepped down as curator in 2011 , with Lara O 'Dwyer @-@ Brown taking over the position in 2012 . Brown left in 2014 , with Julian Gray hired as executive director and Leslie Moclock as curator in May 2014 .
= = Collections = =
The museum is the largest of its kind in the Pacific Northwest with more than 20 @,@ 000 items . The specimens come from around the world , many personally unearthed by the Rices . Bill Dameron of The Mineralogical Record named the museum as having the best mineral specimens in the Pacific Northwest . The collections include gemstones , minerals , fossils , meteorites , and some artifacts .
Gemstones include rubies , diamonds , rhodochrosite , opal , emerald , and amethyst among others . Fossils include shark teeth , coprolites , or fossilized dung , petrified wood , dinosaur eggs , trilobites , and a baby dinosaur of the Psittacosaurus genus . One display features all 12 birthstones with a version of each in its natural state and as finished gemstones , along with the same before and after for other gemstones such as aquamarine . Around 1 @,@ 000 of the specimens at the museum are only viewable using a microscope .
One gallery , the Rainbow Gallery , is designed to showcase rocks and minerals that have phosphorescent or fluorescent elements that allow them to glow in the dark . An automated system uses a lighting cycle that includes ultraviolet lights to energize the rocks . A large portion of the petrified wood comes from the collection of Dennis and Mary Murphy . Their collection , which is in excess of 450 items and includes a log of white oak weighing 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 544 kg ) , was combined with the Rice Museum 's existing pieces . The log is from Eastern Oregon and is estimated to have lived more than 15 million years ago . The petrified wood specimens come from Oregon , Washington , and as far away as Argentina and Australia . Other fossils include those of cycads , palms , and ferns .
The main rhodochrosite attraction is the " Alma Rose " from the Sweet Home Mine in Colorado . The Alma Rose includes crystals measuring up to 9 @.@ 5 cm in length along with quartz and calcite highlights . The Rices once owned the complementary " Alma King " rhodochrosite from the same mine , but sold the piece to the Coors Brewing Company , who then donated it to the Denver Natural History Museum . The two stones had been purchased by the couple for US $ 800 @,@ 000 . Other rhodochrosite specimens include those from mines in Arizona . The museum also has a collection of 107 gold pieces from the F. John Barlow collection featuring items such as a 42 troy ounce ( 1 @.@ 31 kg ) ) leaf and pieces mined from the Ace of Diamonds mine in Liberty , Washington . One of the museum 's pieces , a sperrylite from Russia , is considered one of the finest in the world .
Individual items on display include coprolite from Mongolia , a 500 @-@ pound ( 227 kg ) piece of the lightweight volcanic rock pumice , obsidian and basalt . One specimen on display is a 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) wide plate with clear quartz crystals , epidote crystals measuring as large as 10 cm and translucent calcite scalenohedrons , and comes from Green Monster Mountain on Alaska 's Prince of Wales Island . The collection includes a cycad fossil dating from the Jurassic era that weighs 500 pounds ( 227 kg ) . One meteorite is the Gibeon meteorite which weighs 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) and came from the African nation of Namibia . The world 's largest known opal @-@ filled thunderegg , weighing 1 @.@ 75 tons ( 1600 kg ) , is housed at the museum . The thunderegg is Oregon 's state rock . Other items include azurite , Oregon sunstone , amber , copper crystals , zeolites , morganite , and agate among others .
= = Programs = =
The Rice Museum offers a variety of public programs , including hands @-@ on classes for children where participants make necklaces out of rocks . It hosts an annual summer festival with events such as thunderegg cutting and demonstrations of gold panning . The facility has hosted the Northwest Fossil Fest . The museum offers tours for school groups and other youth programs , often handling multiple groups each day . Children in the school tours get to select a stone to take home from a pile outside . The museum is open Wednesday through Sunday .
= = Facilities = =
The museum and grounds are located on the north side of the Sunset Highway west of Portland between the Helvetia Road and Jackson School Road exits . Situated on 23 acres ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) of mostly forested land , the museum is housed in the historic Richard and Helen Rice House , built as a single family residence . Completed in 1952 , the home was built of Arizona flagstone on the exterior and wood native to Oregon , including curly maple and myrtlewood .
William F. Wayman designed the structure with Victor Batchelar building the home , while Charles F. Walters designed the grounds . All the wood was logged by Richard Rice , who made his living as a logging contractor . He also milled the wood . The home was designed to allow the basement to serve as a museum for the Rices ' collections .
The structure contains three sandstone fireplaces , and the countertops are finished with hand @-@ painted tiles from Mexico . Myrtlewood is used inside as trim and for doors . Bedroom closets were constructed with drawers , shelves , and ironing boards built @-@ in . Inside the two @-@ level building are amenities such as dumbwaiters and a sewing room . On the outside raked cedar was used on the eaves of the low @-@ pitched roof @-@ line building . The exterior sandstone is tan , rose , and blue in color .
The 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) home with a 3 @,@ 300 square feet ( 310 m2 ) basement cost $ 185 @,@ 000 to build . The original wool carpeting is still in use at the home , as is the original linoleum that features the museum 's logo of a shovel and a pick . The ranch style home was the first ranch home listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Oregon .
In addition to the house , which has a full basement , the museum uses a separate building as a gallery . That building , the Northwest Gallery , was formerly used for storage and as a shop , but looks similar to the Rice House . This gallery focuses on items from Oregon , Idaho , and Washington , and includes collections of agates , thundereggs , zeolites , and placer gold , among others .
Most of the rocks and minerals are housed in glass cases along the walls in the basement . Before opening to the public an elevator was added to the home . The museum includes a lapidary and arts gallery , agate gallery , petrified wood gallery , oddities gallery , crystal gallery , Northwest gallery , and fossil gallery . There is also an educational room and gift shop , while the outside grounds include a walk that features sandstone , columns of basalt , and a pile of rocks for children to climb over to find stones . This walk includes a 1 @,@ 200 pound ( 540 kg ) rock made of pumice .
= Bridgewater Associates =
Bridgewater Associates is an American investment management firm founded by Ray Dalio in 1975 . The firm serves institutional clients including pension funds , endowments , foundations , foreign governments and central banks .
It utilizes a global macro investing style based on economic trends , such as inflation , currency exchange rates , and U.S. gross domestic product . Bridgewater Associates began as an institutional investment advisory service , graduated to institutional investing and pioneered the risk parity investment approach in 1996 .
In 1981 the company moved its headquarters from New York City to Westport , Connecticut and currently engages 1 @,@ 200 employees . It embraces a corporate culture that encourages transparency and the elimination of the decision making hierarchy , and in 2011 was the " world 's largest macro hedge fund " company with US $ 122 billion in assets under management .
= = History = =
The firm 's history includes the pioneering of industry strategies such as : currency overlay , the separation of alpha and beta strategies , the creation of absolute return products , and risk parity . According to Financial News , the company was the fastest growing asset manager from 2000 until 2005 , when it stopped accepting new accounts . Its assets under management have increased by 25 % each year during the last decade with employees at eleven times their year 2000 levels . The company ’ s Daily Observations research is reportedly read by leaders of central banks and managers of pension funds around the world .
= = = 1975 @-@ 1990 : Consulting , research , money management = = =
Bridgewater Associates was founded by Ray Dalio in 1975 from an office in his Manhattan apartment . At that time the business consisted exclusively of advising corporate clients and the management of domestic and international currency and interest rate risks . The firm later changed its emphasis and began selling economic advice to governments and corporations such as Nabisco and McDonalds .
The company began publishing a paid subscription research report called the Daily Observations which inspired McDonald ’ s Corp. and its main supplier to become clients in the early 1980s . Another client was Banks of Mid @-@ America was and its treasury department director , Bob Prince , later joined Bridgewater Associates as co @-@ CIO . In 1981 , the company moved its offices from New York City to Connecticut .
The company 's first account was funded by a US $ 5 million fixed @-@ income investment through Hilda Ochoa @-@ Brillembourg of World Bank in 1987 . In the mid @-@ 1980s , the firm changed its business focus from currency and interest rate management to global bonds and currencies for institutional investors . As a fixed income and currency adviser to institutional clients , the company gained a reputation as a currency trader and a developer of techniques for overlying currencies . In 1990 , it launched a hedge fund portfolio using monies from Kodak and Loews Corporation and began formally offering its currency overlay products to its clients .
= = = 1991 @-@ present : Pure Alpha , All Weather , Pure Alpha Major Markets = = =
Bridgewater Associates developed several " innovative investment strategies " during the 1990s such as inflation @-@ indexed bonds , currency overlay , emerging market debt , global bonds and " super @-@ long duration bonds " . The firm also " pioneered the separation of alpha and beta " investments and developed a strategy called " alpha overlay " which involved a portfolio of " 20 uncorrelated " investments , leveraged for risk or return and combined with cash or an investment market benchmark .
The firm launched its Pure Alpha fund and began to market portable alpha investment strategies in 1991 . The Pure Alpha fund did well during the market 's downturn of 2000 to 2003 and , as hedge funds became more popular , the company expanded its assets through its connections with various underfunded pension funds , some of which were already clients . In 1992 , the firm introduced its global bond overlay program . In 1995 , company executives participated in the discussions at the U.S. Treasury and advised federal government on the development of inflation @-@ indexed bonds .
Bridgewater launched its All Weather hedge fund and pioneered the risk parity approach to portfolio management in 1996 . The firm 's assets under management grew from US $ 5 billion in the mid @-@ 1990s to US $ 38 billion by the year 2003 . In June 2000 , the firm was ranked as the best performing global bond manager for that year and the prior five years by Pensions & Investments magazine . In 2002 , the company was ranked by Nelson Information as the World 's Best Money Manager in recognition of the 16 @.@ 3 % return on its International Fixed Income program . The firm received the Global Investor Awards for Excellence @-@ Global Bonds award in 2003 . The following year the company received the Global Pensions ( magazine ) Currency Overlay Manager of the Year award , and 2 " best in class " awards from the PlanSponsor Operations Survey .
In 2006 , the company 's flagship Pure Alpha fund began " returning money " to its clients in order to maintain its investment strategy and enforce its " capacity limit " . The firm began moving all of its clients into alternative strategies ( such as its Pure Alpha and All Weather funds ) , thereby eliminating the traditional investment approach from its portfolios . That year it was honored by PlanSponsor Magazine with the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Global Pensions magazine Currency Manager of the Year award and the Money Management Letters , Public Pension Fund Award for Excellence and the Alternatives Manager of the Year award .
By 2007 , the firm 's total assets under management grew to US $ 50 billion ( from US $ 33 billion in the year 2000 ) . According to a 2007 article in Barron 's magazine , " nobody was better prepared for the global market crash " than its clients and subscribers to its Daily Observations . The company " began sounding alarms .. in the spring of 2007 about the dangers of excessive financial leverage " . The company 's researchers reviewed the public accounts of most of the major financial institutions around the globe and found that estimated future losses due to bad debts totaled US $ 839 billion . In December , these conclusions were reported to the U.S. Treasury Department when company founder Ray Dalio met with U.S. Treasury Secretary staff and other White House economic advisers . Bridgewater 's Pure Alpha fund " spared its investors " from most of the stock market 's " meltdown " in 2008 . However , this strategy was not successful in 2009 when economic growth responded faster than anticipated and the Dow Jones Industrial Average increased by 19 % while the company ’ s Pure Alpha fund reportedly gained a mere 2 % to 4 % . Senator John McCain visited the firm and addressed company employees during his 2008 presidential campaign . The Teacher Retirement System of Texas ( TRS ) invested in $ 250 million in a stake in Bridgewater Associates Intermediate Holdings , LP .
Ray Dalio , the company 's founder , began using the term " d @-@ process " in February 2009 , to describe the deleveraging and deflationary process of the subprime mortgage industry as distinct from a recession . That year , the company was termed the largest hedge fund in the U.S. and it received the Alternative Investment News 7th Annual Hedge Fund Industry 's Lifetime Achievement award and PlanSponsor 's Hedge Fund Manager of the year award . When the U.S. gross domestic product faltered in 2010 , the firm had significant gains on their investments in Treasury bonds and other securities , and in November founded the US $ 10 billion , Pure Alpha Major Markets fund which brought the company 's total assets under management to more than US $ 100 billion . In 2011 the firm received several honors . It was ranked number one on Institutional Investor 's " world 's top 100 hedge funds " list . It received the Macro @-@ Focused Hedge Fund Firm of the Year award and the aiCIO Hedge Fund Industry Innovation Award . Absolute Return + Alpha ( AR ) ranked the company number one in its Hedge Fund Report Card and Billion Dollar Club categories .
Connecticut is expected to approve a plan at the end of May , 2016 , which will give Bridgewater Associates $ 22 million in grants and loans in exchange for job training , job creation , and building renovations . The company also must agree to retain 1 @,@ 402 jobs they already support in Connecticut . The company could also become eligible for as much as $ 30 million in urban tax credits .
= = Investment philosophy = =
According to Ray Dalio , Bridgewater Associates is a " global macro firm " . It uses " quantitative " investment methods to identify new investments while avoiding unrealistic historical models . Its goal is to structure portfolios with uncorrelated investment returns based on risk allocations , rather than asset allocations . Additionally , the company is reported to only accept funds from institutional clients such as pension funds , foundations , endowments , and central banks rather than private investors .
= = = Separation of alpha and beta = = =
The company divides its investments into two basic categories : ( 1 ) Beta investments , whose returns are generated through passive management and standard market risk , and ( 2 ) Alpha investments , whose goal is to generate higher returns that are uncorrelated to the general market and are actively managed . The principle of separating alpha and beta investments was introduced by Dalio in 1990 and gained the recognition of other equity managers beginning in the year 2000 . The firm is reported to be the first hedge fund manager to separate alpha and beta investment strategies and offer dedicated investment funds for each .
= = = Systematic diversification = = =
According to Bloomberg Bridgewater uses an investing system that combines traditional diversification with " wager [ s ] on or against markets around the world " and attempts to invest in instruments and markets that do not " move in lock step " with each other . To guide its investment strategies , the company 's top executives have compiled hundreds of " decision rules " , which are the financial corollary to the firm 's employee handbook , Principles , and these investment guidelines have been incorporated into the firm 's computer 's analysis .
= = Products = =
The firm offers three hedge funds to its clients : the Pure Alpha fund , the All Weather fund and the Pure Alpha Major Markets fund . It also publishes a white paper , called the Daily Observations , which is read by investors worldwide on a subscription basis .
= = = Pure Alpha = = =
Bridgewater Associates launched its flagship fund , Pure Alpha , in 1989 . The fund is described as a " diversified alpha source " that invests across a group of asset classes . It was designed to balance risk among a variety of non @-@ correlated assets through active management . It includes 30 or 40 simultaneous trading positions in bonds , currencies , stock indexes and commodities to avoid affecting prices by concentrating funds in a single area . After placing some of the company 's excess cash into the Pure Alpha hedge fund to increase its " investing discretion " . The fund was closed to new investors in 2006 when it reached its pre @-@ determined , maximum funds level . As of 2011 , the fund is reported to have lost money in only three of its 20 years of existence and had an average annualized return of 18 % . The success of Pure Alpha is reportedly due to a portable alpha management style that trades among many asset classes .
= = = All Weather = = =
A second fund , called All Weather , was launched in 1996 and highlighted low fees , global inflation @-@ linked bonds and global fixed @-@ income investments . The fund began as the founder 's personal trust fund and was subsequently opened to clients . The goal of the fund was to create " high , risk adjusted returns " that exceeded the return of the general market . The All Weather fund contains more than US $ 46 billion and is one of the largest funds in the U.S. as of 2011 . In April 2009 , after the collapse of Lehman Brothers , the fund moved into " safe portfolio " mode which included nominal and inflation @-@ linked bonds and gold instead of equities , emerging market debt , and commodities . The fund is reported to contain : 30 % Stocks ( for instance , the S & P 500 or other indexes for further diversification in this basket ) 15 % Intermediate Term Treasuries IEF ( 7- to 10 @-@ year Treasuries ) 40 % Long Term Treasuries TLT [ 20- to 25 @-@ year Treasuries ] 7 @.@ 5 % Gold IAU 7 @.@ 5 % Commodities
= = = Pure Alpha Major Markets = = =
Under the guidance of co @-@ CEO , Jensen , the firm created the Pure Alpha Major Markets in 2011 with US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion from existing clients . In the summer of 2011 the fund was opened to a group of outside investors who had made a total advance commitment of US $ 7 @.@ 5 billion . At that time , it was reported to be the largest hedge fund launch . The fund was established to provide an investment vehicle similar to the company 's Pure Alpha fund but with enhanced liquidity by focusing on the major markets such as European bonds . The launch of this fund in 2011 brought the company ’ s total assets under management to more than US $ 100 billion .
= = = Daily Observations = = =
The company 's " Daily Observations " is a subscription white paper and was the flagship product and service offered by the company . It has been characterized as comprehensive , with some editions being up to 43 pages in length and is reported to be " one of the most widely forwarded pieces of market analysis " in the industry . It has been read by leaders of central banks , managers of global pension funds as well as former U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geitner and President Barack Obama .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Headquarters = = =
In 1981 , the company moved its headquarters 50 miles north of New York City to Wilton , Connecticut , and in the late 1990s it moved to a larger office space on a corporate campus in Westport , Connecticut . As the company continued to expand , it became the sole tenant at the 22 @-@ acre campus . The firm 's headquarters is described as retreat @-@ like and is surrounded by the trees of a former nature reserve . The campus contains three buildings made of " midcentury modern fieldstone and glass " . Since 2000 its staff has grown from 100 to 1200 employees and the firm has taken office space in three additional buildings in the area . In an effort to consolidate its offices , the company made plans to build a 750 @,@ 000 square foot headquarters in Stamford , CT about 15 miles from its present location in Westport , but cancelled the project in 2014 .
= = = Employees = = =
Bridgewater Associates grew from 100 employees in 2003 to 1 @,@ 200 employees in 2011 . The company is reported to be one of the few hedge fund managers that hires its analysts and employees right out of college and from the annual pool of graduates from Ivy League schools such as Yale University , Harvard University , Princeton University , Cornell University , Brown University , Columbia University , Dartmouth College , and the University of Pennsylvania . Employees are transported daily in a " fancy " bus that ferries them from Manhattan to the company 's Westport offices . According to an article in Bloomberg , " about a quarter of all new hires " leave within the first two years . Those that remain are reported to receive " generous " compensation and form bonds with fellow employees that are " like family " and the company 's founder helps to pay for any employees that wish to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique .
Dalio , the founder , relinquished his chief executive officer ( CEO ) title in July 2011 to take on the role of " mentor " . The company 's administration consists of three co @-@ CEO 's ; Greg Jensen , Eileen Murray and David McCormick ; the former undersecretary of the Treasury Department . The company also has three co @-@ CIO 's ( chief investment officers ) ; Dalio , Bob Prince and Jensen ( who is also co @-@ CEO ) . Jensen , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old co @-@ CEO , oversees the research programs at the firm and came to the company as a Dartmouth College intern about 15 years earlier . Britt Harris , formerly of Verizon Investment Management , joined Bridgewater as co @-@ CEO in November 2004 but left six months later . According to Dalio , the cultural fit was a problem but Harris " is a superstar , with an absolutely fabulous character " . From 2010 until early 2013 , Bridgewater 's general counsel was James Comey , former United States Deputy Attorney General and current Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation .
= = = Corporate culture = = =
In 2005 , Dalio saw the firm taking on hundreds of new employees and decided to create a handbook called Principles , which was distributed to all employees . The publication is said to be part self @-@ help book , part management manual , and part treatise on the mechanics of natural selection as they function in a business setting . According to one trade journal , six years after the publication of Principles , the firm 's rapid expansion led to the institution of a " bizarre culture of criticism " . The company acknowledges that employees " often encounter culture shock " when they begin working there and Dalio admits : " it 's not for everyone " . According to the company 's web site , employees are encouraged to be assertive and discussions about disagreements and mistakes are considered an intentional part of the company 's culture because they are felt to stimulate both learning and progress .
A 2011 article in New York Magazine described the company as the " largest and indisputably weirdest hedge fund " because of its unwavering commitment to " total honesty and accountability " and minute detail in its corporate culture . For example , Dalio encourages employees to do " whatever it takes to make the company great " and emphasizes transparency and openness in its decision making processes . All meetings are recorded and can be viewed by any employee , as long as the meeting topic is not proprietary . In addition , Dalio says that he fosters " an extreme meritocracy of ideas " , and asserts that decisions are made about investments without considerations of hierarchy . He says that any employee can respectfully say anything to anyone in the firm but they must be prepared to be challenged in return . The company 's flat corporate structure aims to remove the barriers associated with traditional asset management firms , and qualities like stodginess and risk @-@ aversion are discouraged .
The company has been likened to a cult , but Dalio denies that and insists that the firm is a dedicated “ community ” . An article in the New Yorker by John Cassidy says that " the word cult clearly has connotations that don 't apply to an enterprise staffed by highly paid employees who can quit at any moment " . Cassidy says the company is located away from other financial institutions and headed by a " strong @-@ willed leader " and that employees use a " unique vocabulary " . One client , Bob Jacksha , chief executive officer of the New Mexico Educational Retirement Board , said of the firm : " Every investment manager has its own culture [ and ] some are more unique than others " .
= = = Schism atop giant hedge fund = = =
In 2016 , the Wall Street Journal reported that Dalio and Greg Jensen called for votes on each other 's conduct . Dalio asked the firm 's management and stakeholders committees if they believe Jensen has " integrity . "
= Johann Mickl =
Johann Mickl ( 18 April 1893 – 10 April 1945 ) was an Austrian @-@ born Generalleutnant and division commander in the German Army during World War II , and was one of only 882 recipients of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . He was commissioned shortly before the outbreak of World War I , and served with Austro @-@ Hungarian forces on the Eastern and Italian Fronts as company commander in the Imperial @-@ Royal Mountain Troops . During World War I he was decorated several times for bravery and leadership , and was wounded on several occasions , finishing the war as an Oberleutnant .
Immediately after the war , Mikl served in the Volkswehr militia which was formed to resist the incorporation of his home town of Radkersburg into the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . He served with the Austrian Army from 1920 until the Anchluss in 1938 , when it was absorbed by the Wehrmacht , and he transferred to the German Army as an Oberstleutnant . He commanded an anti @-@ tank battalion during the invasion of Poland and Battle of France , during which he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd and 1st Class , and was promoted to Oberst . Through the intervention of a friend , the adjutant of Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel , under whose command he had served in France , Mickl was transferred to North Africa to command a rifle regiment . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for his leadership of a kampfgruppe during the Battle of Sidi Rezegh , during which he and 800 of his soldiers were captured by New Zealand troops . Two days later he precipitated a successful mass escape from a prisoner of war collection point .
He briefly commanded the 90th Light Division Afrika in late 1941 before being wounded . After he recovered he was sent to the Eastern Front . Mickl commanded the 12th Rifle Brigade of the 12th Panzer Division in the east , taking over the 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment when his brigade headquarters was disestablished . Transferred to the Führerreserve , he was promoted to Generalmajor , and received the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for his outstanding commitment and leadership during the Soviet 1942 – 43 winter offensives around Rzhev . He then commanded the 11th Panzer Division during the Battle of Kursk . Later in 1943 , he was appointed to train and command the 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division , and led it in fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans before dying of wounds inflicted in the last month of the war . In 1967 , the Austrian Bundesheer barracks in Bad Radkersburg were named after him .
= = Early life and career = =
Mickl was born Johann Mikl in Zelting , Radkersburg , which was part of the Duchy of Styria within the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . His father Mathias was a German farmer from Terbegofzen , and his mother Maria ( née Dervarič ) , was from Zelting , and of at least partially Slovene heritage . Mikl had a twin brother , Alois , who was killed in action in 1915 in Galicia near Lemberg , present @-@ day Lviv in the Ukraine . As a child , Mikl spoke German , Slovene and Hungarian , and remained fluent in all three throughout his life .
After entering a cadet school in Vienna in the Imperial @-@ Royal Landwehr in 1908 , he was accepted at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt in 1911 . Described as slim , muscular , and 1 @.@ 92 metres ( 6 ft 4 in ) tall , Leutnant Mikl graduated on 1 August 1914 and was posted to the recently mobilised 4th Imperial @-@ Royal Landwehr Infantry Regiment ( LIR 4 ) , which formed part of the Imperial @-@ Royal Mountain Troops .
= = World War I = =
= = = Galicia = = =
LIR 4 was a purely Carinthian regiment , and wore the mountain cap ( German : Bergmütze ) and the Edelweiss badge . As part of the 22nd Rifle Division of the III Corps , Mikl 's regiment entrained for the Eastern Front , were offloaded in Stryj in Galicia and marched into the area of Złoczów to take up a position on the Złota Lipa River . Its baptism of fire was an attack on the Russians on 26 August 1914 , during which it received inadequate artillery support and suffered heavy casualties . One of those wounded was Mikl , who was shot in the chest . He spent time in a military hospital and was then employed in the regimental replacement battalion as an instructor until 15 April 1915 . Nothing is known about Mikl 's activities during that period , although LIR 4 was involved in heavy fighting in Galicia throughout the winter , in temperatures that dropped below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) .
On 1 June 1915 , LIR 4 received orders to be transferred to the Southern Front , as Italy had entered the war against the Central Powers the previous month . This order was countermanded the following morning when the Russians launched an offensive in the Kolomea region and the Austrians suffered serious reverses . LIR 4 was immediately committed to the battle . The army commander , General der Kavallerie ( lieutenant general ) Karl von Pflanzer @-@ Baltin later stated that it was the courage of LIR 4 that had stopped the Russians . Mikl had led from the front during the fighting , especially when his company formed the regimental rear guard during the withdrawal from the Pruth river on 3 June . At one point , Mikl used parts of a damaged train to build a defensive position . He was wounded several times during the fighting , but remained with his soldiers . For his actions and " demonstrated personal bravery " , Mikl was awarded the Military Merit Cross 3rd Class with War Decoration ( German : Militärverdienstkreuz III . Klasse und Kriegsdekoration ) .
= = = Italian front = = =
By late September 1915 , LIR 4 had been transferred to the Flitsch valley in the Julian Alps on the Southern Front , and Mikl had been promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) and placed in command of the 2nd Company . A fairly quiet winter followed , during which the Austrians undertook reconnaissance of Italian positions , took prisoners , and captured weapons . In August 1915 , Italian Alpini troops had captured an advanced position about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) southwest of the 2 @,@ 208 metres ( 7 @,@ 244 ft ) Rombongipfels peak , on a rocky outcrop called Cuklahöhe . From this position the Italians overlooked the positions of the 44th Rifle Division and its rear areas , which made movement almost impossible . The group commander , Oberst ( colonel ) Artur von Schuschnigg tasked Mikl and his company to capture the Cuklahöhe , and allowed him to determine the best way to complete his mission . Between 30 January and 8 February 1916 , Mikl and Fähnrich ( cadet sergeant ) Schlatte reconnoitred the Italian position each night . It dominated the ground around it , and was protected by barbed wire entanglements . On 8 February , they located a narrow channel that they considered could be used to approach the Cuklahöhe without exposing the assault force to Italian fire . Mickl 's plan involved a silent attack by his company using the channel , foregoing artillery preparation , as this would warn the Italians of the impending assault .
After a few days delay caused by heavy snowfalls , the attack commenced at 02 : 45 on 12 February . During the approach march to the foot of the Cuklahöhe , some men disappeared up to their neck in snow due to the many snow @-@ filled depressions and the depth of the snow . This meant that the march to the bottom of the channel took two hours instead of the thirty minutes Mikl had estimated . When they reached the bottom of the channel , they had to climb a 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high smooth ice wall to enter the gutter , which even highly experienced climbers were unable to scale . Around 06 : 00 , the whole company had assembled at the bottom of the channel , but dawn was beginning to break , threatening to expose the assembled force to flanking Italian positions . Schlatte then came forward , carrying the trunk of an alpenrose , a shrub that grows just above the tree @-@ line in the Alps . He used the trunk to reach the channel ledge , and the troops were able to enter the gutter with his help . The troops could now see the glow of the candles in the Italian position . The assault took the Italians completely by surprise , and three officers and 84 soldiers surrendered , for the loss of four dead , including one officer , and four wounded . The Italian response was to concentrate all available artillery fire on the position . The dugout was exposed to direct Italian fire , and was therefore unusable . The Austrians were in an exposed position in deep snow and with extremely cold winds at an altitude of 1 @,@ 700 metres ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) , and during the first day Mikl 's company lost 20 dead and 60 seriously wounded . On the night of 15 February , the Italians commenced two days of unsuccessful counterattacks , some carried out in four or five consecutive waves . For several weeks starting on 17 February , Benito Mussolini , then a member of the Italian 11th Bersaglieri Regiment , was on the front line near the Cuklahöhe , and described some of his experiences in his diary . On 5 March , prior to the withdrawal of his company from the Cuklahöhe , Mikl was wounded in the face by an Italian hand grenade . When his company was relieved on the Cuklahöhe on 12 April , it had shrunk to just 44 men . For his leadership of the assault on the Cuklahöhe , Mikl was awarded the Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class . On 10 May , the Cuklahöhe was retaken by the Italians from three companies of Bosnian @-@ Herzegovinian Infantry , who lost 250 men . The assault force , consisting of four battalions of the Italian 24th Infantry Division lost 18 officers and 516 men .
In April 1916 , Mikl 's regiment was deployed to South Tyrol to take part in the Austrian spring offensive , during which he was awarded the bronze Military Merit Medal on the ribbon of the Bravery Medal with War Decoration ( German : Militär Verdienstmedaille am Bande der Tapferkeitsmedaille mit Kriegsdekoration ) , for leading a successful attack on an Italian position on Monte Cengio . At the end of June , his regiment was transported back to Galicia by rail to reinforce the Austro @-@
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1340 . Marinid Morocco subsequently went into internal convulsions , too busy for active intervention in Spain , clearing the way for a renewed attempt by the Castilians on Algeciras and Gibraltar . Algeciras was taken with relative ease by Alfonso XI of Castile in 1344 . Gibraltar , however , would not fall as easily . The Castilans subjected it to a fifth siege between 1349 – 50 . It ended when Alfonso XI died from bubonic plague during the Black Death .
In 1374 control of Gibraltar was transferred from Marinid Morocco to Nasrid Granada . In 1410 , however , the Moorish garrison revolted and declared their allegiance to Morocco , leading to the sixth siege in 1411 when the Granadan Nasrids stormed the city with assistance from sympathisers within the walls .
Another attempt to capture the city for the Christians was made by Enrique de Guzmán , Second Count of Niebla . The Seventh Siege of Gibraltar ended in disaster on 31 August 1436 when a landing led by Enrique resulted in his drowning at the Red Sands along with 40 knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms . His body was retrieved by the Moors , beheaded and displayed in a wicker basket above Gibraltar 's Sea Gate for the next 26 years .
Finally , on 20 August 1462 , Enrique 's son Juan Alonso de Guzmán , 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia succeeded in capturing Gibraltar after launching a surprise attack . His success in the brief Eighth Siege of Gibraltar was due to the garrison being greatly depleted after its men of rank had left for Granada , with their retinues , to pay homage to the newly enthroned sultan Abu l @-@ Hasan Ali . An initial assault by the Count of Arcos was beaten back with many casualties on both sides , but the men of the garrison realised that in their depleted state they could not withstand a second assault . They offered to surrender on condition that the garrison and inhabitants of Gibraltar would be allowed to leave with their wives , children and movable goods , with compensation to be paid for the property that they left behind . Although the proposal was welcomed , it fell through due to rivalry between the Christian commanders . The Moorish inhabitants of Gibraltar retreated to the castle and surrendered after a few days to Medina Sidonia . They were expelled along with the city 's Jewish population , to be replaced by Spanish Christians .
The Reconquista of Gibraltar took place on the feast of St. Bernard , who the Spanish named patron saint of Gibraltar and has remained so ever since . This brought an end to Moorish Gibraltar , just over 751 years after Tariq ibn @-@ Ziyad had begun the conquest of Iberia .
= CAM ship =
CAM ships were World War II @-@ era British merchant ships used in convoys as an emergency stop @-@ gap until sufficient escort carriers became available . CAM ship is an acronym for catapult aircraft merchant ship . A CAM ship was equipped with a rocket @-@ propelled catapult launching a single Hawker Hurricane , dubbed a " Hurricat " or " Catafighter " . CAM ships continued to carry their normal cargoes after conversion . They are distinguished from fighter catapult ships ( FCS ) , which also carried catapult launched fighters , in that the CAM ship was a merchant vessel commanded and crewed by the Merchant Navy but the FCS was a merchant ship that had been commissioned as a warship and commanded and crewed by the Royal Navy .
= = Origin = =
The German Luftwaffe had Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 " Condor " aircraft with a range of nearly 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles . After the Fall of France , these aircraft could operate from western France against British merchant ships in the Atlantic . Flying from Bordeaux – Mérignac Airport , Fw 200s of I / KG40 could reach the convoy lanes west of Britain while staying outside the range of British land @-@ based fighters . The Royal Navy had no aircraft carriers available to provide close air cover for the convoys . The Fw 200s could shadow convoys , directing U @-@ boat attacks on them , or drop bombs on convoy ships , without opposition and to deadly effect .
To counter this threat , the Admiralty developed the fighter catapult ship – a converted freighter , manned by a naval crew , carrying a single Hawker Hurricane fighter . When an enemy bomber was sighted , the fighter would be launched into the air with rockets , and fly up to destroy or drive away the bomber . Being large and slow , the Fw 200 became a rather vulnerable target . After the combat , the fighter pilot would bail out or ditch in the ocean near the convoy , and be picked up if all went well .
The Admiralty had already experimented with this system . They ordered 50 rocket @-@ propelled aircraft catapults to be fitted to merchant ships . The planes were Hurricane Mark Is , converted to Sea Hurricane IAs .
The pilots for these aircraft were drawn from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . The RAF formed the Merchant Ship Fighter Unit ( MSFU ) on 5 May 1941 in RAF Speke by the River Mersey in Liverpool . Wing Commander E.S. Moulton @-@ Barrett commanded the unit providing training for volunteer pilots , Fighter Direction Officers ( FDOs ) , and airmen . After training , MSFU crews were posted to Liverpool , Glasgow , or Avonmouth where they assisted in loading their Hurricanes onto the catapults . Each team consisted of one pilot for Atlantic runs ( or two pilots for voyages to Russia , Gibraltar , or the Mediterranean Sea ) , with one fitter , one rigger , one radio @-@ telephone operator , one FDO , and a seaman torpedoman who worked on the catapult as an electrician .
MSFU crews signed ship 's articles as civilian crew members under the authority of the civilian ship 's master . The ship 's chief engineer became responsible for the catapult , and the first mate acted as Catapult Duty Officer ( CDO ) , responsible for firing the catapult when directed . The single Hurricane fighter was launched only when enemy aircraft were sighted and agreement was reached via hand and flag signals between the pilot , CDO , and ship 's master .
The first four or five ships were taken into Royal Navy service as " Auxiliary Fighter Catapult Ships " , and later conversions were officially named CAMs manned by merchant crews . The first CAM ship , Michael E , was sponsored by the Royal Navy while the RAF MSFUs were working up . After a trial launch off Belfast , Michael E sailed with convoy OB 327 on 28 May 1941 . She was sunk by U @-@ 108 on 2 June . The first RAF trial CAM launch was from Empire Rainbow , at Greenock on the River Clyde on 31 May 1941 ; the Hurricane landed at Abbotsinch . Six CAM ships joined convoys in June 1941 . When a CAM ship arrived at its destination , the pilot usually launched and landed at a nearby airfield to get in as much flight time as possible before his return trip . Pilots were rotated out of CAM assignments after two round @-@ trip voyages to avoid the deterioration of flying skills from the lack of flying time during the assignment .
CAM sailings were initially limited to North American convoys with aircraft maintenance performed by the Royal Canadian Air Force at Dartmouth , Nova Scotia . CAM ships sailed on Gibraltar and Freetown convoys beginning in September , 1941 , after an aircraft maintenance unit was established at the RAF base at North Front , Gibraltar . No CAM aircraft were provided during January and February 1942 after it proved impossible to maintain the catapult @-@ mounted aircraft in flying order during the North Atlantic winter . CAM sailings resumed on 6 March 1942 on North Atlantic convoys and in April on the Arctic Russian convoys with a RAF aircraft maintenance unit in Archangelsk .
= = CAM ships = =
Eight CAM ships were requisitioned from private owners , two of which were sunk : Daghestan , Daltonhall , Eastern City , Helencrest , Kafiristan , Michael E ( sunk ) , Novelist , Primrose Hill ( sunk ) .
27 CAM ships were Ministry of War Transport owned Empire ships , ten of which were sunk : Empire Burton ( sunk ) , Empire Clive , Empire Darwin , Empire Day , Empire Dell ( sunk ) , Empire Eve ( sunk ) , Empire Faith , Empire Flame , Empire Foam , Empire Franklin , Empire Gale , Empire Heath , Empire Hudson ( sunk ) , Empire Lawrence ( sunk ) , Empire Moon , Empire Morn , Empire Ocean , Empire Rainbow ( sunk ) , Empire Ray , Empire Rowan ( sunk ) , Empire Shackleton ( sunk ) , Empire Spray , Empire Spring ( sunk ) , Empire Stanley , Empire Sun , Empire Tide , Empire Wave ( sunk ) .
= = Take @-@ off procedure = =
The trolley receiving bar was removed at dawn .
The airmen started the aircraft and warmed up the engine at intervals .
The pilot climbed into the aircraft when enemy aircraft were reported .
The ship hoisted the international flag code F when the decision was made to launch . ( CAM ships were usually stationed at the head of the outboard port column of a convoy so they could manoeuvre into the wind for launch . )
An airman removed the pins , showed them to the pilot , and took them to the CDO .
The pilot applied 30 degree flaps and 1 / 3 right rudder .
The CDO raised a blue flag above his head to inform the ship 's master of his readiness to launch .
The ship 's master manoeuvred the ship into the wind and raised a blue flag above his head to authorise the launch . ( The ship 's master stood on the starboard bridge wing to avoid the catapult rocket blast which sometimes damaged the port side of the bridge . )
The CDO waved his blue flag indicating he was ready to launch upon a signal from the pilot .
The pilot opened full throttle , tightened the throttle friction nut , pressed his head back into the head @-@ rest , pressed his right elbow tightly against his hip , and lowered his left hand as a signal to launch .
The CDO counted to three , waited for the bow to rise from the trough of a swell , and moved the switch to fire the catapult rockets .
= = CAM combat launches = =
In total , there were nine combat launches . Eight aircraft and one pilot were lost for eight German aircraft destroyed and one damaged .
= = Programme termination = =
As adequate numbers of escort carriers became available , CAM sailings on North American and Arctic Russian convoys were discontinued in August 1942 . The aircraft maintenance unit was withdrawn from Archangel in September 1942 . Catapults were removed from ten of the 26 surviving CAM ships while the remaining 16 continued to sail with the Mediterranean and Freetown convoys . Headquarters RAF Fighter Command ordered all MSFUs to be disbanded commencing 8 June 1943 . The combat launches from homeward bound convoy SL 133 were from the last two operational CAM ships to sail , the last MSFU was disbanded 7 September 1943 . Twelve of the 35 CAM ships had been sunk while sailing on 170 round trip voyages . Two more ships , Cape Clear and City of Johannesburg , were briefly fitted with dummy catapults and aircraft for deception purposes in late 1941 .
= Marine Harvest =
Marine Harvest ASA , Pan Fish prior to February 6 , 2007 , is a Norwegian seafood company with operations in a number of countries around the world . The company 's primary interest is the production , processing and sale of farmed salmon , the operations of which are focused on Norway , Scotland , Canada , the Faroe Islands , Ireland and Chile . The group has a share of between 25 and 30 % of the global salmon and trout market , making it the world 's largest company in the sector . Marine Harvest also owns a ' value added processing ' unit , which prepares and distributes a range of seafood products , and a number of smaller divisions .
The company assumed its current form as a result of massive expansion in 2006 , when Pan Fish ASA conducted an effective three @-@ way merger with Marine Harvest N.V. and Fjord Seafood . The group is headquartered in Bergen and is dual @-@ listed on both the Oslo Stock Exchange where it is a constituent of the benchmark OBX Index , and the New York Stock Exchange .
= = History = =
= = = Constituent companies = = =
= = = = Marine Harvest = = = =
The first company to use the name Marine Harvest was founded in Lochailort , Scotland by Unilever in 1965 at the outset of the Atlantic salmon farming industry . Unilever had been developing farming methods at a research facility there . The company began operations in Chile in 1975 . In 1992 , Unilever sold the business to American firm Marifarms , and two years later ownership of the company passed to Booker plc when it was merged with Booker 's aquaculture subsidiary , McConnell Salmon . After deciding to divest Marine Harvest McConnell so as to concentrate on its core cash and carry business in 1998 , Booker eventually succeeded in finding a buyer in July 1999 . The Dutch @-@ based nutrition firm Nutreco acquired the unit for GB £ 32 @.@ 7 million , adding it to its fish food and salmon farming unit . Nutreco 's initial attempt to further expand into the fish farming sector by acquiring the seafood arm of Norsk Hydro was blocked on the recommendation of the United Kingdom Competition Commission in late 2000 , but the deal was approved in March 2001 after Nutreco agreed not to acquire Hydro Seafood 's Scottish assets .
Nutreco retained the name Marine Harvest for the unit 's fish farming operations , and established interests in the emerging farmed cod , halibut , yellowtail and barramundi markets . In May 2005 , Nutreco merged its fish @-@ farming operations with the salmon , trout , halibut , tilapia , cod , sturgeon and caviar businesses of Stolt @-@ Nielsen , creating a new stand @-@ alone company , again named Marine Harvest . Nutreco held a 75 % stake in the joint venture , with Stolt taking the remainder .
= = = = Pan Fish = = = =
Pan Fish Holding AS was founded in 1992 with a strategy to acquire many fish farms domestically and abroad . By 1997 the firm had made numerous acquisitions and opted to list on the Oslo Stock Exchange as Pan Fish ASA . However , the company had borrowed heavily to finance its rapid growth — by the end of 2001 , debts had reached over NOK 4 @.@ 7 billion . When the market price of salmon collapsed in 2001 , Pan Fish encountered extreme financial difficulties , posting a heavy loss in 2002 , and having to sell off assets in order to repay creditors . A major refinancing operation implemented in late 2002 coincided with the dismissal of the entire board of directors , including founder and CEO Arne Nore . The company slowly recovered over the following years , returning to profitability in 2005 .
= = = = Fjord Seafood = = = =
Fjord Seafood has its origins in Torgnes Invest , a company founded in June 1996 which initially operated a single fish farm in the Norwegian town of Brønnøysund . Expansion over the following four years was aggressive — by September 2000 , when Fjord Seafood ( as it was now called ) listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange , the company 's portfolio comprised 60 ongrowing concessions , of which 50 were wholly owned , as well as a number of smolt and broodstock farms , slaughterhouses and processing factories . Fjord continued to conduct mergers and acquisitions - the purchase of Belgian fish @-@ processing company Pieters N.V. in November 2000 was swiftly followed by the addition of ContiSea , the seafood joint @-@ venture of ContiGroup and Seaboard Corporation .
As with Pan Fish , poor market conditions saw Fjord 's share price worsen dramatically in 2001 , and with it the ability to pay off its debts . The company 's future was only secured thanks to a NOK 700 million bail out from major shareholders that September . Attempts to grow the company through merger and acquisitions were also frustrated — a planned merger with the aquaculture businesses of Domstein ( then the biggest shareholder of Fjord ) and state @-@ controlled Cermaq was aborted in June 2002 after opposition from parties including ContiGroup and Seaboard , who controlled over 20 % of shares between them . Nevertheless , Fjord stabilised its financial position through restructuring and cost @-@ cutting measures .
= = = Merger = = =
Moves toward consolidation in the aquaculture sector were sparked by the activity of shipping magnate John Fredriksen , Norway 's richest man before abandoning his citizenship of the country in 2006 . Fredriksen 's first major move into the industry came in the second quarter of 2005 , when Domstein 's 24 % stake in Fjord Seafood was sold to his investment vehicle Geveran Trading . Around the same time , Pan Fish announced that two companies indirectly controlled by Fredriksen had acquired a combined 48 % of the company 's outstanding shares . In October of that year , with salmon prices high , Fjord submitted an offer for a majority stake in Cermaq to the Norwegian Government , which was preparing it for a public listing . However , as with the first merger attempt in 2002 , Fjord failed in its bid — this time the offer was rejected by the Government .
Fredriksen 's efforts to effect change finally bore fruit in March 2006 , as Geveran Trading succeeded in purchasing Marine Harvest from its joint owners for € 881 million , before immediately turning ownership over to Pan Fish . Geveran also sold its stake in Fjord Seafood to Pan Fish at the same time . With its remaining shares purchased by Pan Fish , Fjord Seafood de @-@ listed from the Oslo Stock Exchange on 6 July 2006 . With regulatory hurdles in the United Kingdom and France cleared , the Marine Harvest group was brought under the control of Pan Fish by the end of 2006 . To allow the merger to go ahead , the sale of the former Pan Fish Scotland division was agreed with the regulatory authorities . After an initial deal to sell the unit to Norskott Havbruk , owners of rival company Scottish Sea Farms , was called off in July 2007 , Pan Fish Scotland was spun off into a separate publicly traded entity , Lighthouse Caledonia , that November .
Geveran Trading held a 28 % stake in the company upon completion of the merger , a shareholding which has since increased to almost 30 % as of March 2009 .
= = = = Change in identity = = = =
With the creation of a much enlarged company complete , the Pan Fish management announced a complete change in its identity in December 2006 . The firm 's new brand was chosen to reflect each of its three main constituents : " Marine Harvest " was again revived as the new name for the company , and the Fjord Seafood slogan " excellence in seafood " and a reworked version of the Pan Fish motif were also included in the new logo . Atle Eide , CEO of Pan Fish from 2003 , continued in his position , but resigned in September 2007 for personal reasons . Eide was replaced on an interim basis by Leif Frode Onarheim , before the CEO position was filled permanently by former GE Healthcare executive Åse Aulie Michelet in March 2008 . Michelet was unexpectedly removed from her position in March 2010 and was replaced by former Lerøy Seafood CEO Alf @-@ Helge Aarskog .
= = Operations = =
Marine Harvest produces Atlantic salmon , halibut and white fish . The company has an integrated value chain , with the company making its own broodstock in freshwater , followed by growth and maturing in seawater , harvesting , manufacturing in processing plants and distribution . Production is concentrated in Norway , Scotland , Ireland , Canada , the Faroe Islands and in Chile , with sales globally .
Brand names used are Delifish ( smoked fish from Chile ) , Ducktrap ( smoked , in the United States ) , Clare Island Organic Salmon ( from Ireland ) , Donegal Silver Salmon ( from Ireland ) , Kendall Brook ( salmon ) , Kritsen ( smoked , in France ) , La Couronne ( smoked , in Belgium ) , Pieters ( distribution ) , Sterling White Halibut ( from Norway ) , Xalar ( salmon oil from Norway ) .
= = = Production locations = = =
In Norway , in addition to the corporate headquarters in Bergen and sales offices , Marine Harvest operates about 100 seawater sites along the coast . These are supplemented with 28 fresh water sites , two broodstock plants ( in Bjugn and Askøy ) , two hatcheries ( in Øygarden and Rørvik ) and four processing plants in ( Eggesbønes , Herøy and Ryfisk and Ulvan ) . Production is centred around atlantic salmon , but also includes white halibut .
In Scotland , Marine Harvest operates 25 sea farms , plus five hatcheries ( in Kilmarie , Lochailort , Kinlochmoidart , Finfish and Inchmore ) , four freshwater loch sites , a harvest station in Mallaig and a processing plant in Fort William . Head office is in Edinburgh and all produce is atlantic salmon .
In Chile , Marine Harvest operates 53 sea water and 22 fresh water sites , in addition to four processing plants ( in Calbuco , Chiloé , Puerto Montt and Santiago ) . Regional head office is located in Puerto Montt , and output is salmon , trout , coho and salar .
In British Columbia , Canada , Marine Harvest operates two processing plants , seven hatcheries and 37 sea water sites near five towns in British Columbia : Campbell River , Port McNeill , Port Hardy , Quatsino and Klemtu . Produce is atlantic salmon .
In the Faroe Islands , Marine Harvest operates fresh water sites in Hellur , and sea water sites in Oyndarfjørður , Haldarsvík , Hósvík and Kollafjørður . Produce is Atlantic salmon .
In Ireland , Marine Harvest operates one broodstock plant , two hatcheries , three fresh water sites , twelve sea water sites , three processing plants , all but four sea water sites in County Donegal , the latter being in County Mayo . Output is atlantic salmon .
= = = Processing and sales = = =
In France , processing and distribution plants are located in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , Challans , Lorient , Châteaugiron , Dunkerque , Poullaouen and Landivisiau . These support an extensive sales force throughout the country . In Belgium , processing and distribution plants are located in Bruges and Ostend . In the Netherlands , there is one processing plant in Lemmer . Additional European sales offices are located in Bologna , Italy , and Madrid , Spain .
In the United States , one processing plant is located in Maine , while sales offices are in Miami . In Asia , sales offices are located in Singapore ; Beijing , China ; Tokyo , Japan ; Taipei , Taiwan , and Busan , South Korea .
= = Criticism = =
Marine Harvest has been criticised for destroying a large part of the weir Murray 's Cauld on the Ettrick Water in Selkirk , Scotland , through what has been claimed to be inaction . The company sold its nearby fish farm to a local businessman for £ 1 in July 2008 , who has since been given permission to commence repair work on the weir .
Marine Harvest 's operations have been severely affected in the south of Chile , where millions of fish have died by the disease infectious salmon anemia . The rapid propagation of the virus has motivated the enterprise to sell some of its facilities , firing more than a thousand employees , with the aim of translating its installations further south to the Aisén Region . Parasitic , viral and fungal infections are all disseminated when the fish are stressed and the centres are too close together , and a spokesman for Marine Harvest recognized that his company was using too many antibiotics in Chile and that fish pens were too close , contributing to the dissemination of the ISA virus . Norwegian scientist Are Nylund has suggested that Marine Harvest introduced the ISA virus to the region by importing infected eggs from Norway .
= John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum =
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum is the presidential library and museum of John Fitzgerald Kennedy , the 35th President of the United States ( 1961 – 1963 ) . It is located on Columbia Point in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston , Massachusetts , next to the University of Massachusetts Boston , the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate , and the Massachusetts Archives and Commonwealth Museum . Designed by the architect I. M. Pei , the building is the official repository for original papers and correspondence of the Kennedy Administration , as well as special bodies of published and unpublished materials , such as books and papers by and about Ernest Hemingway . The library and museum were dedicated in 1979 by President Jimmy Carter and members of the Kennedy family . It can be reached from nearby Interstate 93 or via shuttle bus or walk from the JFK / UMass stop on the Boston subway 's Red line .
= = Location , design and dedication = =
= = = Original site and name = = =
During a weekend visit to Boston on October 19 , 1963 , President Kennedy , along with John Carl Warnecke — the architect who would design the President ’ s tomb in Arlington — viewed several locations offered by Harvard as a site for the library and museum . At the time there were only four other Presidential Libraries : the Hoover Presidential Library , the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library , the Truman Library , and the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library . They were all scattered around the country in small towns from New York to Iowa . Kennedy had not decided on any design concept yet , but he felt that the existing presidential libraries were placed too " far away from scholarly resources . "
Kennedy chose a plot of land next to the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration . The building would face the Charles River which was a few feet away , and on the other side of which , the dormitories that included Winthrop House where Kennedy spent his upperclassman days .
Since Kennedy encouraged his administration to save effects of both personal and official nature , the complex would not just be a collection of the President 's papers , but " a complete record of a Presidential era . " And so , the building would have the word museum appended to its name : John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum .
= = = Initial progress = = =
After President Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963 , his family and friends discussed how to construct a library that would serve as a fitting memorial . A committee was formed to advise Kennedy 's widow Jacqueline , who would make the final decision . The group deliberated for months , and visited with architects from around the world including Pietro Belluschi and others from the United States , Brazil 's Lucio Costa , and Italy 's Franco Albini . Mrs. Kennedy and others met with the candidates together at the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis , Massachusetts , and visited several in their offices . The committee also conducted a secretive process whereby the architects voted anonymously for the most capable of their colleagues .
Progress on the building began shortly after his death . On January 13 , 1964 , Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy announced that a taped oral @-@ history project was to be undertaken for inclusion in the library . The project would feature administration staff , friends , family , and politicians from home and abroad . The Attorney General also announced that Eugene R. Black , Sr. agreed to serve as chairman of the board of trustees and that $ 1 million of Black ’ s $ 10 million goal had been given to the trust by the Joseph P. Kennedy , Jr . Foundation .
The death of the President was still fresh in the hearts and minds of the American public and by March of that year $ 4 @.@ 3 million had been pledged , including 18 @,@ 727 unsolicited donations from the public . Large donations came from the Hispanic world with Venezuela pledging $ 100 @,@ 000 and Governor of Puerto Rico Luis Muñoz Marín offering the same . The oral @-@ history project also began recording , starting with Jacqueline Kennedy and Robert Kennedy . Originally projected to consist of interviews with 150 people , 178 had agreed to participate and the total number of expected participants doubled to 300 , with just one person ( a Secret Service agent ) declining to take part .
Also by this time fourteen architects were named to serve on a design advisory committee :
Over the following months pledges continued to funnel in for the building still being conceptualized by the various architects . Some notable donations include $ 900 @,@ 000 handed over to Postmaster General John A. Gronouski on July 9 , 1964 . It was the sum of a campaign encompassing 102 Federal agencies . Gronouski said many of the Federal employee contributions were in the form of a $ 5 withholding each payday for a period of three years . The next day the Indian ambassador to the United States , Braj Kumar Nehru. presented Black with a check for $ 100 @,@ 000 during a ceremony at the River Club . Nehru said that the Indian people were hit by a " sad blow " when the President died , and that they held him " in the highest regard , esteem and affection . " He desired for Indian students abroad in the United States to use the library , then still planned for construction at Harvard along the banks of the Charles River .
= = = Pei selected as architect = = =
On December 13 , 1964 , the Kennedy family announced that I. M. Pei was unanimously chosen by a subcommittee as the architect of the library . Even though Pei was relatively unknown amongst the list of candidates , Mrs. Kennedy , who viewed him as filled with promise and imagination and after spending several months inspecting the many architects ’ offices and creations , selected him to create the vision she held for the project . Pei did not have a design yet , but the idea as described by Robert Kennedy was to “ stimulate interest in politics . ” Meanwhile , the suggestion that Harvard may not be a suitable site for the library had begun cropping up . When asked if Pei may have had to start from scratch , he said this was the case . With an “ encouraging grin ” Robert Kennedy simply wished Mr. Pei “ Good luck . ”
Mrs. Kennedy chose Pei to design the library , based on two considerations . First , she appreciated the variety of ideas he had used for earlier projects . " He didn 't seem to have just one way to solve a problem , " she said . " He seemed to approach each commission thinking only of it and then develop a way to make something beautiful . " Ultimately , however , Kennedy made her choice based on her personal connection with Pei . Calling it " really an emotional decision " , she explained : " He was so full of promise , like Jack ; they were born in the same year . I decided it would be fun to take a great leap with him . "
Not long before Pei was selected , the $ 10 million goal set by Black had been reached . By 1965 , fundraising was suspended when the contributions reached $ 20 million .
= = = Years of setbacks = = =
In January 1966 , when Massachusetts Governor John A. Volpe signed a bill allowing the state to purchase the land for the site — an old train yard belonging to the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority ( MBTA ) — it was expected that the project would be complete by 1970 . The original design was a large complex comprising the John F. Kennedy Library and Museum , the John F. Kennedy School of Government , and an Institute of Politics . However the project faced many delays . The MBTA would not agree to remove the heavy machinery from the land until 1970 . By that time construction costs had risen to over $ 20 million . Only now could Pei prepare a six @-@ month study of the site ’ s soil , and he said the " money we had six years ago , today will barely pay for 60 percent of the original plans . "
Robert Kennedy , by then a senator from New York , had been serving as president of the John F. Kennedy Library Corporation until he was assassinated in 1968 . Weeks before , William Manchester and Harper & Row donated $ 750 @,@ 000 to the library . The first in a series of installments expected to total $ 5 million , came from the profits of the book The Death of a President which caused a bitter feud between the Kennedys and Manchester . Mrs. Kennedy remarked " I think it is so beautiful what Mr. Manchester did . I am glad that Senator Kennedy knew about it before he died . " The youngest of the Kennedy brothers , Senator Edward M. Kennedy , would step down as vice president of the corporation to fill the newly vacant position .
By 1971 , construction had still not begun ; researchers and scholars were forced to work out of the Federal Records Center which was temporarily housing some of the 15 million documents and manuscripts . Pei said there was finally " a clear way ahead " ; however , he was asked to save on construction expenses by using inexpensive materials . This would translate into Pei working with concrete instead of his preferred stone .
On May 22 , 1971 , President Lyndon B. Johnson , who succeeded Kennedy as president , saw the dedication of the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum in Austin , Texas . On the campus of the University of Texas at Austin , and next to the LBJ School of Public Affairs , he would beat the Kennedy team to building the first Presidential Library that also served as a place of scholarly research . He would not live to see work begin on his predecessor 's .
Meanwhile , the Cambridge community was in fierce opposition to having the library being built in Cambridge at all . Although originally welcomed in 1965 , the library was now seen as a great attractor of over a million annual tourists who would change the neighborhood with " hordes of tourists , automobiles , fast @-@ food franchises and souvenir shops , " as well as cause a negative environmental impact . One neighborhood group filed a lawsuit in federal court demanding that the General Services Administration study , which found that the great number of visitors would have " no adverse effect on the area , " be reexamined .
Stephen E. Smith , a Kennedy in @-@ law who heads the John F. Kennedy Library Corporation decided that “ we want the Kennedy Library to be a happy place . It would not be in keeping with the nature of this memorial for it to open in an atmosphere of discord and controversy . ” And in February 1975 the plans for having the library where President Kennedy would have wanted it , were dropped .
= = = New location , new plan = = =
The new location of the site was Columbia Point in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston , near the University of Massachusetts Boston , described as a group of " massive , blocky structures ... in sharp contrast to the mellow and urbane atmosphere of the library ’ s original site near Harvard Square . " The site was originally a garbage dump , Pei recalls finding old refrigerators and appliances under the soil . In all seriousness , he asserted that one could toss a lit match on the earth and watch the ground ignite as the soil emitted methane gas . One thing the site did have going for it was that the community was not opposed to the area being landscaped to house the library .
June 12 , 1977 marked the official groundbreaking for the library with construction following in August . Although the site was a landfill it did overlook Boston , Dorchester Bay and the ocean . The area was covered in 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of earth and topsoil . Pei was particularly proud of the landscaping results .
The design would be a simple geometric structure with a large glass pavilion . The concrete tower stands 125 feet ( 38 m ) tall and houses offices and archives . A circular section contains two theaters and is connected to the tower by the 115 foot ( 35 m ) grey @-@ glass pavilion . The concrete finish of the building directly reflects the budget . With more money Pei would have made the building with stone which he believes offers a nicer finish with more detail . The materials chosen kept the costs within budget , in total costing $ 20 @.@ 8 million .
Over 30 million people contributed to the cost of construction , which more than 225 construction workers labored to complete before the end of 1979 .
= = = Dedication = = =
The official dedication was held on October 20 , 1979 . Outside the building on the green , on a blue @-@ carpeted stage with a bank of yellow chrysanthemums sat the Kennedy family and those close to them . Among many others , President Jimmy Carter was in their company . The ceremony began with President Kennedy ’ s daughter , Caroline Kennedy , introducing her brother , John F. Kennedy , Jr . , who read from the Stephen Spender poem , I Think Continually of Those Who Were Truly Great .
President Carter said of John F. Kennedy that he embodied “ the ideals of a generation as few public figures have ever done in the history of the earth . ” He spoke of openly weeping upon hearing about the death of Kennedy , something that he had not done since his own father died , ten years before . Afterwards , he accepted the library “ on behalf of the American people ” and the National Archives and Records Administration .
Senator Edward M. Kennedy , said of his brother 's life , that it " was a voyage of discovery , a quest for excellence that inspired universal trust and faith . In that brief unfinished journey , he made us believe once more in the great historic purpose of this land . He filled America with pride and made the nation young again . "
Critics generally liked the finished building , but the architect himself was unsatisfied . The years of conflict and compromise had changed the nature of the design , and Pei felt that the final result lacked its original passion . " I wanted to give something very special to the memory of President Kennedy , " he said in 2000 . " It could and should have been a great project . " Perhaps the most important consequence of the Kennedy project for Pei was his elevation in the public 's consciousness as an architect of note . Pei considered the John F. Kennedy Library " the most important commission in my life . "
= = Exhibits and collection = =
The library 's first floor features a museum containing video monitors , family photographs , political memorabilia . Visitors to the museum begin their visit by watching a film narrated by President Kennedy in one of two cinemas that show an orientation film , and a third shows a documentary on the Cuban Missile Crisis .
The are seven permanent exhibits :
Campaign Trail – Exhibit on the presidential campaign of 1960 and New Frontier , featuring 1960 Democratic National Convention memorabilia , and a replica of a Kennedy campaign office .
The Briefing Room – Exhibit on Kennedy 's speeches and press conferences .
The Space Race – Exhibit on the Space Race and the U.S. space program during Project Mercury ; features the Mercury @-@ Redstone 3 ( Freedom 7 ) space capsule in which astronaut Alan B. Shepard became the first American in space . The capsule , which was displayed at the United States Naval Academy 's Armel @-@ Leftwich Visitor Center from 1998 to 2012 , came to the JFK Library in 2012 , and will return to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. , in 2016 .
Attorney General 's Office – Exhibit on Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , President Kennedy 's brother and closest political advisor . Features information on RFK 's role in fighting organized crime as chief counsel for the Senate McClellan Committee , and the Department of Justice 's role in the American Civil Rights Movement during RFK 's time as attorney general . The centerpiece of the exhibit are items that RFK had in his office at the Department of Justice Building . These include documents , personal items , and a bust of Winston Churchill by Leo Cherne .
The Oval Office – Exhibit features information on the American Civil Rights Movement during the Kennedy presidency , and items that Kennedy kept in the Oval Office .
First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy – Exhibit on the life of First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy ; features footage of the First Lady and artifacts from her life , include several pieces of clothing .
The Kennedy Family – This exhibit on the famous Kennedy family features a number of artifacts , including Kathleen Kennedy 's Red Cross uniform jacket , a commemorative cup , a blackthorn walking stick , and a replica of the Great Mace of Galway , Ireland .
Among the Library 's art collection is a 1962 portrait of Robert F. Kennedy by Lajos Markos , a watercolor sketch of John F. Kennedy by Jamie Wyeth , a watercolor painting of the White House painted by Jacqueline Kennedy and given as a gift to her husband , who had it hung in the Oval Office , a fingerpainting by Caroline Kennedy as a child , and a bust of John F. Kennedy sculpted by Felix de Weldon .
Kennedy 's 25 @-@ foot Wianno Senior sailboat Victura is on display on the grounds of the Library from May to October . Acquired by the family when Kennedy was 15 , it played an important role in forging sibling bonds and , after the president 's death , continued being sailed by other members of the family , especially race @-@ enthusiast brother Ted .
The Library has a variety of temporary and special exhibits .
= = Archives = =
= = = Audiovisual = = =
The audiovisual archives contain over 400 @,@ 000 still photographs taken from 1863 – 1984 , over 7 @.@ 5 million feet ( 2 @.@ 29 × 106 m ) of film shot between 1910 – 83 , and 11 @,@ 000 reels of audio recordings from 1910 – 85 .
= = = Oral @-@ history project = = =
Begun in 1964 , the oral @-@ history project was a unique undertaking to document and preserve interviews with those associated with Kennedy . Initially expected to have about 150 participants , today it contains over 1 @,@ 100 interviews and continues to this day . It is modelled after a program by the Columbia University Oral History Research Office , the worlds oldest , which began in 1948 . At its conception , while serving as Attorney General , Robert Kennedy speculated that some of the interviews , such as ones relating to the Cuban Missile Crisis , might have to be sealed for a while due to containing " highly classified material . " He said that although the emphasis would be on releasing everything as soon as possible , some items might remain closed for 10 to 25 years .
Because the interviewees are allowed to review their transcripts before the interviews are released for use by scholars , the audio may differ from the written record ; so that the interviewing may disambiguate any misunderstanding in their speech and make it clear in a written form .
= = = Artifacts = = =
The library keeps a wide range of artifacts , many of which can be found in their respective exhibits . One is the original coconut on which a rescue message was inscribed by Kennedy to rescue the crew of the PT @-@ 109 , and which was delivered by Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana , natives of the Solomon Islands .
= = The Ernest Hemingway Collection = =
The library is also home to a collection of documents and belongings from Ernest Hemingway . The collection was established in 1968 following an exchange of letters between Hemingway 's widow Mary and Jacqueline Kennedy that confirmed that Hemingway 's papers would be archived there . In 1961 , despite a U.S. travel ban to Cuba , President Kennedy had arranged to allow Mary Hemingway to go there to claim her recently deceased husband 's documents and belongings . A room for the collection was dedicated on July 18 , 1980 by Patrick Hemingway and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis .
The Ernest Hemingway Collection spans Hemingway 's career , and includes " ninety percent of existing Hemingway manuscript materials , making the Kennedy Library the world 's principal center for research " on his life and work . It includes :
Over 1000 manuscripts of varying lengths , including hand @-@ written drafts of The Sun Also Rises and dozens of hand @-@ drafted alternate endings to A Farewell to Arms ;
Research material on bullfighting , used as background for Death in the Afternoon and The Dangerous Summer
Thousands of letters written by or to Hemingway ; this included correspondence with fellow writers such as Sherwood Anderson , Carlos Baker , John Dos Passos , William Faulkner , F. Scott Fitzgerald , Robert Frost , Martha Gellhorn , A. E. Hotchner , James Joyce , Archibald MacLeish , Ezra Pound , and Gertrude Stein , as well as with actress Marlene Dietrich , restaurateur Toots Shor , Cardinal Francis Spellman , publisher Charles Scribner , his editor Maxwell Perkins , and his lawyer Alfred Rice
More than 10 @,@ 000 photographs , as well as press clippings and other ephemera
Books from his private library , many with marginalia , and including a rare copy of Francisco Goya 's Los Proverbios .
= = 2013 fire = =
On April 15 , 2013 , a fire occurred in the library . Initial reports stated the fire appears to have started in a mechanical room . An official communication from the library stated that the fire is being investigated . The fire was unrelated to the Boston Marathon bombings , which occurred simultaneously .
= Meet Kevin Johnson =
" Meet Kevin Johnson " is the 80th television episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC 's ) Lost and the eighth episode of the fourth season . It was written in October and November 2007 by supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and co @-@ producer Brian K. Vaughan , and directed in November by co @-@ executive producer Stephen Williams . " Meet Kevin Johnson " first aired March 20 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada .
In the second season finale , after 67 days of being stranded on a mysterious and mystical tropical island , Oceanic Airlines 815 crash survivor Michael Dawson ( played by Harold Perrineau ) successfully negotiates his escape via motorboat with the island 's dangerous original inhabitants , whom the survivors refer to as the " Others " . One month later in the episode before " Meet Kevin Johnson " , Michael reappears on a freighter offshore of the island , undercover with the alias " Kevin Johnson " . Most of the narrative of " Meet Kevin Johnson " consists of a continuous flashback — the third longest in the show 's history after " Across the Sea " and " The Other 48 Days " — showing what happened to Michael in the month that he spent away in New York and on the freighter , primarily his recruitment aboard the freighter Kahana as a spy for the Others .
The writers completed " Meet Kevin Johnson " , the eighth of 16 ordered scripts , on the same day that the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike action began . Post @-@ production finished weeks later without input from the show 's writers . ABC pledged to air the completed eight episodes regardless of the strike 's resolution , but the writers felt that the episode 's cliffhanger was unsuitable as a potential season finale . ABC ultimately overruled their opposition .
" Meet Kevin Johnson " was watched by 13 million Americans and was met with mixed reactions . A major discussion point was the episode 's climax , which was criticized for its placement in the story and its focus on secondary characters . Although critics responded well to Michael 's emotional journey , they complained that his physical journey seemed to conflict with Lost 's timeline that had been laid out in previous episodes . The episode was honored with the fourth season 's sole Primetime Emmy Award for its achievement in sound mixing .
= = Plot = =
The episode 's opening is set on December 26 , 2004 , over three months after the crash of Oceanic 815 . Most of the episode takes place on the freighter " Kahana , " moored offshore of the island where the plane crashed . The freighter is owned by Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , who is intent on extracting the Others ' leader Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . Captain Gault ( Grant Bowler ) stops two crewmembers from deserting the freighter in a raft . He publicly beats them and shouts that this is to save their lives , reminding the crew of what happened to George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) when he left the boat . The next morning , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) confronts Michael about his motivations , and the narrative shifts into an uninterrupted flashback of Michael 's life after escaping from the island .
Michael and his son Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) return to New York . Overcome with guilt , Michael confesses that he murdered Ana Lucia Cortez ( Michelle Rodriguez ) and Libby ( Cynthia Watros ) as part of his rescue of Walt from the Others ' captivity . Michael becomes estranged from Walt , who goes to live with Michael 's mother ( Starletta DuPois ) . Michael is haunted by apparitions and nightmares of the late Libby . Michael attempts to kill himself in a car crash , but fails . He sells the watch that Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) gave him in the first season finale and buys a gun for another suicide attempt , but this , too , is unsuccessful , because the gun jams . That night , Michael is confronted by Tom ( M.C. Gainey ) , the Other who abducted Walt . Tom explains that the island will not allow Michael to kill himself , and gives Michael an assignment : Michael must infiltrate the freighter Kahana using the pseudonym " Kevin Johnson " and kill everyone on board , who may try to kill his fellow crash survivors . Michael agrees to do it and boards the freighter from Fiji . Michael becomes acquainted with the crew and hesitates to sabotage their mission until he finds Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and his associates target @-@ practicing with machine guns . After Michael tries to detonate a provided bomb only to discover that it is a fake , Ben contacts Michael by radio and explains that the trick illustrated his stance against killing innocent people in his war against Widmore . The flashback ends and Sayid , appalled by Michael 's association with Ben , exposes his duplicity to Gault .
On the island in the Others ' abandoned Barracks where some of the survivors have taken residence , 815 survivor John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) meets with his faction to discuss the freighter and Ben reveals that Michael is spying for him there . Ben later urges his adopted daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) to flee to the Others ' sanctuary at the " Temple " for safety ; she is accompanied by her biological mother Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) and boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) . On their way , Karl and Rousseau are shot dead by hidden assailants and Alex surrenders .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" Meet Kevin Johnson " features the first appearance of Cynthia Watros as Libby in Lost since the character was murdered in the second season . Despite a promise by writer 's assistant Matt Ragghianti that there would be an episode in the second season in which flashbacks would focus on Libby , Watros became the first main cast member to never play the central role in a Lost episode . Following Libby 's death , Co @-@ creator / executive producer / writer Damon Lindelof revealed plans to tell her story in the third season . Libby 's story was later postponed again — Lindelof stated that her back story would be told through flashbacks of a new character introduced in the fourth season . Executive producer / writer Carlton Cuse further explained that these flashbacks would unfold over multiple episodes . This failed to materialize ; however , Watros made a couple of appearances via hallucinations in Michael 's flashbacks in " Meet Kevin Johnson " . The writers asserted that while they had yet to shed light on the character 's past , they would finally in their fifth year . The writers later made further revisions , with Cuse concluding that Libby 's part in the show is " pretty much finished . " When Watros returned to Lost for " Meet Kevin Johnson " , she did not receive the " special guest star " credit , as was customary for former main cast members of Lost . She was instead billed simply as a guest star , although her name appeared with that of frequent guest star M.C. Gainey ahead of the remainder of the episode 's guest cast , who were listed alphabetically on @-@ screen . Gainey explained that " just because they kill you on this show , don 't mean they don 't need you anymore ' cause everybody 's got a past . " Damon Lindelof said that " it was sort of like a walk down memory lane for the dead " , as it not only included Tom and Libby , but also Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) and George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) , two characters from the freighter who had met their demises earlier in the season .
First season regular cast member Malcolm David Kelley returned in an uncredited cameo for a single scene as Michael 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son Walt without dialogue and from a distance . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Kelley claimed that make @-@ up was applied to him in an effort for him to look younger ; however , Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse clarified that visual effects supervisor Mitch Suskin had actually composited into the shot some footage of Kelley from production on the first season . Because Kelley was so obscured and his name did not appear in the cast list , television critics were convinced that Walt had been recast . Steve Heisler of Time Out stated that " You gotta hand it to the Lost writers : For weeks , people have speculated about how they were going to treat Walt 's inevitable pubescence . See , the show 's set in 2004 , and only a few months have passed since the plane crash . Yet … it 's been years , and … Kelley has become a man . So what did they do ? … They just didn 't show him . Clever . " TMZ 's Daniel thought that " Not showing Walt is a clever way to cover up the fact that he [ is ] a foot taller than he should be … I understand that they pretty much can 't show Walt ever again " . Wizard 's Nikki Stafford went so far as to remark that " That kid standing in the window was definitely not Malcolm David Kelley … I don 't think Kelley will be back to reprise the role . "
Having appeared in six episodes of the third season and the first two of the fourth season , Blake Bashoff auditioned for and won the part of Moritz Stiefel in the Broadway musical Spring Awakening . He warned Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse that he would be unable to shoot Lost for at least six months beginning in December 2007 , as he rehearsed for and performed in the production . Being " big fans " of the musical and congratulating Bashoff on what they thought was an " amazing opportunity , " they brainstormed ideas with the other writers to write him out of the story while they still had him at their disposal . Having decided some time ago that Karl would eventually die , they pinpointed the episode . The cliffhanger of " Meet Kevin Johnson " sees Karl shot dead by unseen killers in the jungle . Two episodes later , the character Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) finds Karl partially buried in the jungle dirt , but this corpse is portrayed by a body double and not Bashoff . According to Bashoff , the writers hope that he can return to Lost at some point to " serve a cool purpose like [ Tom does in ' Meet Kevin Johnson ' ] . " In regard to his experience with Lost , Bashoff recounted that " I love the show . [ The cast ] ' s a great group … and … you get to shoot in paradise " ; however , he wished that he had learned more about Karl 's backstory .
= = = Writing = = =
The Writers Guild of America went on strike on November 4 , 2007 — the day that the writers finished editing the final draft of the script of " Meet Kevin Johnson " . The writers wanted to hold the eight episodes until they were able to produce more of the season because the eighth episode has a " very cool " yet inconclusive cliffhanger that was not written to end the season ; they compared it to " the end of an exciting book chapter [ but ] not the end of the novel . " ABC decided that the eight episodes would be aired from January to March , regardless of whether any more episodes were produced in the 2007 – 2008 season . After the strike 's end on February 12 , 2008 , the writers pleaded with ABC to air " Meet Kevin Johnson " on April 17 with the second pod of episodes , due to " the eighth episode [ being ] non @-@ traditional and the start of something new " . Jorge Garcia , who plays Hurley Reyes , agreed that " it 's a pretty shocking end but it doesn 't close out the way our previous [ finales ] have ended [ because ] it doesn 't have that closure to it [ and ] ends in a sense of dissonance . " ABC nevertheless prioritized scheduling Grey 's Anatomy , Ugly Betty and Lost 's returns all for April 24 .
Despite the struggles with the strike , co @-@ executive producer / staff writer Adam Horowitz recounted this as " a satisfying episode to work on — it was like we 'd been waiting so long to tell the story of what happened with Michael . " Carlton Cuse stated that " we [ the writers ] felt that the audience deserved to know , you know , once he and Walt sailed off in the boat , what was their journey . " Supervising producer / writer Elizabeth Sarnoff stated that " Michael 's goal — the whole season — is to die and he gets an opportunity to redeem himself when [ Tom ] finds him . " Co @-@ executive producer / staff writer Edward Kitsis added that " It 's heartbreaking when Walt wouldn 't see [ Michael ] … I always respected the fact that he told his son about the murders … Even though he knew it would probably blow up their relationship , he wanted to be honest with his son . In a way , you 've got to respect that . " Harold Perrineau , who plays Michael , concluded that " He 's done some bad things and he 's you know , got himself into a messy situation , but at the end of the day , Michael 's a good guy . " Instead of being intercut with scenes from the main ongoing plot , the flashbacks of " Meet Kevin Johnson " are presented continuously and are only bookended by present @-@ day scenes . This is the second episode to do this after " Flashes Before Your Eyes " from the third season . The flashback portion of " Meet Kevin Johnson " is the longest in Lost history ; Horowitz stated that " As we were breaking the story , it just happened , and it turned into the longest flashback to date . " When asked why Michael 's alias was not an allusion to a literary or historical figure , as with other Lost characters , Damon Lindelof explained that " if the Others … had chosen … Darwin or … Dickens , then … Widmore would have gotten suspicious : he 'd go like , ' oh , now there 's somebody on my boat with a literary allusion in their name , which sounds very much like that 's a Benjamin Linus alias ' , so they picked the most innocuous name they possibly could , which was Kevin Johnson . " Lindelof also said that it was a coincidence that " Kevin Johnson " was also the name of an American basketball player .
In " Meet Kevin Johnson " , Michael visits Tom 's penthouse suite , where Tom and his lover Arturo ( Francesco Simone ) are revealed to be homosexual — Lost 's only gay characters . Online speculation about Tom 's sexual orientation began after the broadcast of the third season premiere , in which Tom tells Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) that she is " not [ his ] type " . A few weeks later , the writers hinted that a character would eventually be revealed as gay . In response to the internet community 's suspicions , actor M.C. Gainey began to play the character as such , subtly trying to flirt with Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and later claiming that this attraction " got [ him ] through the first half of the season . " Following the broadcast of " Meet Kevin Johnson " , Lindelof and Cuse confirmed that the line from the third season premiere is an allusion to Tom 's sexuality , but felt that it needed to be explicitly confirmed in the show . Lindelof noted that " it was not subtle , to say the least " . Edward " Eddy " Kitsis stated that " It was great to see [ Tom ] and realize that … he is a true gentleman . " M.C. Gainey stated that " anytime you 've got a group of people , somebody 's got to be marching to a different drummer — that would be Tom " and Harold Perrineau rejoiced " Right on , I thought that was cool " .
Tom establishes that the island has some control over whether characters can die , as demonstrated when Michael unsuccessfully attempts to commit suicide three times . Kitsis thought that " It was interesting what [ Tom ] said to Michael … that really carries through Michael 's arc . " Later in the season , Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) tries to shoot Michael in the head , but the gun jams and the next day , a manifestation of the island in the form of Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) appears before Michael . Damon Lindelof confirmed that the island 's " cosmic intervention [ s ] of fate " also played a part in the car crash that foiled Jack 's suicide attempt in the third season finale . Following the broadcast of the fourth midseason premiere , Lindelof further confirmed that this island force prevents Ben and Widmore from dying . Cuse has said that " There is a raging debate on the show about what constitutes free will and what constitutes destiny and Michael 's story was sort of a [ n ] argument on the destiny side of that equation . He had more destiny to fulfil with that island than he anticipated and maybe the audience anticipated . " Elizabeth Sarnoff stated that " the island doesn 't let you go until it 's done with you and I think that the rest of our characters are going to feel the reverberations of that , as well . "
The second scene of the episode has Captain Gault beating two of his men , who had attempted to leave the freighter . Gault 's actor Grant Bowler explained that " it was a scene about how far and fast things were spiralling out of control [ on ] the freighter … It was also about his ability to run the ship and that he was willing to go to such great lengths to keep order . It was about status , and keeping level @-@ headed , and being in control . "
= = = Filming = = =
Shooting commenced in early November and concluded on November 27 , 2007 . The strike suspended the script for the next episode and freed the cast and crew from an immediate deadline , with the result that more time was spent on filming " Meet Kevin Johnson " than the average Lost episode . Shooting did not customarily overlap with the surrounding episodes , although it was produced simultaneously with the Lost : Missing Pieces mobisodes directed by executive producer Jack Bender and one scene from the season premiere overseen by co @-@ executive producer Jean Higgins . Perrineau hoped the audience would enjoy Michael 's return since the cast and crew " busted [ their ] butts doing this one . It felt like we were making a movie because there 's so much stuff that happens in this episode " . Lilly called it " one of the best episodes of the first eight . "
The exterior freighter scenes were filmed on an actual freighter , while interior scenes were filmed both on sets and in the freighter . The production crew had intended for the engine room scene where Michael goes to detonate the bomb and sees Libby to be shot in the freighter 's engine room ; instead , they built a new engine room set based on that inside the freighter . It was " so stifling hot " at around 105 ° F ( 40 ° C ) and the crew found that " to get air conditioning down [ t ] here … was an impossible task " , according to the Kahana 's real life chief engineer Bob Bower . Sculptor Jim Van Houten created twin twenty four foot ( seven meter ) marine engines for the set , primarily from urethane foam .
One New York flashback was filmed on the same Honolulu , Oahu , Hawaii street that had been used by set decorator Carol Bayne Kelley as Berlin , Germany in the fourth season 's " The Economist " and London , England in the third season 's " Flashes Before Your Eyes " . The cliffhanger , in which Alex , Karl and Rousseau are in the jungle , was shot at Dillingham Ranch on the northwest tip of Oahu near the beach where the pilot and other early episodes were primarily filmed . The scene originally ended with " snipers emerging through the jungle in these incredible , elaborate , jungle camouflage uniforms " ; however , this was cut in post @-@ production . Elements of this would be re @-@ shot and used in the next episode when the snipers are identified .
= = = Editing = = =
Despite picketing on most days with his fellow Lost writers , Carlton Cuse , a member of the WGA negotiating committee , continued to oversee post @-@ production in late November . When negotiations between the Guild and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers broke down in early December , he boycotted his producing duties on the show until the strike was resolved .
In addition to Michael Giacchino 's original score , " Meet Kevin Johnson " contained popular music diegetically . The song playing on Michael 's car radio during his first suicide attempt is " It 's Getting Better , " performed by " Mama " Cass Elliot . The song is heard again , fleetingly , during Michael 's vision of Libby in the ship 's engine room . Elliot 's rendition of the song was released as a single in 1969 and was included on her album Bubblegum , Lemonade , and ... Something for Mama later the same year . Lost previously played Elliot 's " Make Your Own Kind of Music " throughout the second season .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Dubbed " the most anticipated Lost [ episode ] of the season " by Verne Gay of Newsday due to Michael 's flashbacks , " Meet Kevin Johnson " was watched live or recorded and watched within five hours of broadcast by 11 @.@ 461 million viewers in the United States . Despite ranking ninth for the week in television programs with the most viewers , " Meet Kevin Johnson " set a new record as the lowest @-@ rated episode in Lost 's history , although this title was taken two episodes later with the broadcast of " Something Nice Back Home " . " Meet Kevin Johnson " achieved a fifth @-@ place 4 @.@ 6 / 12 in the coveted adults aged eighteen to forty @-@ nine demographic for the week . Including those who watched within seven days of broadcast , the episode was watched by a total of 13 @.@ 386 million American viewers . 1 @.@ 421 million Canadians watched " Meet Kevin Johnson " , making Lost the eighth most @-@ viewed show of the week . The episode brought in 618 @,@ 000 viewers in Australia , placing it as the twenty @-@ fourth most watched show of the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics and fans alike criticized the writers ' seeming disregard for the Lost timeline . Based on the actions and whereabouts of characters in the third season , fans could deduce when parts of Michael 's flashbacks occurred in relation to events on the island . John Kubicek of BuddyTV wrote that " This timeline results in some serious issues fans should have with time … This makes almost no sense … Michael left in the boat , he had to find help , come ashore , somehow explain himself , get on a plane back to New York City , drop off Walt to live with his grandma , find an apartment , get into a car accident , recover , and only then did he meet Tom . Either the writers are playing fast and loose with the concept of time , or Michael had the busiest week in the history of the world . " Using Lostpedia as a reference , Nikki Stafford of Wizard pointed out that the chronology was not only almost inconsistent with the third season , but also with an earlier episode of the same season . Damon Lindelof responded that " we [ the writers and producers ] find that the [ fan message ] boards can be really toxic " and pointed specifically to the " nitpick [ ing ] " of the possible continuity issues of " Meet Kevin Johnson " , saying in defence of the script that " it 's television . "
The cliffhanger , in which Rousseau and Karl are killed and Alex calls out in desperation that she is Ben 's daughter , gained a mixed response . In an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 review , IGN 's Chris Carabott called the scene " completely out of place … tacked on and anticlimactic " as it " came at the strangest moment " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post deemed the cliffhanger " a shocker " ; he asked " do we really care [ about Karl 's death ] ? I mean , he did have a nice new haircut and all , but he really wasn 't too interesting of a character . " Despite his assessment that " this impressive episode was a fitting midseason finale " , Digital Spy 's Ben Rawson @-@ Jones wrote that the " climax wasn 't as effective as one could have hoped for , as the collective fates of Alex , Danielle and the ultra @-@ expendable Karl don 't rouse a great deal of interest . " Grading the episode as a " B " , Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen was also unimpressed with the cliffhanger and the characters carrying it ; he felt that network executives were partially to blame for going against the wish of the show 's creative team to broadcast " Meet Kevin Johnson " as a midseason premiere as opposed to a midseason finale . Jensen criticized the episode 's unique flashback format , commenting that it lacked the usual " deeper , more immersive experience [ that ] embellishes the sophistication of the storytelling " of Lost .
" Meet Kevin Johnson " had a share of good reviews , with critics acclaiming the character development and emotional struggles of Michael . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger found this " middle chapter " to be " quite good " with " a fine performance from Mr. Perrineau " . Sepinwall wrote that Michael 's " struggle to deal with the guilt from his Faustian bargain to save Walt was another moving example of how the writers this season are really trying to build on the emotional impact of everything that 's happened before . " The San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman echoed this praise and referred to " Gay Tom " as " a unique and funny twist " . Cynthia Littleton of Variety wrote that " Perrineau plays it just right most of the time — no hysterics or scenery @-@ chewing , just a man trying to do the right thing , most of the time . " In a four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ star review , Digital Spy 's Ben Rawson @-@ Jones lauded the lack of interruption to the flashback and commented that " [ Michael 's ] suicidal plight was well conveyed and there were plenty of shocks and thrills along the way " . Dan Compora of SyFy Portal enjoyed seeing dead characters in flashbacks and commended Perrineau 's performance and character 's story , while criticizing the underutilization of the rest of the main cast . In an overall positive review for the episode , The Huffington Post 's Jay Glatfelter had mixed feelings for the revelation of Tom 's sexual orientation , writing that " It seemed a little oddly placed , kind of like ' Let 's make one of our characters gay just for the heck of it ' but still it 's cool that the show has a perfectly normal … not over @-@ the @-@ top gay character . "
The episode was also subject to less favorable reviews from critics who were disappointed with the gaps in Michael and Walt 's story . Steve Heisler of Time Out " wasn 't all @-@ too @-@ pleased " , citing the story 's predictability . TMZ 's Daniel called " Meet Kevin Johnson " " solid , but not spectacular " and gave it a grade of a " C + " , writing that " this episode fell a little short … I feel like we were kind of robbed of half of the ' What Happened to Michael ? ' story . It was interesting to see how far into depression he sunk … And they did give him a pretty good reason for working for Ben … But I can 't shake the feeling that we missed a good opportunity " . He further commented that " Tom would make a great football coach — his motivational speeches are awesome . " TV Squad 's Erin Martell was unsatisfied with Michael 's flashback and the lack of Walt , asking " What was their cover story when they got back to the mainland ? … they couldn 't do a genuine flashback scene because of … Kelley 's growth spurt , but they could have worked around that . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV ranked it as the second worst episode of the season ; his colleague John Kubicek was also critical , and commented that the flashback " essentially tells us things we already know without telling us much more . "
= = = Awards = = =
The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences granted sound production mixer Robert " Bobby " Anderson and re @-@ recording mixers Frank Morrone and Scott Weber a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( One @-@ Hour ) for their work on this
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episode . On September 13 , 2008 , the nomination prevailed and became Lost 's only Primetime Emmy Award win in 2008 . Anderson discussed his job for an Easter egg featurette on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases of Lost : The Complete Fourth Season – The Expanded Experience . Lost is sometimes filmed just two hundred yards ( 180 meters ) from the Kamehameha Highway and the traffic noise drowns out filmed dialogue , as do the ocean waves , so Anderson has the actors loop their relatively quiet lines on an automated dialogue replacement ( ADR ) sound stage .
= John Maynard Keynes =
John Maynard Keynes , 1st Baron Keynes , CB , FBA ( / ˈkeɪnz / KAYNZ ; 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946 ) , was an English economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments . He built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles , and is widely considered to be one of the most influential economists of the 20th century and the founder of modern macroeconomics . His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and its various offshoots .
In the 1930s , Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking , challenging the ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would , in the short to medium term , automatically provide full employment , as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands . He instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment . According to Keynesian economics , state intervention was necessary to moderate " boom and bust " cycles of economic activity . Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions .
Following the outbreak of World War II , the leading Western economies adopted Keynes 's policy recommendations , and in the two decades following Keynes 's death in 1946 , almost all capitalist governments had done so . Keynes 's influence waned in the 1970s , partly as a result of the severe stagflation that stalled the Anglo @-@ American economies throughout that decade , and partly because of criticism of Keynesian theories by Milton Friedman , who had predicted that condition . He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy . Although some have said that Friedman 's monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserve 's response to the global financial crisis of 2007 – 08 , others have raised concerns about the validity and longevity of Friedman 's theories and characterized government economic policies undertaken during that period as a worldwide resurgence in Keynesian thought .
When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999 , it said that " his radical idea that governments should spend money they don 't have may have saved capitalism . " The Economist has described Keynes as " Britain 's most famous 20th @-@ century economist . " In addition to being an economist , Keynes was also a civil servant , a director of the Bank of England , and a part of the Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals .
= = Early life and education = =
John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge , Cambridgeshire , England , to an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family . His father , John Neville Keynes , was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer . Keynes was the first born , and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887 . Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize @-@ winning physiologist Archibald Hill .
According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky , Keynes 's parents were loving and attentive . They remained in the same house throughout their lives , where the children were always welcome to return . Keynes would receive considerable support from his father , including expert coaching to help him pass his scholarship exams and financial help both as a young man and when his assets were nearly wiped out at the onset of Great Depression in 1929 . Keynes 's mother made her children 's interests her own , and according to Skidelsky , " because she could grow up with her children , they never outgrew home " .
In January 1889 , at the age of five and a half , Keynes started at the kindergarten of the Perse School for Girls for five mornings a week . He quickly showed a talent for arithmetic , but his health was poor leading to several long absences . He was tutored at home by a governess , Beatrice Mackintosh , and his mother . In January 1892 , at eight and a half , he started as a day pupil at St Faith 's preparatory school . By 1894 , Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics . In 1896 , St Faith 's headmaster , Ralph Goodchild , wrote that Keynes was " head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school " and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton .
In 1897 , Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College , where he displayed talent in a wide range of subjects , particularly mathematics , classics and history . At Eton , Keynes experienced the first " love of his life " in Dan Macmillan , older brother of the future Prime Minister Harold Macmillan . Despite his middle @-@ class background , Keynes mixed easily with upper @-@ class pupils . In 1902 Keynes left Eton for King 's College , Cambridge , after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics . Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist , although Keynes 's own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore . Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an active member of the semi @-@ secretive Cambridge Apostles society , a debating club largely reserved for the brightest students . Like many members , Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating and continued to attend occasional meetings throughout his life . Before leaving Cambridge , Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club . He was said to be an atheist .
In May 1904 , he received a first class B.A. in mathematics . Aside from a few months spent on holidays with family and friends , Keynes continued to involve himself with the university over the next two years . He took part in debates , further studied philosophy and attended economics lectures informally as a graduate student for one term , which constituted his only formal education in the subject . He also studied for Tripos in 1905 and , the following year took civil service exams .
The economist Harry Johnson wrote that the optimism imparted by Keynes 's early life is a key to understanding his later thinking . Keynes was always confident he could find a solution to whatever problem he turned his attention to , and retained a lasting faith in the ability of government officials to do good . Keynes 's optimism was also cultural , in two senses : he was of the last generation raised by an empire still at the height of its power , and was also of the last generation who felt entitled to govern by culture , rather than by expertise . According to Skidelsky , the sense of cultural unity current in Britain from the 19th century to the end of World War I provided a framework with which the well @-@ educated could set various spheres of knowledge in relation to each other and to life , enabling them to confidently draw from different fields when addressing practical problems .
= = Career = =
In October 1906 , Keynes 's Civil Service career began as a clerk in the India Office . He enjoyed his work at first , but by 1908 had become bored and resigned his position to return to Cambridge and work on probability theory , at first privately funded only by two dons at the university – his father and the economist Arthur Pigou . By 1909 Keynes had published his first professional economics article in the Economics Journal , about the effect of a recent global economic downturn on India . He founded the Political Economy Club a weekly discussion group . Also in 1909 , Keynes accepted a lectureship in economics funded personally by Alfred Marshall . Keynes 's earnings rose further as he began to take on pupils for private tuition . On being elected a fellow in 1911 Keynes was made editor of The Economic Journal . By 1913 he had published his first book , Indian Currency and Finance . He was then appointed to the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance – the same topic as his book – where Keynes showed considerable talent at applying economic theory to practical problems . His written work was published under the name " J M Keynes " , though to his family and friends he was known as Maynard . ( His father , John Neville Keynes , was also always known by his middle name ) .
= = = First World War = = =
The British Government called on Keynes 's expertise during the First World War . While he did not formally re @-@ join the civil service in 1914 , Keynes travelled to London at the government 's request a few days before hostilities started . Bankers had been pushing for the suspension of specie payments – the convertibility of banknotes into gold – but with Keynes 's help the Chancellor of the Exchequer ( then Lloyd George ) was persuaded that this would be a bad idea , as it would hurt the future reputation of the city if payments were suspended before absolutely necessary .
In January 1915 , Keynes took up an official government position at the Treasury . Among his responsibilities were the design of terms of credit between Britain and its continental allies during the war , and the acquisition of scarce currencies . According to economist Robert Lekachman , Keynes 's " nerve and mastery became legendary " because of his performance of these duties , as in the case where he managed to assemble – with difficulty – a small supply of Spanish pesetas . The secretary of the Treasury was delighted to hear Keynes had amassed enough to provide a temporary solution for the British Government . But Keynes did not hand the pesetas over , choosing instead to sell them all to break the market : his boldness paid off , as pesetas then became much less scarce and expensive . In the 1917 King 's Birthday Honours , Keynes was appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath for his wartime work , and his success led to the appointment that would have a huge effect on Keynes 's life and career ; Keynes was appointed financial representative for the Treasury to the 1919 Versailles peace conference . He was also appointed Officer of the Belgian Order of Leopold .
= = = Versailles peace conference = = =
Keynes 's experience at Versailles was influential in shaping his future outlook , yet it was not a successful one for him . Keynes 's main interest had been in trying to prevent Germany 's compensation payments being set so high it would traumatise innocent German people , damage the nation 's ability to pay and sharply limit her ability to buy exports from other countries – thus hurting not just Germany 's own economy but that of the wider world . Unfortunately for Keynes , conservative powers in the coalition that emerged from the 1918 coupon election were able to ensure that both Keynes himself and the Treasury were largely excluded from formal high @-@ level talks concerning reparations . Their place was taken by the Heavenly Twins – the judge Lord Sumner and the banker Lord Cunliffe whose nickname derived from the " astronomically " high war compensation they wanted to demand from Germany . Keynes was forced to try to exert influence mostly from behind the scenes .
The three principal players at Versailles were Britain 's Lloyd George , France 's Clemenceau and America 's President Wilson . It was only Lloyd George to whom Keynes had much direct access ; until the 1918 election he had some sympathy with Keynes 's view but while campaigning had found his speeches were only well received by the public if he promised to harshly punish Germany , and had therefore committed his delegation to extracting high payments . Lloyd George did however win some loyalty from Keynes with his actions at the Paris conference by intervening against the French to ensure the dispatch of much @-@ needed food supplies to German civilians . Clemenceau also pushed for substantial reparations , though not as high as those proposed by the British , while on security grounds , France argued for an even more severe settlement than Britain . Wilson initially favoured relatively lenient treatment of Germany – he feared too harsh conditions could foment the rise of extremism , and wanted Germany to be left sufficient capital to pay for imports . To Keynes 's dismay , Lloyd George and Clemenceau were able to pressure Wilson to agree to include pensions in the reparations bill . Towards the end of the conference , Keynes came up with a plan that he argued would not only help Germany and other impoverished central European powers but also be good for the world economy as a whole . It involved the radical writing down of war debts , which would have had the possible effect of increasing international trade all round , but at the same time thrown the entire cost of European reconstruction on the United States . Lloyd George agreed it might be acceptable to the British electorate . However , America was against the plan ; the US was then the largest creditor , and by this time Wilson had started to believe in the merits of a harsh peace and thought that his country had already made excessive sacrifices . Hence despite his best efforts , the end result of the conference was a treaty which disgusted Keynes both on moral and economic grounds , and led to his resignation from the Treasury .
In June 1919 he turned down an offer to become chairman of the British Bank of Northern Commerce , a job that promised a salary of £ 2000 in return for a morning per week of work .
Keynes 's analysis on the predicted damaging effects of the treaty appeared in the highly influential book , The Economic Consequences of the Peace , published in 1919 . This work has been described as Keynes 's best book , where he was able to bring all his gifts to bear – his passion as well as his skill as an economist . In addition to economic analysis , the book contained pleas to the reader 's sense of compassion :
I cannot leave this subject as though its just treatment wholly depended either on our own pledges or on economic facts . The policy of reducing Germany to servitude for a generation , of degrading the lives of millions of human beings , and of depriving a whole nation of happiness should be abhorrent and detestable , – abhorrent and detestable , even if it were possible , even if it enriched ourselves , even if it did not sow the decay of the whole civilised life of Europe .
Also present was striking imagery such as " year by year Germany must be kept impoverished and her children starved and crippled " along with bold predictions which were later justified by events :
If we aim deliberately at the impoverishment of Central Europe , vengeance , I dare predict , will not limp . Nothing can then delay for very long that final war between the forces of Reaction and the despairing convulsions of Revolution , before which the horrors of the late German war will fade into nothing .
Keynes 's followers assert that his predictions of disaster were borne out when the German economy suffered the hyperinflation of 1923 , and again by the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the outbreak of World War II . However the historian Ruth Henig claims that " most historians of the Paris peace conference now take the view that , in economic terms , the treaty was not unduly harsh on Germany and that , while obligations and damages were inevitably much stressed in the debates at Paris to satisfy electors reading the daily newspapers , the intention was quietly to give Germany substantial help towards paying her bills , and to meet many of the German objections by amendments to the way the reparations schedule was in practice carried out " . Only a small fraction of reparations were ever paid . In fact , the historian Stephen Schuker demonstrates in American ' Reparations ' to Germany , 1919 @-@ 33 , that the capital inflow from American loans substantially exceeded German outpayments so that , on a net basis , Germany received support equal to four times the amount of the post @-@ World War II Marshal Plan . Schuker also shows that , in the years after Versailles , Keynes became an informal reparations adviser to the German government , wrote one of the major German reparation notes , and actually supported the hyperinflation on political grounds . Nevertheless , The Economic Consequences of the Peace gained Keynes international fame , even though it also caused him to be regarded as anti @-@ establishment – it was not until after the outbreak of World War II that Keynes was offered a directorship of a major British Bank , or an acceptable offer to return to government with a formal job . However , Keynes was still able to influence government policy making through his network of contacts , his published works and by serving on government committees ; this included attending high @-@ level policy meetings as a consultant .
= = = In the 1920s = = =
Keynes had completed his A Treatise on Probability before the war , but published it in 1921 . The work was a notable contribution to the philosophical and mathematical underpinnings of probability theory , championing the important view that probabilities were no more or less than truth values intermediate between simple truth and falsity . Keynes developed the first upper @-@ lower probabilistic interval approach to probability in chapters 15 and 17 of this book , as well as having developed the first decision weight approach with his conventional coefficient of risk and weight , c , in chapter 26 . In addition to his academic work , the 1920s saw Keynes active as a journalist selling his work internationally and working in London as a financial consultant . In 1924 Keynes wrote an obituary for his former tutor Alfred Marshall which Joseph Schumpeter called " the most brilliant life of a man of science I have ever read . " Marshall 's widow was " entranced " by the memorial , while Lytton Strachey rated it as one of Keynes 's " best works " .
In 1922 Keynes continued to advocate reduction of German reparations with A Revision of the Treaty . He attacked the post World War I deflation policies with A Tract on Monetary Reform in 1923 – a trenchant argument that countries should target stability of domestic prices , avoiding deflation even at the cost of allowing their currency to depreciate . Britain suffered from high unemployment through most of the 1920s , leading Keynes to recommend the depreciation of sterling to boost jobs by making British exports more affordable . From 1924 he was also advocating a fiscal response , where the government could create jobs by spending on public works . During the 1920s Keynes 's pro stimulus views had only limited effect on policy makers and mainstream academic opinion – according to Hyman Minsky one reason was that at this time his theoretical justification was " muddled " . The Tract had also called for an end to the gold standard . Keynes advised it was no longer a net benefit for countries such as Britain to participate in the gold standard , as it ran counter to the need for domestic policy autonomy . It could force countries to pursue deflationary policies at exactly the time when expansionary measures were called for to address rising unemployment . The Treasury and Bank of England were still in favour of the gold standard and in 1925 they were able to convince the then Chancellor Winston Churchill to re @-@ establish it , which had a depressing effect on British industry . Keynes responded by writing The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill and continued to argue against the gold standard until Britain finally abandoned it in 1931 .
= = = During the Great Depression = = =
Keynes had begun a theoretical work to examine the relationship between unemployment , money and prices back in the 1920s . The work , Treatise on Money , was published in 1930 in two volumes . A central idea of the work was that if the amount of money being saved exceeds the amount being invested – which can happen if interest rates are too high – then unemployment will rise . This is in part a result of people not wanting to spend too high a proportion of what employers pay out , making it difficult , in aggregate , for employers to make a profit . Another key theme of the book is the unreliability of financial indices for representing an accurate – or indeed meaningful – indication of general shifts in purchasing power of currencies over time . In particular he criticised the justification of Britain 's return to the gold standard in 1925 at pre @-@ war valuation by reference to the wholesale price index . He argued that the index understated the effects of changes in the costs of services and of labour .
Keynes was deeply critical of the British government 's austerity measures during the Great Depression . He believed that budget deficits were a good thing , a product of recessions . He wrote , " For Government borrowing of one kind or another is nature 's remedy , so to speak , for preventing business losses from being , in so severe a slump as to present one , so great as to bring production altogether to a standstill . "
At the height of the Great Depression , in 1933 , Keynes published The Means to Prosperity , which contained specific policy recommendations for tackling unemployment in a global recession , chiefly counter @-@ cyclical public spending . The Means to Prosperity contains one of the first mentions of the multiplier effect . While it was addressed chiefly to the British Government , it also contained advice for other nations affected by the global recession . A copy was sent to the newly elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt and other world leaders . The work was taken seriously by both the American and British governments , and according to Robert Skidelsky , helped pave the way for the later acceptance of Keynesian ideas , though it had little immediate practical influence . In the 1933 London Economic Conference opinions remained too diverse for a unified course of action to be agreed upon .
Keynesian @-@ like policies were adopted by Sweden and Germany , but Sweden was seen as too small to command much attention , and Keynes was deliberately silent about the successful efforts of Germany as he was dismayed by their imperialist ambitions and their treatment of Jews . Apart from Great Britain , Keynes 's attention was primarily focused on the United States . In 1931 , he received considerable support for his views on counter @-@ cyclical public spending in Chicago , then America 's foremost centre for economic views alternative to the mainstream . However , orthodox economic opinion remained generally hostile regarding fiscal intervention to mitigate the depression , until just before the outbreak of war . In late 1933 Keynes was persuaded by Felix Frankfurter to address President Roosevelt directly , which he did by letters and face to face in 1934 , after which the two men spoke highly of each other . However , according to Skidelsky , the consensus is that Keynes 's efforts only began to have a more than marginal influence on US economic policy after 1939 .
Keynes 's magnum opus , The General Theory of Employment , Interest and Money was published in 1936 . It was researched and indexed by one of Keynes 's favourite students , later the economist David Bensusan @-@ Butt . The work served as a theoretical justification for the interventionist policies Keynes favoured for tackling a recession . The General Theory challenged the earlier neoclassical economic paradigm , which had held that provided it was unfettered by government interference , the market would naturally establish full employment equilibrium . In doing so Keynes was partly setting himself against his former teachers Marshall and Pigou . Keynes believed the classical theory was a " special case " that applied only to the particular conditions present in the 19th century , his own theory being the general one . Classical economists had believed in Say 's law , which , simply put , states that " supply creates its own demand " , and that in a free market workers would always be willing to lower their wages to a level where employers could profitably offer them jobs . An innovation from Keynes was the concept of price stickiness – the recognition that in reality workers often refuse to lower their wage demands even in cases where a classical economist might argue it is rational for them to do so . Due in part to price stickiness , it was established that the interaction of " aggregate demand " and " aggregate supply " may lead to stable unemployment equilibria – and in those cases , it is the state , not the market , that economies must depend on for their salvation .
The General Theory argues that demand , not supply , is the key variable governing the overall level of economic activity . Aggregate demand , which equals total un @-@ hoarded income in a society , is defined by the sum of consumption and investment . In a state of unemployment and unused production capacity , one can only enhance employment and total income by first increasing expenditures for either consumption or investment . Without government intervention to increase expenditure , an economy can remain trapped in a low employment equilibrium – the demonstration of this possibility has been described as the revolutionary formal achievement of the work . The book advocated activist economic policy by government to stimulate demand in times of high unemployment , for example by spending on public works . " Let us be up and doing , using our idle resources to increase our wealth , " he wrote in 1928 . " With men and plants unemployed , it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these new developments . It is precisely with these plants and these men that we shall afford them . "
The General Theory is often viewed as the foundation of modern macroeconomics . Few senior American economists agreed with Keynes through most of the 1930s . Yet his ideas were soon to achieve widespread acceptance , with eminent American professors such as Alvin Hansen agreeing with the General Theory before the outbreak of World War II .
Keynes himself had only limited participation in the theoretical debates that followed the publication of the General Theory as he suffered a heart attack in 1937 , requiring him to take long periods of rest . Hyman Minsky and other post @-@ Keynesian economists have argued that as result of this , Keynes 's ideas were diluted by those keen to compromise with classical economists or to render his concepts with mathematical models like the IS – LM model ( which , they argue , distort Keynes 's ideas ) . Keynes began to recover in 1939 , but for the rest of his life his professional energies were largely directed towards the practical side of economics – the problems of ensuring optimum allocation of resources for the war efforts , post @-@ war negotiations with America , and the new international financial order that was presented at the Bretton Woods Conference .
In the General Theory and later , Keynes responded to the socialists and left @-@ wing liberals who argued , especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s , that capitalism caused war . He argued that if capitalism were managed domestically and internationally ( with coordinated international Keynesian policies , an international monetary system that didn 't pit the interests of countries against each other , and a high degree of freedom of trade ) , then this system of managed capitalism could promote peace rather than conflict between countries . His plans during World War II for post @-@ war international economic institutions and policies ( which contributed to the creation at Bretton Woods of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank , and later to the creation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and eventually the World Trade Organization ) were aimed to give effect to this vision .
Although Keynes has been widely criticised – especially by members of the Chicago school of economics – for advocating irresponsible government spending financed by borrowing , in fact he was a firm believer in balanced budgets and regarded the proposals for programs of public works during the Great Depression as an exceptional measure to meet the needs of exceptional circumstances .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the Second World War , Keynes argued in How to Pay for the War , published in 1940 , that the war effort should be largely financed by higher taxation and especially by compulsory saving ( essentially workers lending money to the government ) , rather than deficit spending , in order to avoid inflation . Compulsory saving would act to dampen domestic demand , assist in channelling additional output towards the war efforts , would be fairer than punitive taxation and would have the advantage of helping to avoid a post war slump by boosting demand once workers were allowed to withdraw their savings . In September 1941 he was proposed to fill a vacancy in the Court of Directors of the Bank of England , and subsequently carried out a full term from the following April . In June 1942 , Keynes was rewarded for his service with a hereditary peerage in the King 's Birthday Honours . On 7 July his title was gazetted as " Baron Keynes , of Tilton , in the County of Sussex " and he took his seat in the House of Lords on the Liberal Party benches .
As the Allied victory began to look certain , Keynes was heavily involved , as leader of the British delegation and chairman of the World Bank commission , in the mid @-@ 1944 negotiations that established the Bretton Woods system . The Keynes @-@ plan , concerning an international clearing @-@ union , argued for a radical system for the management of currencies . He proposed the creation of a common world unit of currency , the bancor , and new global institutions – a world central bank and the International Clearing Union . Keynes envisaged these institutions managing an international trade and payments system with strong incentives for countries to avoid substantial trade deficits or surpluses . The USA 's greater negotiating strength , however , meant that the final outcomes accorded more closely to the more conservative plans of Harry Dexter White . According to US economist J. Bradford DeLong , on almost every point where he was overruled by the Americans , Keynes was later proved correct by events .
The two new institutions , later known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , were founded as a compromise that primarily reflected the American vision . There would be no incentives for states to avoid a large trade surplus ; instead , the burden for correcting a trade imbalance would continue to fall only on the deficit countries , which Keynes had argued were least able to address the problem without inflicting economic hardship on their populations . Yet , Keynes was still pleased when accepting the final agreement , saying that if the institutions stayed true to their founding principles , " the brotherhood of man will have become more than a phrase . "
= = = Postwar = = =
After the war , Keynes continued to represent the United Kingdom in international negotiations despite his deteriorating health . He succeeded in obtaining preferential terms from the United States for new and outstanding debts to facilitate the rebuilding of the British economy .
Just before his death in 1946 , Keynes told Henry Clay , a professor of social economics and advisor to the Bank of England of his hopes that Adam Smith 's ' invisible hand ' can help Britain out of the economic hole it is in : " I find myself more and more relying for a solution of our problems on the invisible hand which I tried to eject from economic thinking twenty years ago . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Keynesian ascendancy 1939 – 79 = = =
From the end of the Great Depression to the mid @-@ 1970s , Keynes provided the main inspiration for economic policy makers in Europe , America and much of the rest of the world . While economists and policy makers had become increasingly won over to Keynes 's way of thinking in the mid and late 1930s , it was only after the outbreak of World War II that governments started to borrow money for spending on a scale sufficient to eliminate unemployment . According to the economist John Kenneth Galbraith ( then a US government official charged with controlling inflation ) , in the rebound of the economy from wartime spending , " one could not have had a better demonstration of the Keynesian ideas . "
The Keynesian Revolution was associated with the rise of modern liberalism in the West during the post @-@ war period . Keynesian ideas became so popular that some scholars point to Keynes as representing the ideals of modern liberalism , as Adam Smith represented the ideals of classical liberalism . After the war , Winston Churchill attempted to check the rise of Keynesian policy @-@ making in the United Kingdom and used rhetoric critical of the mixed economy in his 1945 election campaign . Despite his popularity as a war hero , Churchill suffered a landslide defeat to Clement Attlee whose government 's economic policy continued to be influenced by Keynes 's ideas .
= = = = Neo @-@ Keynesian economics = = = =
In the late 1930s and 1940s , economists ( notably John Hicks , Franco Modigliani , and Paul Samuelson ) attempted to interpret and formalise Keynes 's writings in terms of formal mathematical models . In what had become known as the neoclassical synthesis , they combined Keynesian analysis with neoclassical economics to produce neo @-@ Keynesian economics , which came to dominate mainstream macroeconomic thought for the next 40 years .
By the 1950s , Keynesian policies were adopted by almost the entire developed world and similar measures for a mixed economy were used by many developing nations . By then , Keynes 's views on the economy had become mainstream in the world 's universities . Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the developed and emerging free capitalist economies enjoyed exceptionally high growth and low unemployment . Professor Gordon Fletcher has written that the 1950s and 1960s , when Keynes 's influence was at its peak , appear in retrospect as a golden age of capitalism .
In late 1965 Time magazine ran a cover article with a title comment from Milton Friedman ( later echoed by U.S. President Richard Nixon ) , " We are all Keynesians now " . The article described the exceptionally favourable economic conditions then prevailing , and reported that " Washington 's economic managers scaled these heights by their adherence to Keynes 's central theme : the modern capitalist economy does not automatically work at top efficiency , but can be raised to that level by the intervention and influence of the government . " The article also states that Keynes was one of the three most important economists who ever lived , and that his General Theory was more influential than the magna opera of other famous economists , like Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations .
= = = Keynesian economics out of favour 1979 – 2007 = = =
Keynesian economics were officially discarded by the British Government in 1979 , but forces had begun to gather against Keynes 's ideas over 30 years earlier . Friedrich Hayek had formed the Mont Pelerin Society in 1947 , with the explicit intention of nurturing intellectual currents to one day displace Keynesianism and other similar influences . Its members included the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises along with the then young Milton Friedman . Initially the society had little impact on the wider world – according to Hayek it was as if Keynes had been raised to sainthood after his death and that people refused to allow his work to be questioned . Friedman however began to emerge as a formidable critic of Keynesian economics from the mid @-@ 1950s , and especially after his 1963 publication of A Monetary History of the United States .
On the practical side of economic life , " big government " had appeared to be firmly entrenched in the 1950s , but the balance began to shift towards the power of private interests in the 1960s . Keynes had written against the folly of allowing " decadent and selfish " speculators and financiers the kind of influence they had enjoyed after World War I. For two decades after World War II the public opinion was strongly against private speculators , the disparaging label " Gnomes of Zürich " being typical of how they were described during this period . International speculation was severely restricted by the capital controls in place after Bretton Woods . According to the journalists Larry Elliott and Dan Atkinson , 1968 was the pivotal year when power shifted in favour of private agents such as currency speculators . As the key 1968 event Elliott and Atkinson picked out America 's suspension of the conversion of the dollar into gold except on request of foreign governments , which they identified as the beginning of the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system .
Criticisms of Keynes 's ideas had begun to gain significant acceptance by the early 1970s , as they were then able to make a credible case that Keynesian models no longer reflected economic reality . Keynes himself included few formulas and no explicit mathematical models in his General Theory . For economists such as Hyman Minsky , Keynes 's limited use of mathematics was partly the result of his scepticism about whether phenomena as inherently uncertain as economic activity could ever be adequately captured by mathematical models . Nevertheless , many models were developed by Keynesian economists , with a famous example being the Phillips curve which predicted an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation . It implied that unemployment could be reduced by government stimulus with a calculable cost to inflation . In 1968 Milton Friedman published a paper arguing that the fixed relationship implied by the Philips curve did not exist . Friedman suggested that sustained Keynesian policies could lead to both unemployment and inflation rising at once – a phenomenon that soon became known as stagflation . In the early 1970s stagflation appeared in both the US and Britain just as Friedman had predicted , with economic conditions deteriorating further after the 1973 oil crisis . Aided by the prestige gained from his successful forecast , Friedman led increasingly successful criticisms against the Keynesian consensus , convincing not only academics and politicians but also much of the general public with his radio and television broadcasts . The academic credibility of Keynesian economics was further undermined by additional criticism from other monetarists trained in the Chicago school of economics , by the Lucas critique and by criticisms from Hayek 's Austrian School . So successful were these criticisms that by 1980 Robert Lucas claimed economists would often take offence if described as Keynesians . Keynesian principles fared increasingly poorly on the practical side of economics – by 1979 they had been displaced by monetarism as the primary influence on Anglo @-@ American economic policy . However , many officials on both sides of the Atlantic retained a preference for Keynes , and in 1984 the Federal Reserve officially discarded monetarism , after which Keynesian principles made a partial comeback as an influence on policy making . Not all academics accepted the criticism against Keynes – Minsky has argued that Keynesian economics had been debased by excessive mixing with neoclassical ideas from the 1950s , and that it was unfortunate that this branch of economics had even continued to be called " Keynesian " . Writing in The American Prospect , Robert Kuttner argued it was not so much excessive Keynesian activism that caused the economic problems of the 1970s but the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system of capital controls , which allowed
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capital flight from regulated economies into unregulated economies in a fashion similar to Gresham 's law phenomenon ( where weak currencies undermine strong currencies ) . Historian Peter Pugh has stated that a key cause of the economic problems afflicting America in the 1970s was the refusal to raise taxes to finance the Vietnam War , which was against Keynesian advice .
A more typical response was to accept some elements of the criticisms while refining Keynesian economic theories to defend them against arguments that would invalidate the whole Keynesian framework – the resulting body of work largely composing New Keynesian economics . In 1992 Alan Blinder wrote about a " Keynesian Restoration " , as work based on Keynes 's ideas had to some extent become fashionable once again in academia , though in the mainstream it was highly synthesised with monetarism and other neoclassical thinking . In the world of policy making , free market influences broadly sympathetic to monetarism have remained very strong at government level – in powerful normative institutions like the World Bank , the IMF and US Treasury , and in prominent opinion @-@ forming media such as the Financial Times and The Economist .
= = = Keynesian resurgence 2008 – 09 = = =
The global financial crisis of 2007 – 08 led to public skepticism about the free market consensus even from some on the economic right . In March 2008 , Martin Wolf , chief economics commentator at the Financial Times , announced the death of the dream of global free @-@ market capitalism . In the same month macroeconomist James K. Galbraith used the 25th Annual Milton Friedman Distinguished Lecture to launch a sweeping attack against the consensus for monetarist economics and argued that Keynesian economics were far more relevant for tackling the emerging crises . Economist Robert J. Shiller had begun advocating robust government intervention to tackle the financial crises , specifically citing Keynes . Nobel laureate Paul Krugman also actively argued the case for vigorous Keynesian intervention in the economy in his columns for The New York Times . Other prominent economic commentators who have argued for Keynesian government intervention to mitigate the financial crisis include George Akerlof , J. Bradford DeLong , Robert Reich , and Joseph Stiglitz . Newspapers and other media have also cited work relating to Keynes by Hyman Minsky , Robert Skidelsky , Donald Markwell and Axel Leijonhufvud .
A series of major bailouts were pursued during the financial crisis , starting on 7 September with the announcement that the U.S. Government was to nationalise the two government @-@ sponsored enterprises which oversaw most of the U.S. subprime mortgage market – Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac . In October , Alistair Darling , the British Chancellor of the Exchequer , referred to Keynes as he announced plans for substantial fiscal stimulus to head off the worst effects of recession , in accordance with Keynesian economic thought . Similar policies have been adopted by other governments worldwide . This is in stark contrast to the action imposed on Indonesia during the Asian financial crisis of 1997 , when it was forced by the IMF to close 16 banks at the same time , prompting a bank run . Much of the post @-@ crisis discussion reflected Keynes 's advocacy of international coordination of fiscal or monetary stimulus , and of international economic institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank , which many had argued should be reformed as a " new Bretton Woods " , and should have been even before the crises broke out . The IMF and United Nations economists advocated a coordinated international approach to fiscal stimulus . Donald Markwell argued that in the absence of such an international approach , there would be a risk of worsening international relations and possibly even world war arising from economic factors similar to those present during the depression of the 1930s .
By the end of December 2008 , the Financial Times reported that " the sudden resurgence of Keynesian policy is a stunning reversal of the orthodoxy of the past several decades . " In December 2008 , Paul Krugman released his book The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 , arguing that economic conditions similar to what existed during the earlier part of the 20th century had returned , making Keynesian policy prescriptions more relevant than ever . In February 2009 Robert J. Shiller and George Akerlof published Animal Spirits , a book where they argue the current US stimulus package is too small as it does not take into account Keynes 's insight on the importance of confidence and expectations in determining the future behaviour of businesspeople and other economic agents .
In the March 2009 speech entitled Reform the International Monetary System , Zhou Xiaochuan , the governor of the People 's Bank of China , came out in favour of Keynes 's idea of a centrally managed global reserve currency . Zhou argued that it was unfortunate that part of the reason for the Bretton Woods system breaking down was the failure to adopt Keynes 's bancor . Zhou proposed a gradual move towards increased use of IMF special drawing rights ( SDRs ) . Although Zhou 's ideas had not been broadly accepted , leaders meeting in April at the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit agreed to allow $ 250 billion of special drawing rights to be created by the IMF , to be distributed globally . Stimulus plans were credited for contributing to a better than expected economic outlook by both the OECD and the IMF , in reports published in June and July 2009 . Both organisations warned global leaders that recovery was likely to be slow , so counter recessionary measures ought not be rolled back too early .
While the need for stimulus measures was broadly accepted among policy makers , there had been much debate over how to fund the spending . Some leaders and institutions , such as Angela Merkel and the European Central Bank , expressed concern over the potential impact on inflation , national debt and the risk that a too large stimulus will create an unsustainable recovery .
Among professional economists the revival of Keynesian economics has been even more divisive . Although many economists , such as George Akerlof , Paul Krugman , Robert Shiller , and Joseph Stiglitz , supported Keynesian stimulus , others did not believe higher government spending would help the United States economy recover from the Great Recession . Some economists , such as Robert Lucas , questioned the theoretical basis for stimulus packages . Others , like Robert Barro and Gary Becker , say that empirical evidence for beneficial effects from Keynesian stimulus does not exist . However , there is a growing academic literature that shows that fiscal expansion helps an economy grow in the near term , and that certain types of fiscal stimulus are particularly effective .
= = Reception and views = =
= = = Praise = = =
Keynes 's economic thinking only began to achieve close to universal acceptance in the last few years of his life . On a personal level , Keynes 's charm was such that he was generally well received wherever he went – even those who found themselves on the wrong side of his occasionally sharp tongue rarely bore a grudge . Keynes 's speech at the closing of the Bretton Woods negotiations was received with a lasting standing ovation , rare in international relations , as the delegates acknowledged the scale of his achievements made despite poor health .
Austrian School economist Friedrich Hayek was Keynes 's most prominent contemporary critic , with sharply opposing views on the economy . Yet after Keynes 's death he wrote :
He was the one really great man I ever knew , and for whom I had unbounded admiration . The world will be a very much poorer place without him .
Lionel Robbins , former head of the economics department at the London School of Economics , who engaged in many heated debates with Keynes in the 1930s , had this to say after observing Keynes in early negotiations with the Americans while drawing up plans for Bretton Woods :
This went very well indeed . Keynes was in his most lucid and persuasive mood : and the effect was irresistible . At such moments , I often find myself thinking that Keynes must be one of the most remarkable men that have ever lived – the quick logic , the birdlike swoop of intuition , the vivid fancy , the wide vision , above all the incomparable sense of the fitness of words , all combine to make something several degrees beyond the limit of ordinary human achievement .
Douglas LePan , an official from the Canadian High Commission , wrote :
I am spellbound . This is the most beautiful creature I have ever listened to . Does he belong to our species ? Or is he from some other order ? There is something mythic and fabulous about him . I sense in him something massive and sphinx like , and yet also a hint of wings .
Bertrand Russell named Keynes one of the most intelligent people he had ever known , commenting :
Keynes 's intellect was the sharpest and clearest that I have ever known . When I argued with him , I felt that I took my life in my hands , and I seldom emerged without feeling something of a fool .
Keynes 's obituary in The Times included the comment :
There is the man himself – radiant , brilliant , effervescent , gay , full of impish jokes ... He was a humane man genuinely devoted to the cause of the common good .
= = = Critiques = = =
As a man of the centre described by some as having the greatest impact of any 20th @-@ century economist , Keynes attracted considerable criticism from both sides of the political spectrum . In the 1920s , Keynes was seen as anti @-@ establishment and was mainly attacked from the right . In the " red 1930s " , many young economists favoured Marxist views , even in Cambridge , and while Keynes was engaging principally with the right to try to persuade them of the merits of more progressive policy , the most vociferous criticism against him came from the left , who saw him as a supporter of capitalism . From the 1950s and onwards , most of the attacks against Keynes have again been from the right .
In 1931 Friedrich Hayek extensively critiqued Keynes 's 1930 Treatise on Money . After reading Hayek 's The Road to Serfdom , Keynes wrote to Hayek " Morally and philosophically I find myself in agreement with virtually the whole of it " , but concluded the letter with the recommendation :
What we need therefore , in my opinion , is not a change in our economic programmes , which would only lead in practice to disillusion with the results of your philosophy ; but perhaps even the contrary , namely , an enlargement of them . Your greatest danger is the probable practical failure of the application of your philosophy in the United States .
On the pressing issue of the time , whether deficit spending could lift a country from depression , Keynes replied to Hayek 's criticism in the following way :
I should ... conclude rather differently . I should say that what we want is not no planning , or even less planning , indeed I should say we almost certainly want more . But the planning should take place in a community in which as many people as possible , both leaders and followers wholly share your own moral position . Moderate planning will be safe enough if those carrying it out are rightly oriented in their own minds and hearts to the moral issue .
Asked why Keynes expressed " moral and philosophical " agreement with Hayek 's Road to Serfdom , Hayek explained :
Because he believed that he was fundamentally still a classical English liberal and wasn 't quite aware of how far he had moved away from it . His basic ideas were still those of individual freedom . He did not think systematically enough to see the conflicts . He was , in a sense , corrupted by political necessity .
According to some observers , Hayek felt that the post @-@ World War II " Keynesian orthodoxy " gave too much power to the state and led toward socialism .
While Milton Friedman described The General Theory as " a great book " , he argues that its implicit separation of nominal from real magnitudes is neither possible nor desirable . Macroeconomic policy , Friedman argues , can reliably influence only the nominal . He and other monetarists have consequently argued that Keynesian economics can result in stagflation , the combination of low growth and high inflation that developed economies suffered in the early 1970s . More to Friedman 's taste was the Tract on Monetary Reform ( 1923 ) , which he regarded as Keynes 's best work because of its focus on maintaining domestic price stability .
Joseph Schumpeter was an economist of the same age as Keynes and one of his main rivals . He was among the first reviewers to argue that Keynes 's General Theory was not a general theory , but in fact a special case . He said the work expressed " the attitude of a decaying civilisation " . After Keynes 's death Schumpeter wrote a brief biographical piece Keynes the Economist – on a personal level he was very positive about Keynes as a man , praising his pleasant nature , courtesy and kindness . He assessed some of Keynes 's biographical and editorial work as among the best he 'd ever seen . Yet Schumpeter remained critical about Keynes 's economics , linking Keynes 's childlessness to what Schumpeter saw as an essentially short term view . He considered Keynes to have a kind of unconscious patriotism that caused him to fail to understand the problems of other nations . For Schumpeter " Practical Keynesianism is a seedling which cannot be transplanted into foreign soil : it dies there and becomes poisonous as it dies . "
President Harry S. Truman was sceptical of Keynesian theorizing : " Nobody can ever convince me that government can spend a dollar that it 's not got , " he told Leon Keyserling , a Keynesian economist who chaired Truman 's Council of Economic Advisers .
= = = Views on race = = =
Keynes sometimes explained the mass murder that took place during the first years of communist Russia on a racial basis , as part of the “ Russian and Jewish nature ” , rather than as a result of the communist rule . After a trip to Russia , he wrote in his Short View of Russia that there is " beastliness on the Russian and Jewish natures when , as now , they are allied together " . He also wrote that " out of the cruelty and stupidity of the Old Russia nothing could ever emerge , but ( ... ) beneath the cruelty and stupidity of the New Russia a speck of the ideal may lie hid " , which together with other comments may be construed as anti @-@ Russian and antisemitic .
Some critics , including Murray Rothbard , have sought to show that Keynes had sympathy with Nazism , and a number of writers described him as antisemitic . Keynes 's private letters contain portraits and descriptions , some of which can be characterized as antisemitic , others as philosemitic . Scholars have suggested that these reflect clichés current at the time that he accepted uncritically , rather than any racism . On several occasions Keynes used his influence to help his Jewish friends , most notably when he successfully lobbied for Ludwig Wittgenstein to be allowed residency in the United Kingdom , explicitly in order to rescue him from being deported to Nazi @-@ occupied Austria . Keynes was a supporter of Zionism , serving on committees supporting the cause .
Allegations that he was racist or had totalitarian beliefs have been rejected by Robert Skidelsky and other biographers . Professor Gordon Fletcher wrote that " the suggestion of a link between Keynes and any support of totalitarianism cannot be sustained " . Once the aggressive tendencies of the Nazis towards Jews and other minorities had become apparent , Keynes made clear his loathing of Nazism . As a lifelong pacifist he had initially favoured peaceful containment of Nazi Germany , yet he began to advocate a forceful resolution while many conservatives were still arguing for appeasement . After the war started he roundly criticised the Left for losing their nerve to confront Hitler :
The intelligentsia of the Left were the loudest in demanding that the Nazi aggression should be resisted at all costs . When it comes to a showdown , scarce four weeks have passed before they remember that they are pacifists and write defeatist letters to your columns , leaving the defence of freedom and civilisation to Colonel Blimp and the Old School Tie , for whom Three Cheers .
= = = Views on inflation = = =
Keynes has been characterised as being indifferent or even positive about mild inflation . He had indeed expressed a preference for inflation over deflation , saying that if one has to choose between the two evils , it is " better to disappoint the rentier " than to inflict pain on working class families . He also supported the German hyperinflation as a way to get free from reparations obligations . However , Keynes was also aware of the dangers of inflation . In The Economic Consequences of the Peace , he wrote :
Lenin is said to have declared that the best way to destroy the Capitalist System was to debauch the currency . By a continuing process of inflation , governments can confiscate , secretly and unobserved , an important part of the wealth of their citizens . There is no subtler , no surer means of overturning the existing basis of society than to debauch the currency . The process engages all the hidden forces of economic law on the side of destruction , and does it in a manner which not one man in a million is able to diagnose .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
Keynes 's early romantic and sexual relationships were exclusively with men . Keynes had been in relationships while at Eton and Cambridge ; significant among these early partners were Dilly Knox and Daniel Macmillan . Keynes was open about his affairs , and from 1901 to 1915 kept separate diaries in which he tabulated his many sexual encounters . Keynes 's relationship and later close friendship with Macmillan was to be fortunate , as Macmillan 's company first published his tract Economic Consequences of the Peace .
Attitudes in the Bloomsbury Group , in which Keynes was avidly involved , were relaxed about homosexuality . Keynes , together with writer Lytton Strachey , had reshaped the Victorian attitudes of the Cambridge Apostles : " since [ their ] time , homosexual relations among the members were for a time common " , wrote Bertrand Russell . The artist Duncan Grant , whom he met in 1908 , was one of Keynes 's great loves . Keynes was also involved with Lytton Strachey , though they were for the most part love rivals , not lovers . Keynes had won the affections of Arthur Hobhouse , and as with Grant , fell out with a jealous Strachey for it . Strachey had previously found himself put off by Keynes , not least because of his manner of " treat [ ing ] his love affairs statistically " .
Political opponents have used Keynes 's sexuality to attack his academic work . One line of attack held that he was uninterested in the long term ramifications of his theories because he had no children .
Keynes 's friends in the Bloomsbury Group were initially surprised when , in his later years , he began dating and pursuing affairs with women , demonstrating himself to be bisexual . Ray Costelloe ( who would later marry Oliver Strachey ) was an early heterosexual interest of Keynes . In 1906 , Keynes had written of this infatuation that , " I seem to have fallen in love with Ray a little bit , but as she isn 't male I haven 't [ been ] able to think of any suitable steps to take . "
= = = Marriage = = =
In 1921 , Keynes wrote that he had fallen " very much in love " with Lydia Lopokova , a well @-@ known Russian ballerina and one of the stars of Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes . In the early years of his courtship , he maintained an affair with a younger man , Sebastian Sprott , in tandem with Lopokova , but eventually chose Lopokova exclusively . They married in 1925 , with Keynes 's former lover Duncan Grant as best man . " What a marriage of beauty and brains , the fair Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes " was said at the time . Keynes later commented to Strachey that beauty and intelligence were rarely found in the same person , and that only in Duncan Grant had he found the combination . The union was happy , with biographer Peter Clarke writing that the marriage gave Keynes " a new focus , a new emotional stability and a sheer delight of which he never wearied " . Lydia became pregnant in 1927 but miscarried . Among Keynes 's Bloomsbury friends , Lopokova was , at least initially , subjected to criticism for her manners , mode of conversation and supposedly humble social origins – the last of the ostensible causes being particularly noted in the letters of Vanessa and Clive Bell , and Virginia Woolf . In her novel Mrs Dalloway ( 1925 ) , Woolf bases the character of Rezia Warren Smith on Lopokova . E. M. Forster would later write in contrition : " How we all used to underestimate her " .
= = = Support for the arts = = =
Keynes thought that the pursuit of money for its own sake was a pathological condition , and that the proper aim of work is to provide leisure . He wanted shorter working hours and longer holidays for all .
Keynes was interested in literature in general and drama in particular and supported the Cambridge Arts Theatre financially , which allowed the institution , at least for a while , to become a major British stage outside London .
Keynes 's personal interest in classical opera and dance led him to support the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden and the Ballet Company at Sadler 's Wells . During the war , as a member of CEMA ( Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ) , Keynes helped secure government funds to maintain both companies while their venues were shut . Following the war , Keynes was instrumental in establishing the Arts Council of Great Britain and was its founding chairman in 1946 . Unsurprisingly , from the start the two organisations that received the largest grants from the new body were the Royal Opera House and Sadler 's Wells .
Like several other notable British authors of his time , Keynes was a member of the Bloomsbury Group . Virginia Woolf 's biographer tells an anecdote on how Virginia Woolf , Keynes and T. S. Eliot discussed religion at a dinner party , in the context of their struggle against Victorian era morality . Keynes may have been confirmed , but according to Cambridge University he was clearly an agnostic , which he remained until his death . According to one biographer , " he was never able to take religion seriously , regarding it as a strange aberration of the human mind . "
= = = Investments = = =
Keynes was ultimately a successful investor , building up a private fortune . His assets were nearly wiped out following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , which he did not foresee , but he soon recouped . At Keynes 's death , in 1946 , his net worth stood just short of £ 500 @,@ 000 – equivalent to about £ 11 million ( $ 16 @.@ 5 million ) in 2009 . The sum had been amassed despite lavish support for various good causes and his personal ethic which made him reluctant to sell on a falling market , in cases where he saw such behaviour as likely to deepen a slump .
Keynes built up a substantial collection of fine art , including works by Paul Cézanne , Edgar Degas , Amedeo Modigliani , Georges Braque , Pablo Picasso , and Georges Seurat ( some of which can now be seen at the Fitzwilliam Museum ) . He enjoyed collecting books ; he collected and protected many of Isaac Newton 's papers . In part on the basis of these papers , Keynes wrote of Newton as " the last of the magicians . "
Keynes successfully managed the endowment of King 's College , Cambridge , with the active component of his portfolio outperforming a British equity index by an average of 8 % a year over a quarter century , earning him favourable mention by later investors such as Warren Buffett and George Soros .
= = = Political causes = = =
Keynes was a lifelong member of the Liberal Party , which until the 1920s had been one of the two main political parties in the United Kingdom , and as late as 1916 had often been the dominant power in government . Keynes had helped campaign for the Liberals at elections from about 1906 , yet he always refused to run for office himself , despite being asked to do so on three separate occasions in 1920 . From 1926 , when Lloyd George became leader of the Liberals , Keynes took a major role in defining the party 's economics policy , but by then the Liberals had been displaced into third party status by the Labour Party .
In 1939 Keynes had the option to enter Parliament as an independent MP with the University of Cambridge seat . A by @-@ election for the seat was to be held due to the illness of an elderly Tory , and the master of Magdalene College had obtained agreement that none of the major parties would field a candidate if Keynes chose to stand . Keynes declined the invitation as he felt he would wield greater influence on events if he remained a free agent .
Keynes was a proponent of eugenics . He served as director of the British Eugenics Society from 1937 to 1944 . As late as 1946 , shortly before his death , Keynes declared eugenics to be " the most important , significant and , I would add , genuine branch of sociology which exists . "
Keynes once remarked that " the youth had no religion save communism and this was worse than nothing . " Marxism " was founded upon nothing better than a misunderstanding of Ricardo " , and , given time , he ( Keynes ) " would deal thoroughly with the Marxists " and other economists to solve the economic problems their theories " threaten to cause " .
In 1931 Keynes had the following to say on Marxism :
How can I accept the Communist doctrine , which sets up as its bible , above and beyond criticism , an obsolete textbook which I know not only to be scientifically erroneous but without interest or application to the modern world ? How can I adopt a creed which , preferring the mud to the fish , exalts the boorish proletariat above the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia , who with all their faults , are the quality of life and surely carry the seeds of all human achievement ? Even if we need a religion , how can we find it in the turbid rubbish of the red bookshop ? It is hard for an educated , decent , intelligent son of Western Europe to find his ideals here , unless he has first suffered some strange and horrid process of conversion which has changed all his values .
Keynes was a firm supporter of women 's rights and in 1932 became vice @-@ chairman of the Marie Stopes Society which provided birth control education . He also campaigned against job discrimination against women and unequal pay . He was an outspoken campaigner for reform of the law on homosexuality .
= = = Death = = =
Throughout his life , Keynes worked energetically for the benefit both of the public and his friends ; even when his health was poor , he laboured to sort out the finances of his old college . Helping to set up the Bretton Woods system , he worked to institute an international monetary system that would be beneficial for the world economy . Keynes suffered a series of heart attacks , which ultimately proved fatal . They began during negotiations for the Anglo @-@ American loan in Savannah , Georgia , where he was trying to secure favourable terms for the United Kingdom from the United States , a process he described as " absolute hell " . A few weeks after returning from the United States , Keynes died of a heart attack at Tilton , his farmhouse home near Firle , East Sussex , England , on 21 April 1946 , at the age of 62 .
Both of Keynes 's parents outlived him : his father John Neville Keynes ( 1852 – 1949 ) by three years , and his mother Florence Ada Keynes ( 1861 – 1958 ) by twelve . Keynes 's brother Sir Geoffrey Keynes ( 1887 – 1982 ) was a distinguished surgeon , scholar , and bibliophile . His nephews include Richard Keynes ( 1919 – 2010 ) , a physiologist , and Quentin Keynes ( 1921 – 2003 ) , an adventurer and bibliophile . Keynes 's widow , Lydia Lopokova , died in 1981 . Keynes had no children .
= = Publications = =
= Mega Man X ( video game ) =
Mega Man X , known in Japan as Rockman X ( ロックマンX ) , is a video game developed and published by Capcom for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was the first Mega Man game for the 16 @-@ bit console and the first game in the Mega Man X series , a spin @-@ off of the original Mega Man series that began on the SNES 's predecessor , the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . Mega Man X was first published in Japan on December 17 , 1993 and was released in both North America and Europe the following year . Taking place a century after the original Mega Man series , Mega Man X is set in a futuristic world populated by both humans and " Reploids " , robots capable of thinking , feeling , and growing like their human creators . Because of these complex attributes , many Reploids are prone to destructive , criminal activity and are thereafter referred to as " Mavericks " . The plot of the game follows the protagonist Mega Man X , an android member of a military task force called the " Maverick Hunters " . With the help of his partner Zero , X must thwart the plans of Sigma , a powerful Maverick leader wishing to bring about human extinction .
With the transition to more advanced gaming hardware , series artist Keiji Inafune explained that the development of Mega Man X involved reinventing Mega Man through gameplay expansion and a more mature storyline while still maintaining the basic concepts on which the franchise was built . Much like the NES Mega Man games that came before it , Mega Man X is a standard action @-@ platform game where the player takes control of the eponymous character and must complete a set of eight , initial stages in any order desired . Defeating the boss character at the end of each stage grants the player one new weapon that can then be toggled and used at will for the remainder of the game . However , Mega Man X adds a number of new features and makes radical changes to the original gameplay mechanics of previous releases in the series . These include allowing the player to dash along the ground , scale walls , and obtain armor attachments which grant special abilities .
Mega Man X has met with positive reviews for its gameplay , sound , and graphics , as well as its attempt to augment the aging Mega Man franchise . A longterm commercial success on the SNES , Mega Man X has since been ported to personal computers ( PCs ) and mobile devices , included in the North American Mega Man X Collection for the Nintendo GameCube and PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , and released on the Virtual Console download service for the Wii and the Wii U. The game also received an enhanced remake on the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) titled Mega Man Maverick Hunter X , or Irregular Hunter X ( イレギュラーハンターX ) in Japan .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man X takes place in an unspecified time during the 22nd century ( 2120 ) and approximately 100 years after the original Mega Man series . A human archaeologist named Dr. Cain discovers the ruins of a robotics research facility that had once been operated by the legendary robot designer Dr. Thomas Light . Among the ruins , Cain finds a large capsule which contains a highly advanced robot with human @-@ level intelligence and emotions , and even free will , the likes of which the world has never seen before . Light had wished to instill within his creation reasonable sanity , good nature , and an understanding of the more controversial aspects of human morality . The robot was buried while running a 30 @-@ year diagnostic program to ensure these features . Cain spends the next several months studying the robot , who is named Mega Man X , or simply " X " . Cain decides to duplicate X and , within several months , completes the first " replicate android " or " Reploid " , a robot who can think , feel , learn , and grow exactly like a human . Within the year , the design is standardized and Reploids are mass @-@ produced . However , with the free will given to a Reploid comes the possibility of criminal activity ; such rogue Reploids are branded as " Mavericks " by law @-@ abiding citizens .
As the public outcry against the few Maverick incidents becomes too great to deny , the government steps in , and under the advice of Dr. Cain , forms an elite military police organization called the " Maverick Hunters " . The Hunters are to capture or disable any Reploids that pose a threat to humans , provide damage control at Maverick uprisings , help with disaster recovery , and perform other tasks as needed . To lead this group , Cain designs a very advanced Reploid , thought to be immune to whatever defect causes Mavericks . This robot , named Sigma , heads the Hunters for some time before ultimately becoming a Maverick himself , alongside the vast majority of the other Hunters . Sigma seizes control of a small island , driving out all human occupants . Claiming that the humans are inferior and that they are limiting the growth and potential of Reploids , he calls for his followers to begin a massive extinction effort . X , guilt @-@ ridden at having helped design such a dangerous race , joins forces with the only other remaining Hunter , Zero , in order to stop Sigma at any cost .
While on a mission involving a Maverick attack on a highway , X encounters Vile , a mercenary Maverick working for Sigma who pilots a mechanized tank called " Ride Armor " . Unable to defeat Vile , X is saved at a critical moment by Zero , forcing Vile to retreat . Zero then offers encouragement to the less combat @-@ savvy X after the battle . X proceeds to track down and exterminate eight of Sigma 's most powerful Mavericks , then rendezvous with Zero outside Sigma 's stronghold . Inside the compound , X finds that Zero has been captured by Vile . Another battle ensues , ending similar to their first meeting with X at Vile 's mercy . Zero suddenly breaks free of his restraints , latches onto Vile , and self @-@ detonates , destroying his own body and the Maverick 's Ride Armor . Shocked over Zero 's sacrifice , X regains his strength and finishes off Vile . Zero encourages his comrade once again , and succumbs to his damage . Now more determined than ever , X fights his way to Sigma , destroys the Maverick leader , and escapes the island fortress as it explodes and sinks . As he returns to base , X reflects on the events that have unfolded , questioning Zero 's sacrifice , his own decision to fight , and the ongoing war with the Mavericks . After the credits , a message from Sigma reveals that X merely destroyed a temporary body , and that Sigma 's spirit lives on . Sigma then says that he would gather new , stronger bodies to do his bidding , and he would see X soon .
= = Gameplay = =
The original Mega Man series on the NES has generally consisted of 2D platform games that focus on run @-@ and @-@ gun gameplay . Mega Man X uses the same basic principles as its precursors but with many added options . The player takes control of the protagonist X , and , after completing an introductory stage , is presented with a stage selection screen that depicts eight boss characters . Each stage is littered with various enemies and hazards and ends with a boss battle against its respective Maverick . Completing a stage rewards the player with a new weapon . The player may attempt these eight levels in any order , using weapons gained in one level to overcome challenges in the others . The player can return to the game at a later point using a password system ; the password will retain any number of the eight stages cleared and most power @-@ ups . Completing some stages will subtly affect the landscape of others . For example , clearing Storm Eagle 's aircraft carrier stage will cause electrical outages in Spark Mandrill 's power plant stage . In certain stages , X can hop inside Ride Armors to fight enemies . Ride Armors are bipedal tanks capable of powerful punches .
X 's abilities are similar to those in previous Mega Man games , such as running , jumping , and a chargeable arm cannon named the " X @-@ Buster " . However , Mega Man X introduces a number of elements not present in the original Mega Man titles . One prominent feature is the ability to scale , slide down , or jump off nearly any wall . Armor part capsules can be found in several stages which display a holographic message from Dr. Light when approached . Each capsule upgrades one of X 's body parts — his legs , armor , helmet , or X @-@ Buster — granting the player improved firepower and defense , as well as new abilities , like a dash upgrade . The player can also collect hidden " Heart Tanks " that extend X 's maximum life energy and " Sub @-@ Tanks " that can store extra energy for later use . When certain conditions are met , a secret capsule can be unlocked which gives X the ability to perform the " Hadouken " , an attack used by characters from Capcom 's Street Fighter series .
= = Development = =
Mega Man X was developed by a team at Capcom which had worked on the long @-@ running Mega Man series for the NES . Lead artist Keiji Inafune ( credited as a planner as Inemuryar ) recounted that the development of Mega Man X required a lot of brainstorming for its storyline and content where the team 's goal was to branch out from original Mega Man games while still maintaining their fundamentals . In the original Mega Man series , Inafune typically designed the protagonist while his protégé Hayato Kaji handled the supporting characters . However , their roles were reversed for Mega Man X. Kaji ( credited as Rippa H.K ) illustrated the protagonist X , but had a difficult time with the initial design . He was presented with much more freedom than he was accustomed with the SNES 's larger palette of colors when compared to the NES . Inafune and Kaji worked simultaneously on the various designs for X with different pieces of armor attached . The idea for the armor parts came about because the game was planned during a time when role @-@ playing video games were becoming extremely popular . Inafune felt that Mega Man had always represented a classic action game formula in which the hero earns his defeated enemies ' abilities ; the armor parts were added to supplement this concept .
Inafune created the character Zero , whom he originally intended to be the game 's main , playable protagonist . " When the X series came out , I really wanted to redesign Mega Man , " Inafune explained . " I wanted a totally different Mega Man . I ’ m a designer , a creator ; I wanted something new . I didn ’ t want to use the same old Mega Man . " Fearing a negative reaction from fans , Zero was ultimately reduced to a role secondary to Mega Man X. The development team additionally wanted the world of Mega Man X to be much more sophisticated than in the first Mega Man series . They wanted to accomplish this with Zero 's " hardcore " personality and the game 's antagonist Sigma . As stated by Inafune , the original series ' villain Dr. Wily had " a side to him you couldn 't really hate " . Sigma , however , was written as a once @-@ good character suffering an " unforeseen error " that leads him to be completely evil . The game 's story went through several changes during development . Two allies of Mega Man X , named RX and RY , appeared in previews for the game , but were later taken out . Mega Man X altered the franchise tradition of having themed boss characters with a " Man " moniker by replacing them with anthropomorphic animal @-@ like androids . The art and pixelization for these eight bosses were divided among three illustrators : Inafune did Storm Eagle and Chill Penguin ; Kaji did Spark Mandrill , Launch Octopus , and Sting Chameleon ; and Kazunori Tazaki ( credited as Ikki ) did Flame Mammoth , Armored Armadillo , and Boomer Kuwanger . The team was careful in making the bosses distinct from one another in both stature and coloring . Tatsuya Yoshikawa ( credited as Tatsunoko ) , a fourth artist who had recently been hired by Capcom , was given the task of assisting the rest of the team by designing , illustrating , and creating the sprites for the game 's minor enemies . The musical score for Mega Man X was composed by Capcom 's Alph Lyla group . Setsuo Yamamoto ( credited as Setsuo ) was initially the sole composer assigned to the game , and contributed the vast majority of the soundtrack , but four other composers , Yuki Iwai ( credited as Sato ) , Toshihiko Horiyama ( credited as Kirry ) , Yuko Takehara ( credited as Yuko ) and Makoto Tomozawa ( credited as Tomozou ) , were brought in late in production to help finish the soundtrack . Iwai and Horiyama would later compose the soundtracks for Mega Man X2 and X4 respectively . The Japanese division of Sony Records published an arranged album featuring ten songs on March 9 , 1994 . Music using the SNES instrumentals was included as part of the Capcom Music Generation : Rockman X1 ~ X6 soundtrack released by Suleputer in 2003 .
The success of the Mega Man series allowed Capcom to continue releasing NES titles well into the 16 @-@ bit era . A teaser for an SNES incarnation of the Mega Man series first made its way into a preview of Mega Man 6 in the spring 1993 issue of the Japanese Club Capcom fan magazine . Mega Man X was announced in North America in a March 1993 Game Players magazine interview with Capcom 's Senior Vice President Joseph Morici . The tentatively titled " Super Mega Man " was originally to have a " fairly large memory configuration and a battery backup " . The autumn 1993 issue of Club Capcom announced Rockman X for a December 1993 release in Japan , divulged several plot and gameplay details , and showed Zero as a silhouetted " Blues @-@ like character " . Leading up to its release , the game was covered by the North American press surrounding the summer 1993 and winter 1994 Consumer Electronics Shows .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mega Man X has been widely acclaimed by critics since its release . Gaming magazines in the United States and Europe including Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) , GamePro , Game Players , Nintendo Power , Super Play , and the German version of Total ! consistently lauded the game 's visuals , audio , control , and overall gameplay . Game Players summarized Mega Man X as " a near @-@ perfect cart with classic gameplay , excellent graphics and sound and tons of hidden items and power @-@ ups " . Nintendo Power stated that the game had " great control and fun " along with " challenging play " .
Websites such as IGN , GameSpot , GamesRadar , and 1UP.com retrospectively held Mega Man X as a successful milestone in transitioning the Mega Man series from its increasingly stale existence on the NES to the SNES . Brett Elston of GamesRadar stated , " X was a total reinvention of the series , a perfectly executed update that had fans anticipating its release with a fervor the franchise hadn 't seen since the Mega Man 2 and 3 days . "
Mega Man X received criticism from some publications as well . Ed Semrad , Danyon Carpenter , and Al Manuel of the EGM review panel all noted that the game may have too low a difficulty level ; Semrad disliked the introductory stage and felt that the game was too short as well . Super Play editor Zy Nicholson lowered his review score of the game because he found the levels were neither large nor challenging . " A few elementary tricks like repeating easy sections to recoup energy and weapon power will see you through the harder bits , " Nicholson explained . " Within the level you 'll also find restart points , extra lives , and no harsh time limit to put pressure on your performance . Couple this with a password system that records your level completion , status and weapon accumulation and you 'll see we 're not looking at a lasting challenge for the experienced player . " Nintendo Power criticized how little the game had changed stating that " the theme remains the same as the Game Boy and NES Mega Man titles . "
The game 's title initially proved a source of some confusion ; the gaming media reported that many gamers mistook the " X " for the roman numeral 10 .
Mega Man X was ranked number 58 in Nintendo Power 's " 100 Best Nintendo Games of All Time " in its 100th issue in September 1997 , number 103 in the publication 's " Top 200 Games " list for its 200th issue in February 2006 , and the 11th best SNES game of all time in its August 2008 issue . Both GamesRadar and ScrewAttack listed Mega Man X as the eighth best game in the SNES library . GamePro similarly listed it as the eighth greatest 16 @-@ bit video game . Game Informer considered it the 120th best game of all time in its own 200th issue in December 2009 . IGN named it the twelfth @-@ best on its own top 100 SNES games list in 2011 .
Mega Man X was a commercial success . The SNES version has sold 1 @.@ 16 million copies worldwide to date , making it the 41st best @-@ selling Capcom game of all time . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham speculated that the game 's more mature storyline and its inclusion of numerous gameplay extensions over the original Mega Man series helped create a " unique cadre of fans " . The game was followed by seven direct sequels and three related titles : Mega Man Xtreme , Mega Man Xtreme 2 , and Mega Man X Command Mission . Another video game spin @-@ off series , Mega Man Zero , began in 2002 on the Game Boy Advance handheld as a result of the immense popularity of the character Zero .
In episodes # 178 and # 179 of the 18th season of the Japanese video game show Game Center CX , Shinya Arino played the game on the Super Famicom and successfully clears it .
= = Re @-@ releases and remakes = =
After the SNES version debuted , Mega Man X was ported by Rozner Labs to the IBM PC in 1995 and was packaged with a six @-@ button game controller . Mega Man X received a separate PC release in Japan in 1996 . Majesco republished the SNES version of the game in 1997 . Nintendo also republished the game in Japan on its Nintendo Power cartridge service in 1998 . Mega Man X , alongside its next five direct sequels and Mega Man Battle & Chase , was compiled and made available on the Mega Man X Collection in North America for the Nintendo GameCube and PS2 in 2006 .
An enhanced remake titled Mega Man Maverick Hunter X , or Irregular Hunter X ( イレギュラーハンターX ) in Japan , was released worldwide for the PSP between 2005 and 2008 . With the launch of the PSP , Keiji Inafune and his team debated on whether or not to create a Mega Man X9 . " So , we decided that instead of going the X9 route , let 's go back to the series ' roots and rediscover what makes the X series so classic , " Inafune concluded . " We felt that the best way to do that would be to make an X remake . " Although the remake stays true to the original game in both gameplay and basic storyline , Maverick Hunter X features a total graphical overhaul with 3D character models and backgrounds , a remixed soundtrack , voice acting , and anime cutscenes . According to Yoshikawa , the character illustrations were updated to resemble both toys and the designs of Mega Man X8 .
In addition to these changes , many power @-@ ups in Maverick Hunter X , such as the armor capsules , are relocated to different levels . The remake also has a few extras including an original video animation titled " The Day of Σ " ( which serves as a storyline prequel ) and an unlockable mode to play through the game as the character Vile . Inafune implemented this mode to offer players a new perspective on the game through the eyes of a villain , feeling it would be " too obvious and boring " given an option to play as Zero .
Like the original game , Maverick Hunter X has received very positive reviews from critics , accumulating aggregate scores of 82 % on Game Rankings and 79 out of 100 on Metacritic . Although the game did not meet sales expectations , it was later made available as a download from the PlayStation Network . The Japanese and North American versions were also bundled in a special compilation with Mega Man Powered Up , a remake of the original Mega Man .
Capcom released a port of Mega Man X onto FOMA and i @-@ mode compatible mobile phones in Japan in 2007 . Mega Man X has also been made available for purchase on the Virtual Console service in Japan and North America in 2011 for the Wii , and later in Europe in 2012 , as well as for the Wii U in 2013 . The game was ported to the Android operating system in Japan as a free download on November 18 , 2011 . Another remake of Mega Man X was released on the Apple iOS ( iPhone and iPod Touch ) on December 21 , 2011 . This version is based on the mobile phone version of the game and features touch controls , Game Center support , and a challenge mode with 80 levels . Weapon and armor upgrades can be purchased to ease the game 's difficulty .
= The Lightning Thief =
The Lightning Thief is a 2005 fantasy @-@ adventure novel based on Greek mythology , the first young adult novel written by Rick Riordan . It is the first novel in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series , which charts the adventures of modern @-@ day twelve @-@ year @-@ old Percy Jackson as he discovers he is a demigod , the son of a mortal woman and the Greek god Poseidon . Percy and his friends Annabeth Chase and Grover Underwood go on a quest to prevent a war between the gods Zeus , Poseidon , and Hades .
The Lightning Thief was published in June 2005 by Miramax Books , an imprint of Hyperion Books for Children and thus Disney Publishing ( succeeded by the Disney Hyperion imprint ) . The book has sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies in the subsequent four years , appearing on The New York Times children 's Best Seller list and being listed as one of the Young Adult Library Services Association 's Best Books for Young Adults , among other awards . It was adapted into a film named Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief released in the United States on February 12 , 2010 . The sequel to this novel is The Sea of Monsters .
= = Development and publication = =
Development for The Lightning Thief began when author Rick Riordan made up stories for his son Haley , who had been diagnosed with ADHD and dyslexia . His son had been studying Greek mythology in second grade and asked that his father come up with bedtime stories based on Greek myths . Riordan had been a Greek mythology teacher in middle school for many years and was able to remember enough stories to please his son . Soon Riordan ran out of myths and his son requested that Riordan make new ones using the characters from Greek myths with a new twist . Riordan created the fictional character Percy Jackson and his travels across the United States to recover Zeus 's lightning bolt . After Riordan finished telling the story his son asked that his dad write a book based on Percy 's adventures , and he did .
While he gave his manuscript to his agent and editor to review , Riordan took his book to a group of middle schoolers to critique . With their help , he came up with the name of the book and invented Percy 's magic sword . In 2004 the book was sold to Miramax Books for enough money that Riordan could quit his job to focus on writing . The book has since been released in multiple versions ( including hardcover , paperback , and audio editions ) and has been translated and published all over the world .
= = Plot = =
The Lightning Thief is narrated in the first person by Percy Jackson , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy with dyslexia and ADHD living in New York City . During a class field trip to the Metropolitan Museum of Art to see a Greco @-@ Roman exhibit , he stands up to a bully picking on his friend Grover Underwood and " pushes " her into a nearby fountain . One of the chaperoning teachers , an algebra teacher named Mrs. Dodds , takes him away from the other students , presumably to give him his punishment . Instead , Percy is shocked when she transforms into one of the three Furies of Greek myth and attacks him . The other chaperone , a Latin teacher named Mr. Brunner , suddenly appears and throws Percy a pen that changes into a strange sword . Percy instinctively swings at the monster in front of him , and she turns to dust and disappears . When Percy returns to the rest of the students , he discovers that not only do they have no idea what happened inside the museum , they also do not remember having a teacher named Mrs. Dodds . Over the course of the school year , Percy almost convinces himself that it was all a hallucination , except that his friend Grover seems to be hiding something whenever the subject is brought up . A few days before the end of school he overhears Grover and Mr. Brunner talking about him , Mrs. Dodds , and a stolen item of great importance — which only serves to confirm his suspicions .
Percy and his mother , Sally , go on a summer trip to the beach . During a terrible storm , the two are awakened by a surprise visit from Grover — who Percy suddenly learns is actually not a human teenager , but instead a young satyr . Grover tells them they are in danger , and the three drive to a mysterious summer camp . Upon arrival , they are attacked by the Minotaur . In the ensuing fight , the Minotaur knocks out Grover and grabs Mrs. Jackson , who inexplicably dissolves into a blinding flash of gold light . Believing he has just lost his mother forever , Percy manages to break off one of the Minotaur 's horns and kills the beast , then forces himself to drag the unconscious Grover over the property line and up to a farmhouse . He wakes up three days later and learns he is at a place called Camp Half @-@ Blood . Percy then learns that he is a demigod : the son of a human and a Greek god .
Percy settles into camp life and meets several other demigods , including : Luke Castellan , a son of Hermes ; Annabeth Chase , a daughter of Athena ; and Clarisse La Rue , a daughter of Ares . Several strange incidents begin to reveal his powers as a demigod . After Percy is attacked by a monster which shouldn 't have gotten through the camp 's borders , Percy is publicly claimed by his father , the god Poseidon .
A few days later , Mr. Brunner ( who is really Chiron the centaur ) summons Percy to the Big House and tells him how the three eldest male gods ( Poseidon , Zeus , and Hades ) swore an oath not to have children more than 70 years ago ; Percy represents a violation of that oath merely by being alive . This , coupled with the fact that King Zeus 's master lightning bolt has recently been stolen , has bred much suspicion between the gods , and Percy is tasked with locating that bolt before an all @-@ out war may break out . Percy chooses Annabeth and Grover to accompany him on a quest to the realm of Hades , the most likely culprit .
After traveling across the country to Los Angeles and defeating several mythological monsters ( including Medusa and the Chimera ) the three find Hades , who reveals that his Helm of Darkness ( his symbol of power ) has been stolen too . Hades accuses Percy of stealing his helm and threatens to kill Percy and his mother ( who has actually been a hostage in his realm the whole time ) and release all the dead back into the real world unless it is returned . Percy and his friends manage to escape back to L.A. and there discover that the god Ares has been manipulating them and possesses all the missing items . Percy challenges Ares to a duel , wins , and gives Hade 's Helm to the reformed Fury he knows as Mrs. Dodds ; Hades then realizes that Percy was not the thief and returns Mrs. Jackson to their apartment in New York .
Percy takes the master bolt back to Zeus , who rewards the young hero by not killing him as he should because of Poseidon 's broken oath . Percy returns to camp a hero and enjoys the rest of his summer there . On the last day of camp , however , he goes into the woods to hang out with Luke Castellan , who then turns on him . Luke reveals himself to be the real thief of the Helm and master bolt , working on the orders of Kronos , the Lord of the Titans . Kronos also manipulated power @-@ hungry Ares into taking part in the scheme . Percy can not believe that Luke , an all @-@ around nice guy , would do such a thing , and so Luke explains his belief that the gods are irresponsible and poor leaders who must be usurped . He offers Percy the chance to join him , and when the other demigod does not , Luke tries to kill Percy with a poisonous scorpion . Percy manages to kill it , but is badly poisoned and nearly dies . When he has recovered , Percy is given the choice of whether to return home for the school year or stay at camp year round . After much thought Percy decides to spend the school year with his mother , as it is the first time he won 't have to go to boarding school , even though it will be more dangerous for him .
= = = Prophecy = = =
The prophecy given by the Oracle before Percy 's quest reads :
You shall go west , and face the god who has turned .
You shall find what was stolen , and see it safely returned .
You shall be betrayed by one who calls you a friend .
And you shall fail to save what matters most , in the end .
= = = = Meaning = = = =
At first , it is assumed that Percy had to travel west from New York to L.A. to confront Hades , though it is later revealed that he really had to meet Ares , in Denver .
Percy locates both Zeus 's master bolt , which was always known to be missing , and also Hades 's Helm .
Luke betrays Percy immediately after treating him like a friend .
Percy is forced to leave behind his mother in the Underworld knows his quest is not complete , and also does not help his mother to rid herself of her abusive husband Gabe Ugliano . Mrs. Jackson is saved in the first case by Hades 's choice to free her after he receives his Helm , and in the second , by her own choice to stand up to " Smelly Gabe " .
= = Critical Reception = =
The Lightning Thief received mostly positive reviews . Common Sense Media said , " There are two levels of fun in The Lightning Thief . One is the fast @-@ paced quest of a young hero and his friends to save the world ... " and added , " Another level of fun here – laughing at the wicked ways the author has updated the gods and monsters for the 21st century " . However , it did criticize some aspects of the book describing the prose as " choppy and attitude @-@ filled " and complaining that " [ t ] he characters aren 't emotionally involving " . Its overall rating was 4 stars out of 5 . Numerous other reviews were more positive . The New York Times praised The Lightning Thief as " perfectly paced , with electrifying moments chasing each other like heartbeats " . School Library Journal said in its starred review that the book was " [ a ] n adventure @-@ quest with a hip edge " and that " [ r ] eaders will be eager to follow the young protagonist 's next move " . Kirkus reviews said , " The sardonic tone of the narrator 's voice lends a refreshing air of realism to this riotously paced quest tale of heroism that questions the realities of our world , family , friendship and loyalty . " Eoin Colfer , author of Artemis Fowl called it " A fantastic blend of myth and modern " . Finally , Publishers Weekly also praised the book , regarding it as " swift and humorous " and added that the book would " leave many readers eager for the next installment . "
On April 8 , 2007 , The Lightning Thief was ranked ninth on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's books . The Lightning Thief was the winner of the
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School Library Journal Best Book of 2005 as well one of the books in the Chicago Public Library Best of the Best Books List , 2005 . It was also in the VOYA Top Shelf Fiction List and was the winner of the Red House Children 's Book Award Winner ( UK ) , 2006 ; Askews Torchlight Award ( UK ) , 2006 ; and the Mark Twain Award ( Missouri Association of School Librarians ) , 2008 . It was an American Library Association Notable Book , 2006 and a New York Times Notable Book ( 2005 ) . It received the Young Reader 's Choice Award in 2008 and the Rebecca Caudill Young Reader 's Book Award in 2009 . Scholastic Parent & Child magazine also included the novel within its 100 " Greatest Books for Kids . " When asked about the various awards , Rick Riordan said : " The ultimate compliment for a children 's writer is when the kids like it . "
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film adaptation = = =
In June 2004 , 20th Century Fox acquired the feature film rights to the book . In April 2007 director Chris Columbus was hired to helm the project . Logan Lerman is Percy Jackson and Brandon T. Jackson is Grover Underwood , the satyr . Alexandra Daddario plays Annabeth while Jake Abel was cast as Luke Castellan . Pierce Brosnan plays Chiron . The film is titled Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief and was released in the United States on February 12 , 2010 . The film received mixed reviews from critics upon release but was a commercial success by grossing $ 226 million at the worldwide box office . A sequel , Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters was released in 2013 , directed by Thor Freudenthal .
= = = Audiobook = = =
On June 28 , 2005 , a 10 @-@ hour and 25 minute audio book version , read by actor Jesse Bernstein , was published worldwide by Listening Library .
Kirkus magazine said , " the narrator ’ s voice lends a refreshing air of realism to this riotously paced quest tale of heroism that questions the realities of our world , family , friendship and loyalty " . AudioFile Magazine praised the audiobook , " adults and children alike will be spellbound as they listen to this deeply imaginative tale unfold . " School Library Journal both praised and criticized the audio book saying " Although some of Jesse Bernstein 's accents fail ( the monster from Georgia , for instance , has no Southern trace in her voice ) , he does a fine job of keeping the main character 's tones and accents distinguishable " .
= = = Musical = = =
A one @-@ hour musical aimed at young audiences was planned to hit the road on a nationwide tour in September 2014 following a stint in New York City in 2014 .
= = Sequels = =
The Lightning Thief is followed by The Sea of Monsters in which Percy and Annabeth rescue Grover who has been imprisoned by Polyphemus , the Cyclopes , and recover the Golden Fleece to save the camp . They are accompanied by Percy 's half brother , Tyson and Clarisse in this mission .
Like The Lightning Thief , it won several prizes and received generally positive reviews as well . It sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in paperback . It was followed by The Titan 's Curse , The Battle of the Labyrinth , and The Last Olympian as well as an entire new sequel @-@ series , The Heroes of Olympus .
= = Foreign language editions = =
The Lightning Thief was published in Chinese , Italian , Turkish , Danish , Croatian , Czech , Finnish , French , Dutch , German , Hebrew , Portuguese , Brazilian Portuguese , Indonesian , Serbian , Norwegian , Spanish and Catalan . The French , German , and Spanish editions were published in 2006 . The other translations of the book were published in 2008 . The Icelandic publisher Odinseye released another edition in 2012 . The novel is also on sale in Taiwan , published by Yuan Liou Publishing . In Czech it is called ' Percy Jackson Zlodej blesku ' .
= Tropical Storm Tammy ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Tammy was a short lived tropical storm during October in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season which caused minor damage to the southeastern United States . More significant , however were its remnants which contributed to the Northeast U.S. flooding of October 2005 .
Tropical Storm Tammy formed from a non @-@ tropical system off the Florida coast on October 5 . It moved north just offshore before making landfall later that day . The tropical storm rapidly weakened as it moved overland and dissipated the next day . Its remnant circulation moved south towards the Gulf of Mexico , while the moisture was absorbed by a northeasterly moving cold front . There were no fatalities directly related to Tammy ; however , ten people were killed by the remnants of the storm in combination with the remnants of Subtropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two . Total damages from the storm were $ 30 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave left the western coast of Africa on September 24 and crossed the Atlantic without any development . The wave began to develop on October 2 north of the Lesser Antilles when it encountered an upper level trough . It strengthened as it passed through the Bahamas and early on October 5 a vigorous tropical disturbance formed . As the system already had tropical @-@ storm force winds , it was immediately named Tropical Storm Tammy . Upon being classified , the system was poorly organized , with deep convection only persisting to the northeast of the center of circulation . Tropical storm @-@ force winds were presumed to be located underneath the convection as ship reports nearby the system only reported winds up to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Tammy quickly tracked towards the northwest in a southerly flow between a mid to upper @-@ level low over the Gulf of Mexico and a ridge located over the western Atlantic Ocean . Later that day , a reconnaissance flight into the storm recorded flight level winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) , which corresponds to surface winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . However , small areas of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported by the crew members of the aircraft . At 6 : 30 pm EST ( 2300 UTC ) , the storm made landfall with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) near Atlantic Beach , Florida . The tropical storm then moved inland over Georgia and into southeastern Alabama near Ozark , where it lost its circulation on October 6 .
The remnant low drifted south towards the Gulf of Mexico before being absorbed by a cold front ( which also picked remnants of Subtropical Depression Twenty @-@ two ) , and moving northeast . This cold front , of which Tammy 's remnants were a part , affected much of the Northeastern United States over the next few days .
= = Preparations = =
Tropical Storm Tammy surprised forecasters when it formed on October 5 . Because they had not expected the disturbance to develop , warnings were not issued until about 12 hours before the storm made landfall . Despite the short warning , tourists and business travelers cancelled flights as the storm neared landfall . Upon the storm developing , a tropical storm warning was immediately issued for the coast from Cocoa Beach , Florida to the Santee River , South Carolina .
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security 's U.S. Coast Guard , 7th District issued an advisory to mariners , warning them to prepare for the storm and avoid the ocean if possible . In Georgia , the National Park Service evacuated the residents of Cumberland Island and closed the ferry which services it . The Glynn County Emergency Operations Agency monitored and prepared for Tropical Storm Tammy 's landfall , however the poor warning hampered their efforts . Residents all over the state expressed frustration at the lack of time they had to prepare . When Tammy moved inland 12 hours later the southern end of the warning zone moved north to Altamaha Sound , Georgia before all warnings were discontinued on October 6 .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Tammy caused minor damage . Its highest sustained winds were 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and its strongest recorded wind gust was 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The winds produced no significant damage , but did disrupt power to 16 @,@ 500 utility customers and delayed the Trysail College Regatta . Lightning produced by a thunderstorm in Broward County , Florida struck three teenagers during a football game in Coconut Creek , killing one and injuring the other two .
To most areas in north Florida and southern Georgia , Tammy brought 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of rain , though some isolated areas received 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . In Georgia , flooding damaged over 30 homes in Brunswick . Several dirt and coastal roads were washed out , and sewers overflowed as far north as Baltimore County , Maryland . Two small pond dams burst , including a 173 @-@ year @-@ old wooden dam , but new stone dams were constructed in place before the old ones failed . Conversely , Tammy 's rains were beneficial in South Carolina , where they helped alleviate dry conditions after a rainless September .
Tammy 's storm surge was approximately 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) and caused salt @-@ water flooding along the coast of northeastern Florida , Georgia , and South Carolina . The surge damages boardwalks along the coast , and wave action causes over 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of beach erosion . In addition to the flooding , Tropical Storm Tammy spawned one tornado . Rated an F0 tornado , it touched down near Brunswick , Georgia were it snapped trees and caused moderate roof damage along its 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) path . The storm 's total damage was estimated at around $ 30 million ( 2005 USD ) . The outer bands of Tammy brought heavy rains , peaking around 7 in ( 180 mm ) in places , and caused significant beach erosion . Winds along the coastline gusted up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) , downing numerous trees . The worst damage occurred in Beaufort County where 30 trees were downed , one of which fell on a home . Rough seas undermined several beach homes and caused one to be condemned .
= = Aftermath , naming and records = =
A Red Cross shelter at Seldon Park , Brunswick , Georgia , opened for two days following the storm to temporarily house those whose houses were flooded . Tammy 's remnant low was absorbed a larger extratropical low which tracked north and contributed to the Northeast U.S. flooding of October 2005 , which killed ten people and caused significant damage . As a result of the flooding , the Federal Emergency Management Agency paid $ 44 million in losses .
Shrimpers in the Carolinas blamed high fuel prices and the disruption of Tropical Storm Tammy for some of the troubles facing the shrimping industry in 2005 . Rising fuel prices and dwindling demand has already created tough conditions that year , but the disruption of several days ' fishing due to Tammy escalated the situation .
When Tropical Storm Tammy formed on October 5 , it was the earliest ever in the season that the twentieth storm formed , beating the previous record held by Storm 20 of the 1933 season by 21 days .
= Peter Jennings =
Peter Charles Archibald Ewart Jennings , CM ( July 29 , 1938 – August 7 , 2005 ) was a Canadian @-@ American journalist and news anchor . He was the sole anchor of ABC 's World News Tonight from 1983 until his death in 2005 of complications from lung cancer . A high @-@ school dropout , he transformed himself into one of American television 's most prominent journalists .
Jennings started his career early , hosting a Canadian radio show at the age of nine . He began his professional career with CJOH @-@ TV in Ottawa during its early years , anchoring the local newscasts and hosting a teen dance show , Saturday Date , on Saturdays . In 1965 , ABC News tapped him to anchor its flagship evening news program . His inexperience was attacked by critics and others in television news , making for a difficult first stint in the anchor chair . Jennings became a foreign correspondent in 1968 , reporting from the Middle East .
He returned as one of World News Tonight 's three anchors in 1978 , and was promoted to the role of sole anchor in 1983 . Jennings was also known for his marathon coverage of breaking news stories , staying on the air for 15 or more hours straight to anchor the live broadcast of events such as the outbreak of the Gulf War in 1991 , the Millennium celebrations in 2000 , and the September 11 attacks in 2001 . In addition to anchoring , he was the host of many ABC News special reports and moderated several American presidential debates . Having always been fascinated with the United States , Jennings became a naturalized United States citizen in 2003 .
Along with Tom Brokaw at NBC and Dan Rather at CBS , Jennings formed part of the " Big Three " news anchors who dominated American evening network news from the early 1980s until his death in 2005 , which closely followed the retirements of Brokaw and Rather .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Jennings was born on July 29 , 1938 , in Toronto , Ontario , Canada ; he and his younger sister Sarah were children of Elizabeth ( Osborne ) and Charles Jennings , a prominent radio broadcaster for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) . Peter Jennings started his broadcasting career at the age of nine , hosting Peter 's People , a half @-@ hour , Saturday morning , CBC Radio show for kids . His father was on a business trip to the Middle East when the show debuted ; upon returning , Charles Jennings , who harbored a deep dislike of nepotism , was outraged to learn that the network had put his son on the air .
When Jennings was 11 , he started attending Trinity College School in Port Hope , Ontario , where he excelled in sports . After the CBC moved his father to its Ottawa headquarters in the early 1950s , Jennings transferred to Lisgar Collegiate Institute . He struggled academically , and Jennings later surmised that it was out of " pure boredom " that he failed 10th grade and dropped out . " I loved girls , " he said . " I loved comic books . And for reasons I don 't understand , I was pretty lazy . " Jennings then briefly attended Carleton University , where he says he " lasted about 10 minutes " before dropping out . He also attended the University of Ottawa .
Although Jennings dreamed of following in his father 's footsteps in broadcasting , his first job was as a bank teller for the Royal Bank of Canada . He had hoped that the company would assign him to its Havana branch ; instead , it located him to the small town of Prescott , Ontario , before transferring him to its nearby Brockville branch . During this time , he explored acting by appearing in several amateur musical productions with the Orpheus Musical Theatre Society , including Damn Yankees and South Pacific .
It was in Brockville that the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Jennings started his rise in broadcasting . In 1959 , CFJR , a local radio station , hired him as a member of its news department ; many of his stories , including his coverage of a local train wreck , were picked up by the CBC . By 1961 , Jennings had joined the staff of CJOH @-@ TV , then a new television station in Ottawa . When the station launched in March 1961 , Jennings was initially an interviewer and co @-@ producer for Vue , a late @-@ night news program . His producers saw a youthful attractiveness in him that resembled that of Dick Clark , and Jennings soon found himself hosting Club Thirteen , a dance show similar to American Bandstand .
The next year , CTV , Canada 's first private TV network and a fledgling competitor of his father 's network , hired the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Jennings as co @-@ anchor of its late @-@ night national newscast . While reporting for CTV , he was the first Canadian journalist to arrive in Dallas after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . In 1964 , CTV sent Jennings to cover the Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City , New Jersey . There , he ran into Elmer Lower , then president of ABC News , who offered him a job as a correspondent for the American network , an opportunity Jennings initially rejected . " The job was pretty intimidating for a guy like me in a tiny city in Canada , " Jennings later recalled . " I thought , What if I screw up ? What if I fail ? " Three months later though , he changed his mind and moved to the United States .
= = = United States ' youngest anchor = = =
Jennings started reporting for ABC at its New York news bureau . At the time , ABC lagged behind the more established news divisions of NBC and CBS , and the network was trying to attract younger viewers . On February 1 , 1965 , ABC plucked the fresh @-@ faced Canadian from the field and placed him at the anchor desk of Peter Jennings With the News , then a 15 @-@ minute nightly newscast . He replaced Ron Cochran , a fellow Canadian . At 26 , Jennings was , and remains , the youngest @-@ ever U.S. network news anchor . " ABC was in bad shape at the time , " Jennings said . " They were willing to try anything , and , to demonstrate the point , they tried me . "
An inexperienced Jennings had a hard time keeping up with his rivals at the other networks , and he – and the upstart ABC News - could not compete with the venerable newscasts of Walter Cronkite at CBS and Chet Huntley and David Brinkley at NBC . Some in the American audience disliked Jennings ' Canadian accent . He pronounced lieutenant as " leftenant " , mangled the pronunciation of " Appomattox , " and misidentified the " Marines ' Hymn " as " Anchors Aweigh " at Lyndon Johnson 's presidential inauguration ; his lack of in @-@ depth knowledge of American affairs and culture led critics to deride Jennings as a " glamorcaster " . " It was a little ridiculous when you think about it , " he later reflected . " A 26 @-@ year @-@ old trying to compete with Cronkite , Huntley and Brinkley . I was simply unqualified . After three rocky years at the anchor desk , Jennings quit to become a foreign correspondent .
= = = Foreign correspondent = = =
Jennings was determined to build his journalism credentials abroad . In 1968 , he established ABC 's Middle East bureau in Beirut , Lebanon , the first American television news bureau in the Arab world . The next year , he demonstrated his growing expertise in Middle Eastern affairs with Palestine : New State of Mind , a well @-@ received half @-@ hour documentary for ABC 's Now news program . As ABC 's Beirut bureau chief , Jennings soon became familiar with the intricacies of the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict , including the rise of the Palestinian Black September Organization during the early 1970s . He conducted the first American television interview with Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasser Arafat . While stationed in the Lebanese capital , Jennings dated Palestinian activist Hanan Ashrawi , who was then a graduate student in literature at the American University in Beirut .
In 1972 , Jennings covered his first major breaking news story , the Munich Olympics massacre of Israeli athletes by Black September . His live reporting , which drew on the expertise he had acquired in the Middle East , provided context for Americans who were unfamiliar with the Palestinian group . By hiding with his camera crew close to the athletic compound where the Israeli athletes were being held hostage , Jennings was able to provide ABC with clear video of the masked hostage @-@ takers . He would later be criticized for insisting on using the terms " guerillas " and " commandos " instead of " terrorists " to describe the members of Black September .
After the events of Munich , Jennings continued to report on Middle East issues . In 1973 , he covered the Yom Kippur War , and the following year , he served as chief correspondent and co @-@ producer of Sadat : Action Biography , a profile of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat that would win him his first of two George Foster Peabody Awards . The documentary established Jennings as Sadat 's favorite correspondent . That summer , Jennings married for the second time , to Anouchka Malouf , a Lebanese photographer . His first wife had been childhood sweetheart Valerie Godsoe .
Jennings returned to the U.S. at the end of 1974 to become Washington correspondent and news anchor for ABC 's new morning program AM America , a predecessor to Good Morning America . ABC was hoping that the show , in which it had invested $ 8 million , would challenge NBC 's highly popular Today . AM America debuted on January 6 , 1975 , with Jennings delivering regular newscasts from Washington . The show never gained ground against Today , and was canceled in just ten months . In November 1975 , Jennings moved abroad , this time as ABC 's chief foreign correspondent . He continued to cover the Middle East , and in 1978 he was the first American reporter to interview the Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran , then in exile in Paris .
Meanwhile , ABC News and its newly installed president , Roone Arledge , were preparing an overhaul of its nightly news program , which was then known as ABC Evening News and whose ratings had languished in third place behind CBS and NBC since its inception . In the late 1970s , a disastrous pairing of Harry Reasoner and Barbara Walters at the anchor desk left the network searching for new ideas . Arledge decided to implement a three @-@ anchor format for the program . On July 10 , 1978 , World News Tonight debuted with Frank Reynolds in Washington , Max Robinson in Chicago , and Jennings in London . Jennings ' official title was " Foreign Desk Anchor , " although he continued to serve as the network 's chief foreign correspondent . By the summer of 1979 , the innovative broadcast , which featured some of the same glitzy presentation as Arledge 's previous television coup , Wide World of Sports , had climbed in the ratings . The newscast had gained 1 @.@ 9 million households from its debut , and was now in a dead heat with NBC 's evening newscast .
Jennings also found renewed success in his personal life . In 1979 , he married for the third time to fellow ABC correspondent Kati Marton . That same year , he became a father when Marton gave birth to their daughter , Elizabeth . In 1982 , Jennings ' and Marton 's second child , Christopher , was born .
As part of ABC 's triumvirate , Jennings continued to cover major international news , especially Middle East issues . His nightly appearance at an anchor desk in London gave the impression that ABC News was more dedicated to foreign news than the other networks . Jennings reported on the Iranian Revolution and subsequent hostage crisis , the assassination of Sadat , the Falklands war , Israel 's 1982 invasion of Lebanon , and Pope John Paul II 's 1983 visit to Poland . His insistence on covering the major international stories himself irked some of his fellow ABC foreign correspondents , who came to resent being scooped by what they deemed as " Jennings ' Flying Circus . " Jennings , too , was not completely satisfied with his job in London . When his contract expired with ABC in the early 1980s , Jennings flirted with the possibility of moving back to Canada and working with the CBC on its new nightly newscast , The Journal . The CBC could not meet Jennings ' renegotiation deadlines , though , and the deal fell through .
= = = Sole anchor = = =
In 1983 , Reynolds fell ill with multiple myeloma , a type of blood cancer that often attacks the bones , and was forced to stop anchoring in April . His absence caused a dip in the ratings for ABC 's nightly newscast . ABC originally expected a full recovery , and relocated Jennings to its Washington bureau to fill in for Reynolds while he was sick ; the move helped buoy the newscast 's ratings , although it remained in third place . On July 20 , 1983 , Reynolds died unexpectedly after developing acute hepatitis .
On August 9 , 1983 , ABC announced that Jennings had signed a four @-@ year contract with the network and would become the sole anchor and senior editor for World News Tonight on September 5 . Jennings would anchor the program from New York City , the program 's new base of operations . The announcement signaled a generational shift in the evening news broadcasts , and the beginning of what the media would deem the " Big Three " era of Jennings , Dan Rather of CBS , and Tom Brokaw of NBC . Rather had already been elevated to anchor in 1981 after the retirement of Walter Cronkite , and Brokaw of NBC Nightly News was set to become sole anchor the same day as Jennings . At the time , Jennings expressed apprehension that the impending competition among the three newsmen was at risk of becoming superficial . " With me , Brokaw and Rather , I recognize that there will be the factor of three pretty faces , " he said . " That 's an inevitable byproduct of television . But if that is what it comes down to in terms of the approach we take , if our approach is that singular , then we will all have made a mistake . "
Jennings ' debut on September 5 , 1983 , marked the beginning of a steady climb in the ratings for ABC News . He spent his first year at the anchor desk educating himself on American domestic affairs in preparation for the 1984 presidential campaign season . In June 1984 , Jennings , who later admitted that his political knowledge was limited at the time , co @-@ anchored ABC 's coverage of the Democratic National Convention with David Brinkley . " I had not covered an election campaign in 16 years , " Jennings said , " so here was I going to co @-@ anchor with David Brinkley in 1984 , and he wasn 't even sure I knew who the faces belonged to , and he was right . " Jennings and ABC were criticized for suddenly halting coverage of the convention for 30 minutes and airing a rerun of Hart to Hart instead .
Despite a shaky start at the anchor desk , Jennings ' broadcast began to climb in the ratings . Jennings was praised for his performance during the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster , when he anchored ABC 's coverage of the event for 11 straight hours . By 1989 , competition among the three nightly newscasts had risen to fever pitch . When the Loma Prieta earthquake struck the San Francisco Bay area , media pundits praised Jennings and ABC News for their prompt on @-@ air response , while criticizing the delayed reaction of Tom Brokaw and NBC News . The next month , Brokaw redeemed himself by scooping the other networks with news of the fall of the Berlin Wall . It was World News Tonight , however , that ended the year at the top ; ABC 's evening newscast spent the last 13 weeks of the year in first place , and its average ratings for the entire year beat CBS for the first time .
Jennings ' on @-@ air success continued in 1990 , and World News Tonight consistently led the ratings race . In January , he anchored the first installment of Peter Jennings Reporting — hour @-@ long , prime @-@ time ABC News specials dedicated to exploring a single topic . His inaugural program on gun violence in America drew praise . His second installment of Peter Jennings Reporting in April , " From the Killing Fields " , focused on U.S. policy towards Cambodia . The program alleged that the federal government was covertly supporting the Khmer Rouge 's return to power in the Asian nation , a charge that the Bush administration initially denied . On July 18 , though , the White House announced that it was ending recognition of the Khmer Rouge .
When the Gulf War started on January 16 , 1991 , Jennings began a marathon anchoring stint to cover the story , spending 20 of the first 48 hours of the war on @-@ air , and leading ABC News to its highest @-@ ever ratings . After interrupting regular Saturday morning cartoons on January 19 to broadcast a military briefing from Saudi Arabia , Jennings and ABC became concerned about the emotional impact of the war coverage on children . Out of that concern , Jennings hosted a 90 @-@ minute special , War in the Gulf : Answering Children 's Questions the next Saturday morning ; the program featured Jennings , ABC correspondents , and American military personnel answering phoned @-@ in questions and explaining the war to young viewers .
On October 13 , 1991 , breaking news forced ABC News to interrupt regular Saturday morning programming again . Jennings was once again mindful of his audience , prefacing the coverage of the Senate confirmation hearings for Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas with remarks for children . " You may hear some not very nice language , " said Jennings . He noted that Thomas and his accuser , Anita Hill , " have a very painful disagreement about some things the woman says the man did to her when they were working together ... You can ask your parents to tell you more . " Jennings continued to produce special programs aimed at young viewers , anchoring Growing Up in the Age of AIDS , a frank , 90 @-@ minute @-@ long discussion on AIDS in February 1992 ; and Prejudice : Answering Children 's Questions , a forum on racism in April 1992 .
Politics dominated network news in 1992 . Jennings moderated the final debate among the Democratic presidential candidates in March , and anchored Peter Jennings Reporting : Who Is Ross Perot ? and a subsequent 90 @-@ minute town forum with Perot and a studio audience in June . On September 9 , 1992 , ABC announced that it would be switching the format of its political coverage to give less recognition to staged sound bites . " We 're aware that a lot of you are turned off by the political process and that many of you put at least some of the blame on us , " Jennings told viewers on World News Tonight . " We 'll only devote time to a candidate 's daily routine if it is more than routine . There will be less attention to staged appearances and sound bites designed exclusively for television . " After Bill Clinton was elected as president in November 1992 , Jennings featured the new administration in two of his specials for children ; he anchored President Clinton : Answering Children 's Questions in February 1993 ; and Kids in the Crossfire : Violence in America in November 1993 , a live special from a Washington , D.C. junior high school which featured Attorney General Janet Reno and rapper MC Lyte .
The early 1990s also served up a series of difficult experiences and public embarrassment for Jennings . On August 13 , 1993 , Jennings and Kati Marton publicly announced their separation in Newsday . The couple had previously split in 1987 for four months after Jennings found out that Marton was having an affair with Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen . In January 1994 , he locked horns with his executive producer on World News Tonight , Emily Rooney . The public firing of Rooney made national headlines , and put Jennings on the defensive .
With the rise of media watchdog groups , such as the conservative Media Research Center ( MRC ) , Jennings came under increasing scrutiny for what some observers deemed a liberal bias . The anchor drew fire from conservatives , such as the MRC and Cal Thomas , for his November 14 , 1994 , remarks on ABC Radio , in which he analyzed the results of the 1994 U.S. midterm elections . " Some thoughts on those angry voters . Ask parents of any two @-@ year @-@ old and they can tell you about those temper tantrums : the stomping feet , the rolling eyes , the screaming , " said Jennings . " Imagine a nation full of uncontrolled two @-@ year @-@ old rage . The voters had a temper tantrum last week .... Parenting and governing don 't have to be dirty words : the nation can 't be run by an angry two @-@ year @-@ old . " A July 1995 documentary , Peter Jennings Reporting : Hiroshima : Why the Bomb Was Dropped , which aired a week before the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , also drew scorn from conservatives and some television critics , who called the program a revisionist look at the decision to drop the bomb . Some viewers of the documentary mailed bus fares to Jennings , telling him to return to Canada .
Jennings pleased some conservatives though , after his three @-@ year lobbying effort to create a full @-@ time religion correspondent at ABC News succeeded in the hiring of Peggy Wehmeyer in January 1994 , making her the first such network reporter . ABC increased its coverage of religious topics , and in March 1995 , Jennings anchored Peter Jennings Reporting : In the Name of God , a well @-@ received documentary on the changing nature of American churches . At a taping of a " town meeting " segment for KOMO @-@ TV of Seattle in February 1995 , Jennings expressed regret for his ABC radio remarks on the 1994 midterm elections . " People thought I had insulted their sacred mandate and some thought I should go back to Canada , " he said . " I hope I don 't make that mistake again . "
During the mid @-@ 1990s , television critics praised Jennings for his insistence on not letting the O.J. Simpson murder case swamp the newscast . Instead , Jennings devoted his energies to covering the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina , anchoring three hour @-@ long prime time specials on the subject and one Saturday @-@ morning special aimed at children . ABC dedicated more time to covering the conflict than any other network from 1992 to 1996 . Jennings received the Goldsmith Career Award for Excellence in Journalism from the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University , in large part for his passion for the story . Jennings was also credited for raising the profile in the U.S. of another international story , the 1995 Quebec referendum . The Canadian press in particular raved about his in @-@ depth coverage of the issue , and he was the only anchor to broadcast from Canada on the eve of the referendum .
Despite these critical successes , in 1996 , World News Tonight started gradually slipping in the ratings race . Bolstered by strong viewership of its coverage of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games , NBC 's Nightly News overtook the ABC newscast for two weeks in late July and early September . This short bump provided momentum for NBC , which started making steady gains in the ratings . Worried , Jennings and ABC decided to cut back on international reporting and give more air time to " soft stories " , in an effort to emulate the success of Nightly News . The changes provoked a backlash from regular viewers , and ratings plummeted . " We did very badly with it , " Jennings said . " The audience kicked us in the teeth . " Although changes were made to World News Tonight to restore its luster and stop the hemorrhaging , Nightly News ended 1997 as the number @-@ one evening newscast .
The slide in the ratings coincided with some rockiness at ABC News . The company scrapped plans to develop a cable news channel . On May 29 , 1998 , David Westin succeeded Roone Arledge as president of ABC News . Both denied that the disappointing ratings performance of World News Tonight contributed to the decision . A 24 @-@ hour strike by the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians disrupted ABC 's coverage of 1998 's November elections after talks between the union and ABC broke down . Several Democratic candidates denied interviews to support the union .
None of the shake @-@ ups helped Jennings retake the nightly ratings crown , but World News Tonight still offered stiff competition at second place . As the millennium approached , Jennings and the network started preparing for extensive retrospectives of the 20th century . The anchor teamed with former Life magazine journalist Todd Brewster to pen The Century , a 606 @-@ page book on 20th @-@ century America . Designed as a companion book for ABC 's upcoming documentary series of the same name , the book topped the New York Times Best Seller List in December 1998 , a month after it debuted . On March 29 , 1999 , Jennings anchored the first installment of ABC 's 12 @-@ hour miniseries , The Century ; production on the monumental project started in 1990 , and by the time it aired , it had cost the network $ 25 million . Jennings also anchored a longer , 15 @-@ hour version , The Century : America 's Time , on the History Channel in April 1999 .
On December 31 , 1999 , Jennings was on the air for 23 straight hours to anchor ABC 2000 Today , ABC 's massive millennium eve special . An estimated 175 million people tuned into at least a portion of the program . Jennings ' American prime @-@ time audience , an estimated 18 @.@ 6 million viewers , easily outpaced the millennium coverage of rival networks . Television critics praised the program , and described the anchor as " superhuman " . Although production costs totaled a hefty $ 11 million ( compared with $ 2 million each for NBC 's and CBS 's millennium projects ) , ABC managed to make a profit of $ 5 million . The success of the program , though , failed to transfer into any lasting change in the viewership of World News Tonight ; ABC 's evening newscast spent the first week of January as ratings leader , before dropping back to second place .
With another presidential election taking place in 2000 , Jennings had some more political reporting duties that year . On January 5 , Jennings moderated the Democratic primary debate , held at the University of New Hampshire . He hosted the primetime news special The Dark Horizon : India , Pakistan , and the Bomb , which ABC broadcast on March 22 , as then @-@ President Clinton began his trip to the region . Jennings was the only American news anchor to travel to India for Clinton 's trip . Paul A. Slavin became the new executive producer for World News Tonight in April .
= = = = September 11 = = = =
Jennings anchored ABC 's coverage of the September 11 attacks for seventeen straight hours , an effort described as " Herculean " by television critics . Like other network news anchors , he was widely praised for guiding Americans through the tragedy . At one point , Jennings broke his composure after receiving phone calls from his children . " We do not very often make recommendations for people 's behavior from this chair , " he said , " but ... if you 're a parent , you 've got a kid in some other part of the country , call them up . Exchange observations . "
His coverage was not without controversy though . After conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh criticized Jennings for supposedly denigrating President George W. Bush on @-@ air during September 11 , ABC was flooded with more than 10 @,@ 000 angry phone calls and e @-@ mails . Jennings , however , never made the remarks , and Limbaugh later apologized and made a retraction . On September 13 , Jennings received more criticism from conservatives — this time for hosting a forum for Middle East experts that included Palestinian Authority negotiator Hanan Ashrawi . In the summer of 2002 , Jennings and ABC refused to allow Toby Keith to open their coverage of July 4 celebrations with " Courtesy of the Red , White , & Blue " , prompting criticism from Keith and country music fans , who highlighted the anchor 's Canadian citizenship .
The events of September 11 added new meaning to In Search of America , the project Jennings and Brewster started after the success of their previous collaboration . The two began writing the book in early 2001 ; after the terrorist attacks , they revisited many of the people they had interviewed to see how the events had affected them . To promote the book , the anchor and World News Tonight started a 50 @-@ state tour of the United States in April 2002 as part of a yearlong project , 50 States / One Nation / One Year . Jennings also anchored a six @-@ part television series in September 2002 , which featured the same name as the book . Despite the success of the TV series and heavy promotion by the book 's publisher , In Search of America failed to generate much interest or sales .
Jennings ' work on In Search of America and the September 11 attacks contributed to his decision in 2003 to become a dual citizen of Canada and the United States . " I think that 9 / 11 and the subsequent travel I did in the country afterwards made me feel connected in new ways , " he said . " And when we were working on the America project I spent a lot of time on the road , which meant away from my editor 's desk , and I just got much more connected to the Founding Fathers ' dreams and ideas for the future . " His work had prepared him well for the citizenship test , which he passed easily . " Can you imagine I , who just finished a whole series on America and had been an anchorperson for an American broadcast ... could you imagine if I had failed ? " he asked . " It would have been horrendous . " The anchor 's formal pledge of allegiance took place at a regular citizenship ceremony on May 30 in Lower Manhattan . The occasion overwhelmed him . " I went in the front door and came out the front door . They were regular people . They were very touching . And I cried a little bit — my kids didn 't cry , but I cried a bit — but I 'm a fairly emotional character anyway . "
= = = Leaving the chair = = =
As he did in 2000 , Jennings moderated the 2004 Democratic presidential primary debate , which was held that year at Saint Anselm College in New Hampshire . He was noted for questioning General Wesley Clark over Clark 's silence over controversial comments made by filmmaker Michael Moore , a supporter of Clark . Moore called then @-@ President George W. Bush a " deserter " .
By late 2004 , Brokaw had retired from his anchoring duties at NBC , ceding the reins to Brian Williams ; Rather planned to step down in March 2005 . Jennings and ABC saw an opportunity to gain viewers , and initiated a publicity blitz touting the anchor 's foreign reporting experience . However , despite having almost always reported from the scene of any major news story , Jennings was sidelined by an upper respiratory infection in late December 2004 ; he was forced to anchor from New York during the aftermath of the Asian tsunami , while his competitors traveled to the region . For Jennings , the situation was agonizing .
In late March , viewers started noticing that Jennings ' voice sounded uncharacteristically gravelly and unhealthy during evening newscasts . On April 1 , 2005 , he anchored World News Tonight for the last time ; his poor health also prevented him from covering the death and funeral of Pope John Paul II . On April 5 , 2005 , Jennings informed viewers through a taped message on World News Tonight that he had been diagnosed with lung cancer , and was starting chemotherapy treatment the following week . " As some of you now know , I have learned in the last couple of days that I have lung cancer , " he said . " Yes , I was a smoker until about 20 years ago , and I was weak and I smoked over 9 / 11 . But whatever the reason , the news does slow you down a bit . " Although he stated his intention to continue anchoring whenever possible , the message was to be his last appearance on television .
Throughout the summer , Charles Gibson , co @-@ host of Good Morning America , and Elizabeth Vargas , co @-@ host of 20 / 20 , served as temporary anchors . On April 29 , 2005 , Jennings posted a letter on ABCNews.com with an update of his status and expressing thanks to those who had offered him their good wishes and prayers . In June , Jennings visited the ABC News headquarters , and addressed staff members in an emotional speech ; he thanked Gibson for closing each broadcast with the phrase , " for Peter Jennings and all of us at ABC News . " During his visit , however , his colleagues noticed he was ill to the point where he could barely speak at times . He posted another short letter of thanks on July 29 , 2005 , his 67th birthday .
= = = Death = = =
On August 7 , 2005 , just after 11 : 30 p.m. EDT , Charles Gibson broke into local news in the Eastern U.S. and regular programming on ABC 's western affiliates to announce Jennings 's death from lung cancer . He read a short statement from the family , and disclosed that Jennings had died in his New York apartment with his fourth wife , two children by his marriage to Kati Marton , and sister at his side . The anchor 's ABC colleagues , including Barbara Walters , Diane Sawyer , and Ted Koppel , shared their thoughts on Jennings 's death . The next morning , Brokaw and Rather fondly remembered their former rival on the morning news shows . " Peter , of the three of us , was our prince , " said Brokaw on Today . " He seemed so timeless . He had such élan and style . " Canada 's television networks led off their morning news shows with the news of Jennings ' death and had remembrances from their " big three " anchors , Peter Mansbridge at the CBC , Lloyd Robertson at CTV , and Kevin Newman at Global .
American President George W. Bush and Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin offered statements of condolence to the press .
On August 10 , 2005 , ABC aired a two @-@ hour special , Peter Jennings : Reporter , with archival clips of his reports and interviews with colleagues and friends . The special drew over 9 million viewers , and was the most watched television program of the night . For the week of his death , World News Tonight placed number one in the ratings race for the first time since June 2004 .
Jennings 's widow , Kayce Freed , and family held a private service in New York . Jennings was cremated and his ashes split in half . Half of his ashes remained in his home in Long Island and the other half was placed in his summer home in the Gatineau Hills , near Ottawa . The 57th Primetime Emmy Awards on September 18 , 2005 , included a tribute to Jennings by Brokaw and Rather . A public memorial service for Jennings was held two days later at Carnegie Hall . Notable journalists , political leaders , and other friends of Jennings attended . Jennings left a $ 50m estate : half went to Freed , and most of the rest to his son and daughter . On December 5 , 2005 , after much speculation , and nearly eight months after Jennings stopped anchoring , ABC named Vargas and Bob Woodruff co @-@ anchors for World News Tonight .
= = Honors = =
Jennings won numerous honors throughout his career , including 16 Emmys and two George Foster Peabody Awards . His work on World News Tonight and Peter Jennings Reporting consistently won Overseas Press Club and duPont @-@ Columbia awards . At the peak of his popularity , Jennings was named " Best Anchor " by the Washington Journalism Review in 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , and 1992 . The Radio and Television News Directors Association awarded Jennings its highest honor , the Paul White Award in 1995 , in recognition of his lifetime contributions to journalism . In 2004 , he was awarded with the Edward R. Murrow Award for Lifetime Achievement in Broadcasting from Washington State University .
Just eight days before his death , Jennings was informed that he would be inducted into the Order of Canada , the nation 's highest civilian honor . His daughter , Elizabeth , accepted the insignia on his behalf in October 2005 . On February 21 , 2006 , New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg designated the block on West 66th Street between Columbus Avenue and Central Park West as Peter Jennings Way in honor of the late anchor ; the block is home to the ABC News headquarters . In October 2006 , The Walt Disney Company , which bought ABC in 1996 , posthumously named Jennings a Disney Legend , the company 's highest honor . He was the first ABC News employee so honored . In January 2011 , Jennings was posthumously inducted into the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences ' Television Hall of Fame .
= = Publications = =
= = = Articles = = =
" Moose Jaw , U.S.A. ? Never ! Jamais ! " Maclean 's , p . 86 . June 25 , 1990 . Available at HighBeam Business
" TV 's opportunity for service at Geneva . " Christian Science Monitor , p . 28 . November 12 , 1985 .
with Todd Brewster . " Variations for Four Hands On a Theme by Tocqueville . " The New York Times , p . E1 . January 27 , 2003 .
= = = Books = = =
with Todd Brewster . The Century . London : Doubleday ( 1999 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 48327 @-@ 9 .
with Todd Brewster . The Century for Young People . New York : Random House ( 1999 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 32708 @-@ 0 .
with Todd Brewster . In Search of America . New York : Hyperion ( 2002 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 6708 @-@ 6 .
= = TV / video narration = =
In 1969 @-@ 1970 , Jennings narrated The Fabulous Sixties , a 10 @-@ part Canadian television documentary miniseries that first aired on CTV on October 12 , 1969 , with the following episodes broadcast as occasional specials into 1970 . Each episode covered one year of the 1960s . The series was released on DVD on April 24 , 2007 , by MPI Home Video . [ 1 ]
= = = Books = = =
= = = Online = = =
= New Jersey Route 27 =
Route 27 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States . It runs 38 @.@ 53 mi ( 62 @.@ 01 km ) from U.S. Route 206 in Princeton , Mercer County northeast to an interchange with Route 21 ( McCarter Highway ) and Broad Street in Newark , Essex County . The route passes through many communities along the way , including New Brunswick , Metuchen , Rahway , and Elizabeth . Route 27 is a two- to four @-@ lane undivided highway for most of its length , passing through a variety of urban and suburban environments . It intersects many roads along the way , including Route 18 in New Brunswick , Interstate 287 in Edison , the Garden State Parkway in Woodbridge Township , Route 35 in Rahway , Route 28 in Elizabeth , and U.S. Route 22 in Newark . Route 27 crosses the Raritan River on the Albany Street Bridge , which connects Highland Park on the east with New Brunswick on the west .
Route 27 was part of the alignment through New Jersey of the Lincoln Highway , the United States ' first transcontinental highway that was established in 1913 . Route 27 is still referred to as the Lincoln Highway in many municipalities , such as Edison Township . The Lincoln Highway became part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth in 1916 and pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick in 1917 . In 1927 , the Lincoln Highway was renumbered as Route 27 between Trenton and Newark . U.S. Route 1 was designated on this portion of the road until it was relocated by the 1940s . U.S. Route 206 followed the route from Trenton to Princeton until 1953 , when the southern terminus of Route 27 was cut back to Princeton to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 206 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
Route 27 begins at a traffic light with U.S. Route 206 and County Route 533 in downtown Princeton , Mercer County . The route heads northeast along Nassau Street , the main street of Princeton that runs along the northern edge of Princeton University and is lined with numerous shops and restaurants . This portion of Route 27 sees between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 cars a day . Just past the beginning of Route 27 , County Route 583 heads to the southwest on Mercer Street . Route 27 moves through downtown Princeton , passing by the main gates to Princeton University near Nassau Hall , and intersecting County Route 571 ( Washington Road , also signed as County Route 526 ) . After leaving the downtown area , Route 27 continues through residential areas and the route becomes Princeton @-@ Kingston Road . Route 27 runs parallel to Carnegie Lake , then crosses over the Millstone River just north of the historic Kingston Bridge . The portion of the road from Princeton to Kingston is part of the KIng 's Highway Historic District .
= = = Middlesex / Somerset County border = = =
Upon crossing the Millstone River , Route 27 runs along the border of Franklin Township , Somerset County to the west and South Brunswick Township , Middlesex County to the east , passing through the historic community of Kingston . It continues northeast through a mix of woodland and residences , intersecting Promenade Boulevard , which heads east and becomes County Route 522 after crossing U.S. Route 1 . Route 27 briefly runs entirely into Somerset County before resuming along the Middlesex / Somerset County border . The route continues north to an intersection with County Route 518 ( Gateway Boulevard ) , where it resumes its northeast direction and heads into Kendall Park as a variable two- to four @-@ lane road , entering denser suburban development . Route 27 then passes through Franklin Park , intersecting County Route 610 ( Henderson Road ) . Past that intersection , Route 27 forms the border of Franklin Township to the west and North Brunswick Township to the east , passing through suburban development with some areas of farmland , seeing about 38 @,@ 487 cars a day . The road forms the border of Franklin Township and New Brunswick upon intersecting County Route 680 ( How Lane ) becoming four @-@ lane Somerset Street . Route 27 follows Somerset Street northeast through residential and commercial areas , passing by the community of Somerset on the west side of the road .
= = = Middlesex County = = =
The route splits from Somerset Street and heads entirely into New Brunswick , Middlesex County along French Street . At the Sandford Street intersection , Route 27 becomes a county @-@ maintained road that is also signed as County Route 644 . It then intersects County Route 693 ( Jersey Avenue ) , which heads to the southwest to become Route 91 . Past this intersection , the route becomes a two @-@ lane road that heads into downtown New Brunswick , south of the main campus of Rutgers University . Here , the route has a daily traffic count of approximately 11 @,@ 559 vehicles . It crosses under the Northeast Corridor rail line adjacent to the New Brunswick train station . The route turns into a four @-@ lane divided highway and intersects County Route 514 and County Route 527 ( Easton Avenue ) . At this point , County Route 644 ends , with Route 27 forming a concurrency with both county routes 514 and 527 , heading east along Albany Street . About 200 yards ( 180 m ) later , the road crosses George Street , which heads to the north as County Route 672 and to the south as Route 171 . County Route 527 splits from Albany Street by heading south on Route 171 while Route 27 and County Route 514 continue east , interchanging with Route 18 ( Memorial Parkway ) a quarter of a mile later . At the Route 18 interchange , Route 27 becomes state @-@ maintained again , crossing the Raritan River on the Albany Street Bridge into Highland Park .
Upon entering Highland Park , Route 27 becomes two @-@ lane Raritan Avenue , intersecting County Route 622 ( River Road ) and continuing through the downtown area of Highland Park . County Route 514 splits from Route 27 by heading east on Woodbridge Avenue 0 @.@ 75 mi ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) later . Route 27 resumes heading northeast past this intersection as a four @-@ lane road that passes by homes , entering Edison Township , where the name changes to Lincoln Highway . The route continues northeast , intersecting County Route 676 ( Suttons Lane / Duclos Lane ) and County Route 529 ( Plainfield Avenue ) , then travels through a mix of residences and businesses , briefly becoming a divided highway before intersecting Interstate 287 at a partial interchange with access to southbound Interstate 287 and from northbound Interstate 287 . At this interchange , Route 27 sees approximately 14 @,@ 386 cars a day . Beyond this interchange , Route 27 crosses into Metuchen and becomes two @-@ lane Essex Avenue , which turns to the east and heads through residential areas . The route turns north onto Lake Street and intersects County Route 501 ( Amboy Avenue ) , forming a concurrency with that route . It passes under the Northeast Corridor and comes to Middlesex Avenue , where County Route 501 turns to the left and Route 27 turns to the right to resume its northeast direction .
Route 27 intersects County Route 531 ( Main Street ) after 0 @.@ 2 mi ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) and continues northeast on Middlesex Avenue , passing through a residential environment where the route carries about 22 @,@ 414 vehicles daily . The route crosses back into Edison Township and becomes the Lincoln Highway again , passing over the Rahway River . It heads through business areas and passes near the Thomas Alva Edison Memorial Tower and Museum , which is located on the site of Thomas Edison 's Menlo Park laboratory . The route closely parallels the Northeast Corridor rail line and crosses into Woodbridge Township , widening to four lanes at this point . Route 27 passes by the Metropark train station and interchanges with the Garden State Parkway near Iselin , where approximately 19 @,@ 780 vehicles travel on Route 27 on a daily basis . Past the Garden State Parkway , Route 27 narrows back to two lanes and continues northeast alongside the Northeast Corridor , passing through a mix of residential and commercial development as a three @-@ lane road with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane .
= = = Union and Essex counties = = =
Route 27 crosses into Rahway , Union County and intersects the northern terminus of Route 35 . Route 27 continues north using four @-@ lane St. Georges Avenue . The route passes through Rahway , passing by residences and businesses . In Rahway , the route sees about 25 @,@ 022 cars a day . It continues northeast and crosses into Linden , where the route heads through a more commercial setting with businesses lining both sides of the road . At the intersection with County Route 617 ( Wood Avenue ) , Route 27 forms the border of Roselle to the west and Linden to the east , with about 23 @,@ 081 vehicles using the road on a daily basis . It passes by Warinaco Park and forms the border between Elizabeth to the west and Linden to the east before entirely entering Elizabeth at the Richford Terrace intersection .
In Elizabeth , Route 27 narrows to two lanes and becomes Rahway Avenue , crossing Route 439 and continuing to the northeast through residential and commercial areas . Route 27 splits into a one @-@ way pair with northbound Route 27 following Rahway Avenue east and turning north onto Cherry Street and southbound Route 27 following Westfield Avenue west and turning south onto Chilton Avenue . The southbound direction of Route 27 intersects the eastern terminus of Route 28 , where that route continues west on Westfield Avenue . Past the one @-@ way pair , Route 27 resumes east on four @-@ lane Westfield Avenue , turning north onto Broad Street . The route heads into a more urbanized setting and continues northeast onto Newark Avenue , intersecting the northern terminus of Route 439 . Through Elizabeth , about 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 vehicles travel on Route 27 every day .
Route 27 crosses into Newark , Essex County at the Virginia Street intersection , where it becomes Frelinghuysen Avenue , a road that heads north through the Dayton neighborhood of Newark , passing through urban areas and by Weequahic Park . Route 27 interchanges with U.S. Route 22 and immediately passes under Interstate 78 . Route 27 continues north to an intersection with Poinier Street , where the route heads east along that road to its northern terminus at an interchange with Route 21 and Broad Street .
= = History = =
The southern part of Route 27 follows the Lenape Assunpink Trail that during the colonial era was known as the Old Dutch Trail , and later became the Kings Highway . Route 27 follows portions of several 19th @-@ century turnpikes , including the Essex and Middlesex Turnpike , which was chartered on March 3 , 1806 to run from New Brunswick to Newark along what is today Route 27 , the Northeast Corridor rail line , and Broad Street in Newark , the Georgetown and Franklin Turnpike , chartered on February 15 , 1816 to run from Lambertville to New Brunswick along the present @-@ day alignments of County Route 518 and Route 27 , the Newark and Elizabeth Plank Road , chartered on March 14 , 1856 , and the Princeton and Kingston Branch Turnpike , chartered on December 3 , 1807 to run from Trenton to Kingston along current County Route 583 and Route 27 . The route became a portion of the Lincoln Highway , the United States ' first transcontinental highway that was established in 1913 to run from New York City to San Francisco . It is still known by that name in a few places along the route , particularly in Edison Township .
In 1916 , the Lincoln Highway was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth and as pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick in 1917 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 27 was designated to run from Trenton to the intersection of Frelinghuysen Avenue and Astor Street in Newark , replacing the portions of Routes 1 and 13 that ran along the Lincoln Highway . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System , U.S. Route 1 was designated along the length of Route 27 from 1927 until sometime before the 1940s , when the U.S. Route 1 designation was moved to Route 26 , Route S26 , and Route 25 between Trenton and Newark . U.S. Route 206 was designated along the portion of route between Trenton and Princeton by the 1940s . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the southern terminus of Route 27 was cut back to Princeton to avoid the U.S. Route 206 concurrency .
= = Major intersections = =
= Little Moreton Hall =
Little Moreton Hall , also known as Old Moreton Hall , is a moated half @-@ timbered manor house 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Congleton in Cheshire , England . The earliest parts of the house were built for the prosperous Cheshire landowner William Moreton in about 1504 – 08 , and the remainder was constructed in stages by successive generations of the family until about 1610 . The building is highly irregular , with three asymmetrical ranges forming a small , rectangular cobbled courtyard . A National Trust guidebook describes Little Moreton Hall as being " lifted straight from a fairy story , a gingerbread house " . The house 's top @-@ heavy appearance , " like a stranded Noah 's Ark " , is due to the Long Gallery that runs the length of the south range 's upper floor .
The house remained in the possession of the Moreton family for almost 450 years , until ownership was transferred to the National Trust in 1938 . Little Moreton Hall and its sandstone bridge across the moat are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and the ground on which Little Moreton Hall stands is protected as a Scheduled Monument . The house has been fully restored and is open to the public from April to December each year .
At its greatest extent , in the mid @-@ 16th century , the Little Moreton Hall estate occupied an area of 1 @,@ 360 acres ( 550 ha ) and contained a cornmill , orchards , gardens , and an iron bloomery with water @-@ powered hammers . The gardens lay abandoned until their 20th @-@ century re @-@ creation . As there were no surviving records of the layout of the original knot garden it was replanted according to a pattern published in the 17th century .
= = History = =
The name Moreton probably derives from the Old English mor meaning " marshland " and tune , meaning " farm " , thus literally " a farm at a marsh " . The area where Little Moreton Hall stands today was named Little Moreton to distinguish it from the nearby township of Moreton @-@ cum @-@ Alcumlow , or Greater Moreton . The Moreton family 's roots in Little Moreton can be traced to the marriage in 1216 of Lettice de Moreton to Sir Gralam de Lostock , who inherited land there ; succeeding generations of the de Lostocks adopted the name of de Moreton . Gralam de Lostock 's grandson , Gralam de Moreton , acquired valuable land from his marriages to Alice de Lymme and then Margery de Kingsley . Another grandson , John de Moreton , married heiress Margaret de Macclesfield in 1329 , adding further to the estate . The family also purchased land cheaply after the Black Death epidemic of 1348 . Four generations after John de Moreton , the family owned sixteen messuages , a mill and 700 acres ( 280 ha ) of land , comprising 560 acres of ploughland , 80 acres of pasture , 20 acres of meadow , 20 acres of wood and 20 acres of moss . The Dissolution of the Monasteries in the mid @-@ 16th century provided further opportunities for the Moretons to add to their estate , and by the early years of Elizabeth I 's reign , William Moreton II owned two water mills and 1 @,@ 360 acres ( 550 ha ) of land valued at £ 24 7s 4d , including 500 acres of ploughland , 500 acres of pasture and 100 acres of turbary .
Little Moreton Hall first appears in the historical record in 1271 , but the present building dates from the early 16th century . The north range is the earliest part of the house . Built between 1504 and 1508 for William Moreton ( died 1526 ) , it comprises the Great Hall and the northern part of the east wing . A service wing to the west , built at the same time but subsequently replaced , gave the early house an H @-@ shaped floor plan . The east range was extended to the south in about 1508 to provide additional living quarters , as well as housing the Chapel and the Withdrawing Room . In 1546 William Moreton 's son , also called William ( c . 1510 – 63 ) , replaced the original west wing with a new range housing service rooms on the ground floor as well as a porch , gallery , and three interconnected rooms on the first floor , one of which had access to a garderobe . In 1559 William had a new floor inserted at gallery level in the Great Hall , and added the two large bay windows looking onto the courtyard , built so close to each other that their roofs abut one another . The south wing was added in about 1560 – 62 by William Moreton II 's son John ( 1541 – 98 ) . It includes the Gatehouse and a third storey containing a 68 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) Long Gallery , which appears to have been an afterthought added on after construction work had begun . A small kitchen and Brew @-@ house block was added to the south wing in about 1610 , the last major extension to the house .
The fortunes of the Moreton family declined during the English Civil War . As supporters of the Royalist cause , they found themselves isolated in a community of Parliamentarians . Little Moreton Hall was requisitioned by the Parliamentarians in 1643 and used to billet Parliamentary soldiers . The family successfully petitioned for its restitution , and survived the Civil War with their ownership of Little Moreton Hall intact , but financially they were crippled . They tried to sell the entire estate , but could only dispose of several parcels of land . William Moreton died in 1654 leaving debts of £ 3 @,@ 000 – £ 4 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to about £ 12 – 16 million as of 2010 ) , which forced his heirs to remortgage what remained of the estate . The family 's fortunes never fully recovered , and by the late 1670s they no longer lived in Little Moreton Hall , renting it out instead to a series of tenant farmers . The Dale family took over the tenancy in 1841 , and were still in residence more than 100 years later . By 1847 most of the house was unoccupied , and the deconsecrated Chapel was being used as a coal cellar and storeroom . Little Moreton Hall was in a ruinous condition ; its windows were boarded up and its roof was rotten .
During the 19th century Little Moreton Hall became " an object of romantic interest " among artists ; Amelia Edwards used the house as a setting for her 1880 novel Lord Brackenbury . Elizabeth Moreton , an Anglican nun , inherited the almost derelict house following the death of her sister Annabella in 1892 . She restored and refurnished the Chapel , and may have been responsible for the insertion of steel rods to stabilise the structure of the Long Gallery . In 1912 she bequeathed the house to a cousin , Charles Abraham , Bishop of Derby , stipulating that it must never be sold . Abraham opened up Little Moreton Hall to visitors , charging an entrance fee of 6d ( equivalent to about £ 8 as of 2010 ) collected by the Dales , who conducted guided tours of the house in return .
Abraham carried on the preservation effort begun by Elizabeth Moreton until he and his son transferred ownership to the National Trust in 1938 . The Dale family continued to farm the estate until 1945 , and acted as caretakers for the National Trust until 1955 . The Trust has carried out extensive repair and restoration work , including re @-@ roofing ; restoration of elements of the hall 's original appearance , and removal of some painted patterning added during earlier restoration work . The familiar black @-@ and @-@ white colour scheme is a fashion introduced by the Victorians ; originally the oak beams would have been untreated and left to age naturally to a silver colour , and the rendered infill painted ochre . In 1977 it was discovered that the stone slabs on the roof of the south range had become insecure , and work began on a six @-@ phase programme of structural repairs , the final phase of which was completed in 1992 . Replacement timbers have been left in their natural state .
= = House = =
The 100 @-@ year construction of Little Moreton Hall coincided with the English Renaissance , but the house is resolutely medieval in design , apart from some Renaissance decoration such as the motifs on the Gatehouse , Elizabethan fireplaces , and its " extravagant " use of glass . It is timber @-@ framed throughout except for three brick chimneybreasts and some brick buttressing added at a later date .
Simon Jenkins has described Little Moreton Hall as " a feast of medieval carpentry " , but the building technique is unremarkable for Cheshire houses of the period – an oak framework set on stone footings . Diagonal oak braces that create chevron and lozenge patterns adorn the façades . The herringbone pattern with quatrefoils present at the rear , which can also be seen at Haslington and Gawsworth Halls , is a typical feature of 15th @-@ century work ,
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+ 08 : 00 ) and arrive at 06 : 30 local time ( CST ; UTC + 08 : 00 ) . On board were 227 passengers , 10 cabin crew , two pilots , and 14 @,@ 296 kg ( 31 @,@ 517 lb ) of cargo .
The planned flight duration was 5 hours , 34 minutes , which would consume an estimated 37 @,@ 200 kg ( 82 @,@ 000 lb ) of jet fuel . The aircraft carried 49 @,@ 100 kilograms ( 108 @,@ 200 lb ) of fuel , including reserves , allowing an endurance of 7 hours , 31 minutes . The extra fuel was enough to divert to alternate airports — Jinan Yaoqiang International Airport and Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport — which would require 4 @,@ 800 kg ( 10 @,@ 600 lb ) or 10 @,@ 700 kg ( 23 @,@ 600 lb ) , respectively , to reach from Beijing .
= = = Departure = = =
At 00 : 42 MYT , Flight 370 took off from runway 32R , and was cleared by air traffic control ( ATC ) to climb to flight level 180 — approximately 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) — on a direct path to navigational waypoint IGARI ( located at 6 ° 56 ' 12 ″ N 103 ° 35 ' 6 ″ E ) . Voice analysis has determined that the First Officer communicated with ATC while the flight was on the ground and that the Captain communicated with ATC after departure . Shortly after departure , the flight was transferred from the airport 's ATC to " Lumpur Radar " air traffic control on frequency 132 @.@ 6 MHz . ATC over peninsular Malaysia and adjacent waters is provided by the Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre ( ACC ) ; Lumpur Radar is the name of the frequency used for en route air traffic . At 00 : 46 , Lumpur Radar cleared Flight 370 to flight level 350 — approximately 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 10 @,@ 700 m ) . At 01 : 01 , Flight 370 's crew reported to Lumpur Radar that they had reached flight level 350 , which they confirmed again at 01 : 08 .
= = = Communication lost = = =
The aircraft 's final automated position report and last transmission , using the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System ( ACARS ) protocol , was sent at 01 : 07 MYT ; among the data provided in the message was total fuel remaining — 43 @,@ 800 kg ( 96 @,@ 600 lb ) . The final verbal contact with air traffic control occurred at 01 : 19 : 30 , when Captain Shah acknowledged a send @-@ off by Lumpur Radar to Ho Chi Minh ACC :
Lumpur Radar : " Malaysian three seven zero , contact Ho Chi Minh one two zero decimal nine . Good night . "
Flight 370 : " Good night . Malaysian three seven zero . "
The crew was expected to contact air traffic control in Ho Chi Minh City as the aircraft passed into Vietnamese airspace , just north of the point where contact was lost . The captain of another aircraft attempted to reach the crew of Flight 370 " just after [ 01 : 30 ] " using the international distress frequency to relay Vietnamese air traffic control 's request for the crew to contact them ; the captain said he was able to establish contact , but only heard " mumbling " and static . Calls made to Flight 370 's cockpit at 02 : 39 and 07 : 13 were unanswered but acknowledged by the aircraft 's satellite data unit .
= = = Radar = = =
At 01 : 20 : 31 MYT , Flight 370 was observed on radar at the Kuala Lumpur ACC as it passed the navigational waypoint IGARI ( 6 ° 56 ′ 12 ″ N 103 ° 35 ′ 6 ″ E ) in the Gulf of Thailand ; five seconds later , the Mode @-@ S symbol disappeared from radar screens . At 01 : 21 : 13 , Flight 370 disappeared from the radar screen at Kuala Lumpur ACC and was lost about the same time on radar at Ho Chi Minh ACC , which reported that the aircraft was at the nearby waypoint BITOD . Air traffic control uses secondary radar , which relies on a signal emitted by a transponder on aircraft ; therefore , the transponder was no longer functioning on Flight 370 after 01 : 21 . The final transponder data indicated that the aircraft was flying at its assigned cruise altitude of flight level 350 and was travelling at 471 knots ( 872 km / h ; 542 mph ) true airspeed . There were few clouds around this point and no rain or lightning nearby . Later analysis estimated that Flight 370 had 41 @,@ 500 kg ( 91 @,@ 500 lb ) of fuel when it disappeared from secondary radar .
At the time that the transponder stopped functioning , military radar showed Flight 370 turning right , but then beginning a left turn to a south @-@ westerly direction . From 01 : 30 : 35 – 01 : 35 , military radar showed Flight 370 at 35 @,@ 700 ft ( 10 @,@ 900 m ) on a 231 ° magnetic heading , with a ground speed of 496 knots ( 919 km / h ; 571 mph ) . Flight 370 continued across the Malay Peninsula , fluctuating between 31 @,@ 000 – 33 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 – 10 @,@ 100 m ) in altitude . A civilian primary radar at Sultan Ismail Petra Airport with a 60 nmi ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) range made four detections of an unidentified aircraft between 01 : 30 : 37 and 01 : 52 : 35 ; the tracks of the unidentified aircraft are " consistent with those of the military data . " At 01 : 52 , Flight 370 was detected passing just south of Penang Island . From there , the aircraft flew across the Strait of Malacca passing close to the waypoint VAMPI , and Pulau Perak at 02 : 03 , after which it flew along air route N571 to waypoints MEKAR , NILAM , and possibly IGOGU . The last known location , from and near the limits of Malaysian military radar , was at 02 : 22 , 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) after passing waypoint MEKAR and 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) northwest of Penang at an altitude of 29 @,@ 500 ft ( 9 @,@ 000 m ) .
Countries were reluctant to release information collected from military radar because of sensitivity about revealing their capabilities . Indonesia has an early warning radar system but its air traffic control radar did not register any aircraft with the transponder code used by Flight 370 , despite the aircraft possibly having flown near , or over , the northern tip of Sumatra . Indonesian military radar tracked Flight 370 earlier when en route to waypoint IGARI before the transponder is thought to have been turned off , but did not provide information on whether it was detected afterwards . Thailand and Vietnam also detected Flight 370 on radar before the transponder stopped working . The radar position symbols for the transponder code used by Flight 370 vanished after the transponder is thought to have been turned off . Thai military radar detected an aircraft that might have been Flight 370 , but it is not known what time the last radar contact was made . The signal did not include identifying data . No radar contact was detected by Australia , including the JORN over @-@ the @-@ horizon radar system , which was believed to be looking north to detect illegal migrants and not west over the Indian Ocean where Flight 370 is thought to have flown .
= = = Satellite communication resumes = = =
At 02 : 25 MYT , the aircraft 's satellite communication system sent a " log @-@ on request " message — the first message on the system since the ACARS transmission at 01 : 07 — which was relayed by satellite to a ground station , both operated by satellite telecommunications company Inmarsat . After logging on to the network , the satellite data unit aboard the aircraft responded to hourly status requests from Inmarsat and two ground @-@ to @-@ aircraft phone calls , at 02 : 39 and 07 : 13 , which went unanswered by the cockpit . The final status request and aircraft acknowledgement occurred at 08 : 10 . The aircraft sent a log @-@ on request at 08 : 19 : 29 , which was followed , after a response from the ground station , by a " log @-@ on acknowledgement " message at 08 : 19 : 37 . The log @-@ on acknowledgement is the last piece of data available from Flight 370 . The aircraft did not respond to a status request from Inmarsat at 09 : 15 .
= = = Response by air traffic control = = =
At 01 : 38 MYT , Ho Chi Minh Area Control Centre ( ACC ) contacted Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre to query the whereabouts of Flight 370 and informed them that they had not established verbal contact with Flight 370 , which was last detected by radar at waypoint BITOD . The two centres exchanged four more calls over the next 20 minutes with no new information .
At 02 : 03 , Kuala Lumpur ACC relayed to Ho Chi Minh ACC information received from Malaysia Airlines ' operations centre that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace . Ho Chi Minh ACC contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC twice in the following eight minutes asking for confirmation that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace . At 02 : 15 , the watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC queried Malaysia Airlines ' operations centre , which said that it could exchange signals with Flight 370 and that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace . Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC to ask whether the planned flight path for Flight 370 passed through Cambodian airspace . Ho Chi Minh ACC responded that Flight 370 was not supposed to enter Cambodian airspace and that they had already contacted Phnom Penh ACC ( which controls Cambodian airspace ) , which had no contact with Flight 370 . Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Malaysia Airlines ' operations centre at 02 : 34 , inquiring about the communication status with Flight 370 , and were informed that Flight 370 was in a normal condition based on a signal download and that it was located at 14 ° 54 ′ 00 ″ N 109 ° 15 ′ 00 ″ E. Later , another Malaysia Airlines aircraft ( Flight 386 bound for Shanghai ) attempted , at the request of Ho Chi Minh ACC , to contact Flight 370 on the Lumpur Radar frequency — the frequency on which Flight 370 last made contact with Malaysian air traffic control — and on emergency frequencies . The attempt was unsuccessful .
At 03 : 30 , Malaysia Airlines ' operations centre informed Kuala Lumpur ACC that the locations it had provided earlier were " based on flight projection and not reliable for aircraft positioning . " Over the next hour , Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC asking whether they had contacted Chinese air traffic control . At 05 : 09 , Singapore ACC was queried for information about Flight 370 . At 05 : 20 , an undisclosed official — identified in the preliminary report released by Malaysia as " Capt [ name redacted ] " — contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC requesting information about Flight 370 ; he opined that , based on known information , " MH370 never left Malaysian airspace . "
The watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC activated the Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre ( ARCC ) at 05 : 30 , over four hours after communication was lost with Flight 370 . The ARCC is a command post at an Area Control Centre that coordinates search @-@ and @-@ rescue activities when an aircraft is lost .
= = = Announcement of disappearance = = =
Malaysia Airlines issued a media statement at 07 : 24 MYT , one hour after the scheduled arrival time of the flight at Beijing , stating that contact with the flight had been lost by Malaysian ATC at 02 : 40 and that the government had initiated search @-@ and @-@ rescue operations ; the time when contact was lost was later corrected to 01 : 21 . Neither the crew nor the aircraft 's communication systems relayed a distress signal , indications of bad weather , or technical problems before the aircraft vanished from radar screens .
= = = Reported sightings = = =
The news media reported several sightings of an aircraft that fit the description of the missing Boeing 777 . For example , on 19 March 2014 , CNN reported that witnesses , including fishermen , an oil rig worker and people on the Kuda Huvadhoo atoll in the Maldives saw the missing airliner . Some claimed to have seen it crash . Three months later , the Daily Telegraph reported that a British woman claimed she may have seen the aircraft on fire .
= = = Presumed loss = = =
On 24 March , Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak appeared before media at 22 : 00 local time to give a statement regarding Flight 370 , during which he announced that he had been briefed by the Air Accidents Investigation Branch that it and Inmarsat ( the satellite data provider ) had concluded that the airliner 's last position before it disappeared was in the southern Indian Ocean . As there were no places there where it could have landed , the aircraft must therefore have crashed into the sea .
Just before Najib spoke at 22 : 00 MYT , an emergency meeting was called in Beijing for relatives of Flight 370 passengers . Malaysia Airlines announced that Flight 370 was assumed lost with no survivors . It notified most of the families in person or via telephone , and some received a SMS ( in English and Chinese ) informing them that it was highly likely that the aircraft had crashed with no survivors .
On 29 January 2015 the Director General of the Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia , Azharuddin Abdul Rahman , announced that the status of Flight 370 would be changed to an " accident " , in accordance with the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation .
If the official assumption is confirmed , Flight 370 was the deadliest aviation incident in the history of Malaysia Airlines at the time of its disappearance , surpassing the 1977 hijacking and crash of Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 that killed all 100 passengers and crew on board , and the deadliest involving a Boeing 777 , surpassing Asiana Airlines Flight 214 ( 3 fatalities ) . In both of those categories , Flight 370 was surpassed 131 days later by Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , another Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER , which was shot down on 17 July 2014 , killing all 298 people aboard .
= = Search = =
A search and rescue effort was launched in Southeast Asia soon after the aircraft 's disappearance . After initial analysis of communications between the aircraft and a satellite , the surface search was moved the following week to the southern Indian Ocean . Between 18 March and 28 April 19 vessels and 345 sorties by military aircraft searched over 4 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The current phase of the search is a bathymetric survey and sonar search of the sea floor , about 1 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 970 nmi ; 1 @,@ 100 mi ) south @-@ west of Perth , Western Australia . Since 30 March 2014 the search has been coordinated by the Joint Agency Coordination Centre ( JACC ) , an Australian government agency established specifically to co @-@ ordinate the search effort to locate and recover Flight 370 , which primarily involves the Malaysian , Chinese , and Australian governments .
The search for Flight 370 is the most expensive search operation in aviation history . In June 2014 , Time estimated that the total search effort to that point had cost approximately US $ 70 million . The tender for the underwater search is AU $ 52 million ( US $ 43 million or € 35 million ) — shared by Australia and Malaysia — for 12 months .
= = = Southeast Asia = = =
The Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre ( ARCC ) was activated at 05 : 30 MYT — four hours after communication was lost with the aircraft — to co @-@ ordinate search and rescue efforts . Search efforts began in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea . On the second day of the search , Malaysian officials said that radar recordings indicated Flight 370 may have turned around ; the search zone was expanded to include part of the Strait of Malacca . On 12 March , the chief of the Royal Malaysian Air Force announced that an unidentified aircraft — believed to be Flight 370 — had travelled across the Malay peninsula and was last sighted on military radar 370 km ( 200 nmi ; 230 mi ) northwest of Penang Island ; search efforts were subsequently increased in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal .
Records of signals sent between the aircraft and a communications satellite over the Indian Ocean revealed that the aircraft had continued flying for almost six hours after its final sighting on Malaysian military radar . Initial analysis of these communications determined that Flight 370 was along one of two arcs — equidistant from the satellite — when its last signal was sent ; the same day this analysis was publicly disclosed , 15 March , authorities announced they would abandon search efforts in the South China Sea , Gulf of Thailand , and Strait of Malacca to focus their efforts on the two corridors . The northern arc — from northern Thailand to Kazakhstan — was soon discounted as the aircraft would have had to pass through heavily militarised airspace and those countries claimed their military radar would have detected an unidentified aircraft entering their airspace .
= = = Southern Indian Ocean = = =
The focus of the search shifted to the Southern Indian Ocean west of Australia and within Australia 's aeronautical and maritime Search and Rescue regions that extend to 75 ° E longitude . Accordingly , on 17 March , Australia agreed to lead the search in the southern locus from Sumatra to the southern Indian Ocean .
= = = = Initial search = = = =
From 18 – 27 March 2014 the search effort focused on a 305 @,@ 000 km2 ( 118 @,@ 000 sq mi ) area about 2 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 400 nmi ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) south @-@ west of Perth that Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott said is " as close to nowhere as it 's possible to be " and which is renowned for its strong winds , inhospitable climate , hostile seas , and deep ocean floors . Satellite imagery of the region was analysed ; several objects of interest and two possible debris fields were identified on images captured between 16 – 26 March . None of these possible objects were found by aircraft or ships .
Revised estimates of the radar track and the aircraft 's remaining fuel led to a move of the search 1 @,@ 100 km ( 590 nmi ; 680 mi ) north @-@ east of the previous area on 28 March , which was followed by another shift on 4 April . An intense effort began to locate the underwater locator beacons ( ULBs ; informally known as " pingers " ) attached to the aircraft 's flight recorders , whose batteries were expected to expire around 7 April . Two ships equipped with towed pinger locators ( TPLs ) and a submarine equipped with a hull @-@ mounted acoustic system began searching for pings along a 240 @-@ kilometre ( 150 mi ) seabed line believed to be the Flight 370 impact area . Operators considered it a shot in the dark , when comparing the vast search area with the fact that a TPL could only search up to 130 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) per day . Between 4 – 8 April several acoustic detections were made that were close to the frequency and rhythm of the sound emitted by the flight recorders ' ULBs ; analysis of the acoustic detections determined that , although unlikely , the detections could have come from a damaged ULB . A sonar search of the sea @-@ floor near the detections was carried out between 14 April and 28 May without any sign of Flight 370 . In a March 2015 report , it was revealed that the battery for the ULB attached to Flight 370 's flight data recorder had expired in December 2012 and may not have been as capable .
= = = = Underwater search = = = =
In late June 2014 details of the next phase of the search were announced ; officials have called this phase the " underwater search " , despite the previous seafloor sonar survey . Continued refinement of analysis of Flight 370 's satellite communications identified a " wide area search " along the arc where Flight 370 was located when it last communicated with the satellite . The priority search area within the wide area search is in its southern extent . Some of the equipment to be used for the underwater search operates best when towed 200 m ( 650 ft ) above the seafloor at the end of a 10 km ( 6 mi ) cable . Available bathymetric data for this region was of poor resolution , thus necessitating a bathymetric survey of the search area before the underwater phase began . Commencing in May , the bathymetric survey charted around 208 @,@ 000 km2 ( 80 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of seafloor through 17 December 2014 , when it was suspended for the ship conducting the survey to be mobilised in the underwater search .
The underwater phase of the search , which began on 6 October 2014 , uses three vessels equipped with towed deep water vehicles , which use side @-@ scan sonar , multi @-@ beam echo sounders , and video cameras to locate and identify aircraft debris . A fourth vessel participated in the search between January – May 2015 ; it had an autonomous underwater vehicle ( AUV ) to search areas which cannot be effectively searched by equipment on the other vessels . The governments of Malaysia , China , and Australia have agreed to thoroughly search 120 @,@ 000 km2 ( 46 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of seafloor . As of 29 June 2016 , over 110 @,@ 000 km2 ( 42 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of seafloor have been searched during the underwater phase of the search and the current phase is expected to be completed around August 2016 , weather permitting . In case the search does not recover the aircraft , the governments of Malaysia , China , and Australia have agreed not to extend the search area any further .
Following the discovery of the flaperon on Réunion , the ATSB reviewed their drift calculations for debris from the aircraft and , according to the JACC , they are satisfied that the search area is still the most likely crash site . Reverse drift modelling of the debris , to determine its origin after 16 months , also supports the current underwater search area , although reverse drift modelling is very imprecise over long periods .
= = Marine debris = =
On 29 July 2015 , aircraft debris was found on a beach in Saint @-@ André , on Réunion , an island in the western Indian Ocean , about 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 200 nmi ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) west of the underwater search area . The object had a stenciled internal marking " 657 BB , " consistent with the code for a portion of a right wing flaperon ( a trailing edge control surface ) from a Boeing 777 . The following day , a damaged suitcase was found which may be associated with Flight 370 . The location is consistent with models of debris dispersal 16 months after an origin in the current search area , off the west coast of Australia . On 31 July , a Chinese water bottle and an Indonesian cleaning product were found in the same area .
The first object to be found was transported from Réunion — an overseas department of France — to Toulouse , for examination by France 's civil aviation accident investigation agency , the Bureau d 'Enquêtes et d 'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l 'Aviation Civile ( BEA ) , and a French defence ministry laboratory . Malaysia sent investigators to both Réunion and Toulouse . French police conducted a search of the waters around Réunion for additional debris .
On 2 August , Malaysian officials confirmed that the object was a flaperon from a Boeing 777 aircraft and that the verification was made with investigators from France , Malaysia , Boeing , and the US National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) . Three days later , the Prime Minister of Malaysia announced that the discovered flaperon was confirmed to be from Flight 370 ; French officials only stated that a " very high probability " existed that the object was from Flight 370 . On 3 September , French officials announced that serial numbers found on the flaperon link it " with certainty " to Flight 370 . This serial number was retrieved via borescope .
A week after the discovery of a flaperon from Flight 370 on a beach on Réunion , France announced plans for an aerial search for possible marine debris around the island . On 7 August 2015 , France began searching an area 120 km ( 75 mi ) by 40 km ( 25 mi ) along the east coast of Réunion . Foot patrols for debris along beaches were also planned . Malaysia asked authorities in neighbouring states to be on alert for marine debris which could be from an aircraft . On 14 August it was announced that no debris that could be related to Flight 370 had been found at sea off Réunion , but that some had been found on land . Air and sea searches for debris ended on 17 August .
On 2 March 2016 , it was reported that an object ( with the text " no step " on it ) had been found off the coast of Mozambique and early photographic analysis suggested it could have come from the aircraft 's horizontal stabilizer . It was found in late February by Blaine Gibson on a sandbank in the Mozambique Channel , between Mozambique in eastern Africa and Madagascar ; and in the same part of the southern Indian Ocean where the only confirmed piece of debris , a flaperon , had been found the previous July . The fragment was sent to Australia where experts examined whether it originated from Flight 370 .
In December 2015 , Liam Lotter found a grey piece of debris on a beach in southern Mozambique , but only after he read in March 2016 about Gibson 's find ( some 300 kilometers from his find ) did his family alert authorities . It was flown to Australia for analysis . Later in March , Australian officials said that it was highly likely that both pieces of debris were from Flight 370 , and Malaysian authorities confirmed that with almost certainty it had originated from the flight ; transport Minister Darren Chester said that investigators had found the pieces were consistent with panels from a Malaysia Airlines Boeing 777 aircraft . On 24 March 2016 , the Geoscience Australia and ATSB confirmed that two panels recovered from Mozambique match that of a Malaysia Airlines Boeing 777 . The location where both pieces were retrieved was found to be consistent with the drift model performed by CSIRO , further corroborating it could have come from Flight 370 . In April 2016 , the Australian analysis concluded that the Mozambique debris had " almost certainly " originated from the airplane . The items have been identified as coming from the right stabiliser and right wing respectively .
On 7 March 2016 more debris , possibly from the aircraft , was found on the island of Réunion . Ab Aziz Kaprawi , Malaysia 's Deputy Transport Minister , said that " an unidentified grey item with a blue border " , might be linked to Flight 370 . Both Malaysian and Australian authorities , coordinating the search in the South Indian Ocean , sent teams to verify whether the debris was from the missing aircraft .
On 21 March 2016 , South African based archaeologist Neels Kruger found a fragment with a partial Rolls Royce engine manufacturers logo on a beach near Mossel Bay , South Africa . An acknowledgement of a possible part of an engine cowling was made by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport . An additional piece of possible debris , suggested to have come from the interior of the aircraft , was found on the island of Rodrigues , Mauritius , in late March and was to be examined by Australian authorities . On 11 May 2016 , the authority determined that these two pieces of debris are " almost certainly " from Flight 370 .
On 9 June 2016 , The Sydney Morning Herald reported that a man named Samuel Armstrong had found what could possibly be debris from the aircraft , a piece with similar coloring to Malaysia Airlines ' clear @-@ gray livery on the bottom of their aircraft 's fuselage and a pyramid or seven @-@ shaped figure on it , at a location on Kangaroo Island , southern Australia . South Australian police collected the piece and it was to be delivered to the ATSB for further investigation . The examination found out it was not from the flight .
On 24 June 2016 , the Australian Transport Minister , Darren Chester , said that a piece of aircraft debris was found on Pemba Island , off of the coast of Tanzania . It was handed over to the authorities so that experts from Malaysia can determinate whether it is part of the aircraft . The Australian government released photos of the piece , believed to be an outboard wing flap , on 20 July .
= = Investigation = =
= = = International participation = = =
Malaysia set up a Joint Investigation Team ( JIT ) , composed of specialists from Malaysia , Australia , China , the UK , the US , and France , led according to ICAO standards by " an independent investigator in charge " . The team consists of an airworthiness group , an operations group , and a medical and human factors group . The airworthiness group will examine issues related to maintenance records , structures , and systems of the aircraft . The operations group will review flight recorders , operations , and meteorology . The medical and human factors group will investigate psychological , pathological , and survival factors . Malaysia also announced , on 6 April , that it had set up three ministerial committees — a Next of Kin Committee , a committee to organise the formation of the Joint Investigation Team , and a committee responsible for Malaysian assets deployed in the search effort . The criminal investigation is being led by the Royal Malaysia Police , assisted by Interpol and other relevant international law enforcement authorities .
On 17 March , Australia took control for co @-@ ordinating search , rescue , and recovery operations . For the following six weeks , the Australian Maritime Safety Authority ( AMSA ) and Australian Transport Safety Board ( ATSB ) worked to determine the search area , correlating information with the JIT and other government and academic sources , while the Joint Agency Coordination Centre ( JACC ) coordinated the search efforts . Following the fourth phase of the search , the ATSB took responsibility for defining the search area . In May , the search strategy working group was established by the ATSB to determine the most likely position on the aircraft at the 00 : 19 UTC ( 08 : 19 MYT ) satellite transmission . The group included aircraft and satellite experts from : Air Accidents Investigation Branch ( UK ) , Boeing ( US ) , Defence Science and Technology Group ( Australia ) , Department of Civil Aviation ( Malaysia ) , Inmarsat ( UK ) , National Transportation Safety Board ( US ) , and Thales ( UK ) .
The Malaysian Ministry of Transport issued an interim report entitled " Factual Information : Safety Information for MH370 " on 8 March 2015 . As suggested by the report 's title , it focused on providing factual information and not analysis of possible causes of the disappearance .
= = = Analysis of satellite communication = = =
The communications between Flight 370 and the satellite communication network operated by Inmarsat , which were relayed by the Inmarsat @-@ 3 F1 satellite , provide the only significant clues to the location of Flight 370 after disappearing from Malaysian military radar at 02 : 22 MYT . These communications have also been used to deduce possible in @-@ flight events ( see next section ) . The investigative team was challenged with reconstructing the flight path of Flight 370 from a limited set of transmissions with no explicit information about the aircraft 's location , heading , or speed .
= = = = Background = = = =
Aeronautical satellite communication ( SATCOM ) systems are used to transmit messages from the aircraft cockpit as well as automated messages from on @-@ board systems using the ACARS communications protocol , but may also be used to transmit FANS and ATN messages and provide voice , fax and data links using other protocols . The aircraft 's satellite data unit ( SDU ) is used to send and receive signals with the satellite communications network ; it operates independently of other aircraft equipment that communicate through the SATCOM system , many using the ACARS protocol . Signals from the SDU are relayed by a satellite , which simply changes the signal 's frequency , and then received by a ground station , which processes the signal and , if applicable , routes it to its destination ( e.g. , Malaysia Airlines ' operations centre ) ; signals to the aircraft are sent in reverse order . When the SDU is powered on and attempts to connect with the Inmarsat network , it transmits a log @-@ on request , which the ground station acknowledges . This is , in part , to determine that the SDU belongs to an active service subscriber and also used to determine which satellite should be used to transmit messages to the SDU . After connecting , if a ground station has not received any contact from a terminal for one hour , the ground station will transmit a " log @-@ on interrogation " message — informally referred to as a " ping " ; an active terminal responds automatically . The entire process of interrogating the terminal is referred to as a ' handshake ' .
= = = = Communications from 02 : 25 to 08 : 19 MYT = = = =
Although the ACARS data link on Flight 370 stopped functioning between 01 : 07 and 02 : 03 MYT , the SDU remained operative . After last contact by primary radar west of Malaysia , the following events were recorded in the log of Inmarsat 's ground station at Perth , Western Australia ( all times are MYT / UTC + 8 ) :
02 : 25 : 27 – First handshake – a log @-@ on request initiated by aircraft
02 : 39 : 52 – Ground to aircraft telephone call , acknowledged by SDU , unanswered
03 : 41 : 00 – Second handshake ( initiated by ground station )
04 : 41 : 02 – Third handshake ( initiated by ground station )
05 : 41 : 24 – Fourth handshake ( initiated by ground station )
06 : 41 : 19 – Fifth handshake ( initiated by ground station )
07 : 13 : 58 – Ground to aircraft telephone call , acknowledged by SDU , unanswered
08 : 10 : 58 – Sixth handshake ( initiated by ground station )
08 : 19 : 29 – Seventh handshake ( initiated by aircraft ) ; widely reported as a " partial handshake ' " , consisting of two transmissions :
08 : 19 : 29 @.@ 416 – " log @-@ on request " message transmitted by aircraft ( seventh " partial " handshake )
08 : 19 : 37 @.@ 443 – " log @-@ on acknowledge " message transmitted by aircraft , last transmission received from Flight 370
The aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09 : 15 .
= = = = Deductions = = = =
A few deductions can be made from the satellite communications . The first is that the aircraft remained operational until at least 08 : 19 MYT — seven hours after final contact was made with air traffic control over the South China Sea . The varying burst frequency offset ( BFO ) values indicate the aircraft was moving at speed . The aircraft 's SDU needs location and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite , so it can also be deduced that the aircraft 's navigation system was operational .
Since the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09 : 15 , it can be concluded that at some point between 08 : 19 and 09 : 15 , the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station . The log @-@ on message sent from the aircraft at 08 : 19 : 29 was " log @-@ on request " . There are only a few reasons the SDU would transmit a log @-@ on request , such as a power interruption , software failure , loss of critical systems providing input to the SDU , or a loss of the link due to the aircraft 's attitude . Investigators consider the most likely reason to be that it was sent during power @-@ up after an electrical outage . At 08 : 19 , the aircraft had been airborne for 7 h 38 min ; the typical Kuala Lumpur @-@ Beijing flight is 51 ⁄ 2 hours and fuel exhaustion was likely . In the event of fuel exhaustion and engine flame @-@ out — which would eliminate power to the SDU — the aircraft 's ram air turbine ( RAT ) would deploy , providing power to some instruments and flight controls , including the SDU . Approximately 90 seconds after the 02 : 25 handshake — also a log @-@ on request — communications from the aircraft 's inflight entertainment system were recorded in the ground station log . Similar messages would be expected following the 08 : 19 handshake but none were received , supporting the fuel exhaustion scenario .
= = = = Analysis = = = =
Two parameters associated with these transmissions that were recorded in a log at the ground station were key to the investigation :
Burst time offset ( BTO ) – the time difference between when a signal is sent from the ground station and when the response is received . This measure is proportional to twice the distance from the ground station via the satellite to the aircraft and includes the time that the SDU takes between receiving and responding to the message and time between reception and processing at the ground station . This measure can be analysed to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft and results in a ring on the Earth 's surface that is equidistant from the satellite at the calculated distance , which can be reduced to arcs by eliminating parts of the rings outside the aircraft 's range .
Burst frequency offset ( BFO ) – the difference between the expected and received frequency of transmissions . The difference is caused by Doppler shifts as the signals travelled from the aircraft to the satellite to the ground station ; the frequency translations made in the satellite and at the ground station ; a small , constant error ( bias ) in the SDU that results from drift and aging ; and compensation applied by the SDU to counter the Doppler shift on the uplink . This measure can be analysed to determine the aircraft 's speed and heading , but multiple combinations of speed and heading can be valid solutions .
By combining the distance between the aircraft and satellite , speed , and heading with aircraft performance constraints ( e.g. fuel consumption , possible speeds and altitudes ) , investigators generated candidate paths that were analysed separately by two methods . The first assumed the aircraft was flying on one of the three autopilot modes ( two are further affected by whether the navigation system used magnetic north or true north as a reference ) , calculated the BTO and BFO values along these routes , and compared them with the values recorded from Flight 370 . The second method generated paths which had the aircraft 's speed and heading adjusted at the time of each handshake to minimise the difference between the calculated BFO of the path and the values recorded from Flight 370 . A probability distribution for each method at the BTO arc of the sixth handshake of the two methods was created and then compared ; 80 percent of the highest probability paths for both analyses combined intersect the BTO arc of the sixth handshake between 32 @.@ 5 ° S and 38 @.@ 1 ° S , which can be extrapolated to 33 @.@ 5 ° S and 38 @.@ 3 ° S along the BTO arc of the seventh handshake .
= = = Possible in @-@ flight events = = =
= = = = Power interruption = = = =
The SATCOM link functioned normally from pre @-@ flight ( beginning at 00 : 00 MYT ) until it responded to a ground @-@ to @-@ air ACARS message with an acknowledge message at 01 : 07 . Ground @-@ to @-@ air ACARS messages continued to be transmitted to Flight 370 until Inmarsat 's network sent multiple " Request for Acknowledge " messages at 02 : 03 , without a response from the aircraft . At some time between 01 : 07 and 02 : 03 , power was lost to the SDU . At 02 : 25 , the aircraft 's SDU sent a " log @-@ on request " . It is not common for a log @-@ on request to be made in @-@ flight , but it could occur for multiple reasons . An analysis of the characteristics and timing of these requests suggest a power interruption in @-@ flight is the most likely culprit . As the power interruption was not due to engine flame @-@ out , per ATSB , it may have been the result of manually switching off the aircraft 's electrical system .
= = = = Unresponsive crew or hypoxia = = = =
An analysis by the ATSB comparing the evidence available for Flight 370 with three categories of accidents — an in @-@ flight upset ( e.g. , stall ) , a glide event ( e.g. , engine failure , fuel exhaustion ) , and an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event — concluded that an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event " best fit the available evidence " for the five @-@ hour period of the flight as it travelled south over the Indian Ocean without communication or significant deviations in its track , likely on autopilot . No consensus exists among investigators on the unresponsive crew or hypoxia theory . If no control inputs were made following flameout and the disengagement of autopilot , the aircraft would likely have entered a spiral dive and entered the ocean within 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) of the flameout and disengagement of autopilot .
= = = Possible causes of disappearance = = =
= = = = Passenger involvement = = = =
Two men boarded Flight 370 with stolen passports , which raised suspicion in the immediate aftermath of its disappearance . The passports , one Austrian and one Italian , were reported stolen in Thailand within the preceding two years . Interpol stated that both passports were listed on its database of lost and stolen passports , and that no check had been made against its database . Malaysia 's Home Minister , Ahmad Zahid Hamidi , criticised his country 's immigration officials for failing to stop the passengers travelling on the stolen European passports . The two one @-@ way tickets purchased for the holders of the stolen passports were booked through China Southern Airlines . It was reported that an Iranian had ordered the cheapest tickets to Europe via telephone in Bangkok , Thailand , and paid in cash . The two passengers were later identified as Iranian men , one aged 19 and the other 29 , who had entered Malaysia on 28 February using valid Iranian passports . The head of Interpol said the organization was " inclined to conclude that it was not a terrorist incident " . The two men were believed to be asylum seekers .
United States and Malaysian officials were reviewing the backgrounds of every passenger named on the manifest . On 18 March , the Chinese government announced that it had checked all of the Chinese citizens on the aircraft and ruled out the possibility that any were involved in " destruction or terror attacks " . One passenger who worked as a flight engineer for a Swiss jet charter company was briefly suspected as a potential hijacker because he was thought to have the relevant skill set .
= = = = Crew involvement = = = =
Investigators believe someone in the cockpit of Flight 370 re @-@ programmed the aircraft 's autopilot before it travelled south across the Indian Ocean . Police searched the homes of the pilots and seized financial records for all 12 crew members , including bank statements , credit card bills and mortgage documents . On 2 April 2014 , Malaysia 's Police Inspector @-@ General said that more than 170 interviews had been conducted as part of Malaysia 's criminal investigation , including interviews with family members of the pilots and crew .
Media reports have claimed that Malaysian police have identified Captain Shah as the prime suspect if human intervention is proven to be the cause of Flight 370 's disappearance . The United States ' Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) reconstructed the deleted data from Captain Shah 's home flight simulator ; a Malaysian government spokesman indicated that " nothing sinister " had been found on it but a leaked American document stated that a route on the pilot 's home flight simulator , closely matching the projected flight over the Indian Ocean , was found during the FBI analysis of the hard drive of the computer used for the flight simulator .
The preliminary report issued by Malaysia in March 2015 stated that there was " no evidence of recent or imminent significant financial transactions carried out " by any of the pilots or crew and that analysis of the behaviour of the pilots on CCTV showed " no significant behavioural changes " .
= = = = Cargo = = = =
Flight 370 was carrying 10 @,@ 806 kg ( 23 @,@ 823 lb ) of cargo , of which four ULDs of mangosteens and 221 kg ( 487 lb ) of lithium @-@ ion batteries are of interest , according to Malaysian investigators . The four ULDs of mangosteens were loaded into the aft cargo bay of the aircraft . The lithium @-@ ion batteries were divided among two pallets in the forward cargo bay and one pallet placed in the rear of the aft cargo bay .
The lithium @-@ ion batteries were contained in a 2 @,@ 453 kg ( 5 @,@ 408 lb ) consignment being transported between Motorola Solutions facilities in Bayan Lepas , Malaysia and Tianjin , China ; the rest of the consignment consisted of walkie @-@ talkie chargers and accessories . The batteries were assembled on 7 March and transported to the Penang Cargo Complex to be transported by MASkargo — Malaysia Airlines ' cargo subsidiary — to be loaded onto a lorry to transport it to Kuala Lumpur International Airport and onwards by air to Beijing . At the Penang Cargo Complex , the consignment was inspected by MASkargo employees and Malaysian customs officials , but did not go through a security screening , before the truck was sealed for transfer to the airport . The consignment did not go through any additional inspections at Kuala Lumpur International Airport before it was loaded onto Flight 370 . Because the batteries were packaged in accordance with IATA guidelines , they were not regulated as dangerous goods . Lithium @-@ ion batteries can cause intense fires if they overheat and ignite , which has led to strict regulations on their transport aboard aircraft . A fire fuelled by lithium @-@ ion batteries caused the crash of UPS Airlines Flight 6 and lithium @-@ ion batteries are suspected to have caused a fire which resulted in the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 991 ; both were cargo aircraft . Some airlines have stopped carrying bulk shipments of lithium @-@ ion batteries on passenger aircraft , citing safety concerns .
A 4 @,@ 566 kg ( 10 @,@ 066 lb ) consignment of mangosteens was aboard Flight 370 , over half of which was harvested in Muar , Malaysia and the remainder from Sumatra , Indonesia . The mangosteens were packaged in plastic baskets containing 8 – 9 kg ( 18 – 20 lb ) of mangosteens and covered with a water @-@ soaked sponge to preserve their freshness . The mangosteens were loaded into four ULDs at Kuala Lumpur International Airport and inspected by officials from Malaysia 's Federal Agriculture Marketing Authority before being loaded onto Flight 370 . According to the head of Malaysian police , Inspector @-@ General Tan Sir Khalid Abu Bakar , the people who handled the mangosteens and the Chinese importers were questioned to rule out sabotage .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Information sharing = = =
Public communication from Malaysian officials regarding the loss of the flight was initially beset with confusion . The Malaysian government and the airline released imprecise , incomplete , and sometimes inaccurate information , with civilian officials sometimes contradicting military leaders . Malaysian officials were criticised for such persistent release of contradictory information , most notably regarding the last location and time of contact with the aircraft .
Although Malaysia 's acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin Hussein , who is also the country 's Defence Minister , denied the existence of problems between the participating countries , academics said that because of regional conflicts , there were genuine trust issues involved in co @-@ operation and sharing intelligence , and that these were hampering the search . International relations experts said entrenched rivalries over sovereignty , security , intelligence , and national interests made meaningful multilateral co @-@ operation very difficult . A Chinese academic made the observation that the parties were searching independently ; thus it was not a multilateral search effort . The Guardian noted the Vietnamese permission given for Chinese aircraft to overfly its airspace as a positive sign of co @-@ operation . Vietnam temporarily scaled back its search operations after the country 's Deputy Transport Minister cited a lack of communication from Malaysian officials despite requests for more information . China , through the official Xinhua News Agency , said that the Malaysian government ought to take charge and conduct the operation with greater transparency , a point echoed by the Chinese Foreign Ministry days later .
Malaysia had initially declined to release raw data from its military radar , deeming the information " too sensitive , " but later acceded . Defence experts suggested that giving others access to radar information could be sensitive on a military level , for example : " The rate at which they can take the picture can also reveal how good the radar system is . " One suggested that some countries could already have had radar data on the aircraft but were reluctant to share any information that could potentially reveal their defence capabilities and compromise their own security . Similarly , submarines patrolling the South China Sea might have information in the event of a water impact , and sharing such information could reveal their locations and listening capabilities .
Criticism was also levelled at the delay of the search efforts . On 11 March , three days after the aircraft disappeared , British satellite company Inmarsat had provided officials ( or its partner , SITA ) with data suggesting the aircraft was nowhere near the areas in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea being searched at that time ; and may have diverted its course through a southern or northern corridor . This information was only publicly acknowledged and released by Najib on 15 March in a press conference . Explaining why information about satellite signals had not been made available earlier , Malaysia Airlines said that the raw satellite signals needed to be verified and analysed " so that their significance could be properly understood " before it could publicly confirm their existence . Hishammuddin said Malaysian and US investigators had immediately discussed the Inmarsat data upon receiving them on 12 March , and on two occasions , both groups agreed that it needed further processing and sent the data to the US twice for this purpose . Data analysis was completed on 14 March : by then , the AAIB had independently arrived at the same conclusion .
In June 2014 , relatives of passengers on Flight 370 began a crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo to raise US $ 100 @,@ 000 — with an ultimate goal of raising US $ 5 million — as a reward to encourage anyone who knows the location of Flight 370 or the cause of its disappearance to reveal what they know . The campaign , which ended 8 August 2014 , raised US $ 100 @,@ 516 from 1007 contributors .
= = = Malaysia Airlines = = =
A month after the disappearance , Malaysia Airlines ' chief executive Ahmad Jauhari Yahya acknowledged that ticket sales had declined but failed to provide specific details . This may partially result from the suspension of the airline 's advertising campaigns following the disappearance . Ahmad stated in an interview with the Wall Street Journal that the airline 's " primary focus ... is that we do take care of the families in terms of their emotional needs and also their financial needs . It is important that we provide answers for them . It is important that the world has answers , as well . " In further remarks , Ahmad said he was not sure when the airline could start repairing its image , but that the airline was adequately insured to cover the financial loss stemming from Flight 370 's disappearance . In China , where the majority of passengers were from , bookings on Malaysia Airlines were down 60 percent in March .
Malaysia Airlines retired the Flight 370 ( MH370 ) flight number and replaced it with Flight 318 ( MH318 ) beginning 14 March . This follows a common practice among airlines to rename flights following notorious accidents . The flight — Malaysia Airline 's second daily flight to Beijing — was later suspended beginning 2 May ; according to insiders , this was due to lack of demand .
Malaysia Airlines was given US $ 110 million from insurers in March 2014 to cover initial payments to passengers ' families and the search effort . In May , remarks from lead reinsurer of the flight , Allianz , indicated the insured market loss on Flight 370 , including the search , was about US $ 350 million .
= = = = Financial troubles = = = =
At the time of Flight 370 's disappearance , Malaysia Airlines was struggling to cut costs to compete with a wave of new , low @-@ cost carriers in the region . In the previous three years , Malaysia Airlines had booked losses of : RM1.17 billion ( US $ 356 million ) in 2013 , RM433 million in 2012 , and RM2.5 billion in 2011 . Malaysia Airlines lost RM443.4 million ( US $ 137 @.@ 4 million ) in the first quarter of 2014 ( January – March ) . The second quarter — the first full quarter in the aftermath of Flight 370 's disappearance — saw a loss of RM307.04 million ( US $ 97 @.@ 6 million ) , which represented a 75 percent increase over losses from the second quarter of 2013 . Industry analysts expect Malaysia Airlines to lose further market share and face a challenging environment to stand out from competitors while addressing their financial plight . The company 's stock , down as much as 20 percent following the disappearance of Flight 370 , had fallen 80 percent over the previous five years , which contrasts with a rise in the Malaysian stock market of about 80 percent over the same period .
Many analysts and the media suggested that Malaysia Airlines would need to rebrand and repair its image and / or require government assistance to return to profitability . The loss of Flight 17 in July greatly exacerbated Malaysia Airline 's financial problems . The combined effect on consumer confidence of the loss of Flights 370 and 17 and the airline 's poor financial performance led Khazanah Nasional — the majority shareholder ( 69 @.@ 37 percent ) and a Malaysian state @-@ run investment arm — to announce on 8 August its plan to purchase the remainder of the airline , thereby renationalising it .
= = = = Compensation for passengers ' next @-@ of @-@ kin = = = =
Lack of evidence in determining the cause of Flight 370 's disappearance , even physical evidence that the aircraft crashed , raises many issues regarding responsibility for the accident and payments made by insurance agencies . Under the Montreal Convention , it is the carrier 's responsibility to prove lack of fault in an accident and each passenger 's next @-@ of @-@ kin are automatically entitled , regardless of fault , to a payment of approximately US $ 175 @,@ 000 from the airline 's insurance company — a total of nearly US $ 40 million for the 227 passengers on board .
Malaysia Airlines would still be vulnerable to civil lawsuits from passengers ' families . Compensation awarded during or settled out @-@ of @-@ court during civil trials will likely vary widely among passengers based on country of the court . An American court could likely award upwards of US $ 8 – 10 million , while Chinese courts would likely award a small fraction of that . Despite the announcement that Flight 370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean , it was not until 29 January 2015 that the Malaysian government officially declared Flight 370 an accident with no survivors , a move that would allow compensation claims to be made . The first lawsuit related to the disappearance was filed in October 2014 – before Flight 370 was declared an accident – on behalf of two Malaysian boys whose father was a passenger , for negligence in failing to contact the aircraft soon after it was lost and for breach of contract for failing to bring the passenger to his destination .
Malaysia Airlines offered ex gratia condolence payments soon after the disappearance . In China , families of passengers were offered ¥ 31 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 5 @,@ 000 ) " comfort money " ; but some families rejected the offer . It was also reported that Malaysian relatives received only $ 2 @,@ 000 . In June , Malaysia 's
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545 ha ) of open moorland between Edenfield , Rawtenstall and Rochdale , and is split between the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale in northern Greater Manchester and the Borough of Rossendale in south @-@ eastern Lancashire . The turbines are visible from as far away as south Manchester , 15 – 20 miles ( 24 – 32 km ) away .
A protest group was formed to resist the proposed construction , and attracted support from the botanist and environmental campaigner David Bellamy . Despite the opposition , planning permission was granted in 2005 and construction began in 2007 . Although work on the project was hampered by harsh weather , difficult terrain , and previous mining activity , the wind farm was officially opened on 25 September 2008 after " years of controversy " , at a cost of £ 50 million .
In 2012 Peel Energy sold its 50 % share in the facility to Munich Re 's asset management division MEAG . The other 50 % holding was also purchased by MEAG from HgCapital Renewable Power Partners .
= = Geography = =
Scout Moor is an upland moor of peat bog and heather in the South Pennines , reaching a maximum elevation of 1 @,@ 552 feet ( 473 m ) at its peak , Top of Leach . The underlying geology – a mixture of hard rock and soft shales – broadly belongs to the Lower Coal Measures . The rock and shales weather at different rates , giving the area a landscape of " steep escarpments separated by sloping shelves " , although the main dome of the moor is flat and rounded . The moorland covers an area of about 1 @,@ 347 acres ( 545 ha ) , of which less than 21 acres ( 8 @.@ 5 ha ) , about 2 % , is occupied by the wind farm .
Scout Moor Quarry , a 250 @-@ acre ( 100 ha ) open @-@ pit mine in Edenfield , is used for the extraction of gritstone and sandstone , and formerly had its own railway line . The eastern fringe of Scout Moor Wind Farm extends to Hail Storm Hill ( also known as Cowpe Moss ) , one of the 180 Marilyns of England . The presence of coal under Scout Moor led to extensive and unrecorded shallow coal mining in the area during the 18th and 19th centuries . Adits , shafts and coal seams from that period mark the landscape .
= = History = =
One meaning of scout is a long ridge of rock , appearing to " shoot out " horizontally . The word is thought to be a corruption of the Old English sceot , meaning " shot " or " to shoot " , suggesting Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement in the locality at a very ancient time .
Although the UK Government has set a target of 10 % for the proportion of the UK 's electricity produced by renewable energy by 2010 , wind power in the UK has a long history of controversy , with an average approval rate for planning permission of only 28 % for onshore wind farms . Scout Moor was first identified as an excellent site for a wind farm in 2001 . Peel Holdings commissioned market research consultants MORI to undertake a telephone poll over seventeen days in 2002 , soliciting the opinions of residents in Bury , Rossendale and Rochdale about wind farms in general and Scout Moor in particular . The results showed that 88 % of respondents thought wind farms were a very or fairly good idea , 72 % thought the Scout Moor project was a very or fairly good idea , and 63 % stated wind power as the preferred energy source .
The proposal to build a wind farm , in a joint venture between United Utilities and Peel Holdings , was announced in 2003 . Shortly afterwards a pressure group , The Friends of Scout and Knowle Moor , was formed , and on 9 September 2003 representatives of the group attended a meeting of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury 's , Ramsbottom and Tottington Area Board to oppose the plans . At the meeting , the spokesperson for the group said that , although they supported the use of alternative energy , they felt that this was the wrong area . Among the objections were that the scheme was contrary to the Unitary Development Plan and the Green Belt , and would adversely affect common land , open countryside and areas of ecological importance and special landscape value . The group also considered that the proposed development would be out of scale with the landscape , adversely affecting peat , water courses and wildlife , and would have a seriously detrimental visual impact , as well as causing a noise nuisance .
The second presentation was given by a representative of Scout Moor Wind Farm , who argued the need for Britain to produce clean green power without harmful emissions , to counter the increasing dangers of global warming . He went on to say that the UK has fewer wind farms than other major industrial countries in Europe , even though it is a windier country , and that North West England has a particularly poor record , with only 1 @.@ 3 % of electricity generated from renewable energy . Following this meeting the campaign to oppose the proposal gathered momentum , and in November 2003 a protest was held on the moor , led by environmental campaigner Professor David Bellamy .
Although Bury Metropolitan Borough Council supported the proposal , objections were raised by Lancashire County Council , Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council and Rossendale Borough Council , and a public enquiry was held in November and December 2004 . The Secretary of State for Trade and Industry gave formal consent to the application for the development of the wind farm in May 2005 , by which time United Utilities had sold their share in the project and ended their involvement . A number of conditions were imposed :
Under section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act ( 1990 ) the applicant will be required to establish a habitat management plan . Other conditions have been placed on the development including that :
Access tracks to all areas to and around the turbine bases shall remain unfenced . Access will be allowed on the site for the whole of the life of the development for members of the public and grazing stock .
Construction will take place outside the bird nesting season .
A survey will take place to establish the presence of badgers in the area before development takes place .
No development shall take place until there is a full archaeological investigation .
More conditions have been attached to the consent and various surveys and assessments must be carried out by the applicant before development can commence .
On 20 April 2006 , Janet Anderson ( Member of Parliament for Rossendale and Darwen ) asked Margaret Beckett , then Secretary of State for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs , whether the development would meet the provisions of the Commons Bill regarding the protection of and public access to common land . The reply from Jim Knight , ( Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for Rural Affairs , Landscape and Biodiversity ) was that " [ t ] hese applications are made under section 147 of the Inclosure Act 1845 . Consideration is given under these provision to the effect of the exchange on the general public 's legal right of access over the land . The future provisions in the Commons Bill are not relevant . "
= = = Construction = = =
The detailed design for the project was completed during summer 2006 and construction began in January 2007 . The first task was to build a stable access road , but the moor was covered in a layer of peat with a low load @-@ bearing capacity . The whole area had also been subjected to extensive coal mining during the 19th and early 20th centuries , so there was a potential for subsidence . To address these problems , the mining voids were grouted and a floating road was constructed , using a complex system of geotextiles and geogrids to prevent the road from sinking . This was achieved by laying a crushed @-@ gravel base , reinforced with polyester and polypropylene grids , to bridge any potential mine voids and ensure that the weak shear strength of the subsoil was exceeded by the base course material . The wind turbines arrived at Scout Moor in parts , transported by large goods vehicles along the M66 motorway to Edenfield as part of a 76 @-@ day @-@ long convoy of delivery .
The weather constrained the wind farm 's construction for the teams from contractor McNicholas and German turbine supplier Nordex . During the final stages , the project manager for McNicholas was quoted as saying :
The weather has undoubtedly been the single biggest challenge we have faced up here . We have worked with wind speeds well in excess of 120mph and temperatures as low as minus 12 degrees Celsius , which is more like minus 25 with the wind @-@ chill factor . I 've worked on a lot of wind farm construction projects but the adverse conditions have made this one of the most difficult ... We have spent £ 30 @,@ 000 on personal protective equipment for the workers . Keeping them warm , fed and moving in these conditions is a massive man management project , but we did it .
The wind farm , which stretches across nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of open moorland between Edenfield , Rawtenstall and Rochdale , the largest onshore wind farm in England , was officially opened on 25 September 2008 . As of 26 August 2008 , 21 of 26 turbines had been commissioned and 4 @,@ 000 MW · h of electricity had been exported to the National Grid . The turbines are visible from south Manchester , 15 – 20 miles ( 24 – 32 km ) away , and are expected to produce enough electricity to meet the needs of 40 @,@ 000 average homes . Scout Moor has the capacity to produce a total of 65 MW , compared with the 90 MW capacity of Kentish Flats , the United Kingdom 's largest offshore wind farm . The total cost of the Scout Moor project was £ 50 million , but Peel Holdings expect the turbines to be in operation for at least 25 years . Since its opening , the wind farm " has become a real tourist attraction " ; a calendar showing photographs of the wind farm 's construction has been featured in local news stories .
= = Future plans = =
Over the lifetime of the wind farm , Peel Holdings ' energy subsidiary , Peel Wind Power Ltd , will provide up to £ 500 @,@ 000 to help landowners create biodiverse areas on the land surrounding the moor . A prime target habitat envisaged to be enhanced and re @-@ created under the Habitat Enhancement Plan is upland blanket bog and important habitats for skylarks and wading birds on the moorland fringe . To receive funding , landowners within an identified area will need to apply to a panel made up of representatives from Peel , the local authorities and independent ecological experts . This panel will meet regularly throughout the year .
Peel Wind Power are members of RenewableUK and state in their member 's profile that they are actively seeking new opportunities in the renewable energy sector . In November 2008 , the company announced a two @-@ year agreement to look at developing wind farms on land owned by UK Coal . If the 14 sites encompassed by the agreement were successfully developed , they would have the potential for 54 wind turbines generating up to 133 megawatts of power . Peel Energy director Steven Underwood said : " This agreement is an important step for Peel Energy , significantly expanding its onshore pipeline and gaining access to some of the UK 's best potential wind farm locations . " The Peel group holds a 28 % stake in UK Coal .
At a private meeting held in May 2007 between developers , EnergieKontor UK , and invited local councillors , plans were put forward for another large wind farm consisting of 24 turbines on the moors above nearby Haslingden , spanning Thirteen Stone Hill and Oswaldtwistle Moor . Following the meeting Catherine Pilling , a Rossendale Liberal Democrat councillor , expressed her view that the natural beauty of the Rossendale Valley was under threat as it was increasingly being targeted by wind farm developers . " Our party is very much in favour of renewable energy , " she said , " but Rossendale is an area of outstanding beauty , and you have to ask : Would they be building a similar thing in the Lake District ? " Rossendale Borough Council leader Duncan Ruddick representing the electoral ward of Worsley in Rossendale , the proposed site of the new wind farm , said he was against wind farms and would be campaigning against it and speaking at the Development Control committee when it came . The leader of the Labour local councillors was also opposed to the plan , saying that he was concerned about the size of the turbines and that the visual impact on the " beautiful West Pennine Moors " would be devastating . Planning permission for the development was granted by Hyndburn Council in March 2010 .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Capacity factor = = =
As the figures given in the table above were published before the turbines had been operational for a full year they are projected rather than recorded figures . Wind speed is not constant , therefore , a wind farm 's annual energy production never achieves the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year . The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor . Typical capacity factors are 20 – 40 % , with values at the upper end of the range achieved on particularly favourable sites . The expected capacity factor for Scout Moor Wind Farm , calculated from the company 's projected figures , is 27 % .
= Amanda Carter =
Amanda Carter ( born 16 July 1964 ) is an Australian Paralympic wheelchair basketball player . Diagnosed with transverse myelitis at the age of 24 , she began playing wheelchair basketball in 1991 and participated in the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , the Gliders , at three Paralympics from 1992 to 2000 . An injury in 2000 forced her to withdraw from the sport , but she came back to the national team in 2009 , and was a member of the team that represented Australia and won silver at the 2012 London Paralympics .
Due to her 2000 injury , Carter lost considerable mobility in her right arm , and required an elbow reconstruction . She spent 11 weeks on a continuous passive motion machine , and nine operations were required to treat the elbow . After her comeback in 2008 , she played for the Dandenong Rangers in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) , the team she had played for before her injury . That year she received a player award from the Dandenong Rangers and was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) in her 1 @-@ point disability classification in the WNWBL and was named to the league 's All Star Five . The Rangers won back to back WNWBL titles in 2011 and 2012 , and she was again named the WNWBL MVP 1 Pointer and to the league 's All Star Five in 2012 .
= = Personal = =
Carter was born on 16 July 1964 in Heidelberg , Victoria . She spent her childhood living in the Melbourne suburb of Heidelberg West . She went to Olympic Village Primary School , attended years 7 to 10 at Latrobe High School and years 11 and 12 at Thornbury High School . She then entered LaTrobe University , where she obtained Bachelor of Applied Science and Master of Occupational Therapy degrees . As a youngster , she played netball . In 1989 , at the age of 24 , she was diagnosed with transverse myelitis after a bout of chicken pox . She works as an occupational therapist and has a son , Alex . As of 2012 , she still lives in Heidelberg West .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Carter began playing wheelchair basketball in 1991 as part of her rehabilitation . She is a guard , and 1 point player . Before her 2000 accident , she was a 2 @-@ point player .
She has been supported by the Australian Sports Commission 's Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program with $ 5 @,@ 571 in 2009 / 2010 , $ 17 @,@ 000 in both 2010 / 2011 and 2011 / 2012 , and $ 10 @,@ 000 in 2012 / 2013 . In 2012 , she trained at Aqualink @-@ Box Hill , Royal Talbot Rehab Centre , Kew , and YMCA , Kew .
= = = National team = = =
Carter first participated in the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 1992 in a precursor tournament before the 1992 Barcelona Paralympics , in which she also participated . She was a member of the team that won a bronze medal at the 1994 World Championships . At the 1996 Atlanta Paralympics , her team finished fourth , losing to the United States 41 – 30 in the bronze medal game at the Omni in front of a crowd of 5 @,@ 033 . Carter led Australia in scoring with 12 points in that game .
In 1998 , she won a bronze medal with the team at the World Championships . She participated at the 1998 Gold Cup in Sydney , where she was Australia 's second @-@ leading scorer with 30 points . In the year and a half before the start of the 2000 Summer Paralympics , she played in a number of test series with the team , including a five series in July 2000 in Sydney where Australia had 2 wins and 3 losses . The two Australian wins were the first time Canada had lost in ten years . She also participated in five game test series against the Netherlands , the United States and Japan where her team won all games in those series . In the team 's 52 – 50 win over Canada in one of those games , she scored a layup with 16 seconds left in the match that brought the score to 51 – 50 .
She won a silver medal as part of her team at the 2000 Sydney Paralympics . She missed a warm up game against the New South Wales State team before the start of the 2000 Games . Carter missed a practice game that her team played against Germany 's women 's wheelchair basketball team because of an illness she picked up during a team training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport that took place a week before the start of the Games . Half of her team had respiratory infections before the start of the Paralympics . She did not attend the opening ceremonies . During group play at the games , she scored 12 points in a 38 – 26 victory against the Netherlands , which was the most points she had ever scored in an international match . At one point , she made four baskets in a row . Her team made the gold medal game after beating Japan by a score of 45 – 33 . Going into the gold medal game , Carter had missed the previous day 's training session , and had an elbow injury . Her team lost the match to Canada before a crowd of 16 @,@ 389 spectators , with Carter scoring only four points in the first half .
During the match , she was knocked onto her right side , and her right arm became trapped underneath her wheelchair , causing a tendon in her elbow to rupture . Tracey Ferguson , the Canadian player who knocked her down tried to block the way for Australian officials to help her up . Carter lost considerable mobility in her right arm , and required an elbow reconstruction . She spent 11 weeks on a continuous passive motion machine getting treatment . Nine operations were required to treat the elbow . Because she had a pre @-@ existing condition , the insurance company refused to pay for her treatment , although it paid her $ 7 @,@ 500 in return for agreeing not to take legal action . Carter carried a lot of anger towards the Canadian in the first year following her accident . By 2004 , she still could not fully flex her hand . Following her accident , she occasionally required the use of an electric wheelchair because of the severity of her injury , and needed the assistance of the Council 's Home Care to clean her home . Before 2000 , she had mostly been coached by national team coach Peter Corr .
She was selected to play in a four @-@ game test series in Canberra against Japan 's wheelchair basketball team held in March 2002 , the first Australian hosted international for the team since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , and at the 2002 World Cup event in Japan , but did not do so . She quit the sport after being told that neither insurance nor the Australian Paralympic Committee would cover her against injury during a tour in the United States , as her tendonitis was considered a there , and she would have to pay the costs for injury treatment herself . She quit wheelchair basketball . She had a child , which caused a recurrence of her original illness .
She took up wheelchair basketball again after watching the national team compete at the 2008 Beijing Paralympics . This re @-@ ignited her interest in playing the sport competitively . She returned to the Gliders in 2009 . That year , she competed in the Four Nations competition in Canada , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She also participated in the Japan Friendly Series . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 . In 2010 , she was part of the gold medal winning team at the Osaka Cup , one of six Victorians to be selected . In a 2012 friendly series against Japan , she played in three games , where she averaged 0 @.@ 7 points per game , 1 @.@ 0 assists per game and 1 @.@ 0 rebounds per game . She played in four games during the 2012 Gliders World Challenge , where she averaged 1 @.@ 5 points per game , 0 @.@ 5 assists per game , and 1 @.@ 3 rebounds per game . She was coached by John Triscari in 2012 when with the national team .
She was part of the silver medal team for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . She was the oldest member of the team , and the only member of the Gliders who had participated in the 1992 , 1996 or 2000 Paralympics . She played in the first match against Brazil , in which the Australian team won 52 – 50 , but sat out the second and third matches , returning to the field for her team 's quarterfinal 62 – 37 victory over Mexico , in which she played 18 : 38 minutes and scored 5 points . She did not play in either the semifinal match against the United States , which Australia won , nor in the gold medal match against the Germany , which her team lost .
= = = Club = = =
In 2000 , she played for the Whittlesea City Pacers in the National Wheelchair Basketball League . She played for Victoria in the inaugural Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) completion in 2000 when they finished first in the final after they defeated the Hills Hornets 51 – 50 . At the half , her team was winning by 10 points , with Carter being a major reason why .
From 2008 to 2012 , she played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL , the team she had played for before her injury . That year she received a player award from the Dandenong Rangers and was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) in her 1 @-@ point disability classification in the WNWBL and was named to the league 's All Star Five . In 2009 , she played 17 games for the Rangers where she averaged 5 @.@ 1 points per game . She averaged 2 @.@ 4 assists and 3 @.@ 5 rebounds per game that year . In 2010 , she played 4 games , and averaged 3 @.@ 0 points per game . She averaged 0 @.@ 3 assists and 3 @.@ 0 rebounds per game that year . In 2011 , she played in 18 games where she averaged 4 @.@ 7 points per game . She averaged 1 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 1 rebounds per game that year . The Rangers won back to back WNWBL titles in 2011 and 2012 . In 2012 , and was again named the WNWBL MVP 1 Pointer and to the league 's All Star Five . She played 13 games that season , when she averaged 4 @.@ 5 points , 1 @.@ 5 assists and 2 @.@ 8 rebounds per game .
= = Gallery = =
= = Statistics = =
= Tom Tancredo presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Tom Tancredo presidential campaign , 2008 for President of the United States began with the announcement of candidacy by the Congressman from Colorado on April 2 , 2007 . Since then , the campaign had garnered grassroots support and endorsements from conservative Republicans concerned about illegal immigration and border security . However , the candidate remained low in the polls and was criticized for his nativist campaign , which had been described as " single @-@ issued . " Tancredo stated that he probably would not win the nomination but hoped his campaign would bring forth more debate on his issue of concern , immigration . On December 20 , 2007 Tancredo withdrew from the presidential race , and endorsed Mitt Romney .
= = Campaign development = =
Prior to his announcement early in 2007 , draft movements sprung to try to convince Congressman Tancredo to run for President of the United States . Tancredo responded to the draft efforts by stating that he would only start a campaign if a candidate already in the race did not extensively address the issue of Immigration and stay committed to conservative principles .
After Tancredo 's announcement on April 2 , 2007 , he immediately began campaigning in the strategically important state of New Hampshire , making his first appearance at a meeting and a speech in Hudson and Nashua on April 4 . Following this , Tancredo campaigned in the first caucus state of Iowa on April 14 at a fundraiser in Des Moines . Tancredo made over 90 campaign appearances in the state of Iowa ( more than any other ) and appeared in Des Moines five times . He appeared in New Hampshire approximately 35 times and appeared sporadically in other states in the same time span .
Until June , the campaign never took off in the polls nor in funds and received little media attention , with the exception of the May 15 GOP debate in South Carolina . However , Tancredo was given an opportunity to discuss immigration and attack the Bush administration and fellow Republican members of Congress at a GOP debate in New Hampshire on June 5 , 2007 . His criticism was directed mostly at top tiered candidate John McCain for his support of the failed " Amnesty bill . " But throughout the night , he continually criticized the policies of the Bush administration , which he labeled as " liberal . " When asked what President Bush 's role would be in a Tancredo administration , he reflected on a time in 2003 when he was told by Karl Rove to " [ not ] darken the doorstep of the White House " because of his criticism of the president . Tancredo concluded that President Bush would be given the same command if he ever became president . During the debate in regards to immigration and Republican members of Congress , Tancredo said the following :
As July approached and came to its close , Tancredo 's standing improved somewhat with the looming Ames Straw Poll . His strategy to focus on Iowa continued , and the number of grassroots supporters in the state increased . On July 31 , the campaign developed an interesting new strategy , offering a trip to Washington , D.C. and a tour of the capitol to anyone who brought 25 Tancredo supporters to the straw poll . On the day before , supporters in Iowa distributed T @-@ shirts which read " I 'm a Member of Tom 's Army Against Amnesty . " Interviewed supporters were asked why they supported the candidate , they replied , " He really has the concerns of America at heart , he 's concerned about the culture of America itself . What 's happening to the bedrock of American culture . " Tancredo finished in fourth place at the Ames Straw poll with over 14 % of the vote . It was won by former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney .
On August 31 , Tancredo shifted momentarily to a new issue . On the two @-@ year anniversary of the landfall of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans , he called for funds to be withdrawn and federal aid be cut off for the recovery effort . He remarked that it was time , " the taxpayer gravy train left the New Orleans station . " The move was perhaps a step for the candidate to woo fiscal conservatives and advocates for states ' rights , commenting that " at some point , state and local officials and individuals have got to step up to the plate and take some initiative , the mentality that people can wait around indefinitely for the federal taxpayer to solve all their worldly problems has got to come to an end . "
In September Tancredo participated in two debates which received much media attention for the decisions of top tiered candidates to not participate in them . He attended the Values Voters Debate in Fort Lauderdale , Florida on September 17 , 2007 . In the straw poll that followed , Tancredo came in seventh place with 2 % of the vote . Mike Huckabee won the straw poll with 63 % . Tancredo also appeared at the Black Caucus Debate on September 27 at Baltimore , Maryland which aired on PBS . During this debate he commented that the economic differences between African @-@ Americans and Anglo @-@ Americans has " nothing to do with race . " He also discussed illegal immigration .
On September 25 , Tancredo became the first presidential candidate to be interviewed on Wikinews . He discussed gay issues , immigration , and federalism among others . When asked who he would back if he had to support a Democratic Party candidate for president , Tancredo chose Senator Barack Obama of Illinois remarking :
In October with the World Series approaching and Tancredo 's team the Colorado Rockies representing the National League , he decided to offer a bet with fellow candidate Mitt Romney whose team the Boston Red Sox were representing the American League . Tancredo proposed that he would drop out of the race if Boston won but only if Romney agreed to drop out if Colorado won . Luckily for Tancredo , the Romney campaign turned down the bet and Boston won the world series .
On November 13 , the campaign released a controversial advertisement called " Tough on Terror " in which a hypothetical terrorist attack occurs in a shopping mall . The ad blames inept border security for the attack and flashes images of an injured child and a wrecked train . After Tancredo gives his approval for the message with the comment " I approve this message because someone needs to say it , " a voiceover states , " There are consequences to open borders beyond the 20 million aliens who have come to take our jobs ... the price we pay for spineless politicians who refuse to defend our borders against those who come to kill . " Since its release , the ad received criticism from some who called it " cheap " and " blatant fearmongering . " Bowdoin College political scientist Michael Franz likened the advertisement to the Daisy ad run by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 Presidential election claiming that the election of Barry Goldwater would lead to a nuclear war . The other Republican candidates in the race did not comment on the ad .
On November 15 , in a move poking fun at Democratic presidential candidate John Edwards and building on the media coverage aimed at his campaign for the previously mentioned advertisement , Tancredo received a haircut for $ 400 , which was used to donate money to the Autism Society of America . The haircut was given by David Holden of New Hampshire whose son is afflicted with autism .
In early December , Tancredo declined an invitation to a Spanish @-@ language debate featured on Univision as a protest to immigrants who do not learn English . He did , however , participate in the November 28 , 2007 debate where he accused his opponents , most notable Mike Huckabee of trying to " out @-@ Tancredo , Tancredo " on the issue of illegal immigration .
On December 20 , 2007 Tancredo dropped out of the presidential race and thus ended his campaign . He cited that it had become apparent to him that he could not win the race but was glad at what he perceived as the new positions of his opponents on illegal immigration , believing that " we 've ( The Tom Tancredo campaign ) forced them into that [ rhetoric ] ... " Tancredo also cited Huckabee 's surge as a reason for his withdraw , stating his disagreements with the Governor made it important to help Romney secure the nomination . While announcing his withdrawal , Tancredo also announced that he was endorsing Mitt Romney for President in 2008 , citing Romney as " the best hope for our cause [ of immigration reform ] . "
= = Polling = =
About one year before entering the race , Tancredo won the Macomb County Straw Poll in Michigan on July 5 , 2006 . He received 60 of the 327 votes cast or 18 % of the vote . Tancredo beat out the second @-@ place finisher Rudy Giuliani by 15 votes . On February 13 , 2007 , the American Conservative Union issued ratings for potential presidential candidates for the 2008 election . Tancredo took first with a lifetime ranking of 99 out of 100 . The website ConservativesBetrayed.com polled 525 people who attended CPAC 2007 , and 88 @.@ 1 % believed that Tancredo would govern as a conservative . Newt Gingrich polled next at 87 @.@ 9 % .
In general polling , Tancredo fared far worse than in straw polls . Early polls placed the candidate both above and below the 1 % mark . However , in November 2007 he slightly moved up in polling , reaching the 2 % mark and coming out ahead of his closest rival , Congressman Duncan Hunter of California . In a November 16 Gallup poll , Tancredo stood in seventh place at 2 % , trailing Congressman Ron Paul of Texas by 3 % . In a head @-@ to @-@ head matchup done by Rasmussen Reports on August 29 , 2007 , Tancredo trailed New York Senator Hillary Clinton by 13 % finishing with 37 % to Clinton 's 50 % . In a head @-@ to @-@ head matchup with Barack Obama administered on the same day , Tancredo finished with 31 % to 48 % for Obama .
= = Financials = =
Individual contributions made up the most of the campaign cash that Tancredo received , making up about 97 % of his total pocketbook . PAC contributions were comparably low , producing only around $ 75 @,@ 500 , of the $ 1 @,@ 311 @,@ 869 . He granted himself $ 200 for the campaign and received no federal funding . $ 88 @,@ 457 of his money came from interest from the campaign 's bank accounts and loans from outside sources . It should be noted that the majority of Tancredo 's funds were not disclosed during the campaign As of September 30 , 2007 the campaign raised $ 3 @,@ 538 @,@ 244 and spent $ 3 @,@ 458 @,@ 130 , leaving only $ 110 @,@ 079 cash on hand .
Ronald Robinson of the Young America 's Foundation donated $ 1 @,@ 000 to the campaign . Michael Bushell , owner of BibleWorks and Pueblo Chieftain newspaper publisher Robert Rawlings both gave $ 500 to Tancredo 's campaign .
Tancredo qualified for and accepted public funds from the Presidential election campaign fund checkoff . However , he returned the matching funds since withdrawing from the race .
= = Advisors and endorsements = =
The biggest endorsement that Tancredo received was that of Bay Buchanan , the sister of perennial presidential candidate Pat Buchanan and former Treasurer of the United States under President Ronald Reagan . Immediately following her endorsement she was named the Senior Advisor of the campaign . Other advisors included Phil Alexander , formerly of the Buchanan campaigns in 1996 , and 2000 . New Hampshire advisor , Shelly Uscinski formerly the New Hampshire chairman of the Christian Coalition . Iowa advisor and former U.S. Senate candidate in 2002 Bill Salier . And campaign official Tim Haley , the former campaign manager of Pat Buchanan 's Reform Party run in 2000 .
= = Criticism = =
The campaign was criticized for as wide ranging issues as Tancredo 's speaking abilities and performances in debates to the categorization of his campaign as " unwinnable " and " one @-@ issued . "
After the October 9 , 2007 Dearborn GOP Debate , Tancredo was criticized by the conservative blog , " Republican Ranting " for stuttering and stumbling , citing this as causing him major problems in the debate . Also cited was the following exchange with Sam Brownback :
Tancredo : Sam , I don ’ t , your mom , if she was a postal worker , believe me , she didn ’ t need a union on top of civil service benefits
Brownback : Don ’ t pick on my mother
Tancredo : I ’ m sure she was a sweetheart .
Brownback : Leave my mother out of this .
Tancredo : Especially with regard to , need I say it , illegal immigration …
Brownback : My mother is not an illegal immigrant .
A writer at the blog Farmeruminations , spoke about his experience at the August 12 , 2007 Iowa Straw poll stating that " Tancredo ... stuttered and stumbled , spoke during the applause , lost his place several times , so had to look at the written copy , not a good performance by any standard . "
The campaign was criticized for focusing too heavily on the issue of Immigration , which gave the candidate the appearance of running a one @-@ issue campaign . During an exchange on the August 22 , 2007 edition of Hannity and Colmes , Geraldo Rivera and Tancredo got into a lively argument over sanctuary cities and a murder committed by an illegal immigrant in Newark , New Jersey . Rivera remarked :
First of all , this was the 60th homicide in Newark this year , and I 'm sure Congressman Tancredo has not opined about any of the other homicides , and only became interested in this one when it became clear that one of the six alleged perpetrators came to this country illegally at the age of 11 . That 's one thing .
Number two , why was this person , this one of the six around to commit this hideous crime ? He was out because he had a 31 @-@ count indictment for the rape of a child , and he was out on $ 15 @,@ 000 bail , instead of the requisite $ 450 @,@ 000 bail that he never could have made and never would have been on the street .
It had nothing to do with his immigration status . And it 's just being used by advocates of this crushing anti @-@ immigration policy to make a cheap political point .
The political website " Political Realm " summed up Tancredo 's campaign profile with the statement that " In the end , Tancredo is a single @-@ issue candidate and that will not be enough to carry him over the top . " Tancredo himself acknowledged that he is a one @-@ issue candidate making the statement at a speech in to the Conservative Political Action Conference ( CPAC ) , " If you want to call me a single @-@ issue candidate , that 's fine , just so long as you know that my single issue is the survival and the success of the conservative movement in America . " He remarked that his campaign was not about winning the nomination but instead winning over people to his point of view in the race :
= Coach 's Daughter =
" Coach 's Daughter " is the fifth episode of the American television sitcom , Cheers , written by Ken Estin and directed by James Burrows . It first aired on NBC on October 28 , 1982 . This episode serves as the only appearance of Lisa Pantusso , portrayed by Allyce Beasley . In this episode , Coach 's daughter Lisa arrives with her fiancé Roy , who is boorish and obnoxious and rude to her , causing Coach to resent him .
When it first aired , this episode scored very low Nielsen ratings ; however , network reruns of this episode improved . Although it did not earn award nominations , it has been praised as a favorite by critics and cast alike , including the late Nicholas Colasanto .
= = Plot = =
Coach 's ( Nicholas Colasanto ) daughter , Lisa , ( Allyce Beasley ) arrives with her fiancé , Roy ( Philip Charles MacKenzie ) , a door @-@ to @-@ door salesman who turns out to be abrasive and insensitive . Repulsed by Roy 's obnoxious , boorish personality and insults toward people , including Lisa , Coach finds Roy not good enough for her . However , Coach is too reluctant to tell her about Roy because she appears to like him and wants her father 's blessings . To make matters worse , at Melville 's restaurant , Roy forces her to pay for dinner herself , which makes Coach angrier . Therefore , witnessing Roy 's treatment on her , Coach 's friends convince him to tell Lisa about Roy before it is too late .
No longer able to keep his silence , Coach escorts Lisa into an office , admits to Lisa that she is too good for someone who treats her badly , like Roy , and openly refuses to let her marry him . Lisa reluctantly admits that she knows everything about Roy , that her relationship with Roy is a sham , and that Roy is the first and only man in her life , as she had no other . Coach is shocked with disbelief and tells her that she 's " beautiful " , but Lisa objects and begs him for one moment to analyze her physical appearance , which she is insecure about . Coach then realizes that Lisa resembles her mother , who was not comfortable about her beauty . Yet , Coach dearly tells Lisa that she is more beautiful every day , regardless of her appearance , just as her mother was more beautiful every day . Finally , Lisa feels self @-@ confident and thanks her father for his comments .
After the talk in the office , Lisa confesses to Roy that she hates him , that she finds him " obnoxious " , and that everything about him repulses her . Roy swears that the relationship is over , vows that he will never return if he leaves her forever , and exits the bar . Lisa prepares to celebrate her freedom from Roy with Coach , as they leave the bar . Meanwhile , Diane ( Shelley Long ) draws
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sketches of people , but her efforts show no resemblance to their subjects .
= = Production = =
Ken Levine remarked that the whole audience laughed during the filming of an office scene between Coach and his daughter at the end of the episode . It was reshot but the audience still laughed . Glen and Les Charles decided to lift the laughter from the office scene , so it is not heard in the final cut . Before portraying Tim — a minor insignificant character — in multiple episodes , Tim Cunningham portrays Chuck , who works at the lab that mutates viruses . Jacqueline Cassel and Teddy Bergeron are credited as a couple , to whom Diane shows her botched artwork .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
This episode first aired on NBC on October 28 , 1982 , at 9 : 00pm Eastern / Pacific ( 8 : 00pm Central / Mountain ) , competing against CBS 's Simon & Simon and ABC 's Too Close for Comfort , and landed on No. 66 out of 75 nationally @-@ broadcast prime time programs with an 11 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating . In Alaska , it aired on November 11 , 1982 , at 8 : 00pm AKT .
This episode subsequently aired on NBC on March 10 , 1983 , at 9 : 30pm ET / PT ( 8 : 30pm CT / MT ) , competing against Simon & Simon and It Takes Two , and landed on No. 42 out of 72 nationally @-@ broadcast programs with the 14 @.@ 8 rating . It aired again on NBC on July 7 , 1983 , at 9 : 30pm ET / PT ( 8 : 30pm CT / MT ) , competing against a rerun of Simon & Simon and ABC 's two @-@ hour television movie , The Last Ninja , and landed on No. 21 out of 66 nationally @-@ broadcast programs with a 12 @.@ 9 rating and 23 share .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Reviews have been positive . It is considered one of the favorites of cast and crew who were involved with this episode , including Allyce Beasley and especially the late Nicholas Colasanto . George Wendt and John Ratzenberger , who portrayed Norm and Cliff respectively , considered it one of their personal favorites , mainly because of the office scene between Coach and his daughter . R.D. Heldenfels from The Sunday Gazette called the office scene " poignant . " Robert Bianco of The Pittsburgh Press praised this episode as one of his favorites and called its office scene between Coach and his daughter " tender " .
Many reviewers at The A.V. Club agreed that the scene between Coach and his daughter at the office is the most redeeming part of the episode , but they have mixed feelings about the rest of the episode . Ryan McGee found this episode too draggy and found Coach 's daughter — Lisa — underdeveloped . Meredith Blake found this episode " underwhelming " . Others praised this episode overall , including moments outside the story of Coach 's daughter . Erik Adams observed that Coach can immediately sense a bad aspect about Roy , even when he is a " simpleton " .
= = Impact = =
Glen and Les Charles wanted this episode Emmy @-@ nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , but Ken Estin , writer of this episode , declined . ( Estin was working simultaneously on Taxi , and as he was permitted only to submit one episode to the nominating committee for consideration , he submitted a Taxi script instead . )
Before appearing as a receptionist for a fictional detective agency in the television show , Moonlighting , Allyce Beasley had not found other roles for one year after this episode , according to Beasley herself .
This episode is referenced in a novel written by Neil Gaiman , entitled American Gods . In the novel , the main character is revealed to have watched this episode , particularly the office scene between Coach and his daughter . Later , gods contact him by controlling Carla , Cliff , and Diane via broadcast of this episode .
= 1924 Rose Bowl =
The 1924 Rose Bowl was a postseason American college football bowl game played between the independent Navy Midshipmen and the Washington Huskies , a member of the Pacific Coast Conference ( PCC ) . The game took place on January 1 , 1924 , at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena , California , closing the 1923 college football season . The game opened in front of approximately 40 @,@ 000 people and ended in a 14 – 14 tie . It was the first post @-@ season bowl game for both teams . The 1924 game was the tenth edition of the Rose Bowl , which had first been played in 1902 . Following the inaugural game 's blowout score , football was replaced with chariot races until 1916 . The Rose Bowl stadium had been constructed in 1923 , making this edition the second game played in the arena .
The game 's organizers had previously selected a team from the East Coast and the West Coast , and asked the Washington Huskies to represent the West Coast . Washington requested that the Navy Midshipmen be their opponents , and Navy accepted . Washington selected Navy in favor of several teams from the east which had amassed better records . Both teams had suffered only a single loss during the season , but Washington had won eight games compared with Navy 's five , although Navy had also amassed two ties . Predictions gave Washington a slight advantage in the game due to the weight difference between the teams : the Washington players were on average 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) heavier than those of Navy .
The game kicked off in the afternoon ; heavy rain showers had fallen the day before , causing a slight delay . The first quarter was scoreless , but Navy scored a touchdown on the first play of the second quarter . Washington answered Navy with a 23 @-@ yard touchdown run on the next drive . Near the end of the second quarter , Navy scored a touchdown on a two @-@ yard run , giving them a 14 – 7 halftime lead . The third quarter was a defensive stalemate as neither team scored . Navy fumbled the ball on their own ten @-@ yard line late in the quarter . Four plays afterward , Washington tied the game on a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass . Navy threw an interception at midfield , and Washington drove down to the Navy 20 @-@ yard line before attempting a game @-@ winning field goal . The kick missed and the game ended shortly afterwards .
For his performance in the game , Navy quarterback Ira McKee was named the Most Valuable Player . Navy led in nearly every statistical aspect of the contest . Washington returned to the Rose Bowl at the end of the 1925 season , falling to the Alabama Crimson Tide 20 – 19 . Navy did not participate in another bowl game until 1955 , when their squad , nicknamed the " team named desire " , upset the Ole Miss Rebels in the Sugar Bowl . Since the 1924 Rose Bowl , Navy and Washington have met five more times ; the Huskies won three of the games .
= = Team selection = =
The Rose Bowl game was first played in 1902 , as a way to help fund the Rose Parade . Because of the first contest 's lopsided score , a football game was not played again until 1916 , having been replaced by chariot races . Between 1902 and 1947 , the Rose Bowl was played between a team from the East Coast and a team from the West Coast . Until the construction of the Rose Bowl stadium , which began hosting the game in 1923 , it was called the " Tournament East – West football game " . Because the Pacific Coast Conference ( PCC ) was the only conference with teams located in the Western United States , a school from the conference had been chosen for every Rose Bowl game . The tournament committee invited the University of Washington Huskies to participate in the 1924 game , and they accepted . Washington was then allowed by the organization to select its opponent for the game — the first time a team was allowed to do so . Washington chose the Navy Midshipmen based on a suggestion from the committee , and Navy accepted the invitation .
= = = Navy = = =
The Navy Midshipmen entered the Rose Bowl under coach Bob Folwell with five wins , one loss , and two ties ( 5 – 1 – 2 ) . Navy 's sole loss in the 1923 season came in their annual game against Penn State , which they lost 21 – 3 . All five of Navy 's wins came against eastern teams , including Colgate and William and Mary , and two of Navy 's wins were shutouts , against Colgate and Saint Xavier . Navy tied 0 – 0 with Army in the 1923 Army – Navy Game , the last game of the season , played on November 23 in front of nearly 70 @,@ 000 spectators — including high @-@ ranking military officials . Their other tie was a 3 – 3 game against Princeton . Navy was selected by Washington to participate in the Rose Bowl , although several teams with better records were eligible . Both Cornell and Yale finished the season with an undefeated 8 – 0 record . Eleven teams finished with only one loss , including Furman ( 10 – 1 ) , Notre Dame ( 9 – 1 ) , and the Virginia Military Institute ( VMI ) ( 9 – 1 ) .
= = = Washington = = =
The Washington Huskies entered the 1924 Rose Bowl with a record of eight wins and one loss ( 8 – 1 ) under coach Enoch Bagshaw . Washington opened their season with victories over teams from the battleships Mississippi and New York ; because these teams did not represent colleges , they were not considered an official part of Washington 's schedule . Washington 's first official game ended with a 34 – 0 shutout of Willamette , which was followed by four more shutouts . Washington 's next game was a 26 – 14 victory over PCC opponent Montana — the first points Washington allowed all season . The squad 's following game was their sole loss : a 9 – 0 shutout by conference opponent California . Washington finished the regular season with two straight wins over conference opponents , including a victory in the Apple Cup over Washington State .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
The 1924 Rose Bowl was the first meeting between Navy and Washington , and was the first bowl game that either team participated in . The competitors were announced on November 30 , 1923 , and the teams arrived for the bowl in mid @-@ December , holding practices until the evening before the game . Heavy rain fell the night before the competition ; Bagshaw said , " Wet weather will not bother us " , and Folwell said , " My men will know what to do in the mud and will be there doing it " . However , because of the wet conditions , several football critics predicted that Washington would have a slight advantage in the game due to their larger size . It was estimated that 52 @,@ 000 people would attend the game . For the first time , the participating teams were responsible for ticket sales , and as a result only 40 @,@ 000 people actually attended ; a large number of tickets were sold to a navy fleet which was called to service on December 31 , the day before the game . The competition was the first Rose Bowl to be broadcast on radio , and was aired by a local Pasadena station .
= = = Navy = = =
During the 1923 football season , the Navy Midshipmen outscored their opponents 133 – 43 , led by quarterback Ira McKee , who threw several touchdown passes throughout the year . Navy 's other offensive strong point was running back Carl Cullen , who ran for several hundred yards during the season . The Navy defense was considered weak by football critics , with an average player weight 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) less than that of Washington . Navy 's defense had stopped running plays successfully during the regular season , but had trouble defending pass plays . Navy 's special teams were considered by critics to be decent , about even with those of Washington .
= = = Washington = = =
The Washington Huskies had outscored their opponents 203 – 37 during the regular season , excluding the games against New York and Mississippi . Washington 's running backs , George Wilson and Elmer Tesreau , led their offense during the season , each gaining several hundred rushing yards . However , Tesreau was suffering from boils on his knee , and his coaches urged him to not play in the Rose Bowl . The Washington defense was considered superior to that of Navy , being much larger on average . Washington 's defense had been very effective during the regular season , holding five teams scoreless and allowing more than ten points to be scored against them only once . Washington 's special teams were considered to be average .
= = Game summary = =
The kickoff for the Rose Bowl was originally scheduled for 2 : 00 p.m. on January 1 , 1924 , but the night before the game , a meeting of the Rose Bowl organization rescheduled the kickoff time to 2 : 16 p.m. the same day . This was likely due to poor field conditions caused by the previous night 's rain . The opening ceremonies were the most elaborate of any bowl game up to that time , with numerous events held . Navy admiral Samuel Shelburne Robison received an admiral 's salute from Navy 's band when he took his seat . The Navy band and the color guard of the marines performed the National Anthem , then the marine color guard hoisted the U.S. flag over the field . Both teams ' mascots were walked around the field before the kickoff . The Tournament of Roses predicted that tickets would be sold out by the day of the game , but actual ticket sales were much lower than they had hoped . Still , sales were higher than those of several previous competitions .
= = = First half = = =
The game began at the rescheduled time , with a temperature of 52 ° F ( 11 ° C ) and the field still wet . Because of the playing conditions , running plays were ineffective , which caused problems for the Washington offense . Navy instead used passing plays , which the Washington defense had trouble stopping . Navy was driving down to the 22 @-@ yard line of Washington when the first quarter ended . Navy controlled the first quarter , completing all six passing attempts and holding the Washington offense to under 100 yards gained .
On their first play of the second quarter , Navy scored a touchdown on a pass play from Ira McKee to Carl Cullen . McKee kicked the extra point for Navy , giving them a 7 – 0 lead . In an attempt to trick Washington , Navy tried an onside kick on the next play , but Washington recovered the ball . After two short running plays , Washington quarterback Fred Abel completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to running back Kinsley Dubois , bringing Washington inside the 25 @-@ yard line . On the next play , running back George Wilson ran the ball 23 yards for a touchdown . Washington 's kicker converted the extra point to tie the game at 7 – 7 . After several drives from each team that did not result in further scoring , Navy completed a 57 @-@ yard pass down to the Washington eight @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Ira McKee ran the ball in from two yards out for a touchdown , then afterward converted the extra point . The first half ended with Navy leading by 14 – 7 , having completed all 11 passes they attempted .
= = = Second half = = =
Both teams ' defenses controlled the third quarter , allowing no points to be scored . Navy 's McKee completed three more pass plays before his first incompletion , which came on his fourteenth attempt . Washington 's offense had little success in the third quarter , being held to only a few yards gained and turning the ball over once . In the fourth quarter , after several unsuccessful drives by each team , Navy made a major error . After being stopped on their own 26 @-@ yard line , Navy improperly lined up in a punt formation , and the center snapped the ball over the punter 's head . The ball was recovered by Washington on the Navy ten @-@ yard line . Washington lost two yards in three plays , and faced a fourth down from the Navy 12 @-@ yard line . Washington stacked their offensive line , allowing their left guard , James Bryan , to become an eligible receiver . Fred Abel passed the ball to Bryan , who caught it just short of the goal line and walked into the end zone for the touchdown . Washington 's kicker then converted the extra point , tying the game at 14 .
Navy received the ball from Washington and began to throw it erratically . After gaining several yards , Ira McKee threw an interception near midfield . On the next play , Fred Abel threw a long pass to George Wilson , who was tackled on the Navy 20 @-@ yard line after gaining 30 yards . Washington brought out their placekicker , Leonard Ziel , to kick a 32 @-@ yard field goal , which would have won them the game . Ziel kicked the ball about a yard short of the right upright , giving the ball back to Navy with the game still tied . A few plays later the game ended in a 14 – 14 tie .
= = Statistical summary = =
For his performance in the 1924 Rose Bowl , Navy quarterback Ira McKee was awarded Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) honors . McKee completed 16 of 20 passes for a total of 175 yards , including one pass for a touchdown . McKee also had 85 rushing yards on twelve attempts . Washington running back Elmer Tesreau was given the game 's Ironman Award , though he had little effect on the game . Against the urging of his coaches , Tesreau had played with boils completely covering one knee . He left near the end of the game , and was later discovered to have broken his previously unaffected leg in multiple places .
Navy 's McKee threw for a perfect 11 of 11 passes during the first half , but completed just five of nine attempts during the second half . Two of these incompletions were interceptions . McKee outthrew Washington 's Fred Abel by 110 yards . Carl Cullen was McKee 's main receiver for the game , catching ten passes from him , one of which was taken for a touchdown . The other six passes were caught by other receivers . On the ground , Cullen rushed for the most yards of any player , gaining 102 throughout the course of the game . McKee was Navy 's key runner , gaining 85 yards . Cullen , McKee , fullback Alan Shapley , and other team members rushed for a total of 187 yards during the game . McKee completed both extra point attempts , and the squad 's punter kicked five times , for an average distance of 33 @.@ 8 yards .
Abel attempted eight passes during the game , and completed just three for a total of 65 yards . Of Abel 's five incompletions , two were interceptions . Kinsley Dubois caught two of Abel 's completed passes , amassing 53 receiving yards . Guard James Bryan caught the other , a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass . George Wilson led Washington in rushing yards , gaining 87 over the course of the game , and scoring Washington 's only rushing touchdown . Kinsley Dubois came next , gaining 30 yards , followed by Abel , with 20 . The remainder of the team 's 137 rushing yards were amassed by others , including Tesreau . Washington 's kicker Leonard Zeil was two for two on extra points , but missed his only field goal attempt . Washington punted nine times , averaging 33 yards per attempt .
= = Aftermath = =
The tie gave Washington an 8 – 1 – 1 record for the 1923 season , the second best in school history up to that point . It remained behind the 1916 season , when the squad went 6 – 0 – 1 . Navy 's record went to 5 – 1 – 3 , a slight improvement from the previous year , when the team went 5 – 2 . It became Navy 's eighth straight winning season .
Washington went 8 – 1 – 1 in the 1924 season , remaining under the direction of coach Enoch Bagshaw . The team was invited to the 1926 Rose Bowl after completing an undefeated 11 – 0 – 1 1925 season . They lost the game to the Alabama Crimson Tide by a score of 20 – 19 . Washington finished the 1920s with an overall record of 65 – 26 – 6 ; Bagshaw coached the team for every season except 1920 , when they were under the leadership of Stub Allison . Navy finished the 1924 season with a 2 – 6 record , ending their number of consecutive winning seasons at eight . The Navy football team was not invited to participate in another bowl game until 1955 , when the " team named desire " , so named due to coach Eddie Erdelatz comparing the squad to the play A Streetcar Named Desire , defeated the Ole Miss Rebels in the Sugar Bowl 21 – 0 . Navy finished the 1920s with a record of 55 – 22 – 8 ; nine of the ten seasons ended in winning records . Navy 's coach , Bob Folwell , left the team after the 1924 season , to be replaced by Jack Owsley . Navy and Washington have since met five times , with Washington currently leading the series 3 – 2 – 1 .
Because the 1924 Rose Bowl and several later Rose Bowls had very high ticket sales , the Tournament of Roses Association decided to close off the southern end of the Rose Bowl stadium and expand the seating from a horseshoe design to one that surrounded the entire field . The 1924 game was the first in which the Tournament of Roses made participating schools responsible for ticket sales . The strategy has been used since , with only a small number of tickets allocated to Tournament officials for each yearly edition .
= Ricky Powers =
Richard " Ricky " Powers ( born November 30 , 1970 ) is a former running back in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Cleveland Browns , and a former University of Michigan Wolverines football co @-@ captain . In the NFL , he had a brief career with the Browns during their final season before they relocated to become the Baltimore Ravens after starring for the Wolverines . His career ended due to being lost in the shuffle when the Browns moved to Baltimore and changed coaching staffs . In college , he set the Michigan football freshman rushing record that stood 14 seasons , and as a sophomore was the leading rusher for the team during Desmond Howard 's Heisman Trophy @-@ winning season . At Michigan , he was a member of three consecutive Big Ten Conference football champions . In high school , he was the Parade All @-@ American star running back of the two @-@ time Ohio High School Athletic Association ( OHSAA ) football championship team at Buchtel High School , where he has returned to coach baseball and football .
= = High school = =
Powers was both born and raised in Akron , where he led the Buchtel High School football team to back @-@ to @-@ back OHSAA championships , as well as being named a high school All @-@ American . Powers graduated from Buchtel in 1990 after leading them to the 1987 and 1988 Ohio Division II state high school championships . As a sophomore in 1987 , Powers rushed for 1 @,@ 600 yards including 600 in four playoff games and helped his coach earn Summit County Coach of the Year honors . Powers rushed for 1 @,@ 741 yards and 28 touchdowns as a junior , including 289 yards against Nordonia High School in a playoff game , and 2 @,@ 014 yards and 19 touchdowns as a senior . During that junior season , he became the third junior ( following Chris Spielman and Jeff Logan , by one account and Spielman and Charles Gladman by another ) to earn Akron Beacon Journal Player of the Year honors . During the season , he topped his sophomore Championship game 161 yard effort with a Championship game record 206 rushing yard effort . He earned All @-@ Ohio Division II honors . Ohio rival , Robert Smith , earned USA Today Player of the Year honors and Powers earned an honorable mention during their junior years . Powers entered his senior season on numerous lists including the Chicago Sun @-@ Times national top 100 and 24 @-@ man All @-@ Midwest lists , The Times @-@ Picayune Top 25 national prospects , and USA Today top 13 Ohio players . His senior season ended with a " Turkey Day " City Championship game . He and Smith , who chose to go to rival Ohio State , were the two top football prospects in Ohio and the nation in 1989 . Smith was named Mr. Football ( Ohio ) , but Powers was named the top player in the nation by the Dallas Morning News . In a poll of 14 experts produced by the Detroit Free Press , Powers was the all @-@ Midwest ( Big Ten States of Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Michigan , Minnesota , Ohio and Wisconsin because Penn State had not yet joined the conference ) Offensive player of the year in a first @-@ team backfield with Jerome Bettis and Chris Weinke . Powers became the first two @-@ time Akron Beacon Journal Player of the Year . He was a Parade All @-@ American and earned first @-@ team All @-@ USA honors from USA Today . Many publications across the country listed Powers among the best five or ten players in the nation . Powers was recruited by both the Michigan Wolverines and the Ohio State Buckeyes .
= = College = =
Powers , who wore # 12 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1990 to 1993 , shared the tailback position with Jon Vaughn as a freshman and Tyrone Wheatley as a junior and senior . Although he was only the official starter for one game as a freshman in 1990 , he set the Michigan freshman rushing record with 789 rushing yards , a record broken by Mike Hart in 2004 . That season , he led the Wolverines , who three @-@ peated as Big Ten Conference Champions , to victories in their last four games with 100 @-@ yard rushing efforts in each game , and tied Vaughn with five 100 @-@ yard rushing efforts . The next year , as a sophomore , he started eleven of twelve games and was named to the All @-@ Big Ten Conference team . Although as a sophomore in 1991 he led the team in rushing with 1251 yards , he shared the spotlight with Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard . That 1991 team would again win the Big Ten Conference Championship , and it would produce eighteen National Football League draftees between 1992 and 1995 . In 1992 and 1993 , his offensive totals were lower than in 1991 because he was sharing playing time with Tyrone Wheatley . However , in 1993 , he was named Michigan Football Co @-@ Captain of a five @-@ time Big Ten Conference team . Powers currently ranks 13th on the all @-@ time Michigan rushing yards list with 2680 career yards . Powers obtained his bachelor 's degree in kinesiology . Both the 1991 and 1992 Conference Champions went to the Rose Bowl .
= = Professional career = =
In the NFL , Powers , who measured 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) and 213 pounds ( 96 @.@ 6 kg ) , was signed as a free agent in 1994 by the Detroit Lions , but he was waived before the season started . He later that year signed with the Cleveland Browns , joining their practice squad . He remained on the practice squad until being promoted to the regular roster for the final three games of the 1995 National Football League season . He totaled 51 yards on 14 rushes , one six @-@ yard pass reception , and three kickoff returns for a total of 54 yards . When the Browns relocated following the 1995 season to become the Baltimore Ravens , and Ted Marchibroda replaced Bill Belichick as coach , Powers got lost in the shuffle . He dabbled with World League of American Football and Spring Football League afterwards , but soon retired .
In 2007 , Powers assumed the football coaching duties at his high school alma mater , Akron Buchtel High School , where he has been the head baseball coach since 2004 . At Buchtel , he inherits a football team that has a tradition of producing major college scholarship athletes and a few professional ones . Recent Buchtel Griffins who have become professional athletes include Antonio Pittman , Charlton Keith , and Ramon Walker . For 2007 and 2008 , Buchtel competes in Ohio High School Athletic Association Division II , which is for schools with enrollments of between 365 to 523 . Buchtel has qualified for the state tournament 9 times in the past as both a Division II and Division III entrant , but they were not among the 32 teams in the 120 team Division II class to qualify in 2007 .
= = Personal = =
Powers ' older brother , Scott , had been an All @-@ District cornerback who recorded nine interceptions , six fumbles recoveries and four blocked field goals and three blocked extra points during his 1987 senior season . Ricky Powers ' final decision came down to Michigan State and Michigan according to his mother . At the time , Scott was a Sophomore starting cornerback for the Cincinnati Bearcats and was trying to transfer to Michigan State . Due to a suspicion of tampering , Scott would only be allowed to transfer if Ricky chose Michigan . Powers ' mother , Rosetta , claimed Ricky had been leaning toward Michigan State prior to the determination regarding his brother .
= Forglen House =
Forglen House is a mansion house that forms the centrepiece of the Forglen estate in the parish of Forglen , northwest of Turriff , Aberdeenshire , in the northeast of Scotland . The lands were given to the abbots of the Abbey of Arbroath by King William the Lion before 1211 and the Monymusk Reliquary was held there . The original castle , built around 1346 , was replaced by a vernacular harled house that was later extended . Significant development of the estate began when it was acquired by the family of Lord Banff and they started the work of landscaping and planting trees . It became their main family seat during the 18th century . After the death of William Ogilvy , the eighth and final Lord Banff , the estate passed by marriage to the Abercromby baronets who continued to enhance the property and maintained it as their main residence . Sir Robert Abercromby , 5th Baronet commissioned the Aberdeen City Architect , John Smith to design the present house in 1839 .
Forglen House was sold by the Abercromby family in 1974 but remains in private ownership . It is not open to the public , although access to the grounds is available and some cottages can be hired as holiday lets , including one of the lodge houses .
The mansion is a Category A listed building and several other structures within the estate , including the stables and a gothic @-@ style mausoleum , are Category B listed . The gardens are listed on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland as outstanding in most sections .
= = History = =
The estate of Forglen ( Foithir Gleann , meaning " the hollow of the vale " in Gaelic ) was one of the parcels of land added to the property of the abbots at the Abbey of Arbroath by King William the Lion prior to 1211 . Charters indicate the Monymusk Reliquary or Breccbennach was probably held at Forglen and the tenants were required to ride under the standard of the Arbroath abbots if called to defend king and kingdom . Forglen remained under the Abbey 's feudal superiority until the superiority passed to the Marquis of Hamilton in 1608 . Thirty @-@ nine years later , in 1641 , the feudal superior was William Murray , 1st Earl of Dysart and then , in 1642 , it was the Maules of Panmure .
The first holders of the Forglen land detailed in the charters are Sir Thomas of Monymusk and then his son , Malcolm , is listed in the 1315 charter . Malcolm was probably succeeded by a son , John , who died by 1387 . The following generations produced no male heirs so the land was inherited by daughters . Alexander Irvine of Drum raised a successful brieve ( writ ) mort d 'ancestor at a specially arranged court in Aberdeen on 24 January 1414 claiming the lands of Forglen . The session was overseen by the justiciary of the Arbroath abbots and held in the house of Alexander Stewart , Earl of Mar , a known supporter of the Irvine family who had fought alongside him in France and at the Battle of Harlaw , just north of Inverurie . The land continued in Irvine family ownership until 1624 when they sold it to the Urquharts of Craigfintray . George Ogilvy , who later became Lord Banff , acquired Forglen in 1637 .
The Ogilvy family were staunch Royalists and their properties , including Forglen , came under attack by the Covenanter forces led by General Robert Monro in 1640 . The principal family seat at the time was Inchdrewer Castle and appears to have remained as the main residence until around 1713 when George Ogilvy , 3rd Lord Banff died in a fire there . Sir Alexander Ogilvy , 1st Baronet was the second son of George Ogilvy , 2nd Lord Banff and is described in a 1702 ratification charter signed by Queen Anne as " Alexander Ogilvy of Forglen " . He assumed the title of Lord Forglen after his appointment as a Senator of the College of Justice in 1706 .
Forglen became the main family residence of the Ogilvy family during the 18th century and marked the onset of significant development of the estate . The 7th Lord Banff , Alexander , who inherited the estate from his grandfather in 1727 , began planting trees and organising plantations . He died at Forglen on 1 December 1771 . As Alexander 's eldest son , also named Alexander , had pre @-@ deceased him , his second son , William , inherited and became the 8th Lord Banff . William , a former army captain who served under the Duke of York , continued the development of the estate until his death at Forglen on 4 June 1803 . The lands were then inherited by William 's sister , Lady Jane Abercromby , who had married Sir George Abercromby of Birkenbog and the peerage of Lord Banff became dormant .
The Abercromby baronets owned a significant amount of property in Ireland , as most of the town of Fermoy had been purchased by them from John Anderson in the early 19th century . By 1814 Forglen was used as the main family seat of the Abercromby family ; in 1877 they also acquired Dunlugas House , which was sited on the other side of the River Deveron . Lady Jane Abercromby 's son , Sir Robert Abercromby , 5th Baronet , continued to enhance the grandeur of the estate policies by commissioning the building of a new mansion and several other buildings .
During the Second World War Forglen was one area that had an Auxiliary Unit Patrol . Auxiliary Units were a top @-@ secret resistance organisation formed down the entire eastern side of the UK . If Germany ever invaded , the patrol would go into hiding in an Operational Base . When the invasion was one to two weeks old , and things settled down , the patrol would come out at night and undertake guerilla warfare . Members of the patrols were trained as explosives experts and were well armed compared to the conventional British Army . Research by Coleshill Auxiliary Research Team has identified the patrol members and an approximate location of the operational base in the estate .
Robert Alexander Abercromby , the 9th Abercromby baronet , died at home on 19 October 1972 and the estate was marketed for sale in 1974 . In 2007 it was owned by Tristan Russell and his family who had acquired it sometime before 1994 .
= = Mansion = =
The original residence at Forglen , on the left bank of the River Deveron , was constructed around 1346 . The first structure was probably a castle but was replaced with a vernacular harled house , which had a tower wing extension erected during the late 18th @-@ century . In 1839 , when Sir Robert Abercromby commissioned the Aberdeen City Architect John Smith to build the present mansion , the old house was demolished but some materials were salvaged and used in the new house . The mansion was constructed over the footprint of the previous structure . Armorial panels and inscriptions from the ancient castle were preserved and set into an octagonal tower .
The cost of building the new mansion was £ 16 @,@ 000 , equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 4 million as of 2012 . Architectural historian Charles McKean likened the central tower and gatehouse to the style of Robert Smythson and described the mansion house design as an " Elizabethan Gothic confection " that had " all the romantic aspirations of the early 19th century poured into it " . The mansion house was designated a Category A listed building by Historic Scotland on 22 February 1972 .
= = = Exterior = = =
Based on a courtyard house layout , externally the harled whinstone rubble mansion is a combination of Elizabethan and Jacobean ( or Gothic ) design , similar to Smith 's work at Slains . A spacious central courtyard is surrounded by buildings three storeys high . Within the back of the courtyard , circular towers enclose the service stairways . A large Elizabethan @-@ style tower housing the main stairway is also set within the courtyard but sited to the front behind the reception rooms . Other external features include : canted and box bays ; a variety of lofty towers that are round , square or octagonal ; many different gables ; and numerous diagonally set stone flues . The southeast facing front elevation lacks symmetry with the main Tudor style entranceway set off centre and extending out . A plaque commemorating the building dates of 1839 – 1842 and a central armorial are above the round arched entrance . There is also an eight @-@ sided tower positioned at the front corner . A separate driveway accesses the outside kitchen yard at the back of the north west elevation . This side of the mansion is plainer , more restrained and built into the slope of the hillside . A lengthy one storey lean @-@ to houses fuel supplies and servants toilets and provides additional ground support . The northeast elevation is also more architecturally reserved than the front .
= = = Interior = = =
Internal components embraced a classical style with features like the Corinthian columned screen featured in the Dining Room . The entrance hall has two storeys with a left ascending staircase . Kitchen , service and servant amenities are on the ground floor , as are the gun room , stores and beer and wine cellars . The first floor has a long gallery corridor running the whole length of the inner courtyard . Another pair of Corinthian columns screen the cantilevered staircase from the gallery corridor . Several trompe @-@ l 'œil panels and borders are present and the plastered walls mimic timber panelling . Bedrooms were accommodated on the first and second floor . The bedrooms housed within the north @-@ west elevation on the third floor are simple and were used by the servants of visitors if there was insufficient room for them on the ground floor . Polished red granite was used for the mantlepieces .
= = = Late 19th @-@ century furnishings = = =
An 1895 newspaper description of the furnishings of the mansion relates there are several hunting trophies displayed in the entrance hall . The antler from an elk 's skeleton , which had been found buried in the family 's Fermoy estate , was mounted in the hall and the width between the tips was reported as more than 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) . The dimensions for the long gallery are given as 125 feet ( 38 m ) long with a ceiling height of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . Decorated in a deep maroon , steel engravings , drawings and old prints adorn the walls . It was furnished with antiques and an organ was the centrepiece . Some of the first floor rooms accessed from the gallery were a Ballroom and a Drawing Room . Three arches separated these two rooms and the side arches were fitted with mirrors . Silk damask in a light blue shade was the Ball Room wall covering while satin of a light green colour was used in the Drawing Room . Among the paintings displayed in the Dining Room were family portraits by Henry Raeburn and a painting by John Hoppner was in the Library .
= = Gardens and wider estate = =
The gardens and policies were added to the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland in 2011 because it is an " all @-@ round , outstanding designed landscape " . Designated as " outstanding " within six of the seven categories ( work of art , historical , horticultural , architectural , scenic and archaeological ) , it is listed as of high importance in the assessment for the nature conservancy listing .
To the northwest of the mansion is a 15 metres ( 49 ft ) square walled garden . Enclosed inside the 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high perimeter walls are greenhouses and outside are several lean @-@ to stores , potting sheds and a single storey cottage for the gardener . Category C listed on 15 February 1982 , these structures were also designed by Smith in the 19th @-@ century .
Several other structures within the policies are listed . These include the Category B listed Gothic style mausoleum constructed in 1865 at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 500 , equivalent to around £ 266 @,@ 000 as at 2012 . Built in the shape of a cross , it has a round stained glass window in the front gable and features many gargoyles and other stone decorations . Bodies are interred in the burial ground outside but commemorative stones made of Carrara marble are inside the mausoleum . The corbels on the internal oak roof are embellished with angel figurines .
Among other Category B listed structures are the stables and coach house situated to the south of the mansion . This group of buildings are given as constructed c . 1840 by Historic Scotland but Miller attributes them as being from the time of the previous mansion . The brick built Dovecot , from the early 19th @-@ century and the Eastside and North Lodge houses from c . 1865 are also Category B listed .
In 1906 some excavation work was undertaken by Scottish archaeologist J. Graham Callander on a circular tumulus that is within the estate , just over half a mile to the south of the mansion . The mound , in a wooded area known as Meadowheads Wood , is 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in height and c . 64 feet ( 20 m ) wide . Various relicts and urns were discovered including three drinking @-@ cup type urns , some of the " highest quality " .
= = Recent times = =
The mansion and estate remains in private ownership in the 21st century . The Russell family undertook gradual and ongoing restoration and re @-@ furbishment of the mansion internally and externally . The roof has been re @-@ slated and some replacement or repair has been carried out to the stonework , harling and guttering . A large number of rooms are no longer used , particularly on the ground and second floors .
The mansion house is not open to the public but walks can be taken through the estate . Several of the cottages are hired out as holiday lets , including one of the lodge houses .
= = Gallery = =
= Donald William Kerst =
Donald William Kerst ( November 1 , 1911 – August 19 , 1993 ) was an American physicist who worked on advanced particle accelerator concepts ( accelerator physics ) and plasma physics . He is most notable for his development of the betatron , a novel type of particle accelerator used to accelerate electrons .
A graduate of the University of Wisconsin , Kerst developed the first betatron at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign , where it became operational on July 15 , 1940 . During World War II , Kerst took a leave of absence in 1940 and 1941 to work on it with the engineering staff at General Electric , and he designed a portable betatron for inspecting dud bombs . In 1943 he joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where he was responsible for designing and building the Water Boiler , a nuclear reactor intended to serve as a laboratory instrument .
From 1953 to 1957 Kerst was technical director of the Midwestern Universities Research Association , where he worked on advanced particle accelerator concepts , most notably the FFAG accelerator . He was then employed at General Atomics 's John Jay Hopkins Laboratory from 1957 to 1962 , where he worked on the problem of plasma physics . With Tihiro Ohkawa he invented toroidal devices for containing the plasma with magnetic fields . Their devices were the first to contain plasma without the instabilities that had plagued previous designs , and the first to contain plasma for lifetimes exceeding the Bohm diffusion limit .
= = Early life = =
Donald William Kerst was born in Galena , Illinois November 1 , 1911 , the son of Herman Samuel Kerst and Lillian E Wetz . He entered the University of Wisconsin , where he earned a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree in 1934 , and then his Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) in 1937 , writing his thesis on " The Development of Electrostatic Generators in Air Pressure and Applications to Excitation Functions of Nuclear Reactions " . This involved building and testing a 2 @.@ 3 MeV generator for experiments with the scattering of protons .
= = Betatron = =
After graduation , Kerst worked at General Electric Company for a year , working on the development of x @-@ ray tubes and machines . He found this frustrating , as x @-@ ray research required high energies that could not be produced at the time . In 1938 he accepted an offer of an instructorship at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign , where the head of the physics department , F. Wheeler Loomis encouraged Kerst in his efforts to create a better particle accelerator . The result of these efforts was the betatron . When it became operational on July 15 , 1940 , Kerst became the first person to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction , reaching energies of 2 @.@ 3 MeV .
It took longer to name the device . Colleagues suggested names such as the German " Ausserordentlichhochgeschwindigkeitelektronenentwickelndenschwerarbeitsbeigollitron " . In December 1941 Kerst decided on " betatron " , using the Greek letter " beta " , which was the symbol for electrons , and " tron " meaning " instrument for " . He went on to build more betatrons of increasing energy , a 20 MeV machine in 1941 , an 80 MeV in 1948 , and a 340 MeV machine , which was completed in 1950 .
The betatron would influence all subsequent accelerators . Its success was due to a thorough understanding of the physics involved , and painstaking design of the magnets , vacuum pumps and power supply . In 1941 , he teamed up with Robert Serber to provide the first theoretical analysis of the oscillations that occur in a betatron . The original 1940 machine was donated to the Smithsonian Institution in 1960 .
= = World War II = =
During World War II , Kerst took a leave of absence from the University of Illinois to work on the development of the betatron with the engineering staff at General Electric in 1940 and 1941 . They designed 20 MeV and 100 MeV versions of the betatron , and he supervised the construction of the former , which he brought back to the University of Illinois with him . He also designed a portable 4 MeV betatron for inspecting dud bombs .
Kerst 's engineering and physics background placed him near the top of the list of scientists that Robert Oppenheimer recruited for the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , which was set up to design the atomic bomb . In August 1943 , Kerst was placed in charge of the Laboratory 's P @-@ 7 Group , which was responsible for designing and building the Water Boiler , a nuclear reactor intended to serve as a laboratory instrument to test critical mass calculations and the effect of various tamper materials . Primarily drawn from Purdue University , his group included Charles P. Baker , Gerhart Friedlander , Lindsay Helmholtz , Marshall Holloway , and Raemer Schreiber . Robert F. Christy provided help with the theoretical calculations .
Kerst designed an aqueous homogeneous reactor in which enriched uranium in the form of soluble uranium sulfate , was dissolved in water , and surrounded by a beryllium oxide neutron reflector . It was the first reactor to employ enriched uranium as a fuel , and required most of the world 's meager supply at the time . A sufficient quantity of enriched uranium arrived at Los Alamos by April 1944 , and the Water Boiler commenced operation in May . By the end of June it had achieved all of its design goals .
The Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized in August 1944 to concentrate on creating an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . Studying implosion on a large scale , or even a full scale , required special diagnostic methods . As early as November 1943 , Kerst suggested using a betatron employing 20 MeV gamma rays instead of x @-@ rays to study implosion . In the August 1944 reorganization , he became joint head , with Seth Neddermeyer , of the G @-@ 5 Group , part of Robert Bacher 's G ( Gadget ) Division specifically charged with betatron testing . Oppenheimer had the 20 MeV betatron at the University of Illinois shipped to Los Alamos , where it arrived in December . On January 15 , 1945 , the G @-@ 5 Group took their first betatron pictures of an implosion .
= = Later life = =
Kerst returned to the University of Illinois after the war . From 1953 to 1957 he was technical director of the Midwestern Universities Research Association , where he worked on advanced particle accelerator concepts , most notably the FFAG accelerator . He developed the spiral @-@ sector focusing principle , which lies at the heart of many spiral ridge cyclotrons that are now in operation around the world . His team devised and analysed beam stacking , a process of radio frequency acceleration in fixed field machines that led to the development of the colliding beam accelerators .
From 1957 to 1962 Kerst was employed at the General Atomics division of General Dynamics 's John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science in La Jolla , California , where he worked on plasma physics , which it was hoped was the doorway to the control of thermonuclear energy . With Tihiro Ohkawa he invented toroidal devices for containing the plasma with magnetic fields . The two completed this work at the University of Wisconsin , where Kerst was a professor from 1962 until his retirement in 1980 . Their devices were the first to contain plasma without the instabilities that had plagued previous designs , and the first to contain plasma for lifetimes exceeding the Bohm diffusion limit . From 1972 to 1973 he was also chairman of the Plasma Physics Division of the American Physical Society .
Kerst was married to Dorothy Birkett Kerst . They had two children , a daughter , Marilyn , and a son , Stephen . After he retired , Kerst and Dorothy moved to Fort Myers , Florida . He died on August 19 , 1993 at the University Hospital and Clinics in Madison , Wisconsin , from a brain tumor . He was survived by his wife and children . His papers are in the University of Illinois Archives .
= = Awards and honors = =
Honorary degree , Lawrence College , 1942 .
Awarded Comstock Prize in Physics , National Academy of Sciences , 1943 .
Awarded John Scott Award , City of Philadelphia , 1946 .
Awarded John Price Wetherill Medal , Franklin Institute , 1950 .
Elected to the National Academy of Sciences , 1951 .
Honorary degree , University of Sao Paulo , 1953 .
Honorary degree , University of Wisconsion , 1961 .
Awarded James Clerk Maxwell Prize in plasma physics , American Physical Society , 1984 .
Awarded Robert R. Wilson Prize for accelerator physics , 1988 .
Honorary degree , University of Illinois , 1989 .
= Naborr =
Naborr ( April 3 , 1950 – November 9 , 1977 ) , originally named Nabor , was a gray Arabian stallion foaled in Russia at the Tersk Stud . He was sired by Negatiw , a Russian @-@ bred stallion with Crabbet ancestry , out of the Polish @-@ bred mare Lagodna . After establishing himself on the race track and show ring in the former USSR , Naborr was exported to Poland , where he lived for seven years , and from there was purchased for import to the United States by a wealthy Arabian horse breeder from Arizona , Anne McCormick . Upon her death , Naborr was sold in 1969 to Tom Chauncey and Wayne Newton for $ 150 @,@ 000 , which was at the time the highest price ever paid for an Arabian horse at auction . He went on to become a leading sire of champion Arabian horses in the United States and Canada .
= = Life and career = =
Naborr was foaled at Russia 's Tersk Stud on April 13 , 1950 , and was originally named Nabor . He was sired by the Russian @-@ born stallion Negatiw ( sometimes spelled Negativ ) and out of the mare Lagodna . He was a homozygous gray , and was recorded by the Russian Arabian Stud Book as standing 150 centimetres ( 14 @.@ 3 hands ; 59 in ) . As a two @-@ year @-@ old , Nabor raced at Pyatigorsk and won two times out of eight starts . His highest recorded speeds were 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) in 1 : 54 , 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in 1 : 55 , and 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in 2 : 10 . His accomplishments at the track qualified him to become a breeding stallion at Tersk . At age four , he was awarded a " certificate of the first class " , equivalent to a Reserve Champion , at the All @-@ Union Agricultural Fair in Moscow in a competition open to all breeds of horses . His sire Negatiw was the champion . Nabor sired nine foals in Russia , but only one , a colt , was registered .
In 1955 , Nabor was sold to Poland . The Polish were rebuilding their Arabian breeding program following World War II , and wanted a stallion that would restore the Ibrahim sire line to their national studs . Ibrahim was a desert @-@ bred stallion brought to Poland in 1907 by Count Joseph Potocki . The horse was killed in 1917 during the Bolshevik Revolution , and by the end of World War II , the sire line had been lost to Poland . It was preserved via Ibrahim 's son Skowronek , who had been exported to England in 1912 , and Skowronek was the great @-@ grandsire of Nabor . In Poland , Nabor was first put to stud at the Albigowa State Stud , then in 1957 moved to the Michalow State Stud . While in Poland , he was noted for his docile temperament , intelligence , soundness , and Saklawi @-@ style Arabian beauty : " dry , fine head with expressive eye , swan neck and milk @-@ white hair unusual for his age ... he resembled the Arabian horses painted by Juliusz Kossak , the
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best painter of oriental horses . " In 1962 , the Poles were also able to import his sire Negatiw .
Nabor stayed at Michalow until January 1963 , when he was purchased and imported to America by the heiress Anne " Fifi " McCormick . Upon arrival in America , Nabor 's registered name became Naborr . Naborr came to America via ship , along with 15 other Polish @-@ bred Arabians , including Bask . The voyage lasted 44 days and was rough because the ship encountered a storm at sea . They also ran low on hay . 13 @-@ year @-@ old Naborr came through the trip fairly well but lost 50 pounds . One other horse , a mare , aborted her foal and died , and most of the other horses lost a great deal more weight than did Naborr . McCormick only stood Naborr to her own mares and those of a few select friends , and as a result , under McCormick 's ownership , he only sired about 10 foals per year , a total of 82 foals . Because Naborr 's stud book was closed to outside mares , breeders seeking his bloodlines returned to Poland and purchased several of his offspring bred there , including the mare * Dornaba and stallions * Gwalior , * Mirzaz , and * Aramus . A total of 27 of Naborr 's offspring were imported from Poland to the United States .
When McCormick died at age 90 , in 1969 , the terms of her will called for her Arabians to be sold at public auction . In October , 1969 Tom Chauncey , a television station owner , rancher and horse breeder in the Phoenix area , agreed to team up with Wayne Newton and purchased Naborr at the McCormick estate auction . Chauncey paid $ 150 @,@ 000 , which at the time was the highest price ever paid for an Arabian horse at auction in America , and brought in Newton as a partner on the horse a month later . Chauncey had previously bred Thoroughbreds and Quarter Horses , but already owned a few Arabians that he kept on his ranch . He initially stabled Naborr at Newton 's more suitable barn , but built his own facility near Scottsdale , Arizona , and bought out Newton 's share in 1971 . In the same period , Newton formed a partnership with other Arabian breeders to purchase * Aramus , who was a son of Naborr . When Aramus was named National Champion Stallion in 1970 , Naborr 's stud fee was advertised at $ 10 @,@ 000 . That same year , Naborr was brought to the U.S. Arabian National Championship show and honored before the spectators there as one of 10 " Living Legends " . In 1975 he was the fourth @-@ leading sire of champions in the United States . Under Chauncey 's ownership , he sired another 260 foals .
His high purchase price and coverage in mainstream national news outlets was credited as the beginning of a " bubble " of high auction prices paid for Arabian horses . Naborr had the distinction of being the first Russian @-@ bred Arabian to have offspring registered in the United States . Due to his importation from Poland , he could be registered , as the Russian Arabian Stud Book was not approved by the World Arabian Horse Association until 1978 . Naborr died on November 9 , 1977 ; he was 27 years old . In his final year of life , he sired 36 foals , the last of which was born on October 1 , 1978 .
= = Offspring and legacy = =
Combining his imported offspring and American @-@ born foals , Naborr sired 365 horses registered in the United States . By the end of 1967 , 61 of his offspring had won 693 show championships among them . The number of wins later doubled . In 1981 , Naborr was tied for third as the leading sire of U.S. and Canadian National Champions . By 1999 , statistics showed that 1130 championships had been won by 121 of his offspring . Of these horses , 46 of them earned Top Ten or higher honors at the U.S. and Canadian National Arabian Championships .
Naborr 's winning offspring included his son Kaborr , who was a Canadian National Champion Stallion in halter and western pleasure , and reserve U.S. National Champion stallion as well as Senior European Male Champion at the Salon du Cheval in France in 1979 . Other sons and daughters had championship careers as well . The Naborr son * Aramus , foaled in Poland and imported to the United States , became a U.S. and Canadian National Champion Stallion in both halter and performance , showing in formal driving and as a park horse . Naborr 's son Gai @-@ Adventure was U.S. National Champion stallion in 1974 . His daughter , * Dornaba , was a U.S. and Canadian National Champion Mare . Other national champion offspring in performance disciplines included Riffle , a park and formal driving horse , and Ibn Naborr , Canadian National Champion Stock Horse .
= = Pedigree = =
Through his sire Negatiw , Naborr was a grandson of the Skowronek son Naseem , who had been sold to Russia in 1936 by Lady Wentworth of the Crabbet Arabian Stud for a price estimated at ₤ 50 @,@ 000 . His dam Lagodna was foaled in Poland and the Russians captured her and a number of other Arabians during World War II and brought her to Tersk . Also amongst the captured horses were Naborr 's ancestors Taraszcza , Gazella II , and Enwer Bey . Via his sire line to Skowonek , as well as through Lagodna 's sire Posejdon , and the mare Ikwa , Naborr carries three crosses to the stallion Ibrahim .
= Ruthenium =
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44 . It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table . Like the other metals of the platinum group , ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals . The Baltic German scientist Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 and named it after his homeland , the Russian Empire ( one of Russia 's Latin names is Ruthenia ) . Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores ; the annual production is about 20 tonnes . Most ruthenium produced is used in wear @-@ resistant electrical contacts and thick @-@ film resistors . A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A polyvalent hard white metal , ruthenium is a member of the platinum group and is in group 8 of the periodic table :
Whereas all other group 8 elements have 2 electrons in the outermost shell , in ruthenium , the outermost shell has only one electron ( the final electron is in a lower shell ) . This anomaly is observed in the neighboring metals , niobium ( 41 ) , rhodium ( 45 ) , and palladium ( 46 ) .
Ruthenium has four crystal modifications and does not tarnish unless subject to high temperatures . Ruthenium dissolves in fused alkalis to give ruthenates ( RuO2 −
4 ) , is not attacked by acids ( even aqua regia ) but is attacked by halogens at high temperatures . Indeed , ruthenium is most readily attacked by oxidizing agents . Small amounts of ruthenium can increase the hardness of platinum and palladium . The corrosion resistance of titanium is increased markedly by the addition of a small amount of ruthenium . The metal can be plated by electroplating and by thermal decomposition . A ruthenium @-@ molybdenum alloy is known to be superconductive at temperatures below 10 @.@ 6 K. Ruthenium is the last of the 4d transition metals that can assume the group oxidation state + 8 , and even then is less stable there than the heavier congener osmium : this is the first group from the left of the table where the second and third @-@ row transition metals display notable differences in chemical behavior . Like iron but unlike osmium , ruthenium can form aqueous cations in its lower oxidation states of + 2 and + 3 .
Ruthenium is the first in a downward trend in the melting and boiling points and atomization enthalpy in the 4d transition metals after the maximum seen at molybdenum , because the 4d subshell is more than half full and the electrons are contributing less to metallic bonding . ( Technetium , the previous element , has an exceptionally low value that is off the trend due to its half @-@ filled [ Kr ] 4d55s2 configuration , though the small amount of energy needed to excite it to a [ Kr ] 4d65s1 configuration indicates that it is not as far off the trend in the 4d series as manganese in the 3d transition series . ) Unlike the lighter congener iron , ruthenium is paramagnetic at room temperature , as iron also is above its Curie point .
The reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common ruthenium ions are shown below :
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring ruthenium is composed of seven stable isotopes . Additionally , 34 radioactive isotopes have been discovered . Of these radioisotopes , the most stable are 106Ru with a half @-@ life of 373 @.@ 59 days , 103Ru with a half @-@ life of 39 @.@ 26 days and 97Ru with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 9 days .
Fifteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 89 @.@ 93 u ( 90Ru ) to 114 @.@ 928 u ( 115Ru ) . Most of these have half @-@ lives that are less than five minutes except 95Ru ( half @-@ life : 1 @.@ 643 hours ) and 105Ru ( half @-@ life : 4 @.@ 44 hours ) .
The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope , 102Ru , is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission . The primary decay product before 102Ru is technetium and the primary decay product after is rhodium .
= = = Occurrence = = =
As the 74th most abundant element in Earth 's crust , ruthenium is relatively rare , found in about 100 parts per trillion . This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America . Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa . The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral ( Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Mining = = =
Roughly 12 tonnes of ruthenium are mined each year with world reserves estimated as 5 @,@ 000 tonnes . The composition of the mined platinum group metal ( PGM ) mixtures varies widely , depending on the geochemical formation . For example , the PGMs mined in South Africa contain on average 11 % ruthenium while the PGMs mined in the former USSR contain only 2 % ( 1992 ) . Ruthenium , osmium , and iridium are considered the minor platinum group metals .
Ruthenium , like the other platinum group metals , is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel , and copper , and platinum metals ore processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold , and the platinum group metals precipitate as anode mud , the feedstock for the extraction . The metals are converted to ionized solutes by any of several methods , depending on the composition of the feedstock . One representative method is fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and solution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid . Osmium , ruthenium , rhodium , and iridium are insoluble in aqua regia and readily precipitate , leaving the other metals in solution . Rhodium is separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate . The insoluble residue , containing Ru , Os , and Ir is treated with sodium oxide , in which Ir is insoluble , producing dissolved Ru and Os salts . After oxidation to the volatile oxides , RuO
4 is separated from OsO
4 by precipitation of ( NH4 ) 3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride or by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide . Hydrogen is used to reduce ammonium ruthenium chloride yielding a powder . The first method to precipitate the ruthenium with ammonium chloride is similar to the procedure that Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston used .
Several methods are suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge metal that can be treated with powder metallurgy techniques or argon @-@ arc welding .
= = = From used nuclear fuels = = =
Fission products of uranium @-@ 235 contain significant amounts of ruthenium and the lighter platinum group metals , and spent nuclear fuel is a potential source of ruthenium . The extraction and refinement is expensive and the radioactive isotopes of ruthenium require the spent fuel to be stored for multiple half @-@ lives of those isotopes . Those factors have so far discouraged large @-@ scale extraction , and none has been started .
= = Chemical compounds = =
The oxidation states of ruthenium range from 0 to + 8 , and − 2 . The properties of ruthenium and osmium compounds are often similar . The + 2 , + 3 , and + 4 states are the most common . The most prevalent precursor is ruthenium trichloride , a red solid that is poorly defined chemically but versatile synthetically .
= = = Oxides and chalcogenides = = =
Ruthenium can be oxidized to ruthenium ( IV ) oxide ( RuO2 , oxidation state + 4 ) which can in turn be oxidized by sodium metaperiodate to the volatile yellow tetrahedral ruthenium tetroxide , RuO4 , an aggressive , strong oxidizing agent with structure and properties analogous to osmium tetroxide . Like osmium tetroxide , ruthenium tetroxide is a potent fixative and stain for electron microscopy of organic materials , and is mostly used to reveal the structure of polymer samples . Dipotassium ruthenate ( K2RuO4 , + 6 ) , and potassium perruthenate ( KRuO4 , + 7 ) are also known . Unlike osmium tetroxide , ruthenium tetroxide is less stable and is strong enough as an oxidising agent to oxidise dilute hydrochloric acid and organic solvents like ethanol at room temperature , and is easily reduced to ruthenate ( RuO2 −
4 ) in aqueous alkaline solutions ; it decomposes to form the dioxide above 100 ° C. Unlike iron but like osmium , ruthenium does not form oxides in its lower + 2 and + 3 oxidation states . Ruthenium forms dichalcogenides only when reacted directly with the chalcogens , which are diamagnetic semiconductors crystallizing in the pyrite structure and thus must contain ruthenium ( II ) .
Like iron , ruthenium does not readily form oxoanions , and prefers to achieve high coordination numbers with hydroxide ions instead . Ruthenium tetroxide is reduced by cold dilute potassium hydroxide to form black potassium perruthenate , KRuO4 , with ruthenium in the + 7 oxidation state . Potassium perruthenate can also be produced by oxidising potassium ruthenate , K2RuO4 , with chlorine gas . The perruthenate ion is unstable and is reduced by water to form the orange ruthenate . Potassium ruthenate may be synthesized by reacting ruthenium metal with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate .
Some mixed oxides are also known , such as MIIRuIVO3 , Na3RuVO4 , Na
2RuV
2O
7 , and MII
2LnIIIRuVO
6 .
= = = Halides and oxyhalides = = =
The highest known ruthenium halide is the hexafluoride , a dark brown solid that melts at 54 ° C. It hydrolyzes violently upon contact with water and easily disproportionates to form a mixture of lower ruthenium fluorides , releasing fluorine gas . Ruthenium pentafluoride is a tetrameric dark green solid that is also readily hydrolyzed , melting at 86 @.@ 5 ° C. The yellow ruthenium tetrafluoride is probably also polymeric and can be formed by reducing the pentafluoride with iodine . Among the binary compounds of ruthenium , these high oxidation states are known only in the oxides and fluorides .
Ruthenium trichloride is a well @-@ known compound , existing in a black α @-@ form and a dark brown β @-@ form : the trihydrate is red . Of the known trihalides , trifluoride is dark brown and decomposes above 650 ° C , tetrabromide is dark @-@ brown and decomposes above 400 ° C , and triiodide is black . Of the dihalides , difluoride is not known , dichloride is brown , dibromide is black , and diiodide is blue . The only known oxyhalide is the pale green ruthenium ( VI ) oxyfluoride , RuOF4 .
= = = Coordination and organometallic complexes = = =
Ruthenium forms a variety of coordination complexes . Examples are the many pentammine derivatives [ Ru ( NH3 ) 5L ] n + that often exist for both Ru ( II ) and Ru ( III ) . Derivatives of bipyridine and terpyridine are numerous , best known being the luminescent tris ( bipyridine ) ruthenium ( II ) chloride .
Ruthenium forms a wide range compounds with carbon @-@ ruthenium bonds . Grubbs ' catalyst is used for alkene metathesis . Ruthenocene is analogous to ferrocene structurally , but exhibits distinctive redox properties . The colorless liquid ruthenium pentacarbonyl converts in the absence of CO pressure to the dark red solid triruthenium dodecacarbonyl . Ruthenium trichloride reacts with carbon monoxide to give many derivatives including RuHCl ( CO ) ( PPh3 ) 3 and Ru ( CO ) 2 ( PPh3 ) 3 ( Roper 's complex ) . Heating solutions of ruthenium trichloride in alcohols with triphenylphosphine gives tris ( triphenylphosphine ) ruthenium dichloride ( RuCl2 ( PPh3 ) 3 ) , which converts to the hydride complex chlorohydridotris ( triphenylphosphine ) ruthenium ( II ) ( RuHCl ( PPh3 ) 3 ) .
= = History = =
Though naturally occurring platinum alloys containing all six platinum @-@ group metals were used for a long time by pre @-@ Columbian Americans and known as a material to European chemists from the mid @-@ 16th century , not until the mid @-@ 18th century was platinum identified as a pure element . That natural platinum contained palladium , rhodium , osmium and iridium was discovered in the first decade of the 19th century . Platinum in alluvial sands of Russian rivers gave access to raw material for use in plates and medals and for the minting of ruble coins , starting in 1828 . Residues from platinum production for coinage were available in the Russian Empire , and therefore most of the research on them was done in Eastern Europe .
It is possible that the Polish chemist Jędrzej Śniadecki isolated element 44 ( which he called " vestium " after the asteroid Vesta discovered shortly before ) from South American platinum ores in 1807 . He published an announcement of his discovery in 1808 . His work was never confirmed , however , and he later withdrew his claim of discovery .
Jöns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered ruthenium in 1827 . They examined residues that were left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia . Berzelius did not find any unusual metals , but Osann thought he found three new metals , which he called pluranium , ruthenium , and polinium . This discrepancy led to a long @-@ standing controversy between Berzelius and Osann about the composition of the residues . As Osann was not able to repeat his isolation of ruthenium , he eventually relinquished his claims . The name " ruthenium " was chosen by Osann because the analysed samples stemmed from the Ural Mountains in Russia . The name itself derives from Ruthenia , the Latin word for Rus ' , a historical area that included present @-@ day western Russia , Ukraine , Belarus , and parts of Slovakia and Poland .
In 1844 , Karl Ernst Claus , a Russian scientist of Baltic German descent , showed that the compounds prepared by Gottfried Osann contained small amounts of ruthenium , which Claus had discovered the same year . Claus isolated ruthenium from the platinum residues of rouble production while he was working in Kazan University , Kazan , the same way its heavier congener osmium had been discovered four decades earlier . Claus showed that ruthenium oxide contained a new metal and obtained 6 grams of ruthenium from the part of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia . Choosing the name for the new element , Claus stated : " I named the new body , in honour of my Motherland , ruthenium . I had every right to call it by this name because Mr. Osann relinquished his ruthenium and the word does not yet exist in chemistry . "
= = Applications = =
Because it hardens platinum and palladium alloys , ruthenium is used in electrical contacts , where a thin film is sufficient to achieve the desired durability . With similar properties and lower cost than rhodium , electric contacts are a major use of ruthenium . The plate is applied to the base by electroplating or sputtering .
Ruthenium dioxide with lead and bismuth ruthenates are used in thick @-@ film chip resistors . These two electronic applications account for 50 % of the ruthenium consumption .
Ruthenium is seldom alloyed with metals outside the platinum group , where small quantities improve some properties . The added corrosion resistance in titanium alloys led to the development of a special alloy with 0 @.@ 1 % ruthenium . Ruthenium is also used in some advanced high @-@ temperature single @-@ crystal superalloys , with applications that include the turbines in jet engines . Several nickel based superalloy compositions are described , such as EPM @-@ 102 ( with 3 % Ru ) , TMS @-@ 162 ( with 6 % Ru ) , TMS @-@ 138 , and TMS @-@ 174 , the latter two containing 6 % rhenium . Fountain pen nibs are frequently tipped with ruthenium alloy . From 1944 onward , the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with the " RU " nib , a 14K gold nib tipped with 96 @.@ 2 % ruthenium and 3 @.@ 8 % iridium .
Ruthenium is a component of mixed @-@ metal oxide ( MMO ) anodes used for cathodic protection of underground and submerged structures , and for electrolytic cells for such processes as generating chlorine from salt water . The fluorescence of some ruthenium complexes is quenched by oxygen , finding use in optode sensors for oxygen . Ruthenium red , [ ( NH3 ) 5Ru @-@ O @-@ Ru ( NH3 ) 4 @-@ O @-@ Ru ( NH3 ) 5 ] 6 + , is a biological stain used to stain polyanionic molecules such as pectin and nucleic acids for light microscopy and electron microscopy . The beta @-@ decaying isotope 106 of ruthenium is used in radiotherapy of eye tumors , mainly malignant melanomas of the uvea . Ruthenium @-@ centered complexes are being researched for possible anticancer properties . Compared with platinum complexes , those of ruthenium show greater resistance to hydrolysis and more selective action on tumors . NAMI @-@ A and KP1019 are two drugs undergoing clinical evaluation for treatment of metastatic tumors and colon cancers .
Ruthenium tetroxide exposes latent fingerprints by reacting on contact with fatty oils or fats with sebaceous contaminants and producing brown / black ruthenium dioxide pigment .
= = = Catalysis = = =
Ruthenium is a versatile catalyst . With an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide , the energy of visible light can split Hydrogen sulfide . This process may be one day be used to remove H2S in oil refineries and other industrial processing facilities . Organometallic ruthenium carbene and alkylidene complexes have been found to be highly efficient catalysts for olefin metathesis , a process with important applications in organic and pharmaceutical chemistry . Ruthenium @-@ promoted cobalt catalysts are used in Fischer @-@ Tropsch synthesis .
= = = Solar energy conversion = = =
Some ruthenium complexes absorb light throughout the visible spectrum and are being actively researched for solar energy technologies . For example , Ruthenium @-@ based compounds have been used for light absorption in dye @-@ sensitized solar cells , a promising new low @-@ cost solar cell system .
= = = Data storage = = =
Chemical vapor deposition of ruthenium is used to produce thin films of pure ruthenium on substrates . These films show promise for use in microchips and for the giant magnetoresistive read element for hard disk drives . Ruthenium is also suggested for microelectronics because it is compatible with semiconductor processing techniques .
= = = Exotic materials = = =
Many ruthenium @-@ based oxides show very unusual properties , such as a quantum critical point behavior , exotic superconductivity , and high @-@ temperature ferromagnetism .
= Chris Howard ( American football ) =
Christopher L. " Chris " Howard ( born May 5 , 1975 ) is a retired professional American football running back who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Jacksonville Jaguars . Howard had been drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft . His professional football career was haunted by fumble troubles , which caused the Broncos to release him before he played a regular season game for them . Howard began to have fumble problems again when the Jaguars acquired and promoted him to a role as a regular player .
He had previously played for the Michigan Wolverines football team where in the 1997 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , his final year at Michigan , they won a National Championship . Howard led the National Champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team in rushing and was a Hula Bowl MVP in 1998 . Chris attended Louisiana high school football powerhouse , John Curtis Christian High School in River Ridge , Louisiana . He was formerly married to Gabrielle Union .
= = Early years = =
Howard was born in Kenner , Louisiana . He enrolled at Michigan after playing for Louisiana High School football powerhouse John Curtis Christian High School .
= = College career = =
In four years at Michigan from 1994 to 1997 , he totaled 1876 yards rushing on 418 carries and added 429 yards receiving on 60 receptions . He totaled nine 100 @-@ yard rushing efforts for Michigan including four during the 1997 championship season . In college , his biggest rushing effort was 127 yards against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in 1996 . However , he once rushed for 109 yards and 4 touchdowns against the UCLA Bruins . In addition , Howard also posted the fourth longest rush in school history , an 86 @-@ yard rush .
In 1996 , he had five 100 @-@ yard games despite only playing in ten games as a junior . He totaled 725 yards rushing and ten touchdowns in the ten games . However , he was second on the team in rushing to sophomore Clarence Williams who tallied 837 yards in 12 games .
In the 1997 championship season , he was the rushing leader for a fundamentally sound undefeated 12 – 0 Michigan team that did not have a 1000 @-@ yard rusher or 500 @-@ yard receiver . The team emphasized defense behind 1997 Heisman Trophy winning defensive back Charles Woodson . Howard totaled 938 yards rushing on 199 carries and 276 yards receiving on 37 receptions . He was second on the team in scoring to placekicker Kraig Baker with 7 rushing touchdowns and 1 receiving touchdown . He was complemented in the backfield by freshman Anthony Thomas who added 549 yards and 5 rushing touchdowns .
One of the key games in Michigan 's 1997 National Championship season was the game against the unbeaten Penn State Nittany Lions , then ranked Number 2 in the nation . Howard rushed for 120 yards and a touchdown in the win over the Nittany Lions , prompting Coach Lloyd Carr to comment : " I think that Chris Howard is a very underrated back . He proved that today . " Michigan controlled the game and led 34 – 0 after 3 quarters behind Howard ’ s best collegiate performance in terms of yards from scrimmage with 120 yards rushing and 41 yards receiving .
The 1997 season concluded with a 21 – 16 win over Washington State in the January 1 , 1998 Rose Bowl . Howard led all rushers in the game with 70 yards rushing on 19 carries .
He was also the North MVP for the 1998 edition of the Hula Bowl , an invitational college football all @-@ star game . He rushed for 116 yards on 14 carries and was involved in the culminating score in the North ’ s second half comeback . He handed off to Joe Jurevicius on a reverse play which ended with Jurevicius passing to Brian Griese for a five @-@ yard touchdown pass . The North would lose , however , when the missed extra point left the door open for a game winning field goal .
= = Professional career = =
Howard was selected by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft , but he had a difficult pre @-@ season with the Broncos in 1998 , fumbling five times in two games . The Broncos released him from their practice squad in September 1998 , and he was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars . At the time , Jacksonville Coach Tom Coughlin said : " Chris Howard is a young man and he certainly still is developmental . A couple weeks into our system and I think he 'll be a guy who can be counted on . But I 'm not going to say we 're done with our evaluations just yet . " Coughlin said of Howard 's fumbles with Denver : " It was carelessness . Basically , we 'll start from scratch with him fundamentally here . " Howard had professional totals of 123 yards rushing on 41 carries and 37 yards receiving on five receptions . In 2000 , his final year , he fumbled twice on only 21 carries in the first two games . These were his final two career NFL games .
= = Personal life = =
Chris Howard married actress Gabrielle Union on May 5 , 2001 . They separated in 2005 and their divorce was made final in April 2006 .
= Rage Against the Machine =
Rage Against the Machine ( also known as RATM or just Rage ) is an American rap metal band from Los Angeles , California . Formed in 1991 , the group consists of rapper and vocalist Zack de la Rocha , bassist and backing vocalist Tim Commerford , guitarist Tom Morello , and drummer Brad Wilk . They draw inspiration from early heavy metal instrumentation , as well as hip hop acts such as Afrika Bambaataa , Public Enemy , the Beastie Boys , and Dutch crossover band Urban Dance Squad . Rage Against the Machine is well known for the members ' leftist and revolutionary political views , which are expressed in many of the band 's songs . As of 2010 , they had sold over 16 million records worldwide .
In 1992 , the band released its self @-@ titled debut album , which became a commercial and critical success , leading to a slot in the 1993 Lollapalooza festival . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 368 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The band did not release a follow @-@ up record until 1996 , with Evil Empire . The band 's third album , The Battle of Los Angeles , followed in 1999 , and in 2003 , the album was ranked number 426 on the same list . During their initial nine @-@ year run , they became one of the most popular and influential bands in music history , according to music journalist Colin Devenish . They were also ranked No. 33 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . The band had a large influence on the nu metal genre which came to prominence during the second half of the 1990s .
In 2000 , the band released the cover album , Renegades . The same year , growing tensions over the direction of the band prompted de la Rocha to quit , leading to the band 's breakup . De la Rocha started a low @-@ key solo career , while the rest of the band formed the rock supergroup Audioslave with Chris Cornell , then @-@ former frontman of Soundgarden ; Audioslave recorded three albums before disbanding in 2007 . The same year , Rage Against the Machine announced a reunion and performed together for the first time in seven years at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2007 . Up until 2011 , the band continued to perform at more live venues and festivals around the world . As of 2012 , the group has no plans to perform or release new music . In 2016 Morello , Commerford and Wilk formed a new band , Prophets of Rage , with Chuck D and B @-@ Real .
= = History = =
= = = 1991 – 92 : Early years = = =
In 1991 , following the break @-@ up of guitarist Tom Morello 's former band Lock Up , former Lock Up drummer Jon Knox encouraged Commerford and Zack de la Rocha to jam with Tom Morello as he was looking to start a new group . Tom soon contacted Brad Wilk , who had unsuccessfully auditioned for Lock Up . This line @-@ up went on to form Rage Against the Machine . The newly christened Rage Against the Machine named themselves after a song de la Rocha had written for his former popular underground hardcore punk band , Inside Out ( also to be the title of the unrecorded Inside Out full @-@ length album ) . Kent McClard , with whom Inside Out were associated , had coined the phrase " rage against the machine " in a 1989 article in his zine No Answers .
Shortly after forming , they gave their first public performance on October 23 , 1991 at The Quad of California State University , Northridge . The blueprint for the group 's major @-@ label debut album , demo tape Rage Against the Machine , was laid on a twelve @-@ song self @-@ released cassette , the cover image of which was the stock market with a triple match taped to the inlay card . Not all 12 songs made it onto the final album — two were eventually included as B @-@ sides , while three others never saw an official release . Several record labels expressed interest , and the band eventually signed with Epic Records . Morello said , " Epic agreed to everything we asked — and they 've followed through .... We never saw a [ n ] [ ideological ] conflict as long as we maintained creative control . "
= = = 1992 – 2000 : Mainstream success = = =
The band 's debut album , Rage Against the Machine , reached triple platinum status , driven by heavy radio play of the song " Killing in the Name " , a heavy , driving track featuring only eight lines of lyrics . The " Fuck You " version , which contains 17 iterations of the word fuck , was once accidentally played on the BBC Radio 1 Top 40 singles show on February 21 , 1993 . The album 's cover featured Malcolm Browne 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning photograph of Thich Quang Duc , a Vietnamese Buddhist monk , burning himself to death in Saigon in 1963 in protest of the murder of Buddhists by the US @-@ backed Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem 's regime . The album was produced by Garth Richardson . To promote the album , the band went on tour , playing at Lollapalooza 1993 and as support for Suicidal Tendencies in Europe . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 368 on Rolling Stone Magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
After their debut album , the band appeared on the soundtrack for the film Higher Learning with the song " Year of tha Boomerang . " An early version of " Tire Me " also appeared during the movie . Subsequently , they re @-@ recorded the song " Darkness " from their original demo for the soundtrack of The Crow , while " No Shelter " appeared on the Godzilla soundtrack .
Despite rumors of a breakup for several years , Rage Against the Machine 's second album , Evil Empire , entered Billboard 's Top 200 chart at number one in 1996 , and subsequently rose to triple platinum status . The song " Bulls on Parade " was performed on Saturday Night Live in April 1996 . Their planned two @-@ song performance was cut to one song when the band attempted to hang inverted US flags from their amplifiers ( " a sign of distress or great danger " ) , a protest against having Republican presidential candidate Steve Forbes as guest host on the program that night .
In 1997 , the band opened for U2 on their PopMart Tour , for which all of Rage 's
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Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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480 μm in males . Unlike A. eliurus , this species lacks distinct sternal glands ( secretory organs ) between two lyrifissures ( sensory organs ) on the lower part of the female body . The pilus dentilis , a sensory organ on the chelicera , is serrate , which distinguishes it from A. gymnuromys . Females of A. gymnuromys also have a less ornamented sternal shield ( covering part of the underparts ) and shorter setae ( bristles ) on the upperparts .
= = Taxonomy and ecology = =
Andreacarus voalavo was named in 2007 by Ashley Dowling , Andre Bochkov , and Barry OConnor on the basis of 15 specimens found on an individual of the rodent Voalavo gymnocaudus that was collected in 1994 in the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Reserve in northern Madagascar . The specific name , voalavo , is taken from the generic name of the type host . Voalavo gymnocaudus , the only known host , is only found in the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud and Marojejy massifs of the Malagasy Northern Highlands . A. voalavo is closely related to Andreacarus gymnuromys and Andreacarus eliurus , found on other Malagasy rodents . They are members of the genus Andreacarus , which currently includes 11 species found on rodents and other small mammals in Madagascar and mainland Africa .
= = Description = =
In the female , the pilus dentilis , a sensory organ on the chelicera ( mouthpart ) , is serrate , not smooth as in A. gymnuromys . The idiosoma ( main part of the body ) is 630 to 670 μm long and 370 to 435 μm wide and the dorsal shield ( covering the upper side ) is 620 to 655 μm long and 360 to 370 μm wide . The dorsal setae ( bristles ) are long relative to A. gymnuromys . The sternal shield ( on the lower side of the body ) is 115 to 125 μm long and 184 to 200 μm wide and is more ornamented than in A. gymnuromys . Unlike A. eliurus , A. voalavo lacks distinct sternal glands ( secretory organs ) between the lyrifissures ( sensory organs ) iv1 and iv2 on the lower side of the body . The other shields on the lower side of the body are the genitoventral shield ( 232 to 253 by 170 to 182 μm ) , the peritrematic shield ( 140 to 147 by 117 to 127 μm ) , and the anal shield ( 140 to 147 by 117 to 127 μm ) . On the soft part of the cuticle , there are nine pairs of setae . The first segments of the legs , the coxae , lack hooks . On the coxae of the third pair of legs , the setae at the back are spur @-@ like .
The idiosoma of the male is 450 to 480 μm long and 270 to 300 μm wide , the dorsal shield is 440 to 475 by 250 to 270 μm , and the holoventral shield is 360 to 395 μm and 189 to 207 μm wide .
= The Boat Race 1910 =
The 67th Boat Race took place on 23 March 1910 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford were reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . In a race umpired by Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds , taking their overall lead in the competition to 36 – 30 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1909 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and led overall with 35 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and W. F. C. Holland who had rowed for Oxford four times between 1887 and 1890 . Cambridge were coached by William Dudley Ward ( who had rowed in 1897 , 1899 and 1900 races ) , Raymond Etherington @-@ Smith ( who had rowed in 1898 and 1900 ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the seventh year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , the Dark Blues " did not have any very promising new material from which to make up [ their ] crew " but was impressed by a " very stylish " Philip Fleming who had been included as Oxford 's number seven . Cambridge 's coaches worked to re @-@ introduce a more traditional style of rowing but like Oxford , " their material was not very good " . Although they lost Eric Fairbairn late in the build @-@ up to the race , Drinkwater considered them to be " a pretty , lively crew to look at " . As a result of unfavourable tides , the race was scheduled to be held on the Wednesday of Holy Week which , according to Drinkwater , " caused considerable controversy " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 875 lb ( 80 @.@ 0 kg ) , 4 @.@ 375 pounds ( 2 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's boat contained three rowers with Boat Race experience , including R. W. M. Arbuthnot , J. B. Rosher and Edward Gordon Williams , the latter making his third consecutive appearance in the event , having won a bronze medal in the men 's eight in the 1908 Summer Olympics . Oxford saw four crew members return , including Duncan Mackinnon , Stanley Garton , Robert Bourne and cox A. W. F. Donkin . Three participants in the race were registered as overseas Blues : Oxford 's bow M. B. Higgins and Cambridge 's number four C. P. Cooke were Australian while Light Blue cox C. A. Skinner was from South Africa .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . In bright sunshine and a light breeze , umpire Pitman started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. Cambridge made the better start and led Oxford until one of the Light Blues " caught a crab " , allowing the Dark Blues to take the lead . Even with a slower stroke rate , Oxford were a quarter of a length ahead by Craven Steps but the lead was short @-@ lived as Cambridge spurted to lead by the Mile Post . Unable to make further gains , the Light Blues began to lose ground around the unfavourable bend in the river , with Oxford spurting and gaining almost one length in ten strokes .
At The Doves pub , another spurt saw Oxford go one length clear , which they gradually extended along the rest of the course to win by three and a half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds , the slowest winning time since the 1907 race . It was their second consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 36 – 30 in their favour .
= El Toro ( Six Flags Great Adventure ) =
El Toro , a Spanish term meaning The Bull , is a wooden roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson , New Jersey . Designed by Intamin of Switzerland , it opened to the public on June 11 , 2006 . Intamin also worked with members of Rocky Mountain Construction to build the ride . When it opened , it had the steepest drop of any wooden roller coaster in the world at 76 degrees , until the record was broken by T Express in 2008 by one degree . Overall , its structure height of 181 feet ( 55 m ) is ranked fourth , its drop height of 176 feet ( 54 m ) is ranked second , and its top speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) is ranked fourth among all wooden roller coasters in the world . It was also the first wooden roller coaster to use a cable lift as opposed to the traditional chain lift .
El Toro is the main attraction of the Mexican @-@ themed section , Plaza Del Carnaval . It replaced the Viper roller coaster that closed in 2004 .
= = History = =
El Toro sits on the former site of Viper , which closed in 2004 . Everything was removed in early 2005 except for the station . El Toro was announced on September 28 , 2005 along with Bugs Bunny National Park , a new themed area for children . It was also announced El Toro would be part of a new themed area known as Plaza del Carnaval . The lift hill was topped off on December 20 , 2005 . The ride started testing on Memorial Day weekend in 2006 . The ride had a surprise opening on June 11 then held its grand opening on June 12 .
El Toro has several similarities to Viper , the coaster that it replaced . The most obvious similarity is that El Toro uses Viper 's station , the only part of Viper that was not torn down . The station previously held two Viper trains at once , with a loading platform in the front and an unloading platform in the rear . The ramp that was previously Viper 's main exit is now used only for wheelchair access , as El Toro has a new exit on the other side of the station . During El Toro 's construction , the station was gutted and an entirely new platform built . Like El Toro , Viper turned left out of the station before the lift hill and turned left at the top of the lift before the first drop .
El Toro suffered a malfunction with the lift motor in early August 2013 . The motor was sent to Maryland to be fixed . El Toro reopened on August 30 , after it had been down for several weeks .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Theme = = =
El Toro means " The bull " in Spanish , which is the theme of the ride . The cars are themed as " bulls " with bull heads on the front . The ride 's queue is surrounded by the Southwestern @-@ style buildings of Plaza del Carnaval , and also has abandoned " wagon wheels " and Spanish posters along a wall separating the queue from the ride .
= = = Layout = = =
After departing from the station , the train makes a turn to the left , passing through the ride 's structure . It then begins to climb the 181 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) tall cable lift hill . Once the entire train is on the lift the cable increases its speed to 13 mph . Once at the top of the lift the speed of the cable gently slows down , but it is barely noticeable on the ride . After cresting the top of the lift , the train briefly travels forward and makes a 180 degree turn to the left . It then drops 176 feet ( 54 m ) at a 76 degree angle , reaching a top speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . As the train reaches the bottom of the drop it comes close to the track above , creating a headchopper @-@ effect . It then travels up a 112 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) camelback hill followed by a second camelback hill at 100 feet ( 30 m ) . It then rises and then travels through a 180 degree downward @-@ banked turn to the right , and up another banked turn to the left . The train goes through a small second hill that speeds past the station and the lakeside . The ride then makes another turn and up a smaller hill where riders experience ejector airtime . After coming down the drop , the ride snakes through twists and turns . After coming out of the twister section , the train slows down as it moves through small S turn hills and into the brake run .
= = = Trains = = =
El Toro operates with two trains with six cars per train . Riders are arranged two across in three rows for a total of 36 riders per train . It has a capacity of 1 @,@ 200 guests per hour . The trains are simply known as " Train A " ( light brown ) and " Train B " ( dark brown ) . The trains have padded " wings " at shoulder level to prevent riders from being thrown too far to the side in the final twister section . El Toro 's lapbars are U @-@ shaped .
In 2010 , one of the trains was re @-@ themed to endorse Stride Gum . The train was wrapped in Stride Gum advertisements , showing a different flavor of Stride gum on each car . The advertisements remained on the train for the entire 2011 season , but were removed before the start of the 2012 season and replaced with Kia Soul advertising .
= = = Track = = =
The wooden track is approximately 4 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 181 feet ( 55 m ) . El Toro is very different from a traditional wooden roller coaster because it uses prefabricated wooden track . It was built and designed by Intamin but they also worked with members of Rocky Mountain Construction to build the ride . Instead of carpenters cutting , shaping , and laying down the track on site by hand , the track is laser cut in a factory . This means that the track is manufactured to a higher degree of precision than could be achieved by hand . The " Plug and Play " aspect of the coaster speeds construction of the coaster since track does not have to be completely manufactured on site . In addition , because of the speed of construction , the costs of building the coaster are lowered due to fewer man @-@ hours spent on the construction . The riders are subject to a coaster that is as smooth as steel . El Toro is the first Intamin " Plug and Play " wooden roller coaster in the United States and one of four in the world . The other three are Colossos at Heide Park in Germany , Balder at Liseberg in Sweden , and T Express at Everland in South Korea .
= = Records = =
When El Toro debuted , it broke records as the second @-@ tallest and fastest with the second @-@ longest drop of a wooden roller coaster in the United States . It also had the steepest drop on any wooden roller coaster in the world . As of 2016 , El Toro has the fourth fastest speed , the fourth @-@ tallest lift , and the second longest drop .
= = Awards and rankings = =
When the ride debuted , it ranked 3rd for " Best New Ride of 2006 " in the Golden Ticket Awards .
= Glazer ownership of Manchester United =
Manchester United Football Club is an English football club based in Old Trafford , Greater Manchester . The club was formed as Newton Heath LYR Football Club , the works team of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot in Newton Heath , in 1878 . The club split from the railway company in 1892 and remained under private ownership for almost 100 years , changing its name to Manchester United after being saved from bankruptcy in 1902 .
The club went public in 1990 and was the subject of takeover bids from property trader Michael Knighton and Rupert Murdoch 's BSkyB corporation before Malcolm Glazer 's stake was announced in September 2003 . By the end of the year , Glazer had increased his shareholding from 3 @.@ 17 % to around 15 % , which he almost doubled in the year up to October 2004 . His acquisition of John Magnier and J. P. McManus 's 28 @.@ 7 % stake in May 2005 pushed his own up to around 57 % , well over the 30 % threshold that would force him to launch a takeover bid . A few days later , he took control of 75 % of the club 's shares , allowing him to delist the company from the stock exchange , and within a month , the Glazers took 98 % ownership of the club via their Red Football parent company , forcing a squeeze out of the remaining 2 % . The final purchase price of the club totalled almost £ 800 million .
Most of the capital used by Glazer to purchase Manchester United came in the form of loans , the majority of which were secured against the club 's assets , incurring interest payments of over £ 60 million per annum . The remainder came in the form of PIK loans ( payment in kind loans ) , which were later sold to hedge funds . Manchester United was not liable for the PIKs , which were held by Red Football Joint Venture and were secured on that company 's shares in Red Football ( and thus the club ) . The interest on the PIKs rolled up at 14 @.@ 25 % per annum . Despite this , the Glazers did not pay down any of the PIK loans in the first five years they owned the club . In January 2010 , the club carried out a successful £ 500 million bond issue , and by March 2010 , the PIKs stood at around £ 207 million . The PIKs were eventually paid off in November 2010 by unspecified means . In August 2012 , as part of further refinancing , the Glazers sold a number of shares in Manchester United in an initial public offering ( IPO ) on the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) .
Some Manchester United fans opposed Glazer 's takeover of the club , particularly once they realised the level of debt that the club would have to take on after having been debt @-@ free for so many years . Since 2005 , the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust has been working on a way of returning ownership of the club to supporters ; in 2010 , they met with a group of wealthy Manchester United fans – dubbed the " Red Knights " – to discuss a billion @-@ pound takeover bid . However , the bid fell through when the Red Knights refused to meet the Glazers ' valuation of the club .
= = Background = =
Manchester United was formed as Newton Heath L & YR F.C. in 1878 by the workers in the Carriage and Wagon Works of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 's Newton Heath depot . In 1901 , the club was in over £ 2 @,@ 500 of debt and facing a winding @-@ up order ; however , they were saved by local brewer John Henry Davies , who changed their name to Manchester United in 1902 . After Davies ' death in 1927 , the club fell into financial difficulties once again , but James W. Gibson stepped in as a new financial benefactor in 1931 . Gibson himself died in 1951 , but while ownership of the club passed to his widow , Violet , control of the club passed to director and former player Harold Hardman .
Meanwhile , a local businessman named Louis Edwards began accruing shares in Manchester United and was eventually made chairman on Hardman 's death in 1965 . His son , Martin Edwards , purchased a percentage of shares from Alan Gibson – son of former owner James Gibson – and became the majority shareholder and chairman when Louis Edwards died in 1980 . During Martin Edwards ' time as chairman , Manchester United was the subject of several takeover bids ; the first came from media tycoon Robert Maxwell , who bid £ 10 million in February 1984 , but the sale fell through before any serious talks could take place . In 1989 , property magnate Michael Knighton was on the verge of completing a £ 20 million takeover , but his financial backers pulled out at the last minute and he had to be content with merely a seat on the board .
Manchester United was floated on the stock market in 1991 , and they received yet another takeover bid in 1998 , this time from Rupert Murdoch 's BSkyB Corporation . The Manchester United board accepted a £ 623 million offer , but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999 . A few years later , a power struggle emerged between the club 's manager , Sir Alex Ferguson , and his horse @-@ racing partners , John Magnier and J. P. McManus , who had gradually become the largest shareholders via their company , Cubic Expression . In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar , Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager , and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen 's influence .
Meanwhile , Avram Glazer – the son of Malcolm Glazer – was looking into investment in European football . The Glazer family already owned several businesses in the United States and had purchased the Tampa Bay Buccaneers National Football League franchise in 1995 . They convinced the local government to fund a new stadium for the Buccaneers in 1998 and the franchise won its first Super Bowl in January 2003 .
= = Acquisition of shares and gaining control = =
Following the Manchester United board 's search for new investors , the Glazers purchased their first tranche of Manchester United shares on 2 March 2003 , spending around £ 9 million on a 2 @.@ 9 % stake , which they purchased through a holding company called Red Football . On 26 September 2003 , it was reported that they had increased their share to 3 @.@ 17 % , taking their shareholding above the 3 % threshold that required them to inform the club 's management . There had already been considerable speculation about the possibility of a takeover of the club , either by the Glazers or by one of several other interested parties . By 20 October , they had increased their shareholding to 8 @.@ 93 % , and on 29 November it was reported that they owned around 15 % of the club and had met David Gill , its chief executive , to discuss their intentions . On 12 February 2004 , the Glazers increased their stake in the club to 16 @.@ 31 % and the following day 's Financial Times reported that they had instructed Commerzbank to explore a takeover bid . The club 's share price increased by 5 % that day , valuing the club at a total of £ 741 million . The Glazers increased their shareholding to over 19 % the following June , although they were still not the largest shareholders . Their shareholding continued to increase , nearing 30 % by October 2004 . Upon reaching 30 % , they would have to launch a formal takeover bid .
On 12 May 2005 , Red Football announced that it had reached an agreement with shareholders J. P. McManus and John Magnier to purchase Cubic Expression 's 28 @.@ 7 % stake in the club , which gave the Glazers a controlling stake with just under 57 % of the club 's shares . They then managed to secure the stake of the third @-@ largest stakeholder , Scottish mining entrepreneur Harry Dobson , taking their share total to 62 % of the club . By 13 May , the Glazers had bought a further 12 @.@ 8 % stake taking their total ownership to 74 @.@ 81 % , just shy of the 75 % threshold that would allow them to end the club 's public limited company ( PLC ) status and delist it from the London Stock Exchange . On 16 May , the Glazers took their shareholding in Manchester United to 75 @.@ 7 % , and a month later , on 22 June , they removed the club 's shares from the stock exchange for the first time in 14 years .
The Glazers ' shareholding increased gradually to 76 @.@ 2 % by 23 May , when they made their final offer of 300 pence per share , with a deadline of 3 p.m. on 13 June . On 26 May , the Manchester United board wrote to the remaining shareholders indicating their intention to sell their own shares and advising the others to follow suit ; in the same letter , chairman Sir Roy Gardner and non @-@ executive directors Ian Much and Jim O 'Neill offered their resignations . Despite the board 's encouragement , the Glazers ' share in the club had only reached 97 @.@ 3 % by 14 June , short of the 97 @.@ 6 % threshold required for a compulsory buyout of all remaining shareholders , prompting them to extend the deadline on their offer to purchase the remaining shares until 27 June . A statement released on 28 June said that Red Football 's shareholding had reached 98 % ( 259 @,@ 950 @,@ 194 shares ) , prompting a squeeze out of the remaining shareholders . The final valuation of the club was almost £ 790 million ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion at the exchange rate at the time ) .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of the Glazer takeover , a small group of disgruntled Manchester United supporters created a new club called F.C. United of Manchester . This so @-@ called " phoenix club " was accepted into the North West Counties Football League second division , six promotions away from The Football League , and secured promotion in each of its first three seasons , twice as league champions .
Following the takeover , Manchester United continued to thrive , with the 2005 – 06 season seeing Old Trafford 's capacity being expanded and a lucrative new shirt sponsorship deal signed in April 2006 with American company AIG ( which had a large stake in a hedge fund company that helped to fund Glazer 's takeover of the club ) . Increased revenue from TV rights to each competition the club participates in , as well as its various sponsorship deals , also boosted the club 's profitability . This came despite fears among many supporters that the debt incurred in buying the club could lead to insolvency .
Contrary to the fears of many fans , the Glazers took action to ensure that Gill and veteran manager Sir Alex Ferguson remained at Manchester United , citing the duo 's success with the club . In 2006 , Malcolm Glazer 's other two sons , Kevin and Edward , and his daughter , Darcie , were appointed to the Manchester United board as non @-@ executive directors .
= = Refinancing = =
The debt taken on by the Glazers to finance the takeover was split between the club and the family ; between £ 265 million and £ 275 million was secured against Manchester United 's assets , putting the club into debt for the first time since James Gibson saved them in 1931 . This loan was provided by three New York hedge funds : Citadel , Och @-@ Ziff Capital Management and Perry Capital . The total amount was £ 660 million , on which interest payments came to £ 62 million a year . The club stated , " The value of Manchester United has increased in the last year , which is why lenders want to invest in the club ... This move represents good housekeeping and it ensures that Sir Alex Ferguson will be provided with sufficient funds to compete in the transfer market . " The Manchester United Supporters Trust responded , " ' The amount of money needed to be repaid overall is huge ... The interest payment is one thing but what about the actual £ 660 million ? It is difficult to see how these sums can be reached without significant increases in ticket prices , which , as we always suspected , means the fans will effectively be paying for someone to borrow money to own their club . " Under the terms of the Glazers ' refinancing , as they were unable to repay bondholders by 16 August 2010 , the overall interest rate on the loans rose from 14 @.@ 25 % to 16 @.@ 25 % , resulting in annual payments of around £ 38 million .
On 11 January 2010 , shortly before an announcement that Red Football 's debt had increased to £ 716 @.@ 5 million ( $ 1 @.@ 17 billion ) , Manchester United announced their intention to refinance the debt through a bond issue worth approximately £ 500 million . They managed to raise £ 504 million in just under two weeks , meaning that they were able to pay off almost all of the £ 509 million owed to international banks . The bonds were issued in two tranches , one with a coupon rate of 8 @.@ 75 % worth £ 250 million , and the other with a coupon rate of 8 @.@ 375 % worth $ 425 million . The annual interest payable on the bond came to approximately £ 45 million per annum , with the bond due to mature on 1 February 2017 . Contained within the bond prospectus were covenants that would allow the Glazers to filter large sums of money out of the club to repay the PIKs by 2015 . These include the carving out of £ 95 million in cash , the sale and lease @-@ back of the Trafford Training Centre at Carrington , and the ability of the Glazers to pay themselves 50 % of the Consolidated Net Income of the club every year .
On 16 November 2010 , it was revealed that the Glazers were to pay off the remaining £ 220 million contained within the PIK loans by 22 November 2010 . The loans were by then accruing interest at a rate of 16 @.@ 25 % , as the club 's overall debt had exceeded its earnings before interest , taxes , depreciation and amortization ( EBITDA ) by more than five times . However , the club claimed that none of its own money had been put towards the repayment , raising questions as to how the Glazer family had raised the funds ; suggested methods include the sale of a minority stake in the club to a third party , the sale of some or all of the family 's other businesses , and – the most likely option – the refinancing of the PIKs with another loan at a lower interest rate .
= = Red Knights takeover plans = =
A fan campaign known as " Love United Hate Glazer " has existed since the origin of the family 's bid to take over the club . The campaign has involved the spreading of the slogan and the acronym " LUHG " around various locations via stickers and graffiti . A number of banners have also been displayed in the stands at Old Trafford .
Despite its restructuring , the announcement about the club 's debt prompted vociferous protests from Manchester United fans on the weekend of 23 January 2010 , both at Old Trafford and at the club 's Carrington training facility . A non @-@ violent protest was organised by the club 's supporters groups , following up on the " Love United Hate Glazer " campaign that had existed since 2005 , and encouraging match @-@ going fans to wear green and gold , the colours of Manchester United 's precursor club , Newton Heath . A few days later , on 30 January , reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans with a view to buying out the Glazers ' controlling interest in the club . The group then met with Keith Harris , a Manchester United fan and the chairman of investment bank Seymour Pierce , to broker a takeover .
On 2 March 2010 , further reports emerged that the group – dubbed the " Red Knights " – had met again to discuss the possibility of a billion @-@ pound takeover of the club . Those present at the meeting included investment bank Goldman Sachs ' chief economist and former Manchester United director Jim O 'Neill and lawyer Mark Rawlinson , a partner at law firm Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer , as well as Duncan Drasdo , the chief executive of the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust , and Keith Harris , Executive Chairman of Seymour Pierce . The initial goal of the group was to increase the Supporters ' Trust 's membership to at least 100 @,@ 000 , to demonstrate the fans ' support for a change in ownership . To better promote themselves , the Trust enlisted the services of Blue State Digital , the Internet strategy firm that worked on Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential election campaign .
Later that day , Manchester United announced that their gross debt for the final three months of 2009 totalled £ 507 @.@ 5 million , a reduction of £ 30 @.@ 6 million compared to the same period in 2008 . They also reported pre @-@ tax profits of £ 6 @.@ 9 million , an increase of £ 9 @.@ 6 million after making a loss of £ 2 @.@ 7 million the previous year . This announcement was accompanied by a statement from the Glazers ' spokesperson that the club was not for sale , as well as public support from David Gill , who claimed that the Glazers were " running the club the right way " .
Meanwhile , membership of the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust passed the 100 @,@ 000 mark on 3 March , before exceeding 125 @,@ 000 a week later . The green @-@ and @-@ gold scarf campaign also grew , with large portions of the Old Trafford crowd showing the colours . Following Manchester United 's 4 – 0 victory over Milan in their Champions League first knockout round tie , former Manchester United player David Beckham was seen wearing a scarf that had been thrown onto the pitch ; however , he later claimed that he was merely showing his support for Manchester United , and that the running of the club is " not [ his ] business " . It was also claimed that United manager Alex Ferguson would be prepared to invest his own money in the Red Knights ' bid , but he dismissed these reports as " absolute rubbish " .
Given the amount of debt on Manchester United 's books at the time , some analysts estimated in 2010 that any takeover bid would have had to total more than £ 2 billion , of which around £ 1 @.@ 6 billion would be needed to match the Glazers ' valuation of the club – double what they paid for the club in 2005 . However , the Red Knights publicly stated that they would only pay " a fair price " when their takeover bid finally came . On 11 March 2010 , the Red Knights appointed Nomura Securities Co. as their advisers for their takeover bid . Nomura previously advised the Manchester United board before the Glazers ' bid to buy the club . The Red Knights later admitted that they would not make a bid for the club before the end of the 2009 – 10 season , but it was believed that their preferred bid option would have involved retaining the £ 500 million bond issued by the Glazers . Two @-@ thirds of a further £ 700 million would be provided by 30 – 40 wealthy Manchester United fans , with the remainder provided by fund @-@ raising from ordinary fans . Once the club was secured , shares would then be offered to fans , allowing them to take ownership of the club . Despite these plans , the Red Knights put their takeover bid " on hold " in June 2010 , citing " inflated valuation aspirations " in the media as the reason . Having already stated that they would only pay a " sensible " amount for the club , the group was thought to have baulked at the suggestion that the Glazers ' valuation of the club was significantly higher than the amount they were willing to pay .
= = New York share issue = =
In 2011 , rumours surfaced that the Glazers intended to list a number of shares in Manchester United on an Asian market such as Hong Kong or Singapore , in an attempt to raise a potential £ 400 – 600 million . The Singapore flotation looked to be gaining traction in August 2011 , when it emerged that the club had applied to list its shares on the Singapore Exchange ; approval for the listing was given in September 2011 .
In June 2012 , after several months with no further developments on the Singapore front , several sources reported that the club was considering moving its share issue to the United States , and in July 2012 , an application was made for the club to sell shares on the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) , with a target of raising $ 100 million ( £ 64 million ) . More details of the sale were released at the end of July , with the club announcing that they intended to sell 16 @.@ 7 million shares ( approximately 10 % of the club ) at between $ 16 and $ 20 each , raising up to $ 330 million ( £ 210 million ) . Shares in the club would be divided into two groups , with Class A shares sold to the public and Class B shares retained by the Glazer family .
Ahead of the opening of the IPO , concerns were raised among both investors and Manchester United supporters regarding the details of the share offering . Although the share prospectus specified that the proceeds from the sale would go towards paying down the club 's debts , it was revealed that much of the money would go directly to the Glazers . Furthermore , holders of class A shares would not be entitled to a regular dividend , and the structure of the share issue meant that the Glazers ' class B shares had 10 times the voting power of class A shares , essentially denying a controlling interest in the club to anyone but the Glazers . These issues drove down interest and forced a drop in the share price from the planned $ 16 – 20 each to $ 14 each , representing a potential total sale value of $ 233 million ( £ 150 million ) .
The shares debuted on the NYSE on 10 August 2012 , and initially showed a slight rise to $ 14 @.@ 05 per share , but closed the day back at the offer price of $ 14 each , valuing the club as a whole at $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , and making it one of the most valuable sports teams in the world . One of the biggest investors in the IPO was American billionaire George Soros , whose investment company purchased about 3 @.@ 1 million class A shares ( 1 @.@ 9 % of the club ) , valued at $ 40 @.@ 7 million ( £ 25 @.@ 8 million ) at the time . Club records announced in November 2012 revealed that gross debt had fallen to £ 359 @.@ 7 million after the share sale paid off £ 62 @.@ 6 million of bonds . The club 's debts were further remedied in May 2013 , after a new loan deal was agreed that would save the club £ 10 million a year in interest payments on debts now totalling around £ 307 million .
In March 2014 , American investment group Baron Capital purchased 24 % of all of the shares available on the NYSE ( equivalent to 5 @.@ 8 % of the entire club , but widely misreported as 2 @.@ 4 % ) . At the closing price on the day of purchase of $ 15 @.@ 84 per share , Baron Capital 's total investment was valued at $ 151 million ( £ 90 million ) . In September 2014 , Baron Capital raised its stake in the club to 9 @.@ 2 % of the entire club ( equivalent to 37 @.@ 8 % of all shares available on the NYSE . )
= = Death of Malcolm Glazer = =
Malcolm Glazer died on 28 May 2014 at the age of 85 . His death was seen as unlikely to mean any significant changes to the running of the club .
= Caernarfon Castle =
Caernarfon Castle ( Welsh : Castell Caernarfon ) is a medieval fortress in Caernarfon , Gwynedd , north @-@ west Wales cared for by Cadw , the Welsh Government 's historic environment service . There was a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure . The Edwardian town and castle acted as the administrative centre of north Wales and as a result the defences were built on a grand scale . There was a deliberate link with Caernarfon 's Roman past and the Roman fort of Segontium is nearby .
While the castle was under construction , town walls were built around Caernarfon . The work cost between £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 25 @,@ 000 from the start until the end of work in 1330 . Despite Caernarfon Castle 's external appearance of being mostly complete , the interior buildings no longer survive and many of the building plans were never finished . The town and castle were sacked in 1294 when Madog ap Llywelyn led a rebellion against the English . Caernarfon was recaptured the following year . During the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400 – 1415 , the castle was besieged . When the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne in 1485 , tensions between the Welsh and English began to diminish and castles were considered less important . As a result , Caernarfon Castle was allowed to fall into a state of disrepair .
Despite its dilapidated condition , during the English Civil War Caernarfon Castle was held by Royalists , and was besieged three times by Parliamentarian forces . This was the last time the castle was used in war . Caernarfon Castle was neglected until the 19th century when the state funded repairs . In 1911 , Caernarfon Castle was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales , and again in 1969 . It is part of the World Heritage Site " Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd " .
= = Background = =
The first fortifications at Caernarfon were built by the Romans . Their fort , which they named Segontium , is on the outskirts of the modern town . The fort sat near the bank of the River Seiont ; it is likely that the fort was positioned here due to the sheltered nature and as traffic up the Seiont would have been able to supply Segontium . Caernarfon derives its name from the Roman fortifications . In Welsh , the place was called " y gaer yn Arfon " , meaning " the stronghold in the land over against Môn " ; Môn is the Welsh name for Anglesey . Little is known about the fate of Segontium and its associated civilian settlement after the Romans departed from Britain in the early 5th century .
= = Early castle = =
Following the Norman Conquest of England , William the Conqueror turned his attention to Wales . According to the Domesday Survey of 1086 , the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan was notionally in charge of the whole of northern Wales . He was killed by the Welsh in 1088 . His cousin the Earl of Chester , Hugh d 'Avranches , reasserted Norman control of north Wales by building three castles : one at an unknown location somewhere in Meirionnydd , one at Aberlleiniog on Anglesey , and another at Caernarfon . This early castle was on a peninsula , bounded by the River Seiont , the Menai Strait ; it would have been a motte and bailey , defended by a timber palisade and earthen banks . While the motte , or mound , was integrated into the later Edwardian Castle , the location of the original bailey is uncertain , although it may have been to the north @-@ east of the motte . Excavations on top of the motte in 1969 revealed no traces of medieval occupation , suggesting any evidence had been removed . It is likely that the motte was surmounted by a wooden tower known as a keep . The Welsh recaptured Gwynedd in 1115 , and Caernarfon Castle came into the possession of the Welsh princes . From contemporary documents written at the castle , it is known that Llywelyn the Great and later Llywelyn ap Gruffudd occasionally stayed at Caernarfon .
= = Edwardian castle = =
War broke out again between England and Wales on 22 March 1282 . The Welsh leader , Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , died later that year on 11 December . His brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd continued to fight against the English , but in 1283 Edward I was victorious . Edward marched through northern Wales , capturing castles such as that at Dolwyddelan , and establishing his own at Conwy . War finally drew to a close in May 1283 when Dolbadarn Castle , Dafydd ap Gruffudd 's last castle , was captured . Shortly after , Edward began building castles at Harlech and Caernarfon . The castles of Caernarfon , Conwy and Harlech were the most impressive of their time in Wales , and their construction – along with other Edwardian castles in the country – helped establish English rule . The master mason responsible for the design and orchestrating the construction of the castle was probably James of Saint George , an experienced architect and military engineer who played an important role in building the Edwardian castles in Wales . According to the Flores Historiarum , during the construction of the castle and planned town , the body of the Roman emperor Magnus Maximus was discovered at Caernarfon and Edward I ordered his reburial in a local church .
The construction of the new stone castle was part of a programme of building which transformed Caernarfon ; town walls were added , connected to the castle , and a new quay was built . The earliest reference to building at Caernarfon dates from 24 June 1283 , when a ditch had been dug separating the site of the castle from the town to the north . A bretagium , a type of stockade , was created around the site to protect it while the permanent defences were under construction . Timber was shipped from as far away as Liverpool . Stone was quarried from nearby places , such as from Anglesey and around the town . A force of hundreds worked on the excavation of the moat and digging the foundations for the castle . As the site expanded , it began to encroach on the town ; houses were cleared to allow the construction . Residents were not paid compensation until three years later . While the foundations for the stone walls were being created , timber @-@ framed apartments were built for Edward I and Eleanor of Castile , his queen . They arrived at Caernarfon on either 11 or 12 July 1283 and stayed for over a month .
Construction at Caernarfon Castle continued over the winter of 1283 / 1284 . The extent of completion is uncertain , although architectural historian Arnold Taylor speculated that when Edward and Eleanor visited again in Easter 1284 the Eagle Tower may have been complete . The Statute of Rhuddlan , enacted on 3 March 1284 , made Caernarfon a borough and the administrative centre of the county of Gwynedd . According to tradition , Edward II was born at Caernarfon on 25 April 1284 . Edward was created Prince of Wales in 1301 , with control over Wales and its incomes . Since then the title has traditionally been held by the eldest son of the monarch . According to a famous legend , the king had promised the Welsh that he would name " a prince born in Wales , who did not speak a word of English " and then produced his infant son to their surprise ; but the story may well be apocryphal , as it can only be traced to the 16th century . In 1284 , Caernarfon was defended by a garrison of forty men , more than the thirty @-@ strong garrisons at Conwy and Harlech . Even in peace time , when most castles would have a guard of only a few men , Caernarfon was defended by between twenty and forty people due to its importance .
By 1285 , Caernarfon 's town walls were mostly complete . At the same time work continued on the castle . Spending on construction was negligible from 1289 and accounts end in 1292 . Edward I 's campaign of castle @-@ building in Wales cost £ 80 @,@ 000 between 1277 and 1304 , and £ 95 @,@ 000 between 1277 and 1329 ; by 1292 £ 12 @,@ 000 had been spent on the construction of Caernarfon 's castle – of which the southern facade was furthest along – and town walls . As the southern wall and town walls completed a defensive circuit around Caernarfon , the plan was to build the castle 's northern facade last .
In 1294 , Wales broke out in rebellion led by Madog ap Llywelyn , prince of Wales . As Caernarfon was the centre of administration in Gwynedd and a symbol of English power , it was targeted by the Welsh . Madog 's forces captured the town in September , and in the process heavily damaged the town walls . The castle was defended by just a ditch and a temporary barricade . It was quickly taken and anything flammable was set alight . Fire raged across Caernarfon , leaving destruction in its wake . In the summer of 1295 , the English moved to retake Caernarfon . By November the same year , the English began refortifying the town . Rebuilding the town walls was a high priority , and £ 1 @,@ 195 ( nearly half the sum initially spent on the walls ) was spent on completing the job two months ahead of schedule . Attention then shifted to the castle and on finishing the work that had halted in 1292 . Once the rebellion was put down , Edward began building Beaumaris Castle on the Isle of Anglesey . The work was overseen by James of Saint George ; as a result , Walter of Hereford took over as master mason for the new phase of construction . By the end of 1301 , a further £ 4 @,@ 500 had been spent on the work with the focus of work on the northern wall and towers . The accounts between November 1301 and September 1304 are missing , possibly because there was a hiatus in work while labour moved north to help out with England 's war against Scotland . Records show that Walter of Hereford had left Caernarfon and was in Carlisle in October 1300 ; he remained occupied with the Scottish wars until the autumn of 1304 when building at Caernarfon resumed . Walter died in 1309 and his immediate subordinate , Henry of Ellerton , took over the position of master mason . Construction continued at a steady rate until 1330 .
From 1284 to 1330 , when accounts end , between £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 25 @,@ 000 was spent on Caernarfon 's castle and town walls . Such a sum was enormous and dwarfed the spending on castles such as Dover and Château Gaillard , which were amongst the most expensive and impressive fortifications of the later 12th and early 13th centuries . Subsequent additions to Caernarfon were not major , and what remains of the castle is substantially from the Edwardian period . Despite the expense , much of what was planned for the castle was never carried out . The rears of the King 's Gate ( the entrance from the town ) and the Queen 's Gate ( the entrance from the south @-@ east ) were left unfinished , and foundations in the castle 's interior mark where buildings would have stood had work continued .
= = Later history = =
For around two centuries after the conquest of Wales , the arrangements established by Edward I for the governance of the country remained in place . During this time the castle was constantly garrisoned , and Caernarfon was effectively the capital of north Wales . There was a degree of discrimination , with the most important administrative jobs in Wales usually closed to Welsh people . Tension between the Welsh and their English conquerors spilled over at the start of the 15th century with the outbreak of the Glyndŵr Rising ( 1400 – 1415 ) . During the revolt , Caernarfon was one of the targets of Owain Glyndŵr 's army . The town and castle were besieged in 1401 , and in November that year the Battle of Tuthill took place nearby between Caernarfon 's defenders and the besieging force . In 1403 and 1404 , Caernarfon was besieged by Welsh troops with support from French forces ; the garrison at the time was around thirty . The ascension of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne in 1485 heralded a change in the way Wales was administered . The Tudors were Welsh in origin , and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English . As a result , castles such as Caernarfon , which provided secure centres from which the country could be administered , became less important . They were neglected , and in 1538 it was reported that many castles in Wales were " moche ruynous and ferre in decaye for lakke of tymely reparations " .
In Caernarfon 's case the walls of the town and castle remained in good condition , while features which required maintenance – such as roofs – were in a state of decay and much timber was rotten . Conditions were so poor that of the castles seven towers and two gatehouses , only the Eagle Tower and the King 's Gate had roofs by 1620 . The domestic buildings inside the castle had been stripped of anything valuable , such as glass and iron . Despite the disrepair of the domestic buildings , the castle 's defences were in a good enough state that during the English Civil War in the mid @-@ 17th century it was garrisoned by Royalists . Caernarfon Castle was besieged three times during the war . The constable was John Byron , 1st Baron Byron , who surrendered Caernarfon to Parliamentarian forces in 1646 . It was the last time Caernarfon Castle saw fighting . Although it was ordered in 1660 that the castle and town walls should be dismantled , the work was aborted early on and may never have started .
Despite avoiding slighting , the castle was neglected until the late 19th century . From the 1870s onwards , the government funded repairs to Caernarfon Castle . The deputy @-@ constable , Llewellyn Turner oversaw the work , in many cases controversially restoring and rebuilding the castle , rather than simply conserving the existing stonework . Steps , battlements , and roofs were repaired , and the moat to the north of the castle was cleared of post @-@ medieval buildings that were considered to spoil the view , despite the protest of locals . Under the auspices of the Office of Works and its successors since 1908 , the castle was preserved due to its historic significance . In 1911 , Caernarfon was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales for the first time when Prince Edward ( later Edward VIII ) , eldest son of the newly crowned King George V ; the ceremony was held there at the insistence of then @-@ Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George , a Welshman raised in Caernarfonshire . In 1969 , the precedent was repeated with the investiture of Charles , Prince of Wales . Although Caernarfon Castle has been the property of the Crown since it was built , it is currently cared for by Cadw ( English : to keep ) , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division , responsible for the maintenance and care of Wales ' historic buildings . In 1986 , Caernarfon was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as part of the " Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd " in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site . The castle houses the Royal Welch Fusiliers Museum . During 2015 a new " entrance pavilion " was built , designed by architects Donald Insall Associates .
= = Architecture = =
Caernarfon Castle 's design was partly influenced by a desire to make the structure impressive as a symbol of the new English rule in Wales . This was particularly acute as Caernarfon was made the centre of government in the northern part of the country . The Edwardian castle 's layout was mostly dictated by the lay of the land , although the inclusion of the previous castle 's motte played a part . It is a narrow enclosure , roughly in the shape of a figure eight . It was divided into two enclosures , upper and lower " wards " in the east and west respectively , with the eastern containing royal accommodation , although this was never completed . The divide was supposed to be established by a range of fortified buildings , however these too were never built .
Studded along the curtain wall are several polygonal towers from which flanking fire could be deployed . There were battlements on the tops of walls and towers , and along the southern face were firing galleries ; it was intended to include galleries along the northern face but they were never built . In the opinion of military historian Allen Brown , this combined to make Caernarfon Castle " one of the most formidable concentrations of fire @-@ power to be found in the Middle Ages " . Most of the northern towers stand had four @-@ storeys including a basements . The Eagle Tower at the western corner of the castle was the grandest . It has three turrets which were once surmounted by statues of eagles . The tower contained grand lodgings , and was probably built for Sir Otton de Grandson , the first justiciar of Wales . A basement level contained a water gate , through which visitors travelling up the River Seiont could enter the castle . Water was drawn from a well in the eponymous Well Tower .
Caernarfon 's appearance differs from that of other Edwardian castles through the use of banded coloured stone in the walls and in its polygonal , rather than round , towers . There has been extensive academic debate over the interpretation of these features . Historian Arnold Taylor argued that the design of the castle was a representation of the Walls of Constantinople . The conscious use of imagery from the Byzantine Roman Empire was therefore an assertion of authority by Edward I , and influenced by the legendary dream of Magnus Maximus , a Roman emperor . In his dream Maximus had seen a fort , " the fairest that man ever saw " , within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island . Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus ' dream and drew on the imperial link when building Caernarfon Castle . Recent work by historian Abigail Wheatley suggests that the design of Caernarfon was indeed an assertion of Edward 's authority , but that it drew on imagery from Roman sites in Britain with the intent of creating an allusion of Arthurian legitimacy for the king .
There were two main entrances , one leading from the town ( the King 's Gate ) and one allowing direct access to the castle without having to proceed through the town ( the Queen 's Gate ) . Their form was typical of the time – a passage between two flanking towers . If the King 's Gate had been completed , a visitor would have crossed two drawbridges , passed through five doors , under six portcullises , and negotiated a right @-@ angle turn before emerging into the lower enclosure . The route was overlooked by numerous arrow loops and murder holes . A statue of Edward II was erected in a niche overlooking the town , above the entrance to the King 's Gate . In the opinion of architectural historian Arnold Taylor , " No building in Britain demonstrates more strikingly the immense strength of medieval fortifications than the great twin @-@ towered gateway to Caernarfon Castle . " The Queen 's Gate is unusual in that its entrance is above ground level ; this was due to the integration of the earlier motte , raising the ground level of the interior . Externally , the gate would have been approached by a stone ramp which is no longer present .
While the curtain wall and its towers survive largely intact , all that remains of the buildings contained within the castle are the foundations . While royal lodgings were in the upper ward , the lower contained buildings such as the kitchens . The kitchens were located immediately west of the King 's Gate . On the basis of their insubstantial foundations , Taylor suggests that the kitchens were not strongly built . The other key feature of the castle 's domestic side , was the Great Hall . Caernarfon 's abutted the south side of the lower ward and was 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) . Though only the foundations survive , in its heyday the Great Hall would have been an impressive building , featuring fine architecture , and used to host royal entertainment . Had Caernarfon been completed as intended , it would have been able to contain a royal household of several hundred people .
= Battle of Wanat =
The Battle of Wanat occurred on July 13 , 2008 , when about 200 Taliban guerrillas attacked NATO troops near Quam , in the Waygal district in Afghanistan 's far eastern province of Nuristan . The position was defended primarily by United States Army soldiers of the 2nd Platoon , Chosen Company , 2nd Battalion , 503rd Infantry Regiment ( Airborne ) , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team .
The Taliban surrounded the remote base and its observation post , attacking it from Quam and surrounding farmland . They destroyed much of the U.S. heavy munitions , broke through American lines , and entered the main base before being repelled by artillery and aircraft . The United States claimed to have killed at least 21 Taliban fighters for the loss of nine U.S. soldiers killed and 27 wounded , and four Afghan National Army ( ANA ) soldiers wounded . The U.S. deaths were the most in a single battle since the start of U.S. operations in 2001 .
The Battle of Wanat has been described as one of the bloodiest Taliban attacks of the war and one of several attacks on remote outposts . In contrast to previous roadside bombings and haphazard attacks and ambushes , this attack was well @-@ coordinated with fighters from many insurgent groups with an effort that was disciplined and sustained which was able to precisely target key equipment such as a wire @-@ guided missile launcher .
The battle became the focus of debate in the United States , generating " a great deal of interest and scrutiny among military professionals and from outside observers " mainly due to the relatively " significant number of coalition casualties " . Several investigations were launched into events leading up to the battle . The initial investigation was completed in August 2008 . In July 2009 , Senator James Webb requested that the U.S. Army formally investigate the battle and previous investigation . Lieutenant General Richard F. Natonski conducted another investigation in late 2009 which led to orders of reprimand for the chain of command . In June 2010 , the U.S. Army revoked the reprimands . They stated that no negligence was involved and said of the soldiers that " by their valor and their skill , they successfully defended their positions and defeated a determined , skillful , and adaptable enemy " .
= = Background = =
In 2008 , NATO forces in southeastern Afghanistan deployed sub @-@ company @-@ sized patrols to the Pakistan border to disrupt supplies flowing to the Taliban from the Federally Administered Tribal Regions of Pakistan . They established small patrol bases , which came under regular attack by Taliban forces .
In June , a small contingent of 48 American and 24 Afghan troops , 72 in total , were operating in and around Wanat , a mountain Quam that was the center of the Waygal District government and about five miles from the coalition military base Camp Blessing . On July 4 , a U.S. Army helicopter attacked vehicles they claimed were firing on them and killed 17 people . Locals claimed those killed were civilians , including doctors and nurses from a local clinic . Both sides reported Forward Observation Base Bella was under attack by indirect fire . Intel reports said that the FOB was going to be overrun from within the base as well . The helicopter attack was in response to the indirect fire received from a mortar tube that was being fired from the bed of a Toyota Hilux pick @-@ up . The initial Taliban radio transmissions that were intercepted reported that the " Big Gun had been hit " ( mortar tube ) and the Taliban commander had been killed . A few hours after the helicopter attacked , with the Chosen Company commander and the troops in contact confirming the targets , the Taliban radio reports changed to " they killed the shop keeper ( that had the same name as the Taliban commander ) , the big gun was not damaged and all the enemy wounded and KIA were civilians . " Five days before the battle , on July 8 , a platoon from the Second Battalion , 503rd Infantry Regiment , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team established Vehicle Patrol Base ( VPB ) Kahler and a separate observation post called " OP Top Side " near Wanat . 8 July , 2nd Platoon , Chosen Company , departed from Camp Blessing after sunset in a ground assault convoy for the 90 @-@ minute @-@ long drive to Wanat . The convoy contained five M1114 armored Humvees . There was one for each of the three rifle squads , a vehicle for platoon headquarters , and the last vehicle containing the TOW missile squad . The Humvees mounted heavy weapons , two with 50 @-@ cal machine guns , and two with MK @-@ 19 40mm automatic grenade launchers in protected cupolas to provide extra firepower and protection . Their goal was to create a Combat Outpost ( COP ) to connect with and provide security for the local populace , coordinate $ 1 @.@ 4 million in reconstruction projects , and disrupt Taliban activity . The brigade was to be relieved by a newly arriving U.S. Army unit in two weeks .
The patrol base was situated on an open field about 300 meters long by 100 meters wide surrounded on two sides by buildings which composed the Quam . July 9 , a six @-@ man engineer squad arrived by Chinook helicopter . They brought a Bobcat loader and a shipping container with engineer equipment . The soldiers reinforced the base with existing terrain , sandbags , barbed wire , and used the Bobcat to fill a number of HESCO barriers ( essentially wall @-@ sized sandbags ) around the three squad positions and to create a firing pit for the big 120 @-@ mm mortar . However , the Bobcat broke down for one day , and could not lift high enough to place barriers to a 7 @-@ foot height , but were placed to just a 4 @-@ foot level , which would make it vulnerable to direct fire from guns or rockets which the attackers would exploit . The troops dug many of the fortifications and trenches with hand shovels . Still in preparation at the time of the attack , some areas were only protected by a barrier of concertina wire , but with no posts or stakes , the wire was just placed on the ground .
The Afghan company contracted to bring heavy construction equipment delayed its arrival to until 13 July . It was decided that soldier labor with the aid of an engineer squad and a Bobcat front end loader already at Bella would be good enough to prepare an initial defense in the six days until heavier equipment arrived . The number of men at the base was judged enough to defend against intelligence estimates that placed the insurgent forces in the local area at only about 150 experienced fighters , though they did not know that attackers would be backed up by other guerrilla groups from neighboring regions as far away as Pakistan and Kashmir . While they thought it was possible the base might be attacked while the camp was being prepared , they thought it unlikely . Platoon Sergeant Dzwik later remarked " I was expecting harassing fire from any one of the high ground in every direction . I did not think the village itself would let the AAF [ Anti @-@ Afghan Force ] turn their village into a battle zone .
Soldiers at the base noticed warning signs , including groups of men watching the construction from the nearby village , which was set at a higher elevation than the outpost , and other groups of men moving through nearby mountains . At a dinner meeting in the village , a villager told the Americans that they should shoot any men seen in the mountains , and asked them if U.S. UAVs were keeping watch nearby . The day before the attack , the militants began flowing water through an irrigation ditch feeding an unused field , creating background noise that masked the sounds of the advancing fighters .
Although the Americans believed that 100 or 200 attacked the base , a senior Afghan defense ministry official who did not reveal his name told Al Jazeera that he had information it was between 400 and 500 fighters . Tamim Nuristani , former governor of Nuristan , believed that numerous Taliban and Pakistani militant and terrorist groups banded together from surrounding regions including Kunar and the Bajaur tribal agency in neighboring Pakistan . According to U.S. intelligence groups operating in the region included Taliban , al @-@ Qaeda , Kashmir @-@ based Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Taiba and Pakistan @-@ based , ( as of 2013 still located in 1 of many strongholds in the Bajaur agency of F.A.T.A.-Federally administered Tribal areas in Kunar and Nuristan of Afghanistan ) , Hezb @-@ i @-@ Islami . According to the Long War Journal , Al Qaeda 's senior leadership including Ayman al Zawahiri and Osama Bin Laden were thought to shelter in the region ( Bin Laden was then in Pakistan ) . Taliban spokesman stated " The fighting in Afghanistan is getting heavier . When the Americans drop bombs on civilians ordinary people want revenge – that 's why they are joining the Taliban , strengthening us " pointing out their " ability to enter the bases and kill Americans . " A NATO spokesman believed that the Taliban had moved into and expelled a nearby Khel ( small village @-@ tribe subdivision ) for the attack . On the evening of July 12 , Taliban soldiers moved into Wanat and ordered the villagers to leave . Undetected by the I.S.A.F. / A.N.S.F. soldiers , they set up firing positions inside Kors and a mosque next to and overlooking the perimeter .
= = Battle = =
About 4 : 20 a.m. on July 13 , Taliban forces opened fire on the base with machine guns , rocket @-@ propelled grenades , and mortars . Another 100 militants attacked the observation post from farmland to the east .
The initial attack hit the forward operating base 's mortar pit , knocking out the 120mm mortar and detonating the stockpile of mortar ammunition . The insurgents next destroyed the Humvee @-@ mounted TOW missile launcher inside the combat outpost with coordinated fire from unguided RPG rockets . The mortars and TOW launcher which were to provide the heaviest and most accurate firepower had been quickly taken out by the attackers . The explosion of the mortar shells hurled the anti @-@ tank missiles into the command post .
From the American perspective , the most serious situation was the attack concentrated on a small team situated at the small observation post " TOPSIDE " nestled among rocks under a tree 50m to 7
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0m outside the main base . The first round hit accurately , wounding or stunning every soldier . Pfc. Tyler Stafford was blown out of his machine @-@ gun position next to Spc . Matthew Phillips who threw a grenade before he was mortally wounded . Cpl. Jason Bogar fired hundreds of rounds from his automatic weapon until the barrel became white @-@ hot and jammed and then tended to Stafford 's wounds . A rocket grenade wounded Sgt. Ryan M. Pitts , who was also tended by Bogar with a tourniquet around Pitts ' leg before switching to another gun . Bogar then jumped from the outpost bunker to get close enough to kill insurgents who were firing down upon the men from the village hotel . Once outside the bunker , he was shot through the chest and killed . The surviving soldiers then ran from the outpost to the main post , leaving Pitts behind . Alone , Pitts was able to hold @-@ off the Taliban from overrunning his position until his comrades returned two hours later and he was evacuated to receive medical care .
Four U.S. soldiers were killed within the first 20 minutes of the battle , another died later , and at least three others were wounded . Three times teams of soldiers from the main base ran through Taliban fire to resupply the observation post and carry back the dead and wounded .
The U.S. troops responded with machine guns , grenades , and claymore mines . Artillery guns at Camp Blessing fired 96 155mm artillery rounds . The Taliban briefly breached the wire of the observation post before being driven back . After almost half an hour of intense fighting at the observation post , only one soldier remained . He was seriously wounded and fought alone until reinforcements arrived . Some militants also managed to get past the main base 's eastern barriers . Two American soldiers , platoon leader First Lieutenant Jonathan P. Brostrom , 24 , of Hawaii and Corporal Jason Hovater , were killed trying to deliver ammunition to the observation post . American soldiers were at times flushed out of their fortifications by what they thought were grenades , but which were actually rocks thrown by the attackers . Brostrom , Hovater , and another soldier may have been killed by an insurgent who penetrated the wire perimeter .
AH @-@ 64 Apache attack helicopters and a Predator unmanned aircraft drone armed with Hellfire missiles arrived over the base about 30 minutes after the battle began . During the battle , U.S. soldiers were resupplied by UH @-@ 60 Blackhawk helicopter with fire support from the AH @-@ 64 Apache Helicopters . Injured troops were evacuated to nearby Camp Wright , where members of E Troop , 2nd – 17th Cavalry , 101st Airborne Division would wait to rearm and refuel the UH @-@ 60 's and AH @-@ 64 's . Later , a B @-@ 1B Lancer bomber , A @-@ 10 , and F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle aircraft were called in . The militants withdrew about four hours later . After the militants retreated , mop up operations followed , and the Taliban withdrew from the town .
Nine U.S. soldiers were killed in the attack , mainly in the observation post . Between 21 and 52 militants were reported killed with another 20 to 40 wounded , but coalition forces found only two Taliban bodies after the battle . The attack was the highest death toll for American troops in the country since Operation Red Wings three years earlier .
= = Operational issues = =
Civilian deaths caused by allied operations had increased sympathy among Waygal residents for the Taliban , who were allowed to move into the Quam . The residents may have been further dismayed by the failure of the Afghan president , Hamid Karzai , to address the concerns of a delegation of elders and maliks in Kabul two days previously .
Coalition troops had noticed other warning signs . The day before the attack , the " Spin Giris " ( Pashto for " White Beards " – influential tribal elders ) of Wanat conducted a Jirga , ( elder community council @-@ experienced male members of the Quam have a right to attend ) , without the post 's Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge . As well , the villagers began pouring waste water into an area of dead space near the post more frequently , which may have concealed the movement of militants within the village .
A 2009 U.S. Army report criticized the brigade commander , Colonel Chip Preysler , and the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel William Ostlund , citing the lack of supplies , equipment , and drinking water for troops stationed in Wanat . At the same time , the report praised the performance of its soldiers under fire .
The same report criticized the actions of the involved commanding officers as being counterproductive to military goals , stating that " The highly kinetic approach favored by TF Rock ... rapidly and inevitably degraded the relationships between the U.S. Army and the Waigal population . "
This statement , portraying the operational approaches of the 173rd Airborne Brigade ( TF Bayonet ) and 2 @-@ 503 PIR ( TF Rock ) in a negative light , is contradicted by David Kilcullen in his book , The Accidental Guerrilla . Kilcullen stated that in March 2008 @,@
The fact that Kunar has bucked the general trend [ downward trend in security across the country ] seems largely to be the result of a consistent U.S. strategy of partnering with local communities to separate the insurgents from the people , bring tangible benefits of governance and development to the population , and help the population choose their own local Khan 's ( Protectors , usually military ) , through elections .
Kilcullen also noted a statement by a previous U.S. commander in Kunar regarding LTC William Ostlund , the 2 @-@ 503 commander : " Bill O. understood deeply that the effect of Coalition operations on the people was the key question . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = U.S. withdrawal = = =
After the battle , Major General Jeffrey J. Schloesser , U.S. Army commander of coalition troops in Regional Command East , Afghanistan , decided to abandon the patrol base and sent additional U.S. troops to assist the base evacuation . Three days after the engagement the United States and Afghan armies withdrew from Wanat . An ISAF statement says ISAF and Afghan security forces " will continue to perform regular patrols near the village of Wanat . " The coalition forces continued to maintain a larger patrol base about four miles away from Wanat and concentrated on protecting the larger Pech River Valley .
The district police force for the area was disarmed by the Americans and the district chief and police chief were briefly detained and questioned . Both were released within 24 hours according to a spokesperson for the district chief .
Speaking at a Pentagon news conference after the attack , U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Navy Admiral Mike Mullen said the incident indicated that " all involved with operations on the ( Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan , especially the pourous Kunar , Kashmir , and Nuristan ) , border must do a better job of policing the region and eliminating the extremists ' safe havens in Pakistan 's federally administered tribal areas that are launching pads for attacks on coalition forces . " The Associated Press reported that the attack underscored a general gain in strength of Afghan militants .
However , the 173rd Brigade Commander , Colonel Charles Preysler , specifically rebutted that conclusion in an interview on July 20 , 2008 . He stated that previous media accounts of the engagement mischaracterized the level of development of the platoon 's defences . He also said that the withdrawal of the platoon did not constitute " abandoning " the position because no permanent defensive infrastructure was developed or left behind . He further stated that the position was " not overrun in any shape , manner , or form " , adding that , " It was close combat to be sure — hand grenade range . "
= = = U.S. Army investigation = = =
An investigation by the U.S. Army , completed on August 13 and released to the public the first week of November 2008 , found that the Taliban attackers had been assisted by the Afghan local police ( ALP ) , forces and a district leader . The evidence included large stocks of weapons and ammunition discovered in the police barracks in Wanat after the battle . The stocks were much more than could be used by the villages ' 20 @-@ man police force and included dirty weapons which appeared to have been used recently . In response to the report , Schloesser concluded that the governor and local police chief " had probably been acting under duress and had been cooperative with American troops . " The governor was absolved of blame in the attack but it was unclear about what was done with the local police chief .
The investigation also examined whether the Army had intelligence about a possible assault and whether the troops had access to it . The report found that despite reports earlier in July that 200 to 300 militants had been massing to attack another remote outpost in the vicinity , including numerous reports from local villagers that an attack was imminent , the commanders at Wanat had no reason to expect such a large frontal assault . The report , however , criticized the " incredible amount of time " — 10 months — it took NATO military leaders to negotiate arrangements over the site of the outpost , giving the Taliban plenty of time to coordinate and plan an attack on the base .
= = = Further actions = = =
In July 2009 , U.S. Senator James Webb asked the U.S. DoD Inspector General to formally examine the battle and the U.S. Army 's investigation into the event . In his request , Webb cited an unreleased report from the Army 's Combat Studies Institute by a contractor , Douglas Cubbison , that criticized how senior Army leaders in Afghanistan , especially Ostlund and Preyser , acted before the assault at Wanat . According to that report , soldiers at the Wanat base were critically short of basic necessities such as water and sandbags and had complained repeatedly , to no avail , that their base was in a precarious position . Cubbison had written the report at the request of Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell IV , commander of the United States Army Combined Arms Center . Cubbison wrote that a few days before the battle , on July 4 , a U.S. Army helicopter mistakenly attacked and killed 17 civilians , including all of the doctors and nurses at a local clinic , infuriating local Afghans . Platoon leader Brostrom and company commander Captain Matthew Myer told their commanders that they expected a retaliatory attack and asked for extra surveillance . Brostrom 's father , retired Army Colonel David . P. Brostrom , alerted Webb 's office to the Army historian 's report . Said Brostrom , " After I read the report , I was sick to my stomach . "
Letters of reprimand were issued to Colonel Charles Preysler , Lieutenant Colonel William Ostlund and Captain Myer for " failing to properly prepare defenses " at Wanat , Pentagon officials said March 12 . That same month , Myer was awarded the Silver Star for his actions during the battle of Wanat .
On September 30 , 2009 , U.S. Central Command commander General David H. Petraeus appointed U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant General Richard F. Natonski to lead a new inquiry into the battle and which would look into related issues " beyond the tactical level . " A later review was conducted by General Charles C. Campbell which " focused on the totality of circumstances that included and affected actions at Wanat " , including interviews of the officers involved , and reviews of previous investigations with the exception of the Fort Leavenworth Combat Studies Institute ( CSI ) narrative — stating that it had " not undergone pre @-@ publication vetting and academic review in accordance with standing CSI research protocols " . Campbell concluded that the officers involved were not at fault :
[ The officers ] were neither negligent nor derelict in the performance of their duties , exercising a degree of care that a reasonably prudent person would have exercised under the same or similar circumstance . To criminalize command decisions in a theater of complex combat operations is a grave step indeed . It is also unnecessary , particularly in this case . It is possible for officers to err in judgment — and to thereby incur censure — without violating a criminal statute . This is particularly true where the errors are those of omission , where the standards come from multiple non @-@ punitive doctrinal publications , where there is less than complete and certain knowledge of enemy capabilities and intent , and where commanders enjoy wide discretion in their exercise of their command prerogatives and responsibilities .
In June 2010 , General Campbell revoked the officers ' reprimands , citing that they would have a " chilling effect " on ground operations . The Army said that the second look at the incident proved that the officers were " neither negligent nor derelict " and " by their valor and their skill , they successfully defended their positions and defeated a determined , skillful , and adaptable enemy who masses and attacks at times , ways and places of his choosing " Secretary of the Army John McHugh was also humbled by their courage , stating " We remain grateful for and humbled by their extraordinary courage and valor . " Gen. George W. Casey Jr . , Army chief of staff further commended the performance of the soldiers :
In every review and study conducted to date , the courage , valor , and discipline of the soldiers who fought at Wanat have been universally praised . These soldiers were well @-@ trained , well @-@ led , and fought bravely to defeat a determined and intense enemy action to overrun their base in Wanat . They persevered in a fashion that deserves broad recognition of their bravery and tenacity . Our hearts go out to the families of the fallen soldiers .
Upset over Campbell 's decision , family members of those killed in action wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Army asking that the findings of Natonski 's investigation be upheld and the reprimands reinstated . In addition to the family members , the letter was signed by Senators Daniel Akaka , Jim Webb , Saxby Chambliss , Patty Murray , and Claire McCaskill .
In November 2010 , the U.S. Army 's Combat Studies Institute published a historical account of the Battle of Wanat . The official U.S. Army history of the battle , published in December 2010 , places little blame on the senior officers involved , instead blaming the uncertain nature of war , mistakes by junior officers , lack of knowledge by Army officers on the Wanat region 's complex political situation , and lack of intelligence that the attack forces would be drawn from the entire region , not just the local area .
= Banff National Park =
Banff National Park / ˈbæmf / is Canada 's oldest national park , established in 1885 in the Rocky Mountains . The park , located 110 – 180 kilometres ( 68 – 112 mi ) west of Calgary in the province of Alberta , encompasses 6 @,@ 641 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 564 sq mi ) of mountainous terrain , with numerous glaciers and ice fields , dense coniferous forest , and alpine landscapes . The Icefields Parkway extends from Lake Louise , connecting to Jasper National Park in the north . Provincial forests and Yoho National Park are neighbours to the west , while Kootenay National Park is located to the south and Kananaskis Country to the southeast . The main commercial centre of the park is the town of Banff , in the Bow River valley .
The Canadian Pacific Railway was instrumental in Banff 's early years , building the Banff Springs Hotel and Lake Louise Chalet , and attracting tourists through extensive advertising . In the early 20th century , roads were built in Banff , at times by war internees from World War I , and through Great Depression @-@ era public works projects . Since the 1960s , park accommodations have been open all year , with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s . Millions more pass through the park on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . As Banff has over three million visitors annually , the health of its ecosystem has been threatened . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Parks Canada responded by initiating a two @-@ year study , which resulted in management recommendations , and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity .
Banff National Park has a subarctic climate with three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine , and alpine . The forests are dominated by Lodgepole pine at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce in higher ones below the treeline , above which is primarily rocks and ice . Mammal species such as the grizzly , cougar , wolverine , elk , bighorn sheep and moose are found , along with hundreds of bird species . Reptiles and amphibians are also found but only a limited number of species have been recorded . The mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks which were pushed east and over newer rock strata between 80 and 55 million years ago . Over the past few million years , glaciers have at times covered most of the park , but today are found only on the mountain slopes though they include the Columbia Icefield , the largest uninterrupted glacial mass in the Rockies . Erosion from water and ice have carved the mountains into their current shapes .
= = History = =
Throughout its history , Banff National Park has been shaped by tension between conservationist and land exploitation interests . The park was established on 25 November 1885 as Banff Hot Springs Reserve , in response to conflicting claims over who discovered hot springs there , and who had the right to develop the hot springs for commercial interests . The conservationists prevailed when Prime Minister John A. Macdonald set aside the hot springs as a small protected reserve , which was later expanded to include Lake Louise and other areas extending north to the Columbia Icefield .
= = = Early history = = =
Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes indicates the first human activity in Banff to 10 @,@ 300 B.P. Prior to European contact , aboriginals , including the Stoneys , Kootenay , Tsuu T 'ina , Kainai , Peigans , and Siksika , resided in the region where they hunted bison and other game .
With the admission of British Columbia to Canada on 20 July 1871 , Canada agreed to build a transcontinental railroad . Construction of the railroad began in 1875 , with Kicking Horse Pass chosen , over the more northerly Yellowhead Pass , as the route through the Canadian Rockies . Ten years later , on 7 November 1885 , the last spike was driven in Craigellachie , British Columbia .
= = = Rocky Mountains Park established = = =
With conflicting claims over discovery of hot springs in Banff , Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres ( 10 sq mi ) around the hot springs at Cave and Basin as a public park known as the Banff Hot Springs Reserve in 1885 . Under the Rocky Mountains Park Act , enacted on 23 June 1887 , the park was expanded to 674 km2 ( 260 sq mi ) and named Rocky Mountains Park . This was Canada 's first national park , and the third established in North America , after Yellowstone and Mackinac National Parks . The Canadian Pacific Railway built the Banff Springs Hotel and Lake Louise Chalet to attract tourists and increase the number of rail passengers .
The Stoney ( Assiniboine ) First Nations were removed from Banff National Park between the years 1890 and 1920 . The park was designed to appeal to sportsmen , and tourists . The exclusionary policy met the goals of sports hunting , tourism , and game conservation , as well as of those attempting to " civilize " the Indians .
Early on , Banff was popular with wealthy European and American tourists , the former of which arrived in Canada via trans @-@ Atlantic luxury liner and continued westward on the railroad . Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities , often hiring local guides . Guides Jim and Bill Brewster founded one of the first outfitters in Banff . From 1906 , the Alpine Club of Canada organized climbs , hikes and camps in the park .
By 1911 , Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary . Beginning in 1916 , the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff . In 1920 , access to Lake Louise by road was available , and the Banff @-@ Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff with British Columbia .
In 1902 , the park was expanded to cover 11 @,@ 400 km2 ( 4 @,@ 400 sq mi ) , encompassing areas around Lake Louise , and the Bow , Red Deer , Kananaskis , and Spray rivers . Bowing to pressure from grazing and logging interests , the size of the park was reduced in 1911 to 4 @,@ 663 km2 ( 1 @,@ 800 sq mi ) , eliminating many eastern foothills areas from the park . Park boundaries changed several more times up until 1930 , when the area of Banff was fixed at 6 @,@ 697 km2 ( 2 @,@ 586 sq mi ) , with the passage of the National Parks Act . The Act , which took effect May 30 , 1930 , also renamed the park Banff National Park , named for the Canadian Pacific Railway station , which in turn was named after the Banffshire region in Scotland . With the construction of a new east gate in 1933 , Alberta transferred 0 @.@ 84 km2 ( 0 @.@ 32 sq mi ) to the park . This , along with other minor changes in the park boundaries in 1949 , set the area of the park at 6 @,@ 641 km2 ( 2 @,@ 564 sq mi ) .
= = = Coal mining = = =
In 1887 , local aboriginal tribes signed Treaty 7 , which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources . At the beginning of the 20th century , coal was mined near Lake Minnewanka in Banff . For a brief period , a mine operated at Anthracite but was shut down in 1904 . The Bankhead mine , at Cascade Mountain , was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922 . In 1926 , the town was dismantled , with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere .
= = = Internment camps = = =
During World War I , immigrants from Austria , Hungary , Germany and Ukraine were sent to Banff to work in internment camps . The main camp was located at Castle Mountain , and was moved to Cave and Basin during winter . Much early infrastructure and road construction was done by men of various Slavic origins although Ukrainians constituted a majority of those held in Banff . Historical plaques and a statue erected by the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association commemorate those interned at Castle Mountain , and at Cave and Basin National Historic Site where an interpretive pavilion dealing with Canada 's first national internment operations opened in September 2013 .
In 1931 , the Government of Canada enacted the Unemployment and Farm Relief Act which provided public works projects in the national parks during the Great Depression . In Banff , workers constructed a new bathhouse and pool at Upper Hot Springs , to supplement Cave and Basin . Other projects involved road building in the park , tasks around the Banff townsite and construction of a highway connecting Banff and Jasper . In 1934 , the Public Works Construction Act was passed , providing continued funding for the public works projects . New projects included construction of a new registration facility at Banff 's east gate and construction of an administrative building in Banff . By 1940 , the Icefields Parkway reached the Columbia Icefield area of Banff and connected Banff and Jasper . Most of the infrastructure present in the national park dates from public work projects enacted during the Great Depression .
Internment camps were once again set up in Banff during World War II , with camps located at Lake Louise , Stoney Creek , and Healy Creek . Prison camps were largely composed of Mennonites from Saskatchewan .
= = = Winter tourism = = =
Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917 , with the first Banff Winter Carnival . It was marketed to a regional middle class audience , and became the centerpiece of local boosters aiming to attract visitors , which in wintertime were a low priority for the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The carnival featured a large ice palace , which in 1917 was built by World War I internees . Carnival events included cross @-@ country skiing , ski jumping , curling , snowshoe , and skijoring . In the 1930s , the first downhill ski resort , Sunshine Village , was developed by the Brewsters . Mount Norquay ski area was also developed during the 1930s , with the first chair lift installed there in 1948 .
Since 1968 , when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized , Banff has been a year @-@ round destination . In the 1950s , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway was constructed , providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley , making the park more accessible .
Canada launched several bids to host the Winter Olympics in Banff , with the first bid for the 1964 Winter Olympics , which were eventually awarded to Innsbruck , Austria . Canada narrowly lost a second bid , for the 1968 Winter Olympics , which were awarded to Grenoble , France . Once again , Banff launched a bid to host the 1972 Winter Olympics , with plans to hold the Olympics at Lake Louise . The 1972 bid was controversial , as environmental lobby groups strongly opposed the bid , which had sponsorship from Imperial Oil . Bowing to pressure , Jean Chrétien , then the Minister of Environment , the government department responsible for Parks Canada , withdrew support for the bid , which was eventually lost to Sapporo , Japan . When nearby Calgary hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics , the cross @-@ country ski events were held at the Canmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park at Canmore , Alberta , located just outside the eastern gates of Banff National Park on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway .
= = = Conservation = = =
Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act , subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation . With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism , Parks Canada issued major new policy in 1979 , which emphasized conservation . The National Parks Act was amended in 1988 , which made preserving ecological integrity the first priority in all park management decisions . The act also required each park to produce a management plan , with greater public participation .
In 1984 , Banff was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site , together with the other national and provincial parks that form the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks , for the mountain landscapes containing mountain peaks , glaciers , lakes , waterfalls , canyons and limestone caves as well as fossil beds . With this designation came added obligations for conservation .
During the 1980s , Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses , and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts . In 1990 , the town of Banff was incorporated , giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments .
In the 1990s , development plans for the park , including expansion at Sunshine Village , were under fire with lawsuits filed by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society ( CPAWS ) . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns , and issues relating to development in the park .
= = Geography = =
Banff National Park is located in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta 's western border with British Columbia in the Alberta Mountain forests ecoregion . By road , the town of Banff is 128 kilometres ( 80 mi ) west of Calgary and 401 km ( 249 mi ) southwest of Edmonton . Jasper National Park borders Banff National Park to the north , while Yoho National Park is to the west and Kootenay National Park is to the south . Kananaskis Country , which includes Bow Valley Wildland Provincial Park , Spray Valley Provincial Park , and Peter Lougheed Provincial Park , is located to the south and east of Banff .
The Trans @-@ Canada Highway passes through Banff National Park , from the eastern boundary near Canmore , through the towns of Banff and Lake Louise , and into Yoho National Park in British Columbia . The Banff townsite is the main commercial centre in the national park . The village of Lake Louise is located at the junction of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway and the Icefields Parkway , which extends north to the Jasper townsite .
= = = Banff = = =
Banff , established in 1885 , is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park , as well as a centre for cultural activities . Banff is home to several cultural institutions , including the Banff Centre , the Whyte Museum , the Buffalo Nations Luxton Museum , Cave and Basin National Historic Site , and several art galleries . Throughout its history , Banff has hosted many annual events , including Banff Indian Days which began in 1889 , and the Banff Winter Carnival . Since 1976 , The Banff Centre has organized the Banff Mountain Film Festival . In 1990 , Banff incorporated as a town of Alberta , though still subject to the National Parks Act and federal authority in regards to planning and development . In its 2014 census , the town of Banff had a permanent population of 8 @,@ 421 as well as 965 non @-@ permanent residents for a total population of 9 @,@ 386 . The Bow River flows through the town of Banff , with the Bow Falls located on the outskirts of town .
= = = Lake Louise = = =
Lake Louise , a hamlet located 54 km ( 34 mi ) northwest of the town of Banff , is home to the landmark Chateau Lake Louise at the edge of Lake Louise . Located 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Lake Louise , Moraine Lake provides a scenic vista of the Valley of the Ten Peaks . This scene was pictured on the back of the $ 20 Canadian banknote , in the 1969 – 1979 ( " Scenes of Canada " ) series . The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is also located near the village . Lake Louise is one of the most visited lakes in the world and is framed to the south @-@ west by the Mount Victoria Glacier .
= = = Icefields Parkway = = =
The Icefields Parkway is a 230 kilometres ( 140 mi ) , long road connecting Lake Louise to Jasper , Alberta . The Parkway originates at Lake Louise , and extends north up the Bow Valley , past Hector Lake , which is the largest natural lake in the park . Other scenic lakes near the parkway include Bow Lake , and Peyto Lakes , both north of Hector Lake . The Parkway then crosses Bow Summit ( 2 @,@ 088 m ( 6 @,@ 850 ft ) ) , and follows the Mistaya River to Saskatchewan Crossing , where it converges with the Howse and North Saskatchewan River . Bow Summit is the highest elevation crossed by a public road in Canada .
The North Saskatchewan River flows east from Saskatchewan Crossing , out of Banff , into what is known as David Thompson Country , and onto Edmonton . The David Thompson Highway follows the North Saskatchewan River , past the man @-@ made Abraham Lake , and through David Thompson Country . At Saskatchewan Crossing , basic services are available , including gasoline , cafeteria , gift shop , and small motel .
North of Saskatchewan Crossing , the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to the Columbia Icefield . The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park at Sunwapta Pass at 2 @,@ 035 metres ( 6 @,@ 677 ft ) in elevation , and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite .
= = Geology = =
The Canadian Rockies consist of several northwest @-@ southeast trending ranges . Two main mountain ranges are within the park , each consisting of numerous subranges . The western border of the park follows the crest of the Main Ranges ( also known as the Park Ranges ) , which is also the continental divide . The Main Ranges in Banff National Park include from north to south , the Waputik , Bow and Blue Ranges . The high peaks west of Lake Louise are part of the Bow Range . The eastern border of the park includes all of the Front Ranges consisting of from north to south , the Palliser , Sawback and Sundance Ranges . The Banff townsite is located in the Front Ranges . Just outside of the park to the east lie the foothills that extend from Canmore at the eastern entrance of the park eastward into the Great Plains . Well west of the park , the Western Ranges of the Rockies pass through Yoho and Kootenay National Parks . Though the tallest peak entirely within the park is Mount Forbes at 3 @,@ 612 metres ( 11 @,@ 850 ft ) , Mount Assiniboine on the Banff @-@ Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park border is slightly higher at 3 @,@ 618 m ( 11 @,@ 870 ft ) .
The Canadian Rockies are composed of sedimentary rock , including shale , sandstone , dolomite and limestone . The vast majority of geologic formations in Banff range in age from Precambrian to the Jurassic periods ( 600 – 145 m.y.a. ) . However , rocks as young as the lower Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 m.y.a. ) can be found near the east entrance and on Cascade Mountain above the Banff townsite . These sedimentary rocks were laid down in shallow seas between 600 and 175 m.y.a. and were pushed east and over top younger rocks during the Laramide orogeny . Mountain building in Banff National Park ended approximately 55 m.y.a.
The Canadian Rockies may have towered up to 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) approximately 70 m.y.a. Once mountain formation ceased , erosion from water and greatly augmented later from glacier ice beginning with the Quaternary glaciation 2 @.@ 5 m.y.a. carved the mountains into their present shapes . Glacial landforms dominate Banff 's geomorphology , with examples of all classic glacial forms , including cirques , arêtes , hanging valleys , moraines , and U @-@ shaped valleys . The pre @-@ existing structure left over from mountain @-@ building strongly guided glacial erosion : mountains in Banff include complex , irregular , anticlinal , synclinal , castellate , dogtooth , and sawback mountains . Many of the mountain ranges trend northwest to southeast , with sedimentary layering dipping down to the west at 40 – 60 degrees . This leads to dip slope landforms , with generally steeper east and north faces , and trellis drainage , where rivers and old glacial valleys followed the weaker layers in the rocks as they were relatively easily weathered and eroded .
Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper : Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain . Just to the north of the Banff townsite , Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations . The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation . Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation . Dogtooth mountains , such as Mount Louis , exhibit sharp , jagged slopes . The Sawback Range , which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers , has been eroded by cross gullies . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade . Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains .
= = = Glaciers and icefields = = =
Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields , 100 of which can be observed from the Icefields Parkway . Small cirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges , situated in depressions on the side of many mountains . As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world , the glaciers in Banff are retreating . While Peyto Glacier is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world , with research extending back to the 1970s , most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s . Glaciologists are now researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly , and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers . Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies ( areas both inside and outside Banff National Park ) between the years 1920 and 1985 . Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005 , indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers is accelerating . In Banff National Park alone , in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005 , 29 glaciers had disappeared . The total glaciated area dropped from 625 to 500 square kilometres ( 241 to 193 sq mi ) in that time period .
The largest glaciated areas include the Waputik and Wapta Icefields , which both lie on the Banff @-@ Yoho National Park border . Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 km2 ( 31 sq mi ) in area . Outlets of Wapta Icefield on the Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto , Bow , and Vulture Glaciers . Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) between the years 1850 and 1953 , and since that period , there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine . Peyto Glacier has lost 70 percent of its volume since record keeping began and has retreated approximately 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) since 1880 ; the glacier is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years .
The Columbia Icefield , at the northern end of Banff , straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia . Snow Dome , in the Columbia Icefield is a hydrological apex of North America , with water flowing via outlet glaciers to the Atlantic , Pacific and Arctic Oceans . Saskatchewan Glacier , which is approximately 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) in length and 30 km2 ( 12 sq mi ) in area , is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff National Park . Between the years 1893 and 1953 , Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1 @,@ 364 m ( 4 @,@ 475 ft ) , with the rate of retreat between the years 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 m ( 180 ft ) per year . Overall , the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies lost 25 percent of their mass during the 20th century .
= = Climate = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , the park has a subarctic climate ( Dfc ) with cold , snowy winters , and mild summers . The climate is influenced by altitude with lower temperatures generally found at higher elevations . Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide , Banff National Park receives 472 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 6 in ) of precipitation annually . This is considerably less than in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia , where 884 mm ( 34 @.@ 8 in ) is received at Wapta Lake and 616 mm ( 24 @.@ 3 in ) at Boulder Creek annually . Being influenced by altitude , snowfall is also greater at higher elevations . As such , 234 cm ( 92 in ) of snow falls on average each year in the Banff townsite , while 304 cm ( 120 in ) falls in Lake Louise , which is located at a higher altitude .
During winter months , temperatures in Banff are moderated , compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta , due to Chinook winds and other influences from British Columbia . The mean low temperature during January is − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , and the mean high temperature is − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) for the town of Banff . However , temperatures can drop below − 20 ° C ( − 4 @.@ 0 ° F ) with wind chill values dropping below − 30 ° C ( − 22 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Weather conditions during summer months are warm , with high temperatures during July averaging 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and daily low temperatures averaging 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) , leading to a large diurnal range owing to the relative dryness of the air .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Ecoregions = = =
Banff National Park spans three ecoregions , including montane , subalpine
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" archipelago corvettes " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) , and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) .
= = Development = =
The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " sweeps " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " galleasses " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " shebecks " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean xebecs , for inshore duties . The xebecs were good sailers , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were elaborations on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare .
Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around skerries in all weathers and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations .
= = Design and construction = =
Of the new designs , turumas and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the lateen rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular outrigger , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys .
During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik Aschling had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal bracers to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan Glete has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " .
The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the gundeck . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . Glete has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs .
= = Service = =
Hemmemas served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Hemmemas fought in the first and second battles of Svensksund . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar turumas , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower .
The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a paddlewheel steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly manoeuvrable under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested .
= = Ships = =
A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . Tredrea and Sozaev list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar Nikula and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by Tredea and Sozaev as Bodryi @-@ class " rowing frigates " .
Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy .
= Hurricane Donna =
Hurricane Donna brought severe damage to the Lesser Antilles , the Greater Antilles , and the East Coast of the United States , especially Florida in August – September 1960 . The fifth tropical cyclone , third hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29 , spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by the following day . Donna moved west @-@ northwestward at roughly 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) and by September 1 , it reached hurricane status . Significant deepening occurred during the next 30 hours , with Donna being a moderate Category 4 hurricane by late on September 2 . Intensification continued and it briefly became a Category 5 hurricane early on September 4 . Thereafter , it weakened to a Category 4 and brushed the Lesser Antilles later that day . On Sint Maarten , the storm left a quarter of the island homeless and killed seven people . An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities , 85 of them in Humacao alone . Donna further weakened to a Category 3 hurricane late on September 5 , but eventually became a Category 4 hurricane again . While passing through The Bahamas , several small island communities in the central regions of the country were leveled , but no damage total or fatalities were reported .
Early on September 10 , Donna made landfall near Marathon , Florida with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , hours before another landfall south of Naples at the same intensity . Florida bore the brunt of Hurricane Donna . In the Florida Keys , coastal flooding severely damaged 75 % of buildings , destroyed several subdivisions in Marathon . On the mainland , 5 @,@ 200 houses were impacted , which does not include the 75 % of homes damaged at Fort Myers Beach ; 50 % of buildings were also destroyed in the city of Everglades . Crop losses were also extensive . A total of 50 % of grapefruit crop was lost , 10 % of the orange and tangerine crop was lost , and the avocado crop was almost destroyed . In the state of Florida alone , there were 13 deaths and $ 300 million in losses . Donna weakened over Florida and was a Category 2 hurricane when it re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic from North Florida . By early on September 12 , the storm made landfall near Topsail Beach , North Carolina as a strong Category 2 hurricane . Donna brought tornadoes and wind gusts up to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , damaging or destroying several buildings in Eastern North Carolina , while crops were impacted as far as 50 miles ( 80 km ) inland . Additionally , storm surge caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head . Eight people were killed and there were over 100 injuries . Later on September 12 , Donna reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean and continued to move northeastward . The storm struck Long Island , New York late on September 12 and rapidly weakened inland . On the following day , Donna became extratropical over Maine .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 29 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa near Dakar . That day , it is estimated a tropical depression developed along the wave southeast of Cape Verde . There was a lack of data for several days , but it is estimated that the system gradually intensified . On September 2 , ships in the region suggested there was a tropical storm after reporting winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . That day , the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system and observed a well @-@ defined eye , along with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Based on the data , the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico initiated advisories on Hurricane Donna at 2200 UTC on September 2 , about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . It is estimated that the storm attained hurricane status a day prior . The Azores High to the north was unusually powerful , which caused Donna to move to the west @-@ northwest . When advisories began , Donna was a major hurricane , which is the equivalent of a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale ; it would ultimately maintain this status for nine days .
Continuing to the west @-@ northwest , Donna strengthened further , and on September 4 , the Hurricane Hunters estimated peak maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) ; this made Donna a Category 5 hurricane . After maintaining peak winds for about 12 hours , the hurricane weakened slightly as it approached the Lesser Antilles . Late on September 4 , the eye of Donna moved over Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Anguilla , and passed just south of Anegada . Despite having weakened , Donna remained well @-@ organized , described in the Monthly Weather Review as akin to " an intense , idealized hurricane . " A weakening trough to the north turned the hurricane more northwesterly , bringing it within 85 mi ( 137 km ) of the north coast of Puerto Rico . By September 7 , Donna had turned more to the west after the ridge built to the north . Over the next few days , the intense hurricane moved slowly through the southern Bahamas without defined steering currents , and the eye passed near or over Mayaguana , Acklins , Fortune Island , and Ragged Island .
While passing through the Straits of Florida , Donna brushed the northern coast of Cuba on September 9 with gale force winds . Subsequently , a cold front moved eastward through the United States and weakened the ridge , causing the hurricane to turn more to the northwest . It re @-@ intensified over warm sea surface temperatures , and the hurricane 's minimum barometric pressure dropped to 932 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) on September 10 . Between 0200 and 0300 UTC that day , the 21 mi ( 34 km ) wide eye of Donna crossed through the Florida Keys just northeast of Marathon , with sustained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) and gusts to 178 mph ( 286 km / h ) . The hurricane continued to the northwest along the southwest coast of Florida , passing over Naples and Fort Myers before turning inland to the northeast . At 0800 UTC on September 11 , Donna exited Daytona Beach into the western Atlantic with winds of about 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , still as an organized hurricane . Accelerating to the northeast due to an approaching trough , the hurricane re @-@ intensified slightly before making landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina , early on September 12 . At 0900 UTC that day , Donna again emerged over open waters near Virginia , although it had weakened and the eye expanded to over 50 mi ( 80 km ) in diameter . Late on September 12 , the hurricane crossed Long Island and later moved through New England . On September 13 , Donna became extratropical over northern Maine before entering eastern Canada , having become associated with the approaching cold front . After moving across Quebec and Labrador , Donna reached the Labrador Sea and dissipated early on September 14 .
= = Preparations = =
At noon on September 3 , a hurricane watch was issued for the Leeward Islands , which at 6 p.m was upgraded to a warning . Also at 6 p.m. , hurricane watches were raised for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , which at 6 a.m. on September 4 , were upgraded to warnings . By 6 a.m. on September 5 , hurricane warnings were dropped for the Leeward Islands , and at 9 a.m. , southwest Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island 's hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings . By noon , all remaining hurricane warnings for Puerto Rico were changed to gale warnings . In Puerto Rico , flood warnings were issued on September 5 , although some residents in the region did not heed the notice ; many returned to their homes after the hurricane passed to the north . On Vieques Island , about 1 @,@ 700 United States Marines evacuated to naval ships . Officials advised small boats to remain at port , and thousands of residents evacuated to schools set up as Red Cross shelters . Along the Cuban coast , about 3 @,@ 000 people evacuated inland or to churches and schools , while in the Bahamas , stores closed and boats were sent to port .
Beginning on September 7 , hurricane watches were put in place for the Florida coast from Key West to Melbourne . The next day , the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from Key West to Key Largo , with hurricane watches raised on the west coast northward to Fort Myers , and gale warnings issued from Key Largo to Vero Beach . By September 11 , hurricane warnings were in effect for southern Florida from Daytona Beach on the east coast to Cedar Key on the west coast , including Lake Okeechobee . Gale warnings were in place northward from Cedar Key to St. Marks , as well as from Daytona Beach northward to Savannah , Georgia . Evacuations in the Florida Keys disrupted traffic along the Overseas Highway . The Air Force evacuated 90 Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojets from Homestead Air Reserve Base . At Kennedy Space Center , the threat of the storm caused the launching of two missiles to be postponed . Most flights out of Miami International Airport were canceled during the storm 's approach . Officials closed schools in Miami and the Florida Keys , and recommended residents in low @-@ lying areas of the Florida Keys and southwestern Florida to evacuate . Ultimately , about 12 @,@ 000 people in southern Florida sought refuge in storm shelters , two of which were damaged during the storm . In Miami @-@ Dade County alone , there were 77 storm shelters housing 10 @,@ 000 people .
At 5 p.m. on September 10 , gale warnings were extended northward to Myrtle Beach . At 11 p.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered in the Florida Keys but extended northward from Daytona Beach to Savannah , Georgia . At 11 a.m. on September 11 , all warnings were lowered south of Vero Beach and along the Florida west coast , while hurricane warnings were extended northward from Savannah to Myrtle Beach . At 5 p.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered south of Fernandina Beach , while they were extended northward to include the entire North Carolina coast . Gale warnings were issued northward to Cape May . At 9 p.m. , hurricane warnings were extended northward to Portsmouth , New Hampshire , while gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued northward to Eastport , Maine . Ships at dock in Newport , Rhode Island were towed out into the bay to weather the storm . On September 12 at 5 a.m. , hurricane warnings were extended northward to Eastport , and dropped south of Cape Hatteras . At 7 a.m. , hurricane warnings were lowered south of Cape Charles . At 2 p.m. , hurricane warnings were dropped south of Cape May . At 5 p.m. , hurricane warnings were discontinued south of Manasquan , New Jersey . At 8 p.m. , hurricane warnings expired south of Block Island . By 11 p.m. on September 12 , all hurricane warnings had been lowered .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Donna was a very destructive hurricane that caused extensive damage from the Lesser Antilles to New England . At least 364 people were killed by the hurricane and property damage was estimated at $ 900 million ( 1960 USD ) .
= = = West Africa and Caribbean = = =
The precursor to Hurricane Donna brought severe weather to the Dakar area of Senegal . Air France Flight AF343 , which was flying from Paris , France to Abidjan , Ivory Coast , attempted to land at the Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport as a layover . However , due to squally weather , the plane instead crashed into the Atlantic Ocean , killing all 63 people on board . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cape Verde on August 30 .
A weather station in Sint Maarten reported sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a 952 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) pressure reading in the main airport . Donna killed two people on Antigua and five on Anguilla .
Hurricane Donna caused very extensive damage on the island , killed 7 and left at least a quarter of the island 's population homeless . During the passing of hurricane Donna Anguilla recorded five deaths , including a woman who died when the roof of her house collapsed .
Despite passing only 35 mi ( 56 km ) north of the island , Donna caused only minor damage on St. Thomas in the United States Virgin Islands . A station there reported a wind gust of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . Some fences were toppled , while several houses were reported to have been damaged or destroyed . Electrical and telephone services were also disrupted . The highest daily rainfall total on the island was 8 @.@ 78 inches ( 223 mm ) , causing minor local flooding . On Saint John , several small boats capsized .
While passing to the north of Puerto Rico , Donna produced winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) in San Juan . Along the north coast of the island , high tides of around 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and strong waves caused coastal flooding . The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall , peaking at 16 @.@ 23 in ( 412 mm ) at Naguabo in the central portion of the island . Large areas of eastern Puerto Rico received over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of precipitation . The hurricane left about 2 @,@ 500 people homeless on the island . Despite advanced warning of the floods , the hurricane killed 107 people on the island , of which 84 were in Humacao .
In Haiti , the southern periphery of the hurricane killed three people in Port au Prince . Later , Donna brushed the north coast of Cuba with strong winds and heavy rainfall , causing damage along much of the coast . In Gibara , the storm wrecked 80 houses .
= = = Turks and Caicos and Bahamas = = =
On Grand Turk in what is now the Turks and Caicos , Donna produced winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) , as the strongest winds remained north of the island . However , the storm dropped heavy rainfall of over 20 in ( 510 mm ) , much of which fell in a 12 ‑ hour period . Despite the rains , damage there was minor .
In the Bahamas , the anemometer at Ragged Island blew away after registering a 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) wind gust . At Mayaguana , where residents evacuated to a missile tracking base , hurricane @-@ force winds raged for 13 hours . The winds largely destroyed the village of Abraham 's Bay on the island . Andros experienced hurricane @-@ force winds for a few hours , and winds on Fortune Island were estimated at 173 mph ( 278 km / h ) before the anemometer blew away . The strongest winds remained south of the northwestern Bahamas , which limited damage there . Donna cut communications between several islands .
Several small island communities in the central Bahamas were leveled . North Caicos reported 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours .
= = = United States = = =
Fifty people were reported dead in the United States , with damages totaling to $ 3 @.@ 35 billion . Donna crossed directly over Texas Tower 4 , causing severe damage to the structure and leading to its eventual loss in January 1961 .
Donna was the only hurricane to affect every state along the East Coast with hurricane @-@ force winds .
= = = = Florida = = = =
The U.S. state of Florida received the most damage from Hurricane Donna . Portions of southern and western Florida received over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rainfall from the hurricane , peaking at 13 @.@ 24 in ( 336 mm ) . Strong winds were observed in the state , with a sustained wind speed of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) in Tavernier and a gusts up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) at Sombrero Key Light . In Miami , winds reached 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) . Southeast of the city , high waves washed a 104 ft ( 32 m ) freighter onshore an island . The highest observed storm surge of 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) was reported at Marathon . The hurricane also lashed Southwest Florida , where tides were 4 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal .
In Miami @-@ Dade County , thousands of low @-@ lying homes in the Homestead area were flooded . Overall , 857 houses in the country were destroyed , while about 2 @,@ 317 others suffered damage . Significant agricultural losses were also reported . Donna was the first hurricane to affect Miami , Florida since Hurricane King in October 1950 .
In the Florida Keys , some areas experienced " almost complete destruction " . Further north between Marathon and Tavernier , an estimated 75 % of buildings were extensively damaged . In the former , tides inundated the city and destroyed several subdivisions . In Key West , one death was confirmed and 71 people were injured . About 564 homes were demolished and an additional 1 @,@ 382 were damaged , 583 of them severely . Storm surge inundated parts of the Overseas Highway and washed out several portions near bridges . Many boats and docks were severely damaged or destroyed . Additionally , the pipeline supplying water to the Florida Keys was wrecked in three places .
Large tracts of mangrove forest were lost in the western portion of Everglades National Park , while at least 35 % of the white heron population in the park were killed . In Everglades , about 50 % of buildings were destroyed due to strong winds and coastal flooding . Late on September 11 , 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water was reported throughout the area . The city briefly became inaccessible due to inundated roads . Many small building were destroyed , and roofs were blown off or damaged . Thousands of trees were toppled , blocking portions of the Tamiami Trail . Throughout Collier County , strong winds and coastal flooding combined destroyed 153 homes , inflicted major impact on an additional 409 , and 1 @,@ 049 others suffered minor damage . The turn into southern Florida lessened damage in the Tampa area .
Throughout the state , the storm destroyed 2 @,@ 156 homes and trailers , severely damaged 3 @,@ 903 , and inflicted minor impact on 30 @,@ 524 others . Approximately 391 farm buildings were destroyed , an additional 989 suffered extensive impact , and 2 @,@ 499 others received minor damage . Roughly 174 buildings were demolished , 1 @,@ 029 received major impact , and 4 @,@ 254 suffered minor damage . Additionally , 281 boats were destroyed or severely damaged . A total of 50 % of grapefruit crop was lost , 10 % of the orange and tangerine crops were ruined , and the avocado crop was almost destroyed . With at least $ 350 million in damage in Florida alone , Donna was the costliest hurricane to impact the state , at the time . Additionally , there were 13 confirmed fatalities , six from drowning , four from heart attacks , two from automobile accidents , and two from electrocution . About 1 @,@ 188 others were injured .
= = = = Southeastern United States and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = = =
The storm brought minor impact to Georgia . Wind gusts of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) along the coast felled trees and tree limbs , resulting in electrical and telephone service outages . In Brunswick , a power outage at the power plant caused a minor explosion . Heavy rainfall temporarily flooded some streets in the city . Further north in South Carolina , gale force winds were reported along the coast , but caused little damage . A tornado spawned in the Charleston area destroyed several houses and severely damaged a number of others , and injured a few people by flying glass . Damage from this tornado was over $ 500 @,@ 000 . Another tornado touched down in Garden City and destroyed and extensively damaged six buildings . In Beaufort County , many trees were uprooted , power lines were downed , homes were unroofed , piers were destroyed , and there was significant damage to corn and soybean crops .
In North Carolina , Donna brought two tornadoes to the state . The first of which damaged several small buildings in Bladen County . The second tornado was spawned in Sampson County , where it destroyed a dwelling with eight occupants , all of whom were hospitalized . Along the coast , wind gusts as high as 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) damaged or destroyed several buildings . Additionally crops were impacted as far as 50 miles ( 80 km ) inland . Storm tides ranging from 4 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal caused significant beach erosion and structural damage Wilmington and Nags Head . Additionally , Topsail Beach was reported to have been 50 % destroyed . In Southport , the town docks were almost completely demolished . There were eight deaths , including three from drowning , two from falling trees , two from weather @-@ related traffic accidents , and one from electrocution . At least 100 people were injured enough to require hospitalization . Damage in North Carolina exceeded $ 5 million , with the worst impact occurring in New Hanover County .
In Virginia , the east coast of the state reported hurricane @-@ force winds , while gusts reached up to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) in Virginia Beach . Strong winds toppled trees and electrical wires , which blocked streets . Additionally , buildings suffered roof damage and broken windows ; some structures were completely destroyed . Offshore , rough seas sunk or destroyed numerous small crafts , while a 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) vessel was driven aground . The storm killed three people in Virginia ; two of the deaths occurred when barge collided when a freighter and later sank , and another after a man attempted to safeguard his boat . Strong winds and heavy rains were observed in eastern Maryland . Ocean City suffered the worst impact , with over $ 300 @,@ 000 in property damage . The storm also impacted crops in the area , especially corn and apples . Effects from the storm in Delaware were similar , with property damage and considerable losses to corn and apple crops . In Pennsylvania , wind gusts up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) in the southeastern portions of the state toppled many trees and utility wires . Heavy rains and poor drainage in some areas flooded basements , lawns , and streets . Low @-@ lying areas in Bucks and Montgomery counties were inundated with up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water after many streams and creeks nearby overflowed . One death in the state was reported after a boy was swept into a swollen creek behind his home in Sharon Hill .
Winds as strong as 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) were observed along the coast of New Jersey . Rainfall in the state was generally between 5 and 6 inches ( 130 and 150 mm ) , with a peak of 8 @.@ 99 inches ( 228 mm ) near Hammonton . Damage from the storm was most severe in Atlantic , Cape May , Monmouth , and Ocean counties , where numerous boats , docks , boardwalks , and cottages were damaged or destroyed . A resort area in Cliffwood Beach , New Jersey saw its boardwalk and tourist attractions destroyed by the hurricane , and the area has never recovered . Losses to agriculture were significant , with damage to apple and peach trees " considerable " , the former of which lost about one @-@ third of its crops . Wind damage to corn , Sudan grass , and sorgham resulted in a delay in their harvest . Nine deaths were reported in the state of New Jersey . In southeastern New York , heavy rains , hurricane @-@ force winds , and " unprecedented " high tides were observed . Severe small stream flooding caused significant damage , especially on Long Island , the waterfront of New York City , and further north in Greene County . The storm caused three fatalities in the state , two from drowning and another from a person crushed by a falling tree .
= = = Elsewhere in North America = = =
In Connecticut , strong winds left 15 @,@ 000 people without telephone service , while 88 @,@ 000 homes lost electricity . Along the coast , tides caused beach erosion , inundated streets , and weakened foundations . Four seaside cottages were destroyed . Crop damage was isolated and mainly limited to apples and corn . In Rhode Island , the storm brought a wind gust as strong as 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) to Block Island . Telephone and electrical services were severely disrupted . Along the coast , high tides significantly impacted or destroyed about 200 homes at Narragansett Bay and Warwick cove . Damage to these vessels collectively totaled to over $ 2 million . Agriculture also suffered impact , particularly to fruit , timber , and poultry , especially in Newport and Portsmouth .
Strong winds were also observed in Massachusetts , with a wind gust of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) at the Blue Hill Observatory . Extensive losses to apple orchards occurred , as the fruit was blown out of trees . Widespread telephone and power outages were reported . The strong southwest winds associated with Donna , in combination with very little rainfall , led to a significant deposit of salt spray , which whitewashed southwest @-@ facing windows . Many trees and shrubs saw their leaves brown due to the salt . However , in other areas , 4 to 6 in ( 100 to 150 mm ) of precipitation fell , causing some washouts and local flooding . Waves along the coast ripped of small boats and pleasure craft from their moorings and subsequently smashed them against rocks or seawalls .
In Vermont , winds damaged trees , tree branches , and power lines , causing telephone and electrical service outages in a few communities . Rainfall totals ranged from 2 to 5 in ( 51 to 127 mm ) , resulted in washouts in some areas . Damage to apple orchards totaled $ 50 @,@ 000 . Along the coast of New Hampshire , many boats were smashed or damage in some way . Strong winds felled trees and power lines , causing residents in the southern portions of the state to lose telephone service and electricity . Additionally , apple orchard suffered $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage . Rainfall in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 25 in ( 184 mm ) near Peterborough , resulting in local flooding and washouts .
Along the coast , large waves damaged 15 to 20 boats in Falmouth harbor . Total boat damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 . Coastal residents in low @-@ lying beach areas of Cumberland and York counties were evacuated . Several counties lost power during the storm . In Southwest Harbor , lightning struck the Dirigo Hotel , causing a fire that resulted in $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . Winds caused a lost of telephone and electrical services in Auburn @-@ Lewiston area due to falling trees and tree branches . Television antennas were damaged , as were several signs including a Sears sign . In addition , 25 % to 40 % of the apple crop was destroyed .
After becoming extratropical , the remnants of Donna continued northeastward into New Brunswick , Quebec , and then Labrador . Wind gusts of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Quebec snapped electrical poles and trees . One death occurred when a man suffered a heart attack when his home was threatened by a fire . Additionally , weather @-@ related traffic accidents in the province resulted in two injuries .
= = Depictions in popular culture = =
Nobel Prize @-@ winner John Steinbeck wrote about Hurricane Donna in his 1962 non @-@ fiction memoir Travels with Charley : In Search of America . Steinbeck had had a truck fitted with a custom camper @-@ shell for a journey he intended to take across the United States , accompanied by his poodle Charley . He planned on leaving after Labor Day from his home in Sag Harbor , Long Island , New York . Steinbeck delayed his trip slightly due to Donna , which made a direct hit on Long Island . Steinbeck wrote of saving his boat during the middle of the hurricane , during which he jumped into the water and was blown to shore clinging to a fallen branch driven by the high winds . It was an exploit which foreshadowed his fearless , or even reckless , state of mind to dive into the unknown .
The winds of Donna can be seen in the feature film Blast of Silence ( 1961 ) ; a fist fight scene on Long Island had been previously scheduled , and the filmmakers decided to go ahead and shoot the exterior scene despite the hurricane .
= = Aftermath , records and retirement = =
Following the storm , President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower issued a disaster declaration for Florida and North Carolina , allowing residents of those states to be eligible for public assistance .
The United States military sent a plane carrying doctors and food from Patrick Air Force Base to Mayaguana in the Bahamas . Crews of doctors and workers with food and supplies left from Key West and Miami to traverse the Florida Keys , bringing aid to impacted residents . In Marathon , a large reconstruction program rehabilitated the key by Christmas .
Coral reefs were damaged in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary by the hurricane . Donna caused a significant negative impact on aquatic life in north Florida Bay . Marine life was either stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or killed by muddied waters in its wake . Oxygen depletion due to animals perishing in the hurricane caused additional mortality . Although salinity levels returned to normal within six weeks , dissolved oxygen concentrations remained quite low for a longer time frame . Marine life was scarce for several months in areas of greatest oxygen depletion . Sports fishing in the area took a few months to recover . Juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper water about 60 mi ( 97 km ) offshore , where they were subsequently captured by fishermen . A Caspian tern was swept up the North American coast well to the north of its traditional breeding grounds , to Nova Scotia , which was witnessed four hours after the storm went by Digby Neck .
Because of its devastating impacts and the high mortality associated with the hurricane , the name Donna was retired , and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane ; the name was replaced by Dora in 1964 .
= Dumbbell Indemnity =
" Dumbbell Indemnity " is the sixteenth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 1 , 1998 . It was written by Ron Hauge and directed by Dominic Polcino . The episode sees Moe trying to keep his new girlfriend by using a large amount of money , but when it runs out , he decides to commit insurance fraud . Homer helps him , but is caught and sent to jail , and attempts to take revenge on Moe when he does not bail him out . Helen Hunt makes a guest appearance as Moe 's girlfriend , Renee . The episode contains several cultural references and was generally well received .
= = Plot = =
At Moe 's Tavern , Homer notices that Moe is depressed because he cannot get a date . Homer decides to take Moe out to meet a woman . The trip to a disco proves to be unsuccessful , but on their way home , a flower vendor named Renee starts a conversation with Moe , and he ends up asking her out .
Moe and Renee seem to form a strong relationship , but Moe is insecure about his hold on her and he feels he must spend large amounts of money so she will stay with him . Upon maxing out his credit card , Moe comes up with a scheme to commit insurance fraud by having Homer steal his car and park it on train tracks so it would be destroyed . The night the scheme is supposed to take place , Moe and Renee attend a police charity event aboard a yacht ; the event 's attendance by all the officers in town ensures Homer will not get caught perpetrating the scheme , and gives Moe an alibi so that no one will suspect he was behind the act . Homer botches the plan by stopping to watch a drive @-@ in movie , while the train they were counting on to destroy Moe 's car passes by . Deciding all is not lost , Homer drives the car over a cliff — but his attempt to exit the car before it sinks into the water below fails . The car ends up sinking just near the yacht where the police charity event is taking place , and when Homer swims to the surface , he is arrested .
Moe speaks to Homer through the bars of his jail cell window and promises to bail him out , but changes his mind when Renee talks about wanting to vacation in Hawaii . While packing for the trip , Moe is confronted by his own conscience , in the form of Homer , who makes him feel bad for his betrayal . Moe ends up telling Renee the truth about the insurance fraud scheme , and she is at first happy he was honest . However , when Moe starts scheming again for a way to get Homer out of jail without paying the bail , Renee is disgusted and leaves him .
Moe 's idea involved setting his bar on fire , which he ends up doing by accident as he realizes Renee has left . Meanwhile , Homer escapes jail by attacking Hans Moleman , who was delivering books to the inmates . He enters the burning bar to confront Moe , and the two start fighting . They are both soon rendered unconscious from smoke inhalation , but Barney appears and rescues them . The bar is completely destroyed , and during their reconciliation Homer promises to help Moe get back on his feet . In the final scene , Homer has allowed Moe to relocate his bar to the Simpsons ' home .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ron Hauge , who has said he thought of the episode while attempting to create a story involving general illegal activity . Originally , Hauge had a different title for the episode , " Mutual of Moemaha " , parodying the name of the Mutual of Omaha insurance company . The episode was going to add to the development of Moe 's character in the show , though the staff did not think they were able to develop him more until later episodes .
Director Dominic Polcino and the animators of the episode were praised for their efforts by the other staff members , especially during the scene where Homer is driving down the cliff and attempts to escape Moe 's car . Polcino and his animators went to great lengths to correctly time Homer 's rolling and create a vivid and detailed lake , as well as animate Homer sinking to the bottom of the lake . Show runner Mike Scully commented that , " It 's hard enough for us to come up with the ideas , but when Dominic and the animators can make it , it 's really fantastic . "
The episode guest starred Helen Hunt as Renee , Moe 's girlfriend . Hunt has said she liked the design of her character , who was named after Hauge 's wife . During the making of the episode , Hunt and Hank Azaria , who voices Moe , were dating . In an interview with People Magazine in 1998 , Scully stated : " Hank and Helen got along so well it 's hard to believe they are a real couple . " In July 1999 , the couple married , but divorced in December 2000 , after a long separation .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the film Double Indemnity , which also had a plot involving an insurance scam . In the scenes where Moe and Renee are seen dating , the song " I 'm a Believer " by The Monkees is playing . Other songs include " One Bourbon , One Scotch , One Beer " by George Thorogood & The Destroyers and " Brick House " by the Commodores .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Dumbbell Indemnity " finished 25th in ratings for the week of February 23 - March 1 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , enjoyed the episode , commenting : " A case perhaps of life reflecting art as guest star Helen Hunt is now married to Hank Azaria , who is , of course , Moe , which is rather nice as you can 't help but feel sad that , by the end of this rather clever and charming episode , Moe has been unlucky in love once more . " In a 2006 article in USA Today , " Dumbbell Indemnity " was highlighted among the six best episodes of The Simpsons season 9 , along with "
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Trash of the Titans " , " The Last Temptation of Krust " , " The Cartridge Family " , " The Joy of Sect " , and " Das Bus " . IGN ranked Hail to the Chimp , the film Homer goes to see in the episode , as the seventh best fictional film within another work . Show runner Mike Scully greatly enjoyed the scene where Homer attempts to escape Moe 's car when it is going down the cliff , and has said that it is one of his favorite scenes from the show .
= SMS Kaiserin Augusta =
SMS Kaiserin Augusta was a unique protected cruiser , built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the early 1890s . Named for Empress Augusta , who died in January 1890 , she was laid down in 1890 , launched in January 1892 , and completed in November of that year . Owing to budgetary restrictions , Kaiserin Augusta was designed to fill both fleet scout and colonial cruiser roles . The ship was initially armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , which by 1896 was replaced with twelve new model 15 cm guns . She was the first ship in the German Navy to feature a three @-@ shaft propeller arrangement .
Kaiserin Augusta served abroad between 1897 and 1902 , primarily in the East Asia Squadron under the command of Admiral Otto von Diederichs . During this time , the ship 's crew assisted in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . In 1902 , she returned to Germany for an extensive overhaul that lasted until 1907 , after which she went into reserve . Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Kaiserin Augusta was mobilized to serve as a gunnery training ship . She served in this role throughout the war ; the ship was ultimately sold for scrapping in October 1919 and broken up the following year .
= = Design = =
Design work on Kaiserin Augusta began in 1887 ; budgetary restrictions forced the German Navy to design a ship that could serve in both colonial and fleet scout roles . During the design process , it was determined a three @-@ shaft arrangement of the machinery would be necessary to attain the high speed requirement . This resulted in the first warship of the German Navy to use three screws . This was a relatively novel development ; at the time of Kaiserin Augusta 's construction , only a handful of French and American ships had experimented with the arrangement , and had not yet been to sea for a thorough evaluation of the design . Kaiserin Augusta was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1890 . She was launched on 15 January 1892 and commissioned into the fleet less than a year later on 17 November 1892 .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Kaiserin Augusta was 122 @.@ 2 meters ( 400 ft 11 in ) long at the waterline and 123 @.@ 2 m ( 404 ft 2 in ) overall . She had a beam of 15 @.@ 6 m ( 51 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 48 m ( 21 ft 3 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 4 m ( 24 ft 3 in ) aft . She was designed to displace 6 @,@ 056 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 960 long tons ) , and at full combat load the displacement increased to 6 @,@ 318 t ( 6 @,@ 218 long tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; the outer wall consisted of a single layer of timber planks covered with Muntz metal sheathing to protect the hull from fouling . The hull contained 10 watertight compartments and a double bottom . A double bottom ran for 55 percent of the length of the hull . The ship 's armor consisted of Krupp steel ; the deck was 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick sloping sides . The conning tower had 50 mm thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof .
Kaiserin Augusta 's crew consisted of 13 officers and 417 enlisted men . She carried several smaller boats , including two picket boats , one launch , one pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and two dinghies . The ship suffered from severe pitch and roll , though these effects were reduced in heavy winds and a beam sea . The forecastle shipped excessive amounts of water in a head sea . The ship maneuvered poorly , though this was improved at high speed . The transverse metacentric height was .78 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines built by AG Germania ; each drove a screw that was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 14 ft 9 in ) in diameter . Each engine had its own separate engine room . The engines were supplied with steam by eight cylindrical double boilers split into three boiler rooms . The engines were rated at 12 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) and a top speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , though on trials they reached a half knot better at 14 @,@ 015 ihp ( 10 @,@ 451 kW ) . This rendered her one of the fastest cruisers in the world at the time . Kaiserin Augusta was equipped with four electrical generators providing 48 kilowatts at 67 volts . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
As built , Kaiserin Augusta was armed with four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) K L / 30 guns with a total of 292 rounds of ammunition , eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 guns with 777 rounds of ammunition , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 1 @,@ 361 rounds of ammunition , and four machine guns . The ship was also equipped with five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with thirteen torpedoes ; four were placed in swivel mounts on the broadside and one was placed in the bow , below the waterline . In 1896 , her armament was updated ; the old 15 cm and 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with twelve 15 cm SK L / 35 guns that had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 m ( 41 @,@ 300 ft ) . The guns were supplied with a total of 1 @,@ 064 shells . After 1907 , the swivel @-@ mounted torpedo tubes were removed , leaving only the tube in the bow with three torpedoes .
= = Service history = =
In early 1893 , Kaiserin Augusta and Seeadler conducted a good @-@ will visit to the United States , a belated celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's first voyage across the Atlantic . On 21 June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , connecting the North and Baltic Seas , was opened ; Kaiserin Augusta was present during the opening ceremonies . She led a group of twenty @-@ one unarmored ships , in company with the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships , the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads , and four of the Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships . Later that year , the ship took part in an expedition to Morocco along with the coastal defense ship Hagen and the frigates Marie and Stosch to secure an indemnity demanded in the aftermath of the murder of two Germans . The operation was heavily criticized , especially in Britain , where anti @-@ German sentiment was beginning to rise .
In February 1897 , an international naval demonstration took place off Crete , to protest Greece 's annexation of the island . Kaiserin Augusta was the sole German contribution to the force , until she was ordered to the Far East , at which point she was replaced by the old ironclad Oldenburg . Immediately following the seizure of the Kiautschou Bay concession in China , Admiral Otto von Diederichs , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , requested reinforcements to secure the new colonial territory . In mid @-@ November , he specifically requested Kaiserin Augusta and additional ground troops to garrison the port . The ship was joined by the cruisers Deutschland and Gefion , which carried the III Seebataillon , and Cormoran . As Kaiserin Augusta had been stationed in the Mediterranean , she arrived first , on 30 December .
Following the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Diederichs was ordered to proceed to the Philippines , where Commodore George Dewey had defeated a Spanish squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo . Diederichs was instructed to protect local German interests , and if possible , seize another colonial concession in the Philippines . With his ships dispersed on various colonial missions or under repair , Diederichs initially concentrated his forces slowly ; he recalled Kaiserin Augusta to serve as his flagship while the rest of the force assembled . After the end of the Battle of Manila , Kaiserin Augusta steamed to Hong Kong where the ship notified Berlin of the defeat of the Spanish garrison . She also carried the former Governor General of the Philippines , Basilio Augustín , out of Manila . The ship left Filipino waters on 13 August and arrived two days later .
Kaiserin Augusta remained stationed in Asia and participated in the international effort to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . She contributed landing parties to Admiral Edward Seymour 's relief force , based in Tientsin . In 1902 , the ship returned to Germany for an extensive overhaul , which began in 1903 , and lasted until 1907 . During the refit , the ship 's generators were replaced with more powerful units that more than doubled electrical output , at 124 kW at 110 V. Her bridge was significantly expanded , with a second deck and extended aft of the foremast . The three funnels were lengthened by 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) and one searchlight was installed on each of the mast tops . The four swivel @-@ mounted torpedo tubes were also removed during this period . After emerging from the modernization , the ship was placed in reserve .
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Kaiserin Augusta was reactivated for use as a gunnery training ship , to replace more modern ships that joined the High Seas Fleet . To facilitate the training of gunners , the ship 's armament was diversified . She carried one 15 cm SK L / 45 gun , four 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , four 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 45 guns , four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns , five 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns , and one 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 gun in a U @-@ boat mounting . She served in this capacity for the duration of the war , until she was decommissioned 14 December 1918 . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 October 1919 and sold to Norddeutsche Tiefbauges in Berlin , and broken up the next year in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= Holly Lincoln @-@ Smith =
Holly Jane Lincoln @-@ Smith ( born 26 March 1988 ) is an Australian water polo centre forward . Her sister is skeleton competitor Emma Lincoln @-@ Smith . They are the first set of Australian siblings where one competed at the Summer Olympics and the other at the Winter Olympics .
She started playing water polo when she was thirteen years old while attending school . She went on to represent New South Wales on the national level . She plays club water polo for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League . In 2005 , she was called up to represent Australia on the junior national team . In 2006 , she was made her first appearance on Australia 's senior team , with her first major international tournament representing Australia being the 2009 FINA World League Super Finals . As a member of Australian national sides , she has earned gold medals at the 2007 FINA Junior World Championships and 2011 Canada Cup , and a silver medal at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup . She is one of 17 players competing to earn 13 spots on the Australia women 's national water polo team in order to represent the country at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith was born on 26 March 1988 in Sydney . She has two sisters and is her parents 's youngest child . She currently lives in Mona Vale , New South Wales . In 2004 , she was living in Warriewood , New South Wales . In 2005 , her father had open @-@ heart surgery in order to remove a tumour and her mother was diagnosed with breast cancer . In 2009 her oldest sister died " after a long battle with anorexia and depression " . In 2010 , her sister Emma Lincoln @-@ Smith represented Australia at the 2010 Winter Olympics in skeleton . The sisters are hoping to become the first set of sibling Olympians where one competed at the Summer Games and the other at the Winter Games . She is currently involved in a long term relationship .
In 2001 at the age of 12 , Lincoln @-@ Smith competed in the U13 finals of the NSW Junior Surf Life Saving Championships . During the event , she saved the life of fellow competitor Tom Fabian after he was in distress . She left the course to rescue him and , after helping , got the attention of the safety crew on a boat , resumed her swim and finished 27th in the field of 40 swimmers .
Lincoln @-@ Smith attended Mackellar Girls School , where Debbie Watson was her physical education teacher . In 2005 , she completed her Higher School Certificate while a student at Queenwood School for Girls . She went on to attend Macquarie University where she is doing a course on Human Resource Management . As of 2011 , she was in her third year of the programme . In 2008 , she earned a scholarship from Macquarie Sports to help her focus on water polo . As part of the scholarship , the Macquarie Group required her to spend a week in their offices where she received some " work experience as a trader in foreign exchange " .
Lincoln @-@ Smith is 183 cm ( 6 ft 0 in ) tall , weighs 83 kilograms ( 13 st 1 lb ) , is right handed and has a tattoo on her left ankle of a cherry blossom , which represents her family .
= = Water polo = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith is a centre forward and prefers to wear cap number two or four . She started playing the sport as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old at Mackellar Girls Campus where Debbie Watson , an Olympic gold medalist and the school 's water polo coach , nagged her to try the sport . She has held a scholarship for water polo from the New South Wales Institute of Sport and the Australian Institute of Sport .
In 2004 she represented New South Wales at the U17 national championships where the team came out on top , and she was the leading goal scorer and named the player of the tournament . This victory was one of the contributing factors to her getting a call up to the junior national team . In 2008 , she represented New South Wales as a member of the U20 team at the national championships . Her team took home gold after a 9 – 6 victory over Western Australia where she scored three goals in the match . The 2008 win was her fourth and final U20 national championship win . In 2009 , shortly after her eldest sister 's death , she seriously injured her shoulder when she dislocated it while at the gym and required reconstruction surgery on it . As a result , she was unable to compete in water polo for nine months .
= = = Club water polo = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith plays her club water polo for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League . She was a member of the team in 2009 and 2011 . She was with the club for the 2012 season that started in February . As a member of the team , she helped them win the first two games of the season 8 – 4 and 7 – 4 . She took a break from the team following their 18 February 2012 game in order to attend the national team training camp . Her last game before the break was against the Balmain Tigers . She did not play in the National Water Polo League in 2010 because of an injury .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith has represented Australia on the junior national level . Her first call up to the team was in 2005 when the U17 and U20 teams toured the United States and Europe . She was a member of the junior national side at the 2007 FINA U20 World Championships in Porto , Portugal that took home gold .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Lincoln @-@ Smith is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . She competed in a tournament in the United States for the senior side in 2006 because Melissa Rippon and Taniele Gofers were injured . In 2009 , she was part of the Australian side that finished third at the FINA World League Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . This was her first major tournament on the senior side . In 2009 , at the FINA World Championships where Australia finished sixth , she was named by her team as the Australian Player of the Tournament . This was her first major international tournament with the team .
In 2010 , Lincoln @-@ Smith was a member of the Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand that took home a silver medal . She was part of the Australian side that won a silver medal at the 2011 Kirishi Cup in June . In the game for the medal , they played Kazakhstan women 's national water polo team . In that match , she scored three goals . At the 2011 Canada Cup , she scored a goal in the first period in the gold medal match against China that the Australian team ended up winning . She represented Australia at the 2011 FINA World Championships . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Barbarians . In early 2012 , she survived the first cut of players for the team that would compete at the Olympics when the selection was narrowed down to nineteen players . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years . In the first game of the test series on 21 February 2012 that Australia won 13 – 5 , she scored one goal .
= = Awards = =
In 2005 , the New South Wales Institute of Sport awarded Lincoln @-@ Smith the Ian Thorpe Grand Slam International outstanding achievement award , and she had an opportunity to meet Ian Thorpe .
= USS Tucker ( DD @-@ 57 ) =
USS Tucker ( Destroyer No. 57 / DD @-@ 57 ) was the lead ship of her class of destroyers built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named for Samuel Tucker .
Tucker was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in November 1914 and launched in May 1915 . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , nearly 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Tucker was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
After her April 1916 commissioning , Tucker sailed in the Atlantic and the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Tucker was part of the second U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Tucker made several rescues of passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats . For her part in rescuing crewmen from the Dupetit @-@ Thouars in August 1918 , Tucker received a commendation from the Préfet Maritime . In June , Tucker was transferred to Brest , France , and spent the remainder of the war there .
Upon returning to the United State near the end of 1918 , Tucker underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard . After a New England recruiting tour through October 1919 , she was placed in reduced commission and then decommissioned in May 1921 . In March 1926 , Tucker was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Tucker ( CG @-@ 23 ) until 1933 ; during her Coast Guard service , she was the first American ship to arrive at the crash site of Navy airship Akron . After her transfer back to the Navy later in 1933 , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 57 to free the name Tucker for another destroyer . She was sold for scrap and hulked in December 1936 .
= = Design and construction = =
Tucker was authorized in 1913 as the lead ship of her class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , which laid down her keel on 9 November 1914 . Six months later , on 4 May 1915 , Tucker was launched by sponsor Mrs. William Garty , the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Samuel Tucker ( 1747 – 1833 ) , a Continental Navy officer . As built , Tucker was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded .
Tucker had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds of up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) , though Tucker reached a top speed of 30 @.@ 03 knots ( 55 @.@ 62 km / h ) during her trials .
Tucker 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Tucker was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Tucker or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Tucker was commissioned into the United States Navy on 11 April 1916 under the temporary command of Lieutenant , junior grade , Frank Slingluff , Jr . ; Lieutenant Commander Benyaurd B. Wygant assumed permanent command 13 days later . Following her commissioning , Tucker commenced trials off the east coast before reporting to Division 8 , Destroyer Force , United States Atlantic Fleet . With World War I ongoing in Europe , Tucker and units of the Fleet conducted exercises and maneuvers in southern and Cuban waters into the spring of 1917 .
Steaming independently in the West Indies , she received word of the United States ' declaration of war on 6 April 1917 . Tucker joined the fleet at its anchorage in the York River before being ordered to proceed to the Boston Navy Yard , for fitting @-@ out for war .
= = World War I = =
The immediate and pressing need for escort ships led to the deployment of American destroyers to Queenstown , Ireland ; Tucker , Rowan , Cassin , Ericsson , Winslow , and Jacob Jones set out from Boston on 7 May 1917 as the second contingent of United States ships designated to operate in conjunction with British surface forces patrolling off the Irish coast . Arriving ten days later , Tucker and her sister ships soon commenced wartime operations . On 12 June , she rescued 47 survivors from the stricken merchantman SS Poluxena ; on 1 August , she saved 39 men from SS Karina , which had been torpedoed by German submarine UC @-@ 75 . For the remainder of 1917 and into the late spring of 1918 , Tucker operated out of Queenstown , hunting German submarines , escorting and convoying ships through the submarine @-@ infested war zones , and providing assistance to ships in distress .
In June 1918 , Tucker joined the escorts working out of Brest , France . On 1 August , while steaming out to meet an inbound convoy , she received word that the group 's escort , the French cruiser Dupetit @-@ Thuoars , had been torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine . The American destroyer soon arrived on the scene and helped to save the survivors of the stricken French warship from the waters of the Bay of Biscay . Tucker 's efforts , and those of the five other American destroyers who were also present , were rewarded by a commendation from the Préfet Maritime , on behalf of the French Ministry of Marine .
Tucker obtained her share of the submarine hunting the day after assisting in the rescue of Dupetit @-@ Thuoars ' crew , on 8 August . Sighting a U @-@ boat , Tucker sped to the attack , dropping depth bombs on the vessel . The British Admiralty gave credit to Tucker for a " possibly sunk " as a result of the attack . As antisubmarine warfare was in its infancy , however , attempts to verify the " kill " proved to be inconclusive . On 11 November 1918 , the armistice was signed , and hostilities ceased along the war @-@ torn Western Front .
= = Post @-@ war = =
While American forces withdrew from Europe and headed home to the United States , Tucker carried passengers and mail between French and British ports . Departing from Brest for the last time on 16 December 1918 , she headed for Boston , where she entered the navy yard for extended repairs .
In July 1919 , she departed Boston and cruised along the coastlines of Massachusetts and Maine , engaged in recruiting duty . In October 1919 , she was placed in reserve in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where she remained until placed out of commission on 16 May 1921 . On 17 July 1920 , Tucker was designated DD @-@ 57 under the Navy 's new hull classification system .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Tucker was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 25 March 1926 , as part of a second group of five to augment the original twenty .
Designated CG @-@ 23 , Tucker was commissioned on 29 September , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws . She served as the flagship of Division 4 of the Destroyer Force through October 1927 , when she was transferred to Division 1 . On 4 April 1933 , the greatest disaster which aeronautics had experienced up to that time occurred off the New Jersey coast . The Navy airship Akron crashed in a storm killing 73 men , including Rear Admiral William A. Moffett , Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics . Tucker received word of the crash and sped to the scene . Upon arrival , she found that the German motorship Phoebus had rescued four men from the sea — one of whom died shortly after being rescued . The survivors were transferred to Tucker and were disembarked at the New York Navy Yard .
After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty @-@ first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933 , plans were made for Tucker to be returned to the Navy . On 26 May , Tucker arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and was decommissioned ten days later , on 5 June . Tucker was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June . On 1 November , Tucker was renamed DD @-@ 57 in order to free the name Tucker for a new destroyer of the same name . For a time , DD @-@ 57 served as a Sea Scout training ship at Sandy Hook , New Jersey . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 24 October 1936 . DD @-@ 57 was sold on 10 December and reduced to a hulk on 23 December .
= Mycena stylobates =
Mycena stylobates , commonly known as the bulbous bonnet , is a species of inedible mushroom in the family Mycenaceae . Found in North America and Europe , it produces small whitish to gray fruit bodies with bell @-@ shaped caps that are up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter . The distinguishing characteristic of the mushroom is the fragile stipe , which is seated on a flat disk marked with distinct grooves , and fringed with a row of bristles . The mushrooms grow in small troops on leaves and other debris of deciduous and coniferous trees . The mushroom 's spores are white in deposit , smooth , and ellipsoid @-@ shaped with dimensions of 6 – 10 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . In the development of the fruit body , the preliminary stipe and cap structures appear at the same time within the primordium , and hyphae originating from the stipe form a cover over the developing structures . The mycelia of the mushroom is believed to have bioluminescent properties .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first named Agaricus stylobates by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , and sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries . It was later transferred to the genus Mycena in 1871 by Paul Kummer when he raised many of Fries ' " tribes " to the rank of genus . The species has also been placed in the genera Basidopus by Franklin Sumner Earle in 1909 , and Pseudomycena by Karel Cejp in 1930 ; both of those genera have since been subsumed into Mycena .
The Greek word stylobates means " column foundation or base " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " bulbous bonnet " . British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke called it the " discoid Mycena " in his 1871 Handbook of British Fungi .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. stylobates is 3 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and depending on its age may range in shape from obtusely conic to convex to bell @-@ shaped to flattened . The structure of the cap margin also depends on the age of the mushroom , progressing from straight or curved inward slightly , to margin flaring or curved backward . The cap surface is smooth , although if viewed with a magnifying glass , minute spines can be seen . As it ages , the surface becomes smooth , moist and somewhat glistening , and it shows grooves corresponding to the position of the gills underneath the cap . The cap color is evenly pale watery gray . The flesh is thin , pallid , and has no distinguishable odor or taste .
The gills appear closely spaced in unexpanded caps , but usually more distant in old individuals . Between 8 and 16 gills extend from the margin to the stipe ; there are additionally one or two tiers of small gills ( lamellulae ) that do not reach fully from the margin to the stipe . The gills are narrow but become ventricose ( swelling in the middle ) and sometimes very broad in age , and are attached by a line or are very narrowly adnate . Sometimes the gills split away from the stipe while remaining attached to each other ; in this way they form a collar around the stipe . Gills are pale gray but soon become whitish , with even edges . The stipe is 10 – 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mm thick , and , above the level of the flat circular disc at the base , is equal in width throughout . The stipe is covered with fine white scattered fibrils , or is delicately pruinose ( as if covered with a fine white powder ) , but it later becomes smooth . Its color is bluish @-@ gray when fresh but soon it fades to gray . The basal disc is grooved ( from gill impressions ) and pruinose or covered with fine minute hairs , but soon becomes smooth . The insubstantial fruit bodies are considered inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are 6 – 10 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , narrowly ellipsoid , and faintly amyloid . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , rarely two @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not differentiated . The cheilocystidium ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are abundant and variable in structure , usually club @-@ shaped with between two and five thick obtuse projections that arise from near the apex , sometimes more or less covered with numerous protuberances over the enlarged portion and the neck more or less contorted . They measure 26 – 38 by 8 – 13 μm , and are hyaline . The gill flesh is made of greatly enlarged cells , and stains pale vinaceous ( red wine color ) in iodine . The flesh of the cap has a pellicle which usually gelatinizes in potassium hydroxide or water mounts prepared for microscopy . The surface hyphae are covered with short rodlike projections . Sometimes some of the hyphae become aggregated into peglike structures that project from the surface , and cause the appearance of scattered coarse spines on the cap when viewed under a 10X magnifying lens . The tissue beneath the pellicle is made entirely of greatly enlarged cells , which appear pale vinaceous in iodine stain .
The mycelia of M. stylobates , when grown in pure culture , is bioluminescent , a phenomenon first reported in 1931 . The fruit bodies are not known to be bioluminescent .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several species of Mycena that have a basal disc similar to M. stylobates . Mycena mucor is usually smaller than M. stylobates , and grows on fallen , decaying leaves of oak . It has different cheilocystidia , with very slender excrescences . Also , the margin of the basal disc is not ciliate like M. stylobates . M. bulbosa , a species that grows on woody stalks in wet habitats , has nonamyloid spores , and gill edges that contain a tough @-@ elastic , gelatinous thread . M. pseudoseta , described as a new species from Thailand in 2003 forms smaller fruit bodies with differently shaped cheilocystidia and cap hyphae .
= = Fruit body development = =
The ontogeny , or development , of Mycena stylobates fruit bodies has been investigated in detail using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy . According to Volker Walther and colleagues , the development can be divided into two phases : in the first , the primordium is established that contains all the structures of the mature fruit body ; in the second stage , the primordial stipe elongates rapidly , and the newly exposed hymenium immediately begins spore production . The first detected stage of fruit body formation was an irregularly arranged hyphal structure within the colonized substrate . After rupturing the surface of the substrate and establishing itself there , the structure develops a layer of wrapping hyphae that covers the entire primordium . The structures of the stipe and the cap develop simultaneously . The developing stipe , cap , and basal disc together form a secondary ring @-@ like cavity , in which the gills develop . Gill development initiates with a number of small alveolae on the lower side of the cap , which are covered with a hymenophoral palisade ( a group of tightly packed , roughly parallel cells ) . The margins of these alveolae form the primary gills . The hymenophoral palisade spreads from the developing alveolae to the gill edge ; the edge of the primary gills is forked in the early stages of its development . The secondary gills ( lamellulae ) are formed by the ridges folding down from the lower side of the cap . In contrast to the primary gills , they are covered with hymenophoral palisade from the beginning . Spore production begins immediately after the stipe elongates .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena stylobates grow scattered or in groups on oak leaves or coniferous needles , in the spring and summer or early autumn . It is common during warm , wet seasons . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has collected it in Tennessee , Michigan , Idaho , and Washington in the United States , and in Nova Scotia and Ontario in Canada . It is also found in Europe , including Britain , Denmark , Germany , Norway , Poland , Romania , Scotland , Serbia , Sweden , and Turkey . Although it has been reported several times from Australia , mycologist Cheryl Grgurinovic concluded in a 2003 publication that the records " are best regarded as erroneous " .
= History of macroeconomic thought =
Macroeconomic theory has its origins in the study of business cycles and monetary theory . In general , early theorists believed monetary factors could not affect real factors such as real output . John Maynard Keynes attacked some of these " classical " theories and produced a general theory that described the whole economy in terms of aggregates rather than individual , microeconomic parts . Attempting to explain unemployment and recessions , he noticed the tendency for people and businesses to hoard cash and avoid investment during a recession . He argued that this invalidated the assumptions of classical economists who thought that markets always clear , leaving no surplus of goods and no willing labor left idle .
The generation of economists that followed Keynes synthesized his theory with neoclassical microeconomics to form the neoclassical synthesis . Although Keynesian theory originally omitted an explanation of price levels and inflation , later Keynesians adopted the Phillips curve to model price @-@ level changes . Some Keynesians opposed the synthesis method of combining Keynes 's theory with an equilibrium system and advocated disequilibrium models instead . Monetarists , led by Milton Friedman , adopted some Keynesian ideas , such as the importance of the demand for money , but argued that Keynesians ignored the role of money supply in inflation . Robert Lucas and other new classical macroeconomists criticized Keynesian models that did not work under rational expectations . Lucas also argued that Keynesian empirical models would not be as stable as models based on microeconomic foundations .
The new classical school culminated in real business cycle theory ( RBC ) . Like early classical economic models , RBC models assumed that markets clear and that business cycles are driven by changes in technology and supply , not demand . New Keynesians tried to address many of the criticisms leveled by Lucas and other new classical economists against Neo @-@ Keynesians . New Keynesians adopted rational expectations and built models with microfoundations of sticky prices that suggested recessions could still be explained by demand factors because rigidities stop prices from falling to a market @-@ clearing level , leaving a surplus of goods and labor . The new neoclassical synthesis combined elements of both new classical and new Keynesian macroeconomics into a consensus . Other economists avoided the new classical and new Keynesian debate on short @-@ term dynamics and developed the new growth theories of long @-@ run economic growth . The Great Recession led to a retrospective on the state of the field and some popular attention turned toward heterodox economics .
= = Origins = =
Macroeconomics descends from two areas of research : business cycle theory and monetary theory . Monetary theory dates back to the 16th century and the work of Martín de Azpilcueta , while business cycle analysis dates from the mid 19th .
= = = Business cycle theory = = =
Beginning with William Stanley Jevons and Clément Juglar in the 1860s , economists attempted to explain the cycles of frequent , violent shifts in economic activity . A key milestone in this endeavor was the foundation of the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research by Wesley Mitchell in 1920 . This marked the beginning of a boom in atheoretical , statistical models of economic fluctuation ( models based on cycles and trends instead of economic theory ) that led to the discovery of apparently regular economic patterns like the Kuznets wave .
Other economists focused more on theory in their business cycle analysis . Most business cycle theories focused on a single factor , such as monetary policy or the impact of weather on the largely agricultural economies of the time . Although business cycle theory was well established by the 1920s , work by theorists such as Dennis Robertson and Ralph Hawtrey had little impact on public policy . Their partial equilibrium theories could not capture general equilibrium , where markets interact with each other ; in particular , early business cycle theories treated goods markets and financial markets separately . Research in these areas used microeconomic methods to explain employment , price level , and interest rates .
= = = Monetary theory = = =
Initially , the relationship between price level and output was explained by the quantity theory of money ; David Hume had presented such a theory in his 1752 work Of Money ( Essays , Moral , Political , and Literary , Part II , Essay III ) . Quantity theory viewed the entire economy through Say 's law , which stated that whatever is supplied to the market will be sold — in short , that markets always clear . In this view , money is neutral and cannot impact the real factors in an economy like output levels . This was consistent with the classical dichotomy view that real aspects of the economy and nominal factors , such as price levels and money supply , can be considered independent from one another . For example , adding more money to an economy would be expected only to raise prices , not to create more goods .
The quantity theory of money dominated macroeconomic theory until the 1930s . Two versions were particularly influential , one developed by Irving Fisher in works that included his 1911 The Purchasing Power of Money and another by Cambridge economists over the course of the early 20th century . Fisher 's version of the quantity theory can be expressed by holding money velocity ( the frequency with which a given piece of currency is used in transactions ) ( V ) and real income ( Q ) constant and allowing money supply ( M ) and the price level ( P ) to vary in the equation of exchange :
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Most classical theories , including Fisher 's , held that velocity was stable and independent of economic activity . Cambridge economists , such as John Maynard Keynes , began to challenge this assumption . They developed the Cambridge cash @-@ balance theory , which looked at money demand and how it impacted the economy . The Cambridge theory did not assume that money demand and supply were always at equilibrium , and it accounted for people holding more cash when the economy sagged . By factoring in the value of holding cash , the Cambridge economists took significant steps toward the concept of liquidity preference that Keynes would later develop . Cambridge theory argued that people hold money for two reasons : to facilitate transactions and to maintain liquidity . In later work , Keynes added a third motive , speculation , to his liquidity preference theory and built on it to create his general theory .
In 1898 , Knut Wicksell proposed a monetary theory centered on interest rates . His analysis used two rates : the market interest rate , determined by the banking system , and the real or " natural " interest rate , determined by the rate of return on capital . In Wicksell 's theory , cumulative inflation will occur when technical innovation causes the natural rate to rise or when the banking system allows the market rate to fall . Cumulative deflation occurs under the opposite conditions causing the market rate to rise above the natural . Wicksell 's theory did not produce a direct relationship between the quantity of money and price level . According to Wicksell , money would be created endogenously , without an increase in quantity of hard currency , as long as the natural exceeded the market interest rate . In these conditions , borrowers turn a profit and deposit cash into bank reserves , which expands money supply . This can lead to a cumulative process where inflation increases continuously without an expansion in the monetary base . Wicksell 's work influenced Keynes and the Swedish economists of the Stockholm School .
= = Keynes 's General Theory = =
Modern macroeconomics can be said to have begun with Keynes and the publication of his book The General Theory of Employment , Interest and Money in 1936 . Keynes expanded on the concept of liquidity preferences and built a general theory of how the economy worked . Keynes 's theory was brought together both monetary and real economic factors for the first time , explained unemployment , and suggested policy achieving economic stability .
Keynes contended that economic output is positively correlated with money velocity . He explained the relationship via changing liquidity preferences : people increase their money holdings during times of economic difficulty by reducing their spending , which further slows the economy . This paradox of thrift claimed that individual attempts to survive a downturn only worsen it . When the demand for money increases , money velocity slows . A slowdown in economic activities means markets might not clear , leaving excess goods to waste and capacity to idle . Turning the quantity theory on its head , Keynes argued that market changes shift quantities rather than prices . Keynes replaced the assumption of stable velocity with one of a fixed price @-@ level . If spending falls and prices do not , the surplus of goods reduces the need for workers and increases unemployment .
Classical economists had difficulty explaining involuntary unemployment and recessions because they applied Say 's Law to the labor market and expected that all those willing to work at the prevailing wage would be employed . In Keynes 's model , employment and output are driven by aggregate demand , the sum of consumption and investment . Since consumption remains stable , most fluctuations in aggregate demand stem from investment , which is driven by many factors including expectations , " animal spirits " , and interest rates . Keynes argued that fiscal policy could compensate for this volatility . During downturns , government could increase spending to purchase excess goods and employ idle labor . Moreover , a multiplier effect increases the effect of this direct spending since newly employed workers would spend their income , which would percolate through the economy , while firms would invest to respond to this increase in demand .
Keynes 's prescription for strong public investment had ties to his interest in uncertainty . Keynes had given a unique perspective on statistical inference in A Treatise on Probability , written in 1921 , years before his major economic works . Keynes thought strong public investment and fiscal policy would counter the negative impacts the uncertainty of economic fluctuations can have on the economy . While Keynes 's successors paid little attention to the probabilistic parts of his work , uncertainty may have played a central part in the investment and liquidity @-@ preference aspects of General Theory .
The exact meaning of Keynes 's work has been long debated . Even the interpretation of Keynes 's policy prescription for unemployment , one of the more explicit parts of General Theory , has been the subject of debates . Economists and scholars debate whether Keynes intended his advice to be a major policy shift to address a serious problem or a moderately conservative solution to deal with a minor issue .
= = Keynes 's successors = =
Keynes 's successors debated the exact formulations , mechanisms , and consequences of the Keynesian model . One group emerged representing the " orthodox " interpretation of Keynes ; They combined classical microeconomics with Keynesian thought to produce the " neoclassical synthesis " that dominated economics from the 1940s until the early 1970s . Two camps of Keynesians were critical of this synthesis interpretation of Keynes . One group focused on the disequilibrium aspects of Keynes 's work , while the other took a fundamentalist stance on Keynes and began the heterodox post @-@ Keynesian tradition .
= = = Neoclassical synthesis = = =
The generation of economists that followed Keynes , the neo @-@ Keynesians , created the " neoclassical synthesis " by combining Keynes 's macroeconomics with neoclassical microeconomics . Neo @-@ Keynesians dealt with two microeconomic issues : first , providing foundations for aspects of Keynesian theory such as consumption and investment , and , second , combining Keynesian macroeconomics with general equilibrium theory . ( In general equilibrium theory , individual markets interact with one another and an equilibrium price exists if there is perfect competition , no externalities , and perfect information . ) Paul Samuelson 's Foundations of Economic Analysis ( 1947 ) provided much of the microeconomic basis for the synthesis . Samuelson 's work set the pattern for the methodology used by neo @-@ Keynesians : economic theories expressed in formal , mathematical models . While Keynes 's theories prevailed in this period , his successors largely abandoned his informal methodology in favor of Samuelson 's .
By the mid 1950s , the vast majority of economists had ceased debating Keynesianism and accepted the synthesis view ; however , room for disagreement remained . The synthesis attributed problems with market clearing to sticky prices that failed to adjust to changes in supply and demand . Another group of Keynesians focused on disequilibrium economics and tried to reconcile the concept of equilibrium with the absence of market clearing .
= = = Neo @-@ Keynesian models = = =
In 1937 John Hicks published an article that incorporated Keynes 's thought into a general equilibrium framework where the markets for goods and money met in an overall equilibrium . Hick 's IS / LM ( Investment @-@ Savings / Liquidity preference @-@ Money supply ) model became the basis for decades of theorizing and policy analysis into the 1960s . The model represents the goods market with the IS curve , a set of points representing equilibrium in investment and savings . The money market equilibrium is represented with the LM curve , a set of points representing the equilibrium in supply and demand for money . The intersection of the curves identifies an aggregate equilibrium in the economy where there are unique equilibrium values for interest rates and economic output . The IS / LM model focused on interest rates as the " monetary transmission mechanism , " the channel through which money supply affects real variables like aggregate demand and employment . A decrease in money supply would lead to higher interest rates , which reduce investment and thereby lower output throughout the economy . Other economists built on the IS / LM framework . Notably , in 1944 , Franco Modigliani added a labor market . Modigliani 's model represented the economy as a system with general equilibrium across the interconnected markets for labor , finance , and goods , and it explained unemployment with rigid nominal wages .
Growth had been of interest to 18th @-@ century classical economists like Adam Smith , but work tapered off during the 19th and early 20th century marginalist revolution when researchers focused on microeconomics . The study of growth revived when neo @-@ Keynesians Roy Harrod and Evsey Domar independently developed the Harrod – Domar model , an extension of Keynes 's theory to the long @-@ run , an area Keynes had not looked at himself . Their models combined Keynes 's multiplier with an accelerator model of investment , and produced the simple result that growth equaled the savings rate divided by the capital output ratio ( the amount of capital divided by the amount of output ) . The Harrod – Domar model dominated growth theory until Robert Solow and Trevor Swan independently developed neoclassical growth models in 1956 . Solow and Swan produced a more empirically appealing model with " balanced growth " based on the substitution of labor and capital in production . Solow and Swan suggested that increased savings could only temporarily increase growth , and only technological improvements could increase growth in the long @-@ run . After Solow and Swan , growth research tapered off with little or no research on growth from 1970 until 1985 .
Economists incorporated the theoretical work from the synthesis into large
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